Manufacturing Processes

Forming
extrusion and wire drawing
 Manufacturing
Process

Manufacturing Process Metals

Non Metals
(Injection
moulding)

Joining (welding,
Shaping
riveting)

Material removal
Melting (Casting)
(machining)
Plastic
deformation
others
Bulk Sheet
forming forming

Deep Stretch
Forging drawing forming
Extrusion, wire
drawing
Rolling Shearing,
bending etc.
Extrusion

Image source : http://sellleadsucceed.com/2013/08/20/are-you-squeezing-the-toothpaste-tube-too-hard/ (accessed on 21st apr 2015)

 Extruded products

http://www.allproducts.com/manufacture97/opoint/showroom1.html
http://www.designworldonline.com/misumi-highlights-its-aluminum-extrusions-and-accessories-at-atx-west-2010/#_
http://www.alproextrusions.com/
http://lakelandplastics.com/about-us/guidelines/
 Extrusion process

http://www.nevilles.co.uk/extrusions.htm
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iiGlq7408ME
 Indirect
Extrusion types

• Direct

http://www.metalpass.com/metaldoc/paper.aspx?docID=664
 Metal flow in extrusion
• (a) no friction-
homogenous flow

• (b) friction in billet –

container interface

• (c )high friction leading to

extrusion defects such as
piping

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg Materials

 Extrusion pressure vs ram travel
• (a) direct extrusion
• Material flows when the external force
overcome the frictional forces. As ram
travels, friction force decreases due to
reduced billet length

• (b) Indirect extrusion

• Ram force is independent of billet
length

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg Materials

Process variables in direct extrusion

(a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion;

(b) effect of die angle on ram force

The die angle, reduction in cross-section, extrusion speed, billet

temperature, and lubrication all affect the extrusion pressure.
 Optimum die angle
FIGURE 6.51 Schematic illustration of
extrusion force as a function of die angle:
(a) total force; (b) ideal force; (c) force
required for redundant deformation; (d)
force required to overcome friction. Note
that there is a die angle where the total
extrusion force is a minimum (optimum
die angle).

(b) Independent of die angle

(c ) increases with die angle

( d) decreases with increase in die angle as due to

reduction in contact length
Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg Materials
Forces in hot extrusion
• Increase in extrusion speed
(strain rate) increases the
extrusion pressure

• Hot extrusion- work done is

converted to heat and is not
dissipated at high strain rate

• Leads to hot shortness or

speed cracking
Other extrusion process- self study
• Cold extrusion ( good dimensional tolerance)

• Impact extrusion

• Hydrostatic extrusion

• Tube extrusion
 Defects in extrusion
• Surface cracking
• High temp, friction and velocity
• Reduce billet temp & speed

• Extrusion defect (piping)

• Drawing impurities to centre
• Modify flow pattern, control friction, remove surface scale

• Internal cracking
• Secondary tensile stress
• proper die geometry and extrusion variables

http://vosbltd.com/images/Extrusion%20Defects/pdf2.PDF
Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg Materials
Text in italics and blue font indicates solutions
Extrusion ratio

Also called the extrusion ratio, it is defined as

Ao
R
Af
Where R = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional
area of the starting billet; and Af = final cross-
sectional area of the extruded section
• Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion
 Ideal deformation 𝜎 𝒀

• Assumes zero friction ε

• Consider perfectly plastic material
whose yield strength=Y 𝐴0
• Let applied pressure in cross section
𝐴0 be P
𝑷 𝑷

• When P= Y, nothing happens 𝐿0

• If P>Y, extrusion occurs,
• Extrusion distance depends upon P-Y
 Ideal deformation
• If P>Y, what is the extrusion distance ?
• External work done = Force x distance
• i.e W= (𝑝. 𝐴0 )𝐿0 (p= extrusion pressure, 𝐴0- area of cross section, 𝐿0- extrusion distance)

• Internal work done per unit volume is = 𝜎 𝑑𝜀

• Ignoring elastic work, for a perfectly plastic material,
• 𝜎 𝑑𝜀 = 𝑌 ln(𝐿𝑓 /𝐿𝑖 ) = 𝑌 ln(𝑅)
• Therefore total work done =W=(𝑌 ln(𝑅)) 𝐴0 𝐿0
Ideal deformation
• External work, W= (𝑝. 𝐴0 )𝐿0
• Internal work, W=(𝑌 ln(𝑅)) 𝐴0 𝐿0

• Equating external and internal work done,

𝑝 = Y. ln(R)

For strain hardening material, use Yavg

Extrusion analysis
• Slab analysis difficult due to inhomogenous deformation and
determination of friction coefficient & flow stress at varying strain
rate and temp:
tan 
p  Y (1  )[ R  cot   1]


