HISTORY OF MATERIALS equal to the ratio of force to area and expressed
in units of force per unit of cross-sectional area.
Building Materials used for Construction,
Properties and Application
The materials used for the construction
of houses, offices and commercial buildings are
classified as building materials. Building
materials most commonly used include cement,
gravel, stone, brick and tile. Different materials
are used depending on the requirements,
availability, the type of structure to be built as
well as space.
The Building Materials Used Before and Now
Construction Materials used in the early
years of includes rock, clay, and other materials.
Instead of concrete, clay is used to fill gaps
between bricks and stones. The construction is
carried out using basic methods and technics.
Clay, leaves, twigs, etc. have also been used by
people in the old days to build houses.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
PROPERTY - An essential or distinctive attribute
or quality belonging specifically in the
constitution of, or found in, the behaviour of a
thing
MECHANICAL PROPERTY - any of the physical
properties of a material that exhibit a response
to applied forces.
STRENGTH - the capability of a material to resist
the forces imposed on it, esp. the ability to
sustain a high stress without yielding or
rupturing.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS - the study of the
relationship between applied external forces
and the internal effects produced by these
forces in a body.
STRESS - the internal resistance or reaction of
an elastic body to external forces applied to it,
Also called unit stress.
STRAIN - the deformation of a body under the
action of an applied force. Strain is a
dimensionless quantity. Equal to the ratio of
the change in size or shape to the original size
or shape of a stressed elements.
TENSION - the act of stretching or state of being
pulled apart, resulting in the elongation of an
elastic body.
TENSILE FORCE - An applied force producing or
tending to produce tension in an elastic body.
COMPRESSION - The act of shortening or state
of being pushed together, resulting in a
reduction in a size or volume of an elastic body.
COMPRESSION FORCE - An applied force
producing or tending to produce compression in
an elastic body.
ELONGATION - A measure of the ductility of a
material, expressed as the percentage increase
in length of a test specimen after failure in a
tensile test.
TENSILE STRESS - The axial stress that develops
at the cross section of an elastic body to resist
the collinear tensile forces tending to elongate
it.
TENSILE STRAIN - The elongation of a unit
length of material produced by a tensile stress.
COMPRESSION TEST - a test for determining the
behavior of a material under axial compression,
in which a specimen is crushed until fracture of
disintegration occurs. The compression test is
used for brittle materials since their low tensile
strength is difficult to measure accurately.
COMPRESSIVE STRESS - the axial stress that
develops at the cross section of an elastic body
to resist the collinear compressive forces
tending to shorten it.
COMPRESSIVE STRAIN - The shortening of a
unit length of material produced by a
compressive stress.
TENSILE TEST - A test for determining the
behaviour of a material under axial tension, in
which a specimen is gripped at both ends and
pulled apart until rupture the materials.
TENSILE STRENGTH - The resistance of a
material to longitudinal stress, measured by the
minimum amount of longitudinal stress
required to rupture the material.
SHEAR - The lateral deformation produced in a
body by an external force that causes one part
of the body to slide relative to an adjacent part
in a direction parallel to their plane of contact.
SHEAR FORCE - An applied force producing or
tending to produce shear in a body.
TORQUE - The moment of a force system that
causes or tends to cause rotation or torsion.
TORSION - The twisting of an elastic body about
its longitudinal axis caused by two equal and
opposite torques, producing shearing stresses in
the body.
DEFORMATION - a change in the shape or
dimensions of a body or structure resulting
from stress.
ELASTIC DEFORMATION - A temporary change
in the dimensions or shape of a body produced
by a stress less that the elastic limit of the
material.
COMBINED STRESSES - A set of tensile and
compressive stresses resulting from the
superposition of axial and bending stresses in
the cross section of a structural member, acting
in the same direction and equal at any point to
their algebraic sum.
BENDING - The bowing of an elastic body as an
external force is applied transversely to its
length. Bending is the structural mechanism
that enables a load to be channelled in a
direction perpendicular to its application.
TRANSVERSE FORCE - A force applied
perpendicular to the length of a structural
member, producing bending and shear. Also
called transverse load.
*see beam for bending stresses*
PLASTIC DEFORMATION - A permanent change
in the dimension or shape of a body produced
by a stress greater than the elastic limit of the
material, remaining rigid under stresses of less
than a certain intensity. The molecular bonds in
a material that exhibits plastic behaviour reform
after being stresses beyond the elastic limit. The
material thus retains a measure of reserve
strength. Also called plastic flow.
YIELD POINT - The stress beyond which a
marked increase in strain occurs in a material
without a concurrent increase in stress. Many
materials do not have clearly defined yield
points. For these materials, a theoretical yield
strength is calculated from the stress- strain
curve.
STIFFNESS - A measure of a material’s
resistance to deformation when stressed within
its elastic range.
BRITTLENESS - The property of a material that
