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CELL
A. CELL WALL
The composition and appearance of the cell wall varies in different kingdoms.

In bacteria and some fungi, the cell wall is composed of proteins and non – cellulosic carbohydrates.

In certain fungi, most algae and higher plants, cellulose forms the main component of the cells.

MIDDLE LAMELLA
The outermost layer of cell wall or the intercellular structure separating the walls of two adjacent plant
cells is middle lamella.

The pectins are most commonly found in the middle lamella.

The basic chemical unit of pectin is the carbohydrate, galacturonic acid, which is capable of forming
salts with calcium and magnesium.

Middle lamella is mainly made up of calcium pectate.

The fruit softens and attains edible maturity due to the loss of pectate in the middle lamella.

PRIMARY CELL WALL

The initial wall of a plant is the primary wall; it is found inner to middle lamella.

Primary wall develops on middle lamella on both sides.

Primary wall is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and lignin.

SECONDARY CELL WALL

The primary cell wall is followed by secondary cell wall which is thick, rigid, permeable and lies near the
plasma membrane or tertiary cell wall, mainly composed of cellulose, hemicellulose xylan, lignin, etc.

PLASMODESMA
Plasmodesma is the fibrillar plasma connection through cell wall and bridges adjacent cells.

Cytoplasmic bridges present between adjacent cells are known as plasmodesmata.

The continuity of cytoplasm from cell to cell is maintained through plasmodesmata.

B. MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria are organelles found in the cytoplasm of plants and animals.

Mitochondria were first seen by Kollicker in 1850 in muscles and he called them ‘sarcosomes’.

Mitochondria are not found in prokaryotes and mature human red blood cells.

A mitochondrion in enclosed by a double membrane envelope composed of lipid and protein.

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Chemically, mitochondria consist of protein 70% (dry weight) and lipids 25 – 30%.

Of the lipid component, 90% is phospholipids and 10%carotenoids, cholesterol, vitamin E and other
traces.

Mitochondria contain 0.5% of RNA and traces of DNA.

Mitochondria are present in the aerobic organisms only.

In a cell, the energy in the form of ATP is formed in mitochondria.

A common and easily available source of energy in living cells is ATP.

The end product of glycolysis is pyruvic acid which enters mitochondria and takes part in Krebs’ cycle in
the mitochondrial matrix.

Enzymes connected with Krebs’ cycle are packed in mitochondria.

C. PLASTIDS
Plastids are organelles enclosed by a double membrane found in all plants.

Leucoplasts
Leucoplasts are colourless plastids. Oval, spherical, rodlike or filamentous leucoplasts occur in large
numbers in cells or fruits, seeds, tubers and rhizomes.

Chromoplasts
Chromoplasts are coloured plastids with yellow, orange and red carotenoids and other pigments.
Chromoplasts are responsible for colours in flowers, ripening fruits, autumn leaves and some root like
carrot. Chromoplast arises from chloroplast.

Chloroplast

In higher plants there are 20 to 40 chloroplasts per cell.

Chloroplasts are the photosynthetic organelles of green plants and contain the pigment chlorophyll.

Each chloroplast is covered with a double membrane containing a proteinaceous matrix called stroma.

Ribosomes of chloroplasts are 70S type containing 23S and 16S RNA.

Many sheet-like lamellae called thylakoids occur in stroma.

20 – 50 thylakoids are placed one above the other like a stack of coins to form a granum.

Quantasomes are photosynthetic units present on the surface of grana.

Each quantasome contains 230 chlorophyll molecules.

Chlorophyll molecule has a complex porphyrin ring with a long phytyl chain.

D. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
ER consists of a complex membraneous system in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
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ER is absent in prokaryotes and matured erythrocytes of mammals.

RER possesses rough wall because ribosomes remain attached on the surface with the help of
ribophorins.

RER is specially well developed in cells actively engaged in protein synthesis.

Ribosomes are not attached with the membrane of SER.

SER is related with the synthesis and metabolism of lipids or steroids.

E. GOLGI COMPLEX
Golgi complex consists of flattened disc – like cisternae with dilated rims and associated vesicles and
tubules.

Golgi complex of plants is usually called as dictyosome.

The Golgi complex functions primarily as a processing plant where proteins newly synthesized in
endoplasmic reticulum are modified in specific ways.

Dictyosomes serve as temporary storage place for proteins and other compounds synthesized by ER.

The acrosome present in the spermatozoa is derived from Golgi bodies.

Golgi complex plays an important role in the synthesis of carbohydrate component of plasma membrane.

F. LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are generally found in the cytoplasm of animal cells.

The term lysosome was introduced by de Duve in 1955.

de Duve (1963) also coined the name ‘suicide bags’ to lysosomes as they contain hydrolytic enzymes.
Lysosomes are covered by one lipoprotein unit membrane.