• Empirical formula for extrusion pressure

• 𝑝 = Y. (a + b ln(R))
• a ~ 0.8 and b ranges from 1.2 to 1.5
 Example
Q: Determine the true strain rate in extruding a round
billet of radius ro as a function of distance x from the
entry of a conical die.
 𝑟0 −𝑟𝑓
Strain rate • tan 𝛼 =
𝐿
• Let r be radius at a distance, x from
entry
𝑟0 −𝑟
• tan 𝛼 =
𝑥
𝑟0 • 𝑟 = 𝑟0 − 𝑥 tan 𝛼
𝑟
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥
𝛼 • = − tan 𝛼 = −𝑉 tan 𝛼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑟𝑓 • From volume constancy,
𝑉0 𝑉𝑓
𝑉0 𝑟02
L • 𝑉0 𝜋𝑟02 = 𝑉𝜋𝑟 2 → 𝑉 =
𝑟2
𝑑𝑟 𝑉0 𝑟02
•∴ = − 2 tan 𝛼
𝑑𝑡 𝑟
 Strain rate 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑉0 𝑟02
• = − tan 𝛼 = − 2 tan 𝛼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
𝑟0 • Strain, 𝑑𝜀 = = 2𝜋𝑟 2
𝐴 𝜋𝑟
𝑟
𝛼
𝑥 𝑟𝑓 𝑑𝜀 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑉0 𝑟02
𝑉0 𝑉𝑓 • = 2 = − 2 tan 𝛼
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑟
L
𝒅𝜺 𝑽𝟎 𝒓𝟐𝟎
• = −𝟐 𝟑 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜶
𝒅𝒕 𝒓𝟎 −𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜶
 Average strain rate
• Average time= Volume/ volume rate

• Volume rate= 𝜋𝑟02 𝑉0

𝜋𝑟02 h0 𝜋𝑟𝑓2 hf
• Volume= −
3 3

𝑟0 𝑟𝑓
• ℎ0 = ; ℎ𝑓 =
tan 𝛼 tan 𝛼

𝜋 𝜋
• Volume= 𝑟03 − 𝑟𝑓3 = 𝐷03 − 𝐷𝑓3
3 tan 𝛼 24 tan 𝛼
 Average strain rate
𝜋
• Volume= 𝐷03 − 𝐷𝑓3
24 tan 𝛼

𝜋𝐷02
• Volume rate= 𝑉0
4

𝜋 𝐷03 −𝐷𝑓3 4 𝐷03 −𝐷𝑓3

• Average time= Volume/ volume rate= =
24 tan 𝛼 𝜋𝐷02 𝑉0 6 𝐷02 𝑉0 tan 𝛼

• Average strain during extrusion 𝜀 = −𝑙𝑛 𝐴𝑓 𝐴0 = ln 𝑅

6 𝐷02 𝑉0 tan 𝛼
• Average strain rate= strain /time= 𝑙𝑛 𝑅
𝐷03 −𝐷𝑓3
 Example
Q: A copper billet 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm long is extruded at 1123 K
at a speed of 0.3 m/s. Using square dies and assuming poor lubrication,
estimate the force required in this operation if the extruded
diameter is 75 mm (C = 240 MPa, m = 0.06; a=0.8, b=1.1). Assume the die
angle to be 5𝑜
Wire drawing
Wire drawing vs. bar drawing

• Difference between bar drawing and wire

drawing is stock size
– Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod stock
– Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire sizes
down to 0.03 mm (0.001 in.) are possible
• Although the mechanics are the same, the
methods, equipment, and even terminology
are different
Drawing practice and products
• Drawing practice:
– Usually performed as cold working
– Most frequently used for round cross-sections
• Products:
– Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat
hangers, and shopping carts
– Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
– Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and
other processes
Similar to extrusion

Extrusion Drawing

• Push force • Pull force

• Friction b/w billet and container • No friction b/w billet and container
• Usually hot working • Usually cold working
 Wire and rod drawing

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg Materials http://www.dreamstime.com/stock-image-old-bicycle-wheel-grunge-wall-image39791771
Features of draw die

Draw die for drawing of round rod or wire

 Tube drawing

FIGURE 6.64 Examples of tube-drawing operations, with and without an internal mandrel.
Note that a variety of diameters and wall thicknesses can be produced from the same tube
stock (that has been produced by other processes, such as extrusion
Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg Materials
Analysis of drawing
• Ideal work
𝐴0
• 𝜎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤 = 𝑌. ln( )
𝐴
𝐴
𝐴0 𝜎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤

