CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

GAS is a Senior High School strand that takes on a generalist approach in preparing students for
college. It covers various disciplines like Humanities, Social Sciences, Organization, and
Management (https://informatics.edu.ph). It is to give ways for the undecided students to think
about their preferred degree once they step into college. It is just a guide point in the lives of
students to help them make up their mind with what they really want to be once they had
entered the adult life. The students that wanted to pursue a major in college related to education
are to be place in this strand (Bnhsgas.wordpress). Tertiary education, more commonly referred
to as postsecondary education, refers to academic pursuit undertaken after high school.
Undergraduate programs include any postsecondary education that takes up to four years to
complete, including certificates, diplomas, and associate's and bachelor's degrees. Graduate
programs typically require prior completion of an undergraduate degree and include diploma,
certificate, master's and doctoral degree programs. You can find tertiary education programs at
vocational schools, community colleges, technical schools, professional schools, colleges and
universities (https://learn.org/).

According to Ouanoa, Dela L. Torre, Japitan, Monev education is universally recognized as the
answer to socio-economic problems of the world. Nations and individuals look up to education
to provide a cure for poverty, ignorance, drought, excessive rainfall, mental deficiency,
joblessness, bad government, poor communication system, hunger and inadequate shelter
among other things. Thus, every nation of the world aspires toward quality of life and social status
through good decision-making in selecting career choice especially students who are about to
pursue in college. According to Ahmed, Sharif and Ahmad (2017), career defined as the
occupational, commercial or industrial activity that a person may adopt during his educational
life or in some other part or till his death. It also clarifies career as the application of a person’s
cognition and capabilities, providing command over profession, timely work expertise and a basis
of developing and bettering business networks. The choice of career is a delicate issue for
students which requires caution and serious considerations – factors affecting their choices. The
kind of career the youths pursue can affect their lives in many ways. Individuals chose career
planning to pursue the professional objectives, getting informed about upcoming opportunities,
their results and their timely evaluations. It is noted in the research of Ho (2017) that many
college choices models: Chapman Model (1981), Hanson and Litten Model (1982), Jackson Model
(1982) and Hossler model, the use of multiple college choice models draw a general picture that
will track how the student makes their decision to join the higher education and the factors that
affect their choice.

Shumba and Naong (2012) found out that the family is a significant factor in determining
children’s career choice, the ability of the learner self to identify his preferred career choice, and
teachers influence career choice of their learners. These findings are consistent with the findings
of other studies that have examined the influences of each parent on the career choices of their
sons or daughters and have found that mothers tend to have more influence on the career
decision and aspirations of their children than fathers. Research has shown that self-esteem does
play a role in the vocational decision-making process (Korman, 1967). Research on the decision-
making process in choosing a course are engaged while making this decision indicate a less- than-
ideal situation however, Philips and Stcrochmer (1983) presented data suggesting that students
who lack strong decision-making skills are very likely to flounder while choosing a major or career,
spending excess effort on the prochoice stage of decision-making process.

According to Jackson, he utilizes economic theory to maintain that college decision-making is

basically a process of excluding institutions (Hossler et al., 1999, p. 146). He asserts that
“students’ choice sets depend on their exclusion criteria, which in turn depend on their
anticipated financial resources and their academic experience” (Jackson, 1982, p. 240). However,
he diverges from econometric models in acknowledging that students neither possess perfect
information nor make rational decisions. “[T]he limited evidence available suggests that accurate
information about colleges is difficult to come by . . . and that students typically exclude from
their choice set colleges they ought to evaluate” (Jackson, 1982, p. 240)Mau and Jepsen (1992)
compared the decision-making performances of students who were either thought or not taught
to use formal decision-making strategies in choosing a course. Some theories view career
decision making as a systematic approach in which one weighs the cost to benefit ratio of their
choice compared to all alternative choices. It is viewed strictly as an objective and logical process
(Murtagh, Lopes, & Lyons, 2011). More recent research however found that some individuals use
a “other-than-rational” approach to deciding a career. Murtagh, Lopes, & Lyons (2011) posit that
people do not use only rational measures when deciding on a career, rather emotion, intuition,
and cognition work together to form the best process for decision making (Murtagh, Lopes, &
Lyons, 2011). One particular finding that may be more widely generalized was their finding that
many factors contribute to determining career, including environment, economy and self-
perception (Murtagh, Lopes, & Lyons, 2011). As Falk, Dunn, and Norenzayan (2010) uncovered,
decision making is directly linked to expected enjoyment. People are typically motivated to make
decisions based on perceived happiness in the outcome.

Tinto (1975) stated that prior research into attrition had failed to explain the processes that led
to an individual’s decision to not persist. This lack of understanding of the problem made it
difficult for administrators to develop programs to assist students and reduce attrition. Tinto
proposed a theoretical model that would explain the interactions between students and their
institutions that might lead to the process of dropping out. Tinto’s “interactionalist theory” is well
known. Tinto theorized that the greater the institution’s ability to integrate the student into the
academic and social systems of the college, “the greater the likelihood the individual will persist
in college” (Braxton 2000a, p. 3)

Rosenberg and Pearlin (1978) refer to self-esteem as a concept of self-worth and “a global
positive or negative attitude toward the self” (p.67). Self-esteem is hypothesized to be an
evaluative part of self-concept and has been shown to predict a collection of psychological
variables such as depression, anxiety disorders and dropping out of school (Swann Jr., Chang-
Schneider, & McClarty, 2007). Additionally, self-esteem has been shown to predict adaptation to
adult life of teenagers 14 years after they were first assessed (Swann Jr. et al., 2007). Korman
(1967) was among the first researchers to examine how self-esteem affected vocational choice.
He hypothesized that self-esteem worked as a moderating variable for vocational choice and self-
perceived abilities (1967).

Soria and Stebleton (2013) studied the relationships between students’ intrinsic and extrinsic
motivations with choosing a major, satisfaction with educational experience, and sense of
belonging. Internal extrinsic motivations positively associated with satisfaction include students’
motivation to choose a major because the selected option allows time for other activities,
prepares students for a fulfilling career, prepares students for graduate/ professional school, and
provides international opportunities. One internal extrinsic motivation— choosing a major
because it complements students’ desire to study abroad—was negatively associated with
students’ satisfaction. Additionally, students who had external extrinsic motivations for
choosing a major—because of denial of their first choice of college major, easy requirements,
and parental desires for choice of major—are negatively associated with students’ satisfaction.
All internal extrinsic motivations for selecting a major are positively related to sense of belonging,
except for choosing a major because it leads to a high paying job, which is negatively associated
with students’ sense of belonging.

Kuh et al. (2005) claimed that the best predictors of student success are academic preparation
and motivation. Prior studies have shown student academic success to be positively correlated
with student motivation. Covington (2000) urged more research be done in the area of student
achievement and motivation. Covington asserted that little is understood concerning the
relationship between students’ personal goals and motivation. Why a student chooses one goal
(for example a career in aviation) over others was not clear. Achievement goal theory suggests
that students who valued what was being learned (and therefore what was being taught) would
be more likely to succeed in their studies.

Edwards and Quinter (2011) showed that Religion was also mentioned as one of the factors that
influenced students’ career choices. For those with religious commitment, faith plays a critical
role in important life decision such as career choice. Okiror and Otabong (2015) revealed that
students’ choices were based on their perceived availability of career and scholarship
opportunities in a given department and the grade point averages marks earned by the student
at the time selecting the options.

Members:

Norial, Mary Queen

Fe, Fatima
Habac, Brigette
Ubay, Jessah Mae
Salunday, John Mart
Gindal, Hja Shalomin
Salinas, Joyce