Most hydrolytic enzymes of Lysosomes function at acidic pH, approximately 4.6, which is maintained by
a proton pump that accumulates H+ inside the lysosome.

Lysosomes are involved in intracellular digestion and are responsible for breakdown of parts of the cell
foreign particles in the cells.

Under conditions of starvation or aging, the cell digests its own organelles by lysosomal enzymes and
this process is called autophagy or autodigestion.

G. PEROXISOMES
Like lysosome, peroxisome is limited by a single membrane.

Peroxisomes contain many enzymes for peroxide biosynthesis.

Two important enzymes in perozisomes are urate oxidase and catalase.

Perioxisomes contain oxidizing enzymes and promote gluconeogenesis in animals.

In mesophyll cells of leaves, peroxisomes interact with mitochondria and chloroplast to take part in
photorespiration.
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During photorespiration, H2O2 is formed and broken down into water and oxygen with the help of
catalase.

Peroxisomes protect cells from toxic effect to H2O2.

H. RIBOSOME
Ribosomes were discovered by Palade in 1955 and the term ‘ribosome’ has been introduced by
Roberts in 1958.

Ribosomes are found in all types of cells.

In prokaryotes, they are found in the cytoplasm in free form and are called monosomes.

In eukaryotes, ribosomes are usually associated with the membrane of endoplasmic reticulum.

Many ribosomes may be associated with m – RNA to form polyribosomes or polysomes.

Ribosomes are the smallest organelles in the cell.

Physical Characteristics of Ribosomes.

Source Ribosome type Subunits

Prokaryotes 70S 30S 50S
Eukaryotes (cytosol) 80S 40S 60S
Mitochondria 55S 30S 40S
Chloroplast 70S 33S 50S

Ribosomes are the ‘protein factories’ of the cell.

I. MICROTUBULES
Microtubules are long, – hollow, cylindrical structures, 25 nm diameter, formed by the polymerization of
two part subunits of globular protein tubulin into helical stacks.

Microtubules play a role in general cell structure and in cell division.

Microtubules also play a key role in the structure and movement of cilia and flagella.

J. MICROTUBULES
Microfilaments are long, thin, helically intertwined polymers of the protein actin.

Microfilaments play a structural role and interact with microtubules and intermediate filaments to form
cytoskeleton.

K. CENTROSOME
Just outside the nuclei of animal cells is an area called the centrosome.

The term ‘centrosome’ was given by Theodor Boveri in 1888.

Centrosomes are typical of animal cells absent in plant cells.

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The centrosome contains the organelles known as centrioles.

The centrioles are always found in pairs (diplosomes), oriented at right angles to each other.

Centriole is the structure in the cell which is concerned with spindle formation during cell division.

L. VACUOLES
As much as 90% of the volume of many plant cells is occupied by a single membrane – bound, fluid-
filled vacuole.

Cell vacuoles contain water and dissolved substances.

Vacuoles serve as a temporary storehouse for many of the cell’s solutes and macromolecules, including
iron, sugars, amino acids, protein and carbohydrates.

The differentially permeable membrane that surrounds the vacuole is called tonoplast.

Cell sap is a nonliving content of vacuole.

Turgor pressure is generated by the high osmotic pressure of the vacuole.

M. NUCLEUS
The nucleus is the most important component of the cell and it controls all functional activities of the cell.

The nucleus is also known as karyon and its study is known as karyology.

The nucleus is the primary carrier of hereditary material in the cell.

The nucleus can be divided into four parts; nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm, chromatin and
nucleolus.

Nucleus is separated from surrounding cytoplasm by a nuclear envelope (karyotheca) which is double
and porous.

Nuclear membrane disappears during mitosis at late prophase.

The nucleus contains a viscous fluid the nucleoplasm (nuclear sap or karyolymph) which keeps
nucleus turgid.
Nuclear sap contains enzymes of nucleic acid synthesis like DNA or RNA polymerase.

Suspended in the nucleoplasm is the chromatin material. In nucleus the heredity material is contained in
chromatin.

The major proteins of chromatin are the histones – small proteins containing high proportion of basic
amino acids (arginine and lysine) the facilitate binding with negatively charged DNA molecule.

Nucleolus is characterized by the absence of limiting membrane, presence of chromatin and granules
and fibrils of RNA and protein.

Nucleolus is largely composed of RNA and it stains more darkly than the nucleus.

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N. CELL DIVISION
I. MITOSIS
The term mitosis was proposed by Walther Flemming in 1882.

A growing cell undergoes a cell cycle that consists essentially of two periods, interphase (I - phase)
and mitotic phase (M - phase).