cause it to rupture suddenly under stress with
little evident deformation. Since brittle
materials lack the plastic behaviour of ductile
materials, they can give no advance warming of
impending failure.
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT - The stress beyond
which the ratio of stress to strain for a material
no longer remains constant.
FRACTURE - The breaking of a material resulting
from the rupturing of its atomic bonds when
stressed beyond its ultimate strength.
ELASTICITY - The property of a material that
enables it to deform in response to an applied
force and to recover its original size and shape
upon removal of the force.
DUCTILITY - The property of a material that
enables it undergo plastic deformation after
being stressed beyond the elastic limit and
before rupturing. Ductility is a desirable
property of a structural material since plastic
behaviour is an indicator of reverse strength
and can serve as a visual warning of impeding
failure.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY - A coefficient of
elasticity of a material expressing the ratio
between a unit strain caused by the stress, as
derived from Hooke’s law and represented by
the slope of the straight-line portion of the
stress-strain diagram. Also called coefficient of
elasticity, elastic modulus.
ELASTIC LIMIT - The maximum stress that can
be applied to a material without causing
permanent deformation.
WEATHERABILITY - The property of a material
that enables it to retain its appearance and
integrity when exposed to the effects of sun,
wind, moisture, and changes in temperature.
FATIGUE - The weakening or failure of a
material at a stress below the elastic limit when
subjected to a repeated series of stresses.
TOUGHNESS - The property of a material that
enables it to absorb energy before rupturing,
represented by the area under the stress-strain
curve derived from a tensile test of the
material. Ductile materials are tougher that
brittle materials.
MOISTURE EXPANSION - An increase in the bulk
of a material caused by the absorption of water
of water vapour. Also called bulking.
ABSORPTION The taking in or reception of a gas
or liquid by molecular of chemical action.
ADSORPTION - The adhesion of a tin,
condensed layer of gas, liquid, or dissolved
substance to the surface of a solid, usually
without any physical or chemical change in the
material.
THERMAL EXPANSION - An increase in length,
area of volume of a material caused by a rise in
temperature.
THERMAL CONTRACTION - A decrease in
length, area or volume of a material caused by a
drop in temperature.
THERMAL STRESS - The tensile or compressive
stress developed in a material constrained
against thermal expansion or contraction.
THERMAL SHOCK - The sudden stress a rapid
change in temperature can produced in a
material.
ABRASION RESISTANCE- The property of a
material that enables it to resist being worn
away by friction when rubbed with another
object. Abrasion resistance is a measure of
toughness rather than hardness and is a
necessary quality of flooring materials and
surface finishes.
HARDNESS - The property of a material that
enables it to resist deformation by compression.
Indentation or penetration.
CREEP - The gradual and permanent
deformation of a body produced by a continued
application of stress or prolonged exposure to
heat. Creep deflection in a concrete structure
continues over time and can be significantly
greater than the initial elastic deflection.
 METALS FERROUS METALS - metals in which the
element iron predominates.
INTRODUCTION
- A metal containing iron as a principal element
Metal is an element, compound or alloy
that is a good conductor of both electricity and - Prone to rusting if exposed to moisture.
heat - Can also be picked up by a magnet. The rusting
Any of class of elementary substances, and magnetic properties in ferrous metals are
as gold, silver, or copper, all of which are both down due to the iron.
crystalline when solid and many which are • Cast Iron
characterized by opacity, ductility, conductivity, • Wrought Iron
and a unique luster when freshly fractured. • Steel
Generally, the metals require a large Examples:
energy input for their production from raw
materials; however, this high embodied energy 1. Mild Steel.
is partially offset by the long life and recycling of 2. Cast Iron.
most metals. 3. High Carbon Steel.
4. High Speed Steel.
Approximately 60% of current steel 5. Stainless Steel.
production is from scrap, and steel can be
recycled any number of times without any NON-FERROUS METALS – contain no iron.
degradation of the material. - Not attracted to a magnet and they also do not
rust in the same way when exposed to
moisture.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Aluminum
IRON – a malleable, ductile, magnetic, silver- • Copper
white metallic elements from which pig iron and • Lead
steel are made. Fe • Zinc
PIG – an oblong mass of metal that has been • Tin
poured while still molten into a mold of sand, Other Examples:
esp. such a mass of iron from a blast furnace
1. Silver,
Coke – a solid residue of coal left after 2. Gold,
destructive distillation, used as fuel. 3. Magnesium
BLAST FURNACE – a large vertical furnace for
smelting iron from one, in which combustion is
intensified by a continuous blast of air through FERROUS METALS
the fuel
CARBON STEEL – an unalloyed steel in which
BLAST FURNACE SLAG – slag left as a residue by the residual elements such as carbon,
the smelting of iron ore in a blast furnace manganese, phosphorous, sulfur and silicon are
controlled. Any increase in carbon content
SLAG – a vitrified matter left as residue from the
smelting of a metallic ore. Also called cinder
increases the strength and hardness of the steel
but reduces its ductility.
HARD STEEL – a high-carbon steel containing
from 0.45% to 0.85% carbon