• For Hollomon hardening

material
𝐾 𝜀𝑛
•𝑌=
𝑛+1
Slab analysis – strip drawing

𝛼
 Slab-analysis- element
𝜇𝑃 P

𝛼
𝛼
dx P
𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝑃 𝑃 cos 𝛼
𝜇 𝑃 sin 𝛼
𝛼
h+ dh h
𝛼
𝜇 𝑃 cos 𝛼 𝑃 sin 𝛼

𝜇𝑃 P
 Slab-analysis- element
𝜇𝑃 P
• Equating the horizontal forces and imposing
𝛼 equilibrium condition, (assuming unit width)

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
dx • 2𝑝. sin 𝛼 . + 2𝜇𝑝. cos 𝛼 . +
𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛼

𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 ℎ + 𝑑ℎ − 𝜎𝑥 ℎ = 0
h+ dh h
• Ignoring 𝑑𝜎𝑥 . 𝑑ℎ
• 2𝑝. 𝑑𝑥. tan 𝛼 + 𝜇 + 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑑ℎ + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 . ℎ = 0
𝜇𝑃 P
Slab analysis – strip drawing
• Under low friction, 𝜎𝑥 and p approximated as 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑥
principal stresses 𝜎3 = −𝑃

• 𝜎𝑥 and p can be related using yield criteria

assuming plane strain cond.

𝜎𝑥 + 𝑝 = 𝑌 ′

→ 𝑝 = 𝑌 ′ − 𝜎𝑥
Slab-analysis- – strip drawing
• From the geometry, dh and dx can be
𝛼 related.
dx
𝑑ℎ
2 = tan 𝛼
𝑑𝑥
Indicate
h+ dh h 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑥 =
2 tan 𝛼
Slab analysis – strip drawing
′ 𝑑ℎ
• Substitute 𝑝 = 𝑌 − 𝜎𝑥 and 𝑑𝑥 = in 2𝑝. 𝑑𝑥. tan 𝛼 + 𝜇 +
2 tan 𝛼
𝜎𝑥 . 𝑑ℎ + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 . ℎ = 0

𝑑ℎ
•2 𝑌′ − 𝜎𝑥 . . tan 𝛼 + 𝜇 + 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑑ℎ + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 . ℎ = 0
2 tan 𝛼

𝜇
• 𝑌′ − 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑑ℎ. 1 + 𝑘 + 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑑ℎ + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 . ℎ = 0 (where 𝑘 = )
tan 𝛼

• 𝑑ℎ. 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑘 − 𝑌 ′ 1 + 𝑘 − 𝑑𝜎𝑥 . ℎ = 0

𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝜎𝑥
• =
ℎ 𝜎𝑥 .𝑘−𝑌 ′ 1+𝑘
Slab analysis – strip drawing

𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝜎𝑥
• Integrating =
ℎ 𝜎𝑥 .𝑘−𝑌 ′ 1+𝑘

log 𝜎𝑥 .𝑘−𝑌 ′ 1+𝑘

• log ℎ = + log(𝐶)
𝑘

• ℎ𝑘 = 𝐶 𝑘 . 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑘 − 𝑌 ′ 1 + 𝑘
Slab analysis – strip drawing
• ℎ𝑘 = 𝐶 𝑘 . 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑘 − 𝑌 ′ 1 + 𝑘
ℎ0 𝑘
• Boundary condition 𝜎𝑥 = 0 at ℎ = ℎ0 yields 𝐶 𝑘 = − ′
𝑌 1+𝑘

− ℎ0 𝑘
• ℎ𝑘 = . 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑘 − 𝑌 ′ 1 + 𝑘
𝑌 ′ 1+𝑘

ℎ 𝑘 −𝜎𝑥 .𝑘
• = +1
ℎ0 𝑌 ′ 1+𝑘
Slab analysis – strip drawing
𝑌 ′ 1+𝑘 ℎ 𝑘
• 𝜎𝑥 = 1−
𝑘 ℎ0

𝜇
• We can generally write as 𝑘=
tan 𝛼
𝑌 ′ 1+𝑘 𝐴 𝑘
• 𝜎𝑥 = 1−
𝑘 𝐴0
• For wire drawing,
𝑌 ′ 1+𝑘 𝐷 2𝑘
• 𝜎𝑥 = 1−
𝑘 𝐷0
Slab analysis – wire drawing

• Similar to strip drawing, with a circular cross section area

Slab analysis – wire drawing
• Equating the horizontal forces and imposing
equilibrium condition,

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• 𝑝. sin 𝛼 . 𝜋 𝐷. . +𝜇𝑝. cos 𝛼 . 𝜋 𝐷. +
cos 𝛼 cos 𝛼

𝜋 2
𝜋 2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 𝐷 + 𝑑𝐷 − 𝜎𝑥 𝐷 = 0
4 4
Slab analysis – wire drawing
• Ignoring 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑑𝐷2 , 2𝑑𝜎𝑥 . 𝑑𝐷. 𝐷 and 𝑑𝜎𝑥 . 𝑑𝐷2
𝜋
• 𝑝. tan 𝛼 + 𝜇 . 𝜋 𝐷. 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝜎𝑥 . 𝑑𝐷. 𝐷 + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 𝐷2 = 0
4

