Modern - Physics - l13 Thomson Model

‫‪5/10/2010‬‬
‫‪www.physicsacademy.org‬‬
‫‪Modern Physics is 20th century physics‬‬
‫‪Dr. Hazem Falah Sakeek‬‬

‫‪Al-Azhar University – Gaza‬‬
‫‪Sir Joseph John Thomson‬‬ ‫‪Faculty of Science‬‬
‫‪1856-1940‬‬ ‫‪Department of Physics‬‬
‫منذ بداية القرن العشرين أصبح من المعروف أن المادة غير قابلة للتجزئة إلى ما‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫النھاية‪ ،‬بل إنھا تتكون من جسيمات مادية قطرھا في حدود ‪m 10-10‬سميت‬
‫بالذرات ‪.Atoms‬‬
‫وجاءت أولى الدالئل على وجود الذرات من دراسة التفاعالت الكيميائية وسلوك‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫الغازات‪ ،‬كما حصل الفيزيائيون على دالئل مباشرة على وجود الذرات باستخدام‬
‫المجاھر الحديثة ذات القدرة التكبيرية العالية‪ ،‬إال أن أقوى ھذه المجاھر ال‬
‫تستطيع استكشاف التركيب الداخلي للذرات ولذلك قام العلماء بوضع تصوراتھم‬
‫لتركيب الذرة الداخلي من خالل التجارب والنتائج المتوفرة لديھم في ذلك الوقت‪.‬‬
‫سوف نقوم بدراسة النماذج التي وضعھا العلماء لتركيب الذرة مثل نموذج‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫طومسون ونموذج رذرفورد ونوذج بور‪ .‬وكل نموذج حقق العديد من الظواھر وفشل‬
‫في أخرى وھذا ما سيتم توضيحه من خالل تناول كل نموذج بالدراسة‪ .‬كما سيتم‬
‫دراسة تركيب الذرة باستخدام ميكانيكا الكم من خالل معادلة شرودينجر‪.‬‬
‫تعتمد دراسة تركيب الذرة بشكل أساسي على فھم الطيف الكھرومغناطيسي‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫للذرة باعتبارھا بصمة مھمة تكشف عن بنية الذرة ونركز على طيف الھيدروجين‬
‫باعتباره أبسط األطياف الذرية والمدخل إلى بناء النماذج الذرية‪.‬‬
‫‪Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪5/10/2010‬‬
‫الذرة ھي اصغر للمادة وال يمكن أن نرى الذرة باستخدام الميكروسكوب حيث تبلغ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫أبعاد الذرة ومكوناتھا على النحو التالي‪atom = 1 x 10-10 meters :‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪l‬‬
‫‪nucleus‬‬ ‫‪= 1 x 10-15‬‬
‫‪15 to 1 x 10‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬
‫‪-14‬‬ ‫‪meters‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪neutron or proton = 1 x 10-15 meters‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪electron - not known exactly, but thought to be on the order of 1 x 10-18‬‬
‫‪meters‬‬
‫كل الذرات لھا تقريبا نفس الحجم سواء كانت تحتوي على إلكترون واحد أو ‪90‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫إلكترون‪ ،‬فإذا ما تم صف ‪ 50‬مليون ذرة فإن طولھا ال يزيد عن السنتمتر الواحد‪ .‬ولھذا‬
‫ال يمكن بواسطة الضوء المرئي أن نرى جسيمات صغيرة مثل الذرات والسبب في‬
‫وھذا ال قا ة‬
‫بالمقارنة‬ ‫ميكرومتر ذا‬
‫‪ 0.4‬ك‬
‫‪ 0.7‬و ‪0 4‬‬
‫يتراوح بين ‪0 7‬‬
‫المرئي ا‬
‫للضوء ال ئ‬
‫الموجي لل‬
‫الطول ال‬
‫ألن الط ل‬
‫ذلك أل‬
‫بحجم الذرة الذي يكون اصغر بمليون مرة ال يمكن ان ترى الذرة بواسطة الضوء‬
‫المرئي‪ .‬ولكن في العام ‪ 1981‬تم تطوير ميكروسكوب يسمى ‪scanning tunneling‬‬
‫‪ microscope‬يمكن أن يكون صورة للذرات على الشكل التالي‪:‬‬
‫‪STM image (7 nm x 7 nm) of a single zigzag chain of cesium‬‬