• Used parts that require the highest strength,

hardness, and wear resistance. Once
manufactured they are heat treated and
tempered

Mild or Soft steel – a low-carbon steel

containing from 0.15% to 0.25% carbon
- A ductile and malleable metal
- Mild steel will rust quickly if it is in
frequent contact with water
- Used as Nuts and bolts, building SPRING STEEL – a high-carbon steel containing
girders, car bodies, gates 0.85% to 100% carbon

-Generally low-alloy manganese,

mediumcarbon steel or high-carbon steel with a
CARBON STEEL
very high yield strength.
MILD OR SOFT STEEL – reinforcing bars

STAINLESS STEEL
- Contains minimum of 12% chromium,
sometimes with nickel, manganese, or
molybdenum as additional alloying elements, so
MEDIUM STEEL – a carbon steel containing
as to be highly resistant to corrosion.
from 0.25% to 0.45% carbon

Examples: hammers, chisels, punches,

gears/couplings and other components that
require a high degree of wear and impact
resistance
 CAST IRON • Vehicle components

- A hard, brittle, non malleable iron-based alloy

containing 2.0% to 4.5% carbon and 0.5% to 3%
silicon, cast in a sand mold and machined to WROUGHT IRON
make many building products - A tough, malleable, relatively soft iron that is
Uses of Cast Iron in Building Construction readily forged and welded, having a fibrous
structure containing approximately 0.20%
• Many types of sanitary fittings like carbon and a small amount of uniformly
manholes, sewer pipes, water pipes, distributed slag
cisterns are manufactured using cast
iron. Uses of Wrought Iron:
• Metal columns and column bases can • It is used for pipe making due its its
be made using cast iron. superior corrosion and fatigue
• Casting molds for making metal resistance and better welding and
staircases, lamp posts, gates etc. are threading qualities.
made using cast iron. • It is used for making bars for stay bolts,
• Rail chairs and carriage wheels are engine bolts and rivets etc. because
manufactured. properties demanded in these
applications are corrosion and fatigue
resistance.
• For making plates
• For making special chains and crane
hooks due to its good weldability and
high impact strength.
• It is also used extensively for general
forging applications.

