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Human
Development Across The Lifespan Development

CHAPTER 2 Scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age, from
conception until death

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• GENETICS: Science of heredity

The Basic • DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

• NATURE: Refers to heredity, influence of inherited • Smallest particle of a substance that consists of amines
characteristics on personality Building Blocks or bases containing the genetic codes that make up
organic life
of Development:
Nature Versus • NURTURE: Refers to the influence of environment
Chromosomes,
• Gene (ordering sequence of amines)
• Chromosomes (rod-shaped structures)
Nurture • BEHAVIORAL GENETICS: Field of study that investigates the
Genes, and DNA • Humans: 46 chromosomes in each cell body
origins of behavior where researchers determine how • 23 (father’s sperm), 23 from (mother’s egg)
much of behavior is the result of genetic inheritance and • Autosomes: 22 pairs determined most characteristics
how much comes from a person’s experience
• Sex Chromosomes: 2 chromosomes of this pair
• X indicate female; Y indicate male

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• DOMINANT GENE: Genes that are more active in

• Genetic Disorders: Occurs when a child inherits two
influencing the trait
recessive genes from each parent
• Will always be expressed in the observable trait (i.e.,
• CYSTIC FIBROSIS
hair color)
Dominant and • RECESSIVE GENE: Genes that are less active in influencing
Genetic and • Disease of the respiratory and digestive tracts
• SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA
Recessive the trait
• Tend to recede, or fade into the background (i.e.,
Chromosome • Blood disorder
Genes blonde hair color) Problems • TAY-SACHS DISORDER
• Fatal neurological disorder
• PHENYLKETONURIA (PKJ)
• POLYGENIC INHERITANCE: Process in which the traits are
• Inability of an infant to break down phenylalanine
controlled by more than one pair of genes (i.e., blonde hair
(amino acid controlling skin and hair coloring)
and blue eyes; blonde and red hair)
• Build up of phenylalanine results to brain damage

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Genetic and • Chromosome Disorders: Occurs when a chromosome end Genetic and
• KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME
Chromosome up in the wrong cell, leaving one cell with 22 and the other
24 Chromosome • Occurs when there is an extra sex chromosome In
the 23rd pair
Problems • DOWN SYNDROME
Problems
continued… • There is an extra chromosome in what would continued… • 23rd pair: XXY
• Extra X producing male with reduced
normally be the 21st pair
masculine characteristics, enlarged breasts,
• Almond-shaped, wide-set eyes, intellectual
obesity and excessive height
disability

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Genetic and • FERTILIZATION: When an egg (ovum) and a sperm unite,

resulting single cell will have a total of 46 chromosome
• TURNER’S SYNDROME
Chromosome • 23rd pair is missing an X, resulting to a lone X
• MITOSIS: Process of chromosome division

Problems chromosome Prenatal

• MONOZYGOTIC (Identical) TWINS: Two babies come from
continued… • Females: Short, infertile and sexually Development one (mono) fertilized egg (zygote)
underdeveloped • DIZYGOTIC (Fraternal) TWINS: Two zygotes
• CONJOINED TWINS: Mass of cells not completely splitting
apart

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Infancy and Childhood

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Two Common • PREFERENTIAL LOOKING

Methods of • Assumes that the longer an infant spends looking at a
stimulus, the more the infant prefers that stimulus • Eleanor Gibson and Michael Walk
Studying over others The Visual Cliff
• Wondered if infants perceive the world in three
Infants • HABITUATION Experiment dimensions; devised a way to test babies for depth
• Tendency for infants to stop paying attention to a perception
stimulus that does not change
• If the infant dishabituates, then a change has been
detected.

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Motor
Development:
From Crawling • Major physical milestones of infancy
• Averages based on the large samples of infants
Innate, involuntary behavior patterns that to a Blur of
Reflexes help an infant survive
Motion • An infant may reach these milestones earlier or
later than the average and still be considered for
normal development.

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Piaget’s • COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: Development of thinking,

problem solving and memory
Theory: Four • Understanding of how children think about the world
Stages of around them

Cognitive • SCHEMES: Formation of mental concepts as they

experience new situations and events
Development • ASSIMILATION: Understand new things in terms of
schemes they possess
• ACCOMMODATION: Altering or adjusting old schemes
to fit new information and experiences

*Object Permanence, the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight
*Symbolic Thought, ability to represent objects in one’s thoughts with symbols (i.e., words); capability of
thinking in simple symbols and planning actions

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*Animism, belief that anything that moves is alive *Concrete Concepts, concepts understood by children about objects, written rules and real things; they need to
*Egocentrism, inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes but one’s own be able to see it, touch it, or at least “see” to understand it
*Centration, focusing only on one feature of some object rather than taking all features into considerations
Abstract concepts are not fully grasped yet.