‫)‪atoms (red) on a gallium-arsenside surface (blue‬‬
‫وعليه لم يكن أمام العلماء في نھاية القرن التاسع عشر وأوائل القرن‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫العشرين إال أن يضعوا تصورھم لشكل تركيب الذرة على خلفية نتائج‬
‫التجارب العملية المتوفرة في ذلك الوقت وبالطبع النموذج المقترح لتركيب‬
‫الذرة يجب أن يفسر كل النتائج العملية وإال يكون قاصراً أو غير صحيح‪.‬‬
‫وفي ھذه المحاضرات سوف ندرس النماذج التي وضعھا العلماء لتركيب‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫الذرة ونناقش إيجابيات وسلبيات كل نموذج‪ ،‬ومن ھذه النماذج‪:‬‬
‫‪ ‬نموذج تومسون‬
‫‪ ‬نموذج رزرفورد‬
‫‪ ‬نموذج بوھر‬
‫‪ ‬نموذج سمرفيلد‬
‫كما سنعرض بعض التجارب والحقائق العلمية المتوفرة قبل كل نموذج‪...‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
5/10/2010
What are the parts of the atom?

How are these parts arranged?
 Near the end of the 19th century, y, the atom was thoughtg to be nothingg
more than a tiny indivisible sphere (Dalton's view). However, a series of
discoveries in the fields of chemistry, electricity and magnetism,
radioactivity, and quantum mechanics in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries changed all of that. Here is what these fields contributed:
 The parts of the atom:

 chemistry and electromagnetism ---> electron (first subatomic particle)
 radioactivity ---> nucleus
 proton
 neutron
 How the atom is arranged - quantum mechanics puts it all together:

 atomic spectra ---> Bohr model of the atom
 wave-particle duality ---> Quantum model of the atom
Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 5
 This model of the atom may

look familiar to you. This is
model In this
the Bohr model.
model, the nucleus is
orbited by electrons, which
are in different energy
levels.
 A model uses familiar ideas

to explain unfamiliar facts
observed in nature.
 A model can be changed as

new information is
collected.
3
5/10/2010
400 BC
 This is the Greek
philosopher
p p Democritus
who began the search for
a description of matter
more than 2400 years
ago.
 He asked: Could matter
be divided into smaller
and smaller pieces
forever, or was there a
limit to the number of
times a piece of matter
could be divided?
 His theory: Matter could

not be divided into
smaller and smaller
pieces forever, eventually
th smallest
the ll t possible
ibl
piece would be obtained.
 This piece would be

indivisible.
 He
H named d the
h smallest
ll
piece of matter
“atomos,” meaning “not
to be cut.”
4
5/10/2010
 To Democritus, atoms
were small, hard
particles that were all
made of the same
material but were
different shapes and
sizes.
 Atoms were infinite in
number,
b always
l
moving and capable
of joining together.
 This theory was ignored and forgotten for more

than 2000 years!
The eminent
hil h
philosophers off the
th
time, Aristotle and
Plato, had a more
respected, (and
ultimately wrong)
theory.
Aristotle and Plato favored the earth, fire,
air and water approach to the nature of
matter. Their ideas held sway because of
their eminence as philosophers. The atomos
idea was buried for approximately 2000
years.
5
5/10/2010
 In the early 1800s, the

English Chemist John
Dalton performed a
number of experiments
that eventually led to
the acceptance of the
idea of atoms.
6
5/10/2010
 He deduced that all elements are

composed of atoms. Atoms are
indivisible and indestructible particles.
 Atoms of the same element are exactly
alike.
 Atoms of different elements are
different.
 Compounds are formed by the joining
of atoms of two or more elements.
 This theory became one of

the foundations of modern
chemistry.
In the late 19th century, chemists and

physicists
p y were studying
y g the
relationship between electricity and
matter. They were placing high voltage
electric currents through glass tubes
filled with low-pressure gas (mercury,
neon, xenon) much like neon lights.
Electric current was carried from one
electrode (cathode) through the gas to
th other
the th electrode
l t d ((anode)d ) by
b abbeam
called cathode rays. In 1897, a British
physicist, J. J. Thomson did a series of
experiments with the following results:
Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model
7
5/10/2010
 He found that if the tube was placed within an electric or magnetic field,
then the cathode rays could be deflected or moved.
 By applying an electric field alone, a magnetic field alone, or both in
combination, Thomson could measure the ratio of the electric charge
to the mass of the cathode rays.
 He found the same charge to mass ratio of cathode rays was seen
regardless of what material was inside the tube or what the cathode
was made of.
Thomson concluded the following:
 Cathode rays were made of tiny, negatively charged particles,

