Chapter 2 Molecular Biology

2.8 Cell Respiration SL

p.98-103
AIMS:
1. Explain the purpose of cell respiration and describe the energy which is
given in the form of ATP.
2. Describe/Explain and differentiate between two types of respiration.
Describe the uses of yeast as a result of anaerobic respiration.
3. Explain how to measure the rate of respiration using respirometers.

4. Discuss the ethics involving animals used in respiration.

 Cell Respiration
Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to
produce ATP.
The main organic compound used for this process is carbohydrates (glucose), although
lipids and proteins can also be digested.

There are two main types of cell respiration:

1. Anaerobic respiration involves the partial breakdown of glucose in the cytosol for a
small yield of ATP.
2. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to completely break down glucose in the
mitochondria (eukaryotic cells)for a larger ATP yield.
Where in the cell??
3/4 stages of Aerobic
Respiration

Glycolysis &
Anaerobic
Respiration
 ENERGY IN CELLS
Cells need energy for many biochemical process such as:

1. The synthesis of large molecules (proteins, DNA, RNA).

2. Pumping of molecules/ions across membranes by active transport.

3. Moving substances inside a cell. Examples: by vesicles, chromosomes,

protein fibres in muscle cells that cause contraction
 Cellular Aerobic Respiration
It is a series of steps/reactions that occur in living cells to produce the energy they
need by the breakdown of organic compounds and the use of oxygen.
- Glucose is the primary substrate that is broken down to carbon
dioxide and water.

- This may occur in processes like muscle contraction.

Food is broken down to release this energy usually it is carbohydrates and lipids
which are used first, but if protein is consumed in excess, and supplies of carbs/fats
run out then it may also be used.
Plants: use carbohydrates and lipids that are made by photosynthesis for obtaining
energy by respiration.
Reactions of respiration occur in the presence of
enzymes and are controlled to maintain the
maximum amount of energy in its usable form ATP
adenosine triphosphate.
To make ATP: ADP (adenosine disphosphate) + Pi
(inorganic phosphate).
Cell respiration is a continuous process, as ATP
cannot be stored easily or transferred and cells are in
need of a continuous supply.
Advantage of ATP: the energy supply is immediately
available.
Energy is released by breaking ATP to ADP + Pi this
is reconverted to ATP by respiration.
 ATP
One molecule of ATP contains
three covalently linked phosphate
groups which store potential
energy in their bonds.
When ATP is hydrolysed (to form
ADP + Pi) the energy stored in
the phosphate bond is released
to be used by the cell.
ATP is regenerated from ADP +
Pi (via oxidation).
 Anaerobic Respiration
Glucose is broken down without using
oxygen.
The amount of ATP produced is small,
but production is quick.
Anaerobic Respiration is used when:
1. A short but rapid ATP supply is
needed.
2. Oxygen supply of cells runs out.
For example: In anaerobic
environments eg. Waterlogged soil
Anaerobic respiration produces
different products in various organisms
Plants and Yeast: ethanol and carbon
dioxide
Animals: lactate (lactic acid) no CO 2
 Uses of Yeast
Study Guide 32
Yeast: a unicellular fungus that
occurs naturally where
sugars/glucose are present (eg. on
the surface of fruits).
It respires aerobically or
anaerobically.
When yeast respires anaerobically
and has the following uses:
1. Food production OF CHITIN
2. Drink (alcohol) production
3. Production of renewable energy
 Uses of Yeast
MAKING BREAD
Water is added to flour along with yeast
and the dough is kneaded.
The yeast provides a lighter texture and
produces bubbles of gas (CO2).
After kneading, the dough is covered and
kept warm to allow the yeast to respire.
Oxygen within the dough is used up and the
yeast respires anaerobically, producing
carbon dioxide which is trapped causing the
Ethanol is produced also but it evaporates
during baking.
BIOETHANOL RENEWABLE ENERGY
RESOURCE
It is an ethanol produced by living
organisms.
o Most bioethanol is produced from sugar
cane and corn (maize) using yeast.
o Large fermenters are used for yeast to
convert sugars into ethanol (starch and
cellulose broken down by enzymes to
be used).
o Ethanol is purified by distillation, then
water is removed to improve combustion
o Use: fuel in vehicles.
 Anaerobic Respiration in Humans
The body cells/organs are supplied with oxygen by the lungs and circulatory
system.
In muscles anaerobic respiration may be carried out if oxygen is not supplied quickly
enough.
Anaerobic respiration supplies ATP rapidly but for a short period of time. Only 2 ATP
molecules are produced from partial breakdown of one glucose molecule.
Examples of anaerobic respiration today is in sport weight lifting, sprinters, long-distance
runners.
Anaerobic respiration produces lactate (lactic acid) which increases in concentration as
time progresses.
A high concentration of lactate builds up but there is a limit to how much the body can tolerate (pH).
The lactate needs to be broken down after anaerobic respiration ends this requires oxygen.
The amount of oxygen needed to break down lactate (the demand of oxygen built up during anaerobic
respiration) is the oxygen debt.
 Word Equation for Anaerobic Respiration:
glucose pyruvate/pyruvic acid lactate/lactic acid