MALLEABLE CAST IRON

- Annealed by transforming the carbon content
into graphite or removing it completely

Uses of Cast Iron in Building Construction

• Pipe fittings
• Chain-hoist assemblies
• Railroad equipment
• Industrial casters GALVANIZED IRON
- Coated with zinc to prevent rust

- employed a "hot dipping" process to coat

sheet iron with zinc.
- manufactured and used for wide variety of COPPER
purposes but its primary use is for sheet metal
- A ductile, malleable metallic element that is
roofing and other building materials, such as
widely used for electrical wiring, water piping,
metal framing studs, metal roof shingles and
and in the manufacture of alloys, as bronze and
fencing. Other uses include wire mesh, pipes,
brass. Its color and resistance to corrosion also
roof ornaments and other decorative exterior
make it an excellent roofing and flashing
architectural products, gutters, flashing, metal
material.
buckets and connectors, such as screws and
nails. - Will corrode aluminum, steel, stainless steel,
an zinc.

- Should be fastened, attached, or supported

only with copper or carefully selected brass
fittings.

- Contact with red cedar in the presence of

moisture will cause premature deterioration of
the copper

NON FERROUS METALS

ALUMINUMS

- A ductile, malleable, silver-white metallic

element that is used in forming many hard, light
alloys. Its natural resistance to corrosion is due
to the transparent film oxide that forms on its
surface; this oxide coating can be thickened to
increase corrosion resistance by an electrical BRASS
and chemical process known as anodizing. - Refers to any various alloys consisting
- Should be isolated from alkaline materials essentially of copper and zinc
such as wet concrete, mortar, and plaster - Used for windows, railings, trims, and finish
- Widely used in extruded and sheet forms for hardware.
secondary building elements such as windows, - Alloys that are brass by definition may have
doors, roofing, flashing, trim, and hardware. names that include the word bronze, as
- For use in structural framing, high-strength architectural bronze
aluminum alloys are available in shapes similar
to those of structural steel. Aluminum sections
may be welded, bonded with adhesives, or
mechanically fastened.
LEAD
- A heavy, soft, malleable, bluish-gray metallic
elements used for flashing, sound isolation, and
radiation shielding.
- Although lead is the heaviest of the common
metals, its pliability makes it desirable for
application over uneven surfaces.
- Lead dust and vapors are toxic
ZINC
- known to the Romans as the alloy, brass, but it
was not produced industrially until the
mideighteenth century, and was not in common
use on buildings until the nineteenth century.
- The cut surface tarnishes quickly to a light grey
due to the formation of a patina of basic zinc
carbonate.
- The metal is hard at ambient temperatures
and brittle when cold. It should therefore not be
worked at metal temperatures below 10◦C
without prior warming and heavy impacts
should not be used within the forming
processes of bending and folding.
Manufacture
- Zinc occurs naturally as the sulphide ore, zinc
blende.
- The ore is first concentrated and then roasted
to produce zinc oxide. The addition of coal
reduces zinc oxide to the metal, which is
evolved as the vapour and then condensed.
High-grade zinc is produced by the electrolysis
of a purified zinc sulphate solution. Zinc is
classified according to its purity as specified in
the standard BS EN 1179: 2003
- Approximately 3610kW hours of energy is
consumed in the primary production of one
tonne of sheet zinc; however, a large proportion
of the metal is recycled.
Zinc Sheet
Zinc sheet is manufactured by continuous
casting and rolling in a range of thicknesses
(Table 5.14) to a maximum coil width of 1000
mm. The two standard products are the pure
metal (99.995% zinc) and its alloy with small
additions of titanium and copper (e.g. 0.06%
and 0.08% minima, respectively). The rolling
process modifies the grain structure,
particularly in the pure metal; however, this
does not affect the working of the sheets.
- Should not be used in contact with copper or
where rainwater draining from copper or
copper alloys would discharge onto zinc. It may,
however, be used in association with aluminum.
In contact with steel or stainless steel, the zinc
must be the major component to prevent
significant corrosion effects. Unprotected cut
edges of galvanized steel located above zinc can
cause unsightly rust stains and should be
avoided. If the underside of zinc sheet remains