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Relativistic • Young adults who have found their old ways of thinking in
“black and white” terms have been challenged by the
Thinking encountered diversity in the college environment

*Abstract concepts, those that do not have some physical, concrete, touchable reality

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• Applied to the development of a child’s memory for

personal events
• Children: Learn culturally determined structures and
Vygotsky’s • Emphasis on the role of others in cognitive development purposes of personal stories from early conversations
• Stressed the importance of social and cultural
Theory: The interactions with other people Vygotsky’s with parents
• Private Speeches: Child’s way of “thinking out loud”
• SCAFFOLDING: Children develop cognitively when
Importance of someone else helps them (i.e., leading questions and Social Focus and advance cognitively

Being There providing examples of concepts)

• ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD): Difference
on Learning • COOPERATIVE LEARNING:
between what a child can do alone versus what a child • Children work together in groups to achieve a
can do with the help of a teacher common goal
• It isn’t what you know, it’s what you can do. • RECIPROCAL TEACHING:
• Teachers lead students through basic strategies of
reading until such time they are also capable of
teaching the strategies to others

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• CHILD-DIRECTED SPEECH: Manner adults and older
children talk to infants and very young children
Stages of
Language • RECEPTIVE-PRODUCTIVE LAG: Infants’ tendency to
understand far more than they can produce
Development
Stages of • ONE-WORD SPEECH (before age 1): Say actual words
• HOLOPHRASES: Whole phrases in one word
Language
Development • TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH (around a year and a half):
Stringing words together to form short, simple
continued… sentences using nouns, verbs and adjectives

• COOING (2 mos.): Make vowel-like sounds • WHOLE SENTENCES (preschool years): Use
grammatical terms and increase number of words in
• BABBLING (6 mos.): Add consonants to the vowels sentences; nearly as fluent as adults
made which almost sound like real speech

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• TEMPERAMENT: Behavioral and emotional characteristics

that are fairly well established at birth
• Last well into adulthood
• EASY: Regular in waking, sleeping and eating
Temperamental schedules; happy babies
Temperamental • Strongly influenced by heredity and the environment in
which the infant is raised
Styles • DIFFICULT: Irregular in schedule; does not prefer Styles
change
• “Goodness of Fit” and “Poor Fit”
• SLOW TO WARM UP: Less grumpy, quieter and more
regular; change introduced gradually

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Scenario SECURE AVOIDANT AMBIVALENT DIRSORGANIZED-

DISORIENTED
Willingness to Willing to get down from Somewhat willing Clingy Dazed and depressed
let go lap look
• ATTACHMENT: Emotional bond that forms between an Ease in the Explored happily; looking Somewhat willing to Unwilling to explore Fearful
infant and a primary caregiver new back and going back to explore, but did not
• STRANGER ANXIETY: Wariness of strangers environment mother “touch base”
• SEPARATION ANXIETY: Fear of being separated from Presence of Wary but calm Did not look at the Very upset towards Afraid to make contact
Attachment the caregiver stranger stranger or mother stranger regardless of
mother’s presence
Styles • MARY AINSWORTH: Devised an experimental design Departure of Got upset Reacted very little to Protested mightily; hard to Would try to approach
to measure the infant’s attachment to the caregiver mother absence soothe but their eyes turned
“STRANGE SITUATION” away
• Infant’s exposure to a series of leave-takings and Arrival of Approached mother, Seemingly no interest Demand to be picked up, Confused on how to
returns of the mother and stranger mother easily soothed and glad or concern however, push away or react
kick mother
Type of Loving, warm, sensitive Unresponsive, Inconsistent behavior and Abusive or neglectful
Mother and responsive to infant’s insensitive, rejecting insensitive to infant’s interactions to infants
needs to infant’s needs needs

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• Attachment: Not necessarily the result of the mother’s

What do behavior alone; temperament of the infant may play a role Cultural • Consider attachment as a crucial step in forming
relationships with others
• Adult relationships are influenced by attachment styles of
Attachment an adult Variations in • Mothers in the United States
• Tend to wait for a child to express a need prior fulfilling
Styles say? • AVOIDANT: Numerous shallow and brief relationships
with different partners
Attachment that need
• Japanese mothers
• AMBIVALENT: Repeated breakups and makeups with
• Prefer to anticipate the child’s needs
the same person

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Erikson’s
Psychosocial
Stages of • Emphasized the importance of social relationships in the
development of personality
Development • Significance of social interactions in development
• Development occurred in a series of eight stages

*Crisis, or a kind of turning point, found in each stage that must be successfully met for normal, healthy psychological
development

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Adolescence

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• Abstract thinking; hypothetical questions

• PERSONAL FABLE: Time spent thinking about own
• Physical changes in both primary sex characteristics (penis
Piaget’s thoughts and feelings and convinced of being special,
or uterus) and secondary sex characteristics (other changes
in the body) that begins about 2 years after the beginning
Formal one of a kind, no one has had these before
• “You just don’t understand me, I’m different
of the growth spurt Operations from you.”
• “It can’t happen to me, I’m special.”
Puberty • Rapid period of growth:
Revisited
• IMAGINARY AUDIENCE: Intense self-consciousness
• Around age 10 for girls
where being convinced that everyone is looking at
• Around age 12 for boys them; center of everyone else’s world
• Pay more attention to what others think about
how they look or behave