Glycolysis (the process that results in the partial

breakdown of glucose) occurs in the cytoplasm of a cell
to produce:
- pyruvate (2 molecules)
- 2 reduced NADH molecules (hydrogen carrier molecules)
- 2 molecules of ATP
Pyruvate will then be reduced to lactic acid in the
absence of oxygen.
 Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration is a type of respiration which
occurs in the presence of oxygen.
o Glucose is fully broken down in the presence of
oxygen to yield chemical energy.
o Anaerobic respiration produces 2 molecules of ATP

o Aerobic respiration produces over 30 molecules of

ATP per glucose molecule.

o Carbon Dioxide is a waste product that is excreted.

o Water may be used (1/2 a litre of water produced
per day).
o It occurs in the mitochondria.
The Stages of Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic Respiration consists of 4 steps:
1. Glycolysis (occurs in the cytoplasm)
2. Link Reaction (occurs in the matrix of mitochondria)
3. Krebs Cycle (occurs in the matrix of mitochondria)
4. Oxidative Phosphorylation: Electron Transport
Chain/Chemiosmosis (occurs in the inner mitochondrial
membrane and intermembrane space)
During glycolysis glucose is partially oxidized in the
cytoplasm giving a small yield of ATP.
2 Pyruvate molecules are formed by glycolysis from the
oxidation and phosphorylation of glucose.
Pyruvate is absorbed into the mitochondria where it
will be metabolised. This stage requires oxygen.
Carbon dioxide and (metabolic) water will be produced.
A large yield of energy/ATP molecules will be produced
per glucose molecule.
Past Paper Question SL
Outline the process of aerobic respiration. [6]
during glycolysis glucose is partially oxidized in the cytoplasm;
glycolysis: (small amount/yield of) ATP produced;
(two) pyruvate formed by glycolysis;
pyruvate absorbed into/broken down in the mitochondrion;
requires oxygen;
carbon dioxide is produced;
water is produced;
large amount/yield of energy/ATP molecules (per glucose molecule);
Past Paper Q 2 SL
Respiration and other processes in cells involve enzymes.
Explain the factors that can affect enzymes. [8]
collisions between enzyme/active site and substrate;
enzyme activity increases as temperature rises;
more frequent collisions at higher temperatures;
each enzyme has an optimum temperature / enzymes have optimal temperatures;
high temperatures (above optimum) denature enzymes;
each enzyme has an optimum pH / enzymes have optimal pHs;
increase or decrease from optimum pH decreases rate of reaction/activity;
extreme pH alters/denatures the tertiary/3D protein/enzyme structure;
increasing substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction;
higher substrate concentration increases chance of collision;
until plateau;
when all active sites are busy;
 Investigating Respiration
Complex Respirometers

Simple Respirometer
 Respirometers
The volume of oxygen taken up or the volume of carbon dioxide produced indicates the rate
of respiration.
Respirometers measure the rate at which oxygen is taken up the more oxygen taken up,
the faster the rate of respiration (volume of oxygen taken up = volume of carbon dioxide
given out).
Setting up/using the respirometer (points for designing an experiment):
Each tube contains potassium hydroxide (or soda lime). Function?