• Yield criteria and geometry relation

• 𝜎𝑥 + 𝑝 = 𝑌 ′ → 𝑝 = 𝑌 ′ − 𝜎𝑥
𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷
• 2
= tan 𝛼 indicate = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 tan 𝛼

′ 𝑑𝐷 𝜋
• 𝑌 − 𝜎𝑥 . tan 𝛼 + 𝜇 . 𝜋 𝐷. + 2𝜎𝑥 . 𝑑𝐷. 𝐷 + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 𝐷2 = 0
2 tan 𝛼 4
Slab analysis –wire drawing
• Simplifying,
′ 𝑑𝜎𝑥 𝐷 𝜇
• 𝑌 − 𝜎𝑥 . 1 + 𝑘 . 𝑑𝐷 + 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑑𝐷 + =0 (where 𝑘 = )
2 tan 𝛼
𝑑𝜎𝑥 𝐷
• 𝜎𝑥 𝑘 − 𝑌′ 1 + 𝑘 𝑑𝐷 − =0
2
𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝜎𝑥
• 2 =
𝐷 𝜎𝑥 𝑘−𝑌′ 1+𝑘
log 𝜎𝑥 .𝑘−𝑌 ′ 1+𝑘
• Integrating, log 𝐷2 = + log(𝐶) or
𝑘

• 𝐷2𝑘 = 𝐶 𝑘 . 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑘 − 𝑌 ′ 1 + 𝑘
Slab analysis –wire drawing
• 𝐷2𝑘 = 𝐶 𝑘 . 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑘 − 𝑌 ′ 1 + 𝑘
𝑘 𝐷0 2𝑘
• boundary condition 𝜎𝑥 = 0 at 𝐷 = 𝐷0 yields 𝐶 =− ′
𝑌 1+𝑘
− 𝐷0 2𝑘 𝐷 2𝑘 −𝜎 .𝑘
• 𝐷2𝑘 = . 𝜎𝑥 . 𝑘 − 𝑌 ′ 1 + 𝑘 leads to = 𝑥
+1
𝑌 ′ 1+𝑘 𝐷0 𝑌′ 1+𝑘

𝑌 ′ 1+𝑘 𝐷 2𝑘
• 𝜎𝑥 = 1−
𝑘 𝐷0
Slab analysis –wire drawing
2𝜇
′ tan 𝛼 𝐷 tan 𝛼
• 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑌 1 + 1−
𝜇 𝐷0

• We can generally write as

𝜇
′ tan 𝛼 𝐴 tan 𝛼
• 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑌 1 + 1−
𝜇 𝐴0
Drawing - mechanics
• Ideal work
𝐴0 𝐴
• 𝜎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤 = 𝑌. ln( ) 𝐴0 𝜎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤
𝐴

• Slab analysis with friction

𝑌 ′ 1+𝑘 𝐴 𝑘
• 𝜎𝑥 = 1−
𝑘 𝐴0

• Die pressure , 𝑝 = 𝑌 ′ − 𝜎𝑥
Residual stresses in drawing
Drawing stresses

p  Yf  d
Max reduction per pass
• What is the max reduction per pass in wire drawing. Assume ideal
work ignoring friction and redundant work. Assume Holloman hard.
𝐴0 𝐾 𝜀𝑛
• Ideal work- 𝜎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤 = 𝑌. ln = 𝑌. 𝜀1 ; where 𝑌 =
𝐴 𝑛+1
• Max 𝜎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤 is equal to flow stress at 𝜀1 ,
𝐾𝜀1 𝑛
• Therefore, 𝜎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤 = 𝐾 𝜀1 𝑛 = 𝜀1 or 𝜀1 = 1 + 𝑛
𝑛+1
𝐴0 −𝐴 𝐴0
• Max reduction = ; substituting 𝜀1 = ln ,
𝐴0 𝐴

• Max reduction= 1 − 𝑒 −(𝑛+1)

Example
Q: Assuming zero redundant work and frictional work to be 20% of the ideal work, derive
an expression for the maximum reduction in area per pass for a wire drawing operation for
a material with a true-stress strain curve of σ=Kεn

 ( n 1) / 1.2
r  1 e
Example
Q: A round rod of annealed brass 70-30 is being drawn from a diameter of 6 mm to 3 mm
at a speed of 0.6 m/s. Assume that the frictional and redundant work together constitute
35% of the ideal work of deformation. (a) Calculate power required and die pressure at the
exit of die.
K = 895 MPa and n = 0.49