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Kohlberg’s • Understanding of “right” and “wrong”

Three Levels
• Theory of development of moral thinking through looking
of Morality at how people of various ages responded to stories about
people caught up in moral dilemmas

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• Teenager:
Erikson’s • Must choose among many options for values in life and
beliefs; consistent sense of self must be found • A certain amount of “rebellion” is necessary in breaking
Identity Versus • Successful resolution: away from childhood dependence and becoming self-
sufficient
• Resist peer pressure and find own identity
Role Parent-Teen
Confusion • If unsuccessful resolving:
• Lack of trust in others; guilt and shame; low self-
Conflict • Most conflicts are over trivial issues
• On moral issues: Quite surprised to realize that
esteem; dependency parents and teens can resort in agreement
• Preference to “fit in”, hence, peer pressure is
highly felt
• Mostly confused about the many roles they play

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• Common health problems

• High blood pressure
• Lifestyle factors: Obesity and Stress and Heredity
• Skin cancer
Effects of • Heart problems

Adulthood Aging On • Arthritis

• Obesity
Health • Sleep apnea (stopping of breathing for 10 seconds or
more)

• Frequent causes of death in middle age:

• Heart disease, cancer and stroke

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• Thinking about positive events aids the formation of

• Difficulties in word or name recall newer memories
• Exercising mental abilities
Changes in • Stressors a middle-aged person experienced or is
experiencing
Keeping The • Working on challenging crossword puzzles
• Reading
Memory Brain Young • Having an active social life
• Sheer amount of information digested • Taking classes to learn a new hobby
• Staying physically active
• Presence of peers

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Erikson’s • MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Intimacy • YOUNG ADULTHOOD
Erikson’s • GENERATIVITY: Parenting the next generation and
helping through their crises
Versus • INTIMACY: Emotional and psychological closeness
based on the ability to trust, share and care WHILE
Generativity • Engaging in careers or some major life work that
can become one’s legacy to the generations to
Isolation: STILL MAINTAINING ONE’S SENSE OF SELF Versus come

Forming • Isolation Stagnation • Stagnation

Relationships • Loneliness, shallow relationships with others, fear
of real intimacy
Parenting • Unable to focus outward; still dealing with issues
of intimacy or identity
• Difficulty trusting others • People who frequently hand the care of their
• Unsure of own identity children to grandparents or other relatives in
• Frequency of leaving relationships; unfinished exchange to be able to occasionally “have
issues of identity; divorce fun” may be unable to focus on anyone else’s
needs but their own

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• AUTHORITARIAN PARENTING
• OVERLY CONCERNED WITH RULES
• Parenting Children Parenting
• Is a very important part of most people’s middle • Type of Parent: Stern, rigid, controlling and
Parenting adulthood Styles uncompromising; demands perfection; tendency to
Styles • Diana Baumrind
• Certain personality traits in the child are raised by
continued… use physical punishment
• Children Raised: Insecure, timid, withdrawn and
a certain style of parenting resentful
• As teens:
• Often rebel against parental authority

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• AUTHORITATIVE PARENTING
• PERMISSIVE PARENTING • Combining firm limits on behavior with love, respect
• Parents put very few demands on their children and a willingness to listen to the child’s point of view
Parenting Parenting • Type of Parent:
• Type of Parent: • Clear and understandable limits
Styles • PERMISSIVE NEGLECTFUL: Parents simply aren’t
Styles • Democratic – Allowing the child to have some
continued… involved with their children
• PERMISSIVE INDULGENT: Parents seem to be too
continued… input while maintaining the role of final
decision maker
involved with their children • Punishment – Nonphysical (i.e., restrictions,
• Children Raised: Selfish, immature, dependent, lacking time-out, loss of privileges)
in social skills • Children raised: Self-reliant and independent

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Erikson’s Ego
Integrity
Versus • Realities of physical aging and approaching end of life • ACTIVITY THEORY
become harder to ignore • Remaining active allows an elderly person to adjust
Despair: • LIFE REVIEW: People look back on the life lived Physical and more positively to aging
• Deal with mistakes, regrets, and unfinished
Dealing With business Psychological • Volunteerism; taking up new hobbies; maintaining
Mortality • EGO INTEGRITY: Wholeness resulting from coming
into terms with regrets and losses; final
Aging friendships; continuity of social activities lead to
happier and longer life
completion of the identity or ego • Lack of involvement of the elderly is due to
• Despair: Sense of deep regret from unfinished exclusion to these activities and being part of
business other people’s lives

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• DENIAL
• Refusal to believe the reality of the diagnosis of death
• Elisabeth Kübler-Ross
• Conducted extensive interviews with dying persons
Stages of • ANGER
• Feelings of helplessness to change things
Stages of and their caregivers Death and • BARGAINING
• Theorized that people go through five stages of
Death and reaction when faced with death Dying • Dying person tries to make a deal with doctors or even
with God
• Denial
Dying • Anger
continued… • DEPRESSION
• Bargaining • Sadness from losses
• Depression • ACCEPTANCE
• Acceptance • Coming into terms with something that cannot be
avoided or escaped

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