A control tube is set up (in complex respirometers) describe two ways to set up the
control and then discuss which of the two ways is more efficient

A syringe is used to set the fluid in the manometer to a known level

The apparatus is left for a set period of time (example 20 minutes)

 Explanation of the use of Respirometers:
During respiration there will be a decrease in the volume of air
in the test tube (oxygen is consumed by the organism/carbon
dioxide absorbed by?)
Decrease in air volume reduces the pressure in the tube and
causes the dye in the manometer to move.
The distance moved by the liquid in a given time is measured
(calculation: the volume of oxygen taken up by the organism
per minute (unit of time)
Variables that may affect the results are kept constant unless
they are under investigation. Examples: temperature, volume
of KOH, etc
To produce more reliable results, the experiment is
repeated and a mean volume of oxygen is calculated.
 Ethics In Respirometers
Assessment of ethics in experiments is important.
Ethically acceptable experiments (respirometers):
Is it acceptable to remove animals from their natural habitat? Can they be returned
safely?
Will the animals suffer pain or other harm?
Can the risk of pain/suffering be minimised? (Eg. Can contact with alkali be
minimised)?
Is the use of animals essential or is there an alternative method?
 Chapter 8 HL:
8.2 Cell respiration
p. 357-367
AIMS:
1. Explain how the structure of the mitochondrion makes it suitable to its
function.
2. Describe REDOX reactions.
3. Explain phosphorylation reactions.
4. Describe and explain the process of glycolysis.
5. Describe the steps involved in the link reaction.
6. Describe the Krebs cycle.
7. Explain oxidative phosphorylation.
a) Electron transport chain
b) Chemiosmosis
c) Role of oxygen
 The structure and function of the
mitochondrion
Structure and function are closely related in living organisms:
This is a form of adaptation via natural selection.
Adaptations:
1. Outer mitochondrial membrane: separates the content of cells
from the mitochondrion ideal environment for aerobic
respiration.
2. Inner mitochondrial membrane: contains the electron transport
chain/ATP synthase that carry out oxidative phosphorylation.
3. Cristae: projections of inner membrane that increase S. area for
oxidative phosphorylation.
4. Intermembrane space: protons are pumped here by the ETC. A
small space so a proton concentration gradient forms during
chemiosmosis.
5. Matrix: fluid that contains enzymes for the Link reaction and the
Krebs Cycle.
6. Ribosome (70S) and loop of DNA: for expression of mitochondrial
genes.
Past Paper Question
Explain the role of cristae in mitochondria. [3]
a. increase the surface area of inner (mitochondrial) membrane;

b. allow electron transport because of embedded protein electron carriers;

c. facilitate proton pumping because of high surface to volume ratio/increased

surface area;

d. increase ATP production because of ATP synthase/synthatase embedded in

membrane;
Past Paper Question
Explain the relationship between the structure of
the mitochondrion and its function. [3]
a) cristae provide surface area for oxidative phosphorylation;

b) inner membrane contains electron transport chains/ATP synthase (which carry out
oxidative phosphorylation);

c) outer membrane separates the mitochondrion from the rest of the cell;

d) mitrochondrial DNA/ribosomes make (mitochondrial) proteins;

e) small volume intermembrane space allows for higher concentration of protons;

f) matrix has enzymes for the Krebs cycle;

 Oxidation and reduction (redox)
Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons
from one substance to another:
Oxidation: loss of electrons.
Reduction: gain of electrons.
Oxidation Reduction
Mnenomic: OIL RIG Loss of electrons Gain of electrons
OIL: oxidation is loss (of electrons)
Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen
RIG: reduction is gain (of electrons)
Loss of hydrogen Gain of hydrogen
These two reactions occur together during chemical Results in many C-O bonds Results in many C-H bonds
reactions.
Example:
Results in a compound with Results in a compound with
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H20 + ENERGY lower potential energy higher potential energy.
Glucose is oxidised as electrons travel from the glucose to
the oxygen.
Oxygen becomes reduced as it accepts hydrogens and
electrons to form water.
The potential energy of the reduced compound is more.
REDOX EXAMPLE
Copper sulphate is used to test for reducing
sugars (glucose).