which he called electrons.
 The electrons had to come from inside the atoms of the gas or
metal electrode.
 Because the charge to mass ratio was the same for any
substance, the electrons were a basic part of all atoms.
 Because the charge to mass ratio of the electron was very high,
the electron must be very small.
Later,, an American Physicist

y named Robert Milikan measured the
electrical charge of an electron. With these two numbers (charge,
charge to mass ratio), physicists calculated the mass of the electron
as 9.10 x 10-28 grams. For comparison, a metal coin has a mass of
2.5 grams; so, 2.7 x 1027 or 2.7 billion billion billion electrons would
weigh as much as a coin!
8
5/10/2010
 Because the electron was negatively charged and

atoms are electrically neutral, there must be a
positive charge somewhere in the atom.
 Because electrons are so much smaller than atoms,
there must be other, more massive particles in the
atom.
F
From th
these results,
lt Thomson
Th proposed
d a
model of the atom that was like a
watermelon. The red part was the positive
charge and the seeds were the electrons.
 Negatively charged electrons were located within a

continuous distribution of positive charge.
 The positive charge was assumed to be spherical shape of
radius 10-10m
(This value can be obtained from the density of typical solid
material, its atomic weight and Avogadro's number).
- In the lowest energy state the electrons

are fixed at their equilibrium positions.
- In excited atom at high temperature the
electrons vibrate about their equilibrium
position in simple harmonic motion.
9
5/10/2010
Assume that there is one electron of charge -e inside

spherical region of uniform positive charge density r
( di
(according t Thomson's
to Th ' model).
d l) Show
Sh th t the
that th electron
l t
motion is in simple harmonic motion about the center of
the sphere.
If the electron displaced by distance a (a<r), then the

electric force acting on the electron is
The charge q can be found by the density of distribution r
Let
F = - ka
k
This force will produce simple harmonic motion along

the diameter of the sphere directed toward the center.
10
5/10/2010
 If the total positive charge in Thomson's model are

distributed uniformly over a sphere of radius 10-10m. Find
the force constant k and the frequency of the motion.
Let the magnitude of the +ve charge = e and the radius of the
+ve charge is r=10-10m
 this is the radiation emitted by the atom which have

wavelength of
 This is the expected radiation from Thomson hydrogen

atom.
Therefore Thomson hydrogen atom has only one

frequency which contradict the real hydrogen spectra.
11
5/10/2010
12

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‫‪5/10/2010‬‬

‫‪Modern Physics is 20th century physics‬‬

‫‪Dr. Hazem Falah Sakeek‬‬

‫‪Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬

‫‪Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫‪STM image (7 nm x 7 nm) of a single zigzag chain of cesium‬‬

‫‪Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬

What are the parts of the atom?

 The parts of the atom:

 How the atom is arranged - quantum mechanics puts it all together:

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 5

 This model of the atom may

 A model uses familiar ideas

 A model can be changed as

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 6

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 7

 His theory: Matter could

 This piece would be

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 9

 This theory was ignored and forgotten for more

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 10

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 11

 In the early 1800s, the

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 12

 He deduced that all elements are

 This theory became one of

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 13

In the late 19th century, chemists and

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 14

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 15

Thomson concluded the following:

 Cathode rays were made of tiny, negatively charged particles,

Later,, an American Physicist

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 16

 Because the electron was negatively charged and

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 17

 Negatively charged electrons were located within a

- In the lowest energy state the electrons

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 18

Assume that there is one electron of charge -e inside

If the electron displaced by distance a (a<r), then the

The charge q can be found by the density of distribution r

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 19

This force will produce simple harmonic motion along

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 20

 If the total positive charge in Thomson's model are

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 21

 this is the radiation emitted by the atom which have

 This is the expected radiation from Thomson hydrogen

Therefore Thomson hydrogen atom has only one

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 22

Dr. Hazem F. Sakeek www.physicsacademy.org www.hazemsakeek.com 23

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