damp due to condensation for extended
periods of time then pitting corrosion will occur,
causing eventual failure.
-Not affected by Portland cement mortars or
concrete, although it should be coated with
acrylic resin paint where it will be in contact
with soluble salts from masonry or cement
additives. Zinc may be laid directly onto
seasoned softwoods, unless impregnated with
copper-salt preservatives, which have a slight
corrosion-promoting effect. However, zinc
should not be used on acidic timbers such as
oak, chestnut and western red cedar.
Furthermore, zinc should not be used in
association with western red cedar shingles,
which generate an acidic discharge. The acidic
products from the effect of ultraviolet radiation
on bitumen can cause corrosion in zinc.
TITANIUM
Titanium ore is abundant in the earth’s
crust, with reserves well exceeding currently
anticipated demands. The main producing
countries are Russia, USA, Australia and Japan,
although the ores rutile (titanium oxide) and
ilmenite (iron-titanium oxide), are also found in
Europe, China and South America. Originally
isolated in 1887, it was developed for use in the
aerospace industry in the 1950s and has been
used as a building cladding material in Japan for
over thirty years. The Glasgow Science Centre
illustrates titanium’s eye-catching appearance
as a modern construction material.
The ore is treated with chlorine to
produce titanium tetrachloride, which is then
purified to remove other unwanted elements.
Treatment with metallic magnesium or sodium
reduces the titanium tetrachloride to a sponge
of titanium metal, which is then melted under
vacuum to produce solid ingots. Ingots are then
forged into slabs and rolled out into sheet.
Where required an embossed finish can be
applied during the final rolling process. Other
sections and forms can be produced by hot
rolling or cold forming as for steel. Titanium has
a high embodied energy; however, this is to
some extent balanced against its life-cycle
costing and ultimate full recycling.
Properties and Uses
Titanium is an appropriate material for
construction due to its corrosion resistance. It is
resistant to acids and alkalis, also industrial and
marine environments. Titanium has a density of
4510 kg/m3,intermediate between aluminum
(2700 kg/m3) and steel (7900 kg/m3), giving it
the advantage of a good strength-to-weight
ratio. It is less ductile than steel, so hot forming
is required for severe bending. The metal has a
modulus of elasticity half that of steel. Titanium
has a low coefficient of expansion (8.9×10−6),
half that of stainless steel and copper and one
third that for aluminum. This reduces the risk of
thermal stress, and enables titanium sheet
roofing to be laid in longer lengths than other
metals.
The use of relatively thin roofing and
cladding panels (0.3–0.4mm) minimizes both
the dead load and the supporting structural
system. Titanium with its very high melting
point of 1670◦C can withstand fire tests at
1100◦C and has been certified as a
‘noncombustible material’ in Japan for roofing
and cladding. Further applications include
facias, paneling, protective cladding for piers
and columns and three-dimensional artwork.
Durability
 The corrosion resistance of titanium
arises from its self-healing and tenacious
protective oxide film. However, rainwater run
off from zinc, lead or copper roofs should be
avoided. The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao,
clad in 32,000m2 of commercially pure 0.3–
0.4mm titanium sheet panels, shows some
staining due to lack of protection during the
construction process and also rainwater run-off.

Although initially expensive, on a life-

cycle basis, due to its low maintenance costs,
titanium may prove to be a highly competitive
cladding and roofing material. Already one
manufacturer is offering a 100-year guarantee
against corrosion failure in roofing applications.
Titanium can cause the corrosion of contact
aluminum, steel or zinc, but austenitic stainless
steel is not affected.

Welding titanium

Titanium may be arc welded, but this

requires the exclusion of air usually by the use
of argon gas shielding. Other welding
technologies such as plasma arc and laser or
electron beam are used for more specialist
applications.

Titanium Alloys

Titanium is available as a wide range of

alloys classified according to increased
corrosion resistance, higher strength or higher
temperature resistance. However, their current
use is mainly confined to aerospace, industrial
and medical applications. The standard
architectural cladding material is 99% pure
titanium