Chapter 31

31.1

1. Compare and contrast the nutritional mode of a fungus with your own nutritional mode.

2. WHAT IF? Suppose a certain fungus is a mutualist that lives within an insect host, yet its
ancestors were parasites that grew in and on the insect’s body. What derived traits might you
find in this mutualistic fungus?

3. MAKE CONNECTIONS Review Figure 10.3 and Figure 10.5. If a plant has mycorrhizae,
where might carbon that enters the plant’s stomata as CO2 eventually be deposited: in the plant,
in the fungus, or both? Explain.
31.2

1. MAKE CONNECTIONS Compare Figure 31.5 with Figure 13.6. In terms of haploidy versus
diploidy, how do the life cycles of fungi and humans differ?

2. WHAT IF? Suppose that you sample the DNA of two mush- rooms on opposite sides of your
yard and find that they are identical. Propose two

31.3

1. Why are fungi classified as opisthokonts despite the fact that most fungi lack flagella?
2. Describe the importance of mycorrhizae, both today and in the colonization of land. What evidence supports the
antiquity of mycorrhizal associations?

3. WHAT IF? If fungi colonized land before plants, where might the fungi have lived? How would their food sources have
differed from what they feed on today?

31.4

1. What feature of chytrids supports the hypothesis that they include members of basal fungal lineages?

2. Give examples of how form fits function in mucoromycetes, ascomycetes, and basidiomycetes.
3. WHAT IF? Suppose that the mutation of an ascomycete changed its life cycle so that plasmogamy, karyogamy, and meiosis
occurred in quick succession. How might this affect the ascospores and ascocarps?

31.5

1. What are some of the benefits that lichen algae can derive from their relationship with fungi?

2. What characteristics of pathogenic fungi result in their being efficiently transmitted?

3. WHAT IF? How might life on Earth differ from what we know today if no mutualistic relationships between fungi and other
organisms had ever evolved?
Chapter 31

1. All fungi are

(A) symbiotic. (C) flagellated. (B) heterotrophic. (D) decomposers.

2. Which of the following cells or structures are associated with asexual reproduction in fungi?
(A) ascospores (B) basidiospores (C) zygosporangia (D) conidiophores

3. The closest relatives of fungi are thought to be the

(A) animals. (C) mosses. (B) vascular plants. (D) slime molds.

4. The most important adaptive advantage associated with the filamentous nature of fungal
mycelia is
1. (A)  the ability to form haustoria and parasitize other organisms.
2. (B)  the potential to inhabit almost all terrestrial habitats.
3. (C)  the increased chance of contact between mating types.
4. (D)  an extensive surface area well suited for invasive growth and absorptive
nutrition.

6. EVOLUTION CONNECTION The fungus-alga symbiosis that makes up a lichen is thought to

have evolved multiple times independently in different fungal groups. However, lichens fall into
three well-defined growth forms (see Figure 31.24). How could you test the following
hypotheses? Hypothesis 1: Crustose, foliose, and fruticose lichens each represent a monophyletic
group. Hypothesis 2: Each lichen growth form represents convergent evolution by diverse fungal
groups.

7. WRITE ABOUT A THEME: ORGANIZATION As you read in this chapter, fungi have long
formed symbiotic associations with plants and with algae. In a short essay (100–150 words),
describe how these two types of associations may lead to emergent properties in biological
communities.
8. SYNTHESIZE YOUR KNOWLEDGE

This wasp is the unfortunate victim of an entomopathogenic fungus (a parasitic fungus of

insects). Write a paragraph describing what this image illustrates about the nutritional mode,
body structure, and ecological role of the fungus.

Chapter 32

32.1

1. Summarize the main stages of animal development. What family of control genes plays a
major role?

WHAT IF? What animal characteristics would be needed by an imaginary plant that could
chase, capture, and digest its prey—yet could also extract nutrients from soil and conduct
photosynthesis?
32.2

1. Put the following milestones in animal evolution in order from oldest to most recent:

(a) origin of mammals, (b) earliest evidence of terrestrial arthropods

(c) Ediacaran fauna, (d) extinction of large, nonflying dinosaurs.

2. VISUAL SKILLS Explain what is represented by the red-colored portion of the branch
leading to animals. (See Figure 26.5, “Visualizing Phylogenetic Relationships,” to review
phylogenetic tree diagrams.)

3. MAKE CONNECTIONS Evaluate whether the origin of cell- to-cell attachment proteins
in animals illustrates descent with modification. (See Concept 22.2.)
 32.3

1. Compare three aspects of the early development of a snail (a mollusc) and a human (a
chordate).

2. Describe how animals that lack a body cavity exchange materials without an internal transport
system.

3. WHAT IF? Evaluate this claim: Ignoring the details of their specific anatomy, worms,
humans, and most other triplo-blasts have a shape analogous to that of a doughnut.
32.4

1. Describe the evidence that cnidarians share a more recent common ancestor with other
animals than with sponges.

2. WHAT IF? Suppose ctenophores are basal metazoans and sponges are the sister group of all
remaining animals. Under this hypothesis, redraw Figure 32.11 and discuss whether animals with
tissues would form a clade.

3. MAKE CONNECTIONS Based on the phylogeny in Figure 32.11 and the information in
Figure 25.11, evaluate this statement: “The Cambrian explosion actually consists of three
explosions, not one.”
Chapter 32

1. One of the characteristics unique to animals is

(A) gastrulation.(B) multicellularity.(C) sexual reproduction. (D) flagellated sperm. \

2. The distinction between sponges and other animal phyla is based mainly on the absence
versus the presence of

(A) a body cavity.(B) a complete digestive tract. (C) mesoderm. (D) tissues.

3. Which of the following was probably an important factor in bringing about the Cambrian
explosion?

(A) the movement of animals onto land

(B) an increase in the concentration of atmospheric nitrogen

(C) the emergence of predator-prey relationships

(D) the origin of bilaterian animals

4. Based on the tree in Figure 32.11, which statement is true?

(A)  The animal kingdom is not monophyletic.

(B)  The Acoela are more closely related to echinoderms than to annelids.

(C)  Sponges are basal animals.

(D)  Bilaterians do not form a clade.

5. EVOLUTION CONNECTION A professor begins a lecture on animal phylogeny (as shown in

Figure 32.11) by saying, “We are all worms.” In this context, what did she mean?
6. WRITE ABOUT A THEME: INTERACTIONS Animal life changed greatly during the
Cambrian explosion, with some groups expanding in diversity and others declining. Write a short
essay (100–150 words) interpreting these events as feedback regulation at the level of the
biological community.

7. SYNTHESIZE YOUR KNOWLEDGE

This organism is an animal. What can you infer about its body structure and lifestyle (that might
not be obvious from its appearance)? This animal has a protostome developmental pattern and a
trochophore larva. Identify the major clades that this animal belongs to. Explain your selection
and describe when these clades originated and how they are related to one another.