Interphase comprisesG1 (Gap I), S (Synthesis) and G2 (Gap II).

G1 period is the interval between the end of mitosis and start of S phase. RNA and protein are
synthesized during this phase.

S phase is the specific part of the interphase during which DNA synthesis occurs.

G2 period is the interval between the end of S phase and start of mitosis.

G2 phase is signified by the synthesis of new proteins and RNA to be used for mitosis.

Cell cycle includes the sequence G1, S, G2 and M.

The longest period in the cell cycle is interphase.

Mitosis can be studied under (a) the division of nucleus or karyokinesis and (b) division of cytoplasm
or cytokinesis.

a. KARYOKINESIS
It is the nuclear changes, taking place during mitosis and is divisible into (1) Prophase, (2) Metaphase,
(3) Anaphase and (4) Telophase.

Prophase
Prophase is the first stage and the longest of the four phases.

Chromosome replication occurs in prophase.

Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear at late prophase.

Centriole plays an important role during prophase of cell division.

Metaphase
During metaphase, chromosomes orient themselves at the equatorial plate.

Best stage to observe shape, size and number of chromosomes is metaphase.

The chief function of the centromere concerns chromosomes movement.

Anaphase
During anaphase, separation of chromatids take place; the chromatids move in opposite directions
towards the poles.

Anaphase is the shortest of four phases in duration.

Telophase
Telophase in a sense is reversible process of prophase.

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Telophase results in the formation of two daughter nuclei identical in number of chromosomes and
amount of DNA.
After mitosis and quantity of DNA in each daughter cell nucleus will be same as in the parent nucleus.

b. CYTOKINESIS
Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm.

Cytokinesis takes place in place in plants by the formation of cell plate.

II. MEIOSIS
The term meiosis was coined by Farmer and Moore in 1905.

Meiosis includes two successive divisions, Meiosis I (heterotypic division) and meiosis II (homotypic
division).

Various stages of mitosis in an animal cell

MEIOSIS I (HETEROTYPIC DIVISION)

Meiosis I has four stages (i) Prophase I, (ii) Metaphase I, (iii) Anaphase I and (iv) Telophase I.

(i) Prophase I
The longest stage in first division of meiosis is prophase I.
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Prophase I is divided into a number of stages. The chronological sequence is leptotene (leptonema),
zygotene (zygonema), pachytene (pachynema), diplotene (diplonema) and diakinesis.

Leptotene
The chromosomes appear as thin long threads.

Zygotene
The synapsis (pairing of homologous chromosomes) takes place during zygotene.

Pachytene
The characteristic phenomenon during pachytene is the exchange of chromosomal segments, i.e., the
recombination of genes.

In meiosis, crossing over occurs during pachytene.

Mutual exchange of chromatid segments between paternal and maternal chromosomes is called
crossing over.

Diplotene
The paired chromosomes begin to separate, but remain united at the points of interchange of
chiasmata.

Chiasma formation is the result of crossing over.

Diakinesis
The chromosome contraction increases and the number of chiasmata becomes reduced by a process
called terminalization.

End of the diakinesis (Prophase I) is marked by the complete disappearances of nuclear membrane and
formation of spindle fibres.

(ii) Metaphase I
The bivalent chromosomes arranged themselves on the spindle fibre forming the equatorial plate.

Centromeres are located at either side of metaphase plate.

(iii) Anaphase I
The homologous chromosomes separate from each other in anaphase I.

Each pole receives either a paternal or maternal chromosome; the separation of tetrads into dyads is
known as disjunction.

(iv) Telophase I
Regrouping of chromosomes at poles takes place. Each pole receives one half of the original
chromosome number.

The chromosomes uncoil and nuclear membrane reappears. After karyokinesis, the division of
cytoplasm i.e., cytokinesis occurs and two haploid cells are formed.

MEIOSIS II (HOMOTYPIC DIVISION)

Meiosis II is an equatorial division like mitosis and consists of four stages: (i) Prophase II, (ii) Metaphase
II, (iii) Anaphase II and (iv) Telophase II.

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Different stags of Meiosis

(i) Prophase II
Chromosomes become visible along with their chromatids, nuclear membrane disappears and spindle
fibres are formed.

(ii) Metaphase II
The chromosomes are attached to the spindle along the equator; each chromosome consists of two
chromatids joined by a common centromere.

(iii) Anaphase II
Centromeres now divide and chromatids are separated.

The chromatids begin to move towards opposite poles being pulled by spindle fibres.

(iv) Telophase II
Following the arrival of haploid number of daughter chromosomes at poles, they become thin and long.
The nuclear membrane reappears and nucleoli will be reconstituted. So at the end of meiosis from each
parent cell, four daughter cells are formed.

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