It consists of: Cu+2 (a blue/green in solution).

When reduced by a sugar (copper ions gain

electrons from sugars), Cu+2 become copper
atoms (Cu).

Copper is insoluble and becomes a red/orange

precipitate.

The sugars are oxidised.

Past Paper Question
 The role of NAD
Electron Carriers: substances that accept and give
up electrons as required.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD): is an
electron/hydrogen carrier in respiration.
The chemical reaction:
NAD + 2 electrons reduced NAD
Initially NAD exists as: NAD+
It accepts 2 electrons as follows:
a) 2 hydrogen atoms are removed from a substance.
b) One hydrogen atom is split into a proton and electron.
c) NAD accepts the electron and the proton is released.
d) It accepts both the electron and proton of the other
hydrogen atom:
NAD+ + 2H+ + 2e- NADH + H +
 Phosphorylation
It is the addition of a phosphate molecule to an organic molecule.
Phosphorylation activates a molecule makes it unstable and more likely to react.
Energy absorbing reactions are endergonic while energy releasing reactions are exergonic.
Energy is given out when bonds are broken (exergonic)
Energy is taken in when bonds are formed (endergonic)

Phosphorylation of ATP is the addition of a phosphate

Molecule to ADP. The reaction is endergonic.

ADP + Pi ATP

Hydrolysis of ATP releases energy (exergonic).

 Glycolysis
This is the first reaction of respiration and it
occurs in the cytoplasm of a cell.
Small yield of ATP is given (x2) without the
use of O2.
Glucose is converted to pyruvate in a series
of small steps.
ATP is used to phosphorylate glucose.
One molecule of glucose forms two
molecules of pyruvate.
Pyruvate is absorbed into the mitochondrion
in the presence of oxygen to continue
through the stages of respiration
(decarboxylation and oxidation).
Glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm
Four stages of Glycolysis:

1. Phosphorylation: Glucose undergoes two phosphorylation reactions 2 phoshate

groups are added to glucose to give fructose bisphosphate. Two molecules of ATP are
used during this reaction.

In this step:
a. Glucose glucose 6-phosphate (1 ATP molecule used)
b. Glucose 6-phosphate fructose 6-phosphate
c. Fructose 6-phosphate fructose 1, 6 bisphosphate (1 ATP molecule used)
 Glycolysis
2. Lysis: Splitting of the fructose 1, 6 bisphosphate to give glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
(GALP - triose phosphate)

3. Oxidation: triose phosphate becomes oxidised by the removal of hydrogen. The enzyme
glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate dehydrogenase catalyses the reaction and coenzyme
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is reduced accepts hydrogen.
- 2 NAD molecules are reduced per glucose molecule.

4. ATP synthesis: during the conversion of glucose to pyruvate, 4 molecules of ATP are
used. Net gain of ATP in glycolysis is 2.
 Past Paper Question
Outline the process of glycolysis. [3]
a) takes place in cytoplasm;
b) glucose is phosphorylated/two molecules of ATP are used;
c) one hexose sugar/glucose is converted into two three-carbon/3C
molecules/hydrolysis;
d) pyruvate is formed/oxidation of glucose to pyruvate;
e) small yield/net gain of two ATP;
f) net gain of two NADH + H+;
g) does not require/use oxygen/anaerobic process;
The Link Reaction occurs in the matrix
Link Reaction How many times
will the link
Takes place in the mitochondrial matrix. reaction happen
Pyruvate diffuses into the matrix and is for each glucose
decarboxylated. molecule?
(a carbon atom is removed to form one CO2 molecule) Hint:
NAD is reduced: NAD+ + 2H+ + 2e_ NADH + H+ How many
pyruvate
(Collects hydrogen from pyruvate)
molecules are
Pyruvate is now converted to acetate. formed for each
Acetate is combined with coenzyme A (acetyl CoA). glucose molecule?
No ATP is produced. 2
Summary Link Reaction
Two molecules of acetyl CoA will go to the next stage (
cycle)
Two carbon dioxide molecules are released during this stage
Two reduced NAD molecules will carry on to the last stage
(oxidative phosphorylation)
Past Paper Question
Explain the link reaction that occurs between
glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. [4]
a) pyruvate (from glycolysis) enters a mitochondrion;
b) enzymes in the matrix remove one carbon dioxide and hydrogen from the pyruvate;
c) hydrogen is accepted by NAD/forms NADH;
d) removal of hydrogen is oxidation;
e) removal of carbon dioxide is decarboxylation;
f) the whole process/link reaction is oxidative decarboxylation;
g) the product is an acetyl group which reacts with CoA/coenzyme A;
h) acetyl CoA enters Krebs cycle;
Krebs cycle - mitochondrial matrix
 Krebs Cycle runs 2x per glucose molecule

Stages in Krebs Cycle:

Acetyl CoA (2C) reacts with oxaloacetate (4C) forming citric acid (citrate)
and CoA is released to go back to the link reaction.
Citrate is converted to -ketoglutarate (5C) and then back to oxaloacetate
(re-used in the cycle)
During the process per cycle:
2 molecules of carbon dioxide are released
1 molecule of ATP formed per cycle
3 molecules of reduced NAD formed
1 molecule of FAD (another hydrogen acceptor)
Summary of 3 processes so far...
Step Carbon ATP Reduced Reduced
dioxide NAD FAD
Glycolysis 0 2 2 0

Link Reaction 2 0 2 0
(x2)

Krebs Cycle 4 2 6 2
(x2)

Total: 6 4 10 2
Structure of the Mitochondrion
Oxidative Phosphorylation

Intermembrane
space

https://www.youtube.com/wa
tch?v=rdF3mnyS1p0
Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative Phosphorylation: occurs in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
This is a two step process:
Electron Transport Chain
Chemiosmosis
Electron Transport Chain:
Hydrogen atoms are released from the (coenzymes) reduced NAD and reduced FAD.
Hydrogen and electrons split. Electrons move along the electron transport losing
energy at each carrier.
The energy is used to pump protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space
Protons are found in a high concentrations in the intermembrane space forming an
electrochemical gradient.
Chemiosmosis

Protons move down the electrochemical gradient, back to

the matrix through ATP-synthase.
The movement of protons forms ATP from ADP + Pi.
In the mitochondrial matrix: protons, electrons and oxygen
form water.

(Oxygen is the final electron acceptor)

Past Paper Question
Explain how chemiosmosis assists in ATP
production during oxidative phosphorylation. [9]
a) occurs during aerobic respiration;
b) oxidative phosphorylation occurs during the electron transport chain;
c) hydrogen/electrons are passed between carriers;
d) releasing energy;
e) finally join with oxygen (to produce water);
f) occurs in cristae of mitochondria;
g) chemiosmosis is the movement of protons/hydrogen ions;
h) protons move/are moved against their concentration gradient;
i) into the space between the two membranes;
j) protons flow back to the matrix;
k) through the ATP synthase/synthetase (enzyme);
l) energy is released which produces more ATP/combines ADP and Pi;
 One glucose molecule can make up to
36 ATP molecules
Stage of Respiration Molecules produced Number of ATP molecules/reduced
coenzymes produced at each stage
Glycolysis ATP 2
Glycolysis reduced NAD 2
Link Reaction reduced NAD 2
Cycle ATP 2
Cycle reduced NAD 6
Cycle reduced FAD 2
Electron Transport Chain and ATP 32
Chemiosmosis

Total ATP: 36