Cardiovascular system
● Can be opened or closed
● Small molecules in and around cell like
oxygen and co2 undergo diffusion
○ Random thermal movement
○ Only efficient over small distances
bc time to diffuse
○ Diffuse time is proportional to
square of distance traveled
○ Natural selection leads to two
adaptations for more effective
exchange of molecules in animal
cell
○ Small or thin animals cells can
exchange material w surrounding
medium
○ Complex animals exchange with
environment via fluid filled
circulatory system
● Hydras, jellies, cnidarian have structure
called gastrovascular cavity that
functions in digestion and substance
distribution throughout the body
○ Body wall and and gastro cavity is
thin 2 cells thicc so diffusion of
nutrients is short to reach outer
tissue layer
○ Midarian mouth leads to elaborate
gastrovascular cavity that consist of
radial canal leading to and from
circular canal
○ Serrated cells lining cells that
circulate fluid within cavity
● Flatworms
○ Have mouth and pharynx on ventral
leads to highly branched gastro
cavity
● Some animals lack circulatory system
unlike complex animals
Circulatory system
● In more evolved animals is present
● Connects fluids that surround cells with
organs that exchange gases, absorb
nutrients
● Has three basic components
○ Circulatory fluid
○ Interconnecting vessels
○ Pump, the heart
● Open has fluid called hemolymph is
interstitial fluid that bathed the body cells
○ Can be found in arthropods like
grasshoppers and mollusks like
clams
○ Contraction of heart pumps
hemolymph thru circulatory vessels
into interconnected sinuses and
spaces
○ Inside of sinuses hymolymph and
body cells exchange gases and
chemicals
● Closed circulatory system has fluid called
blood that is confined in vessels and is
distinct from interstitial fluids
○ One or more hearts can pump
blood in large vessels that branch
into smaller ones depending on
animal
○ Vessles can infiltrate tissues and
organs
○ Can be found in analids,
earthworms
○ Cephalopods, squids and
octopuses
○ All vertebrated like humans and
mammals
● cardio vascular system is used to describe
ehart and blood vessels in vertebrates
● Blood circulates to and fro the heart thru
networks of vessels each flowing in only
one direction
○ Arteries that within organs branch
into arterioles and carry blood away
from the heart to the capillaries
■ Have very thin and porous
walls
○ Capillaries are the sites of chemical
exchange between blood and
interstitial fluid
■ Downstream end of
converge into venules that
converge into veins
○ Veins are that return the blood from
the capillaries to the heart
 ○ Arteries and veins are distinguished
by the direction of blood flow, not
by O2 content
● Vertebrate hearts contain 2 or more
chambers
○ Blood enters thru an atrium and is
pumped out thru a ventricle
Single circulation
● Sharks, rays and bony fishes blood travels
thru body and returns to starting point in a
single circuit loop with a 2 chambers;
atrium and ventricle
○ Single circulation
● Blood leaving heart passes thru two
capillary beds before returning to heart
Double circulation
● Systems of amphibians reptiles and
mammals have 2 circuits
● Oxygen poor and rich blood are pumped
separately from left and right sides of heart
○ Right pumps oxygen-poor to
capillary beds of gas exchange
tissues thru a pulmocutaneous
circuit
○ Left pumps oxygen rich blood thru a
systemic circuit from gass
exchange tissues to organs trhuout
body
● In reptiles and mammals, oxygen poor
blood flows thru ulmonary circuit to pick up
oxugen thru lungs
● Some vertebrates with double circulation
are intermittent breathers
○ Amphibians and reptiles may pass
long periods of time without gas
exchange, or relying on gas
exchange from another tissue,
usually the skin
● Frogs and other amphibians
○ have a heart with three chambers:
two atria and one ventricle
○ Ventricle pumps blood into a forked
artery that splits ventricle;s output
into pulmocutaneous circuit and the
systemic circuit
○ When underwater, blood flow to the
lungs is nearly shut off
○ Controls amount of blood goes to
lungs and body
● Turtles snakes and lizards
○ Have three chambers: two atria and
one ventricle, partially divided by an
incomplete septum (hati ventricle)
○ Two aortas lead to systemic
circulation
● Alligators, caimans, and other crocodilians
○ Ventricles are divided by complete
septum
○ Pulmonary and systemic circuits
connect where arteries exit the
heart
○ This connection allows arterial
valves to shoot blood flow away
from the lungs temporarily ike when
submerged in water
● Mammals and birds
○ Heart has two atria and two
completely divided ventricles
○ Left receives and pumps only
oxygen rich blood
○ Right receives and pumps only
oxygen poor blood
Mammalian circulation
● Right ventricle pumps blood to lungs via
pulmonary arteries
● Blood flows thru capillary bed in left ad
right lungs, load oxygen and unloads co2
● Oxygen rich goes to lungs by pulmurary
veins to left atrium of heart
● Oxygen rich blood flows to heart’s left
ventricle that pumps out to body tissues
trhu systemic circuit
● Blood leaves left ventricle by aorta that
conveys blood to arteries leading
throughout body
● First branch leading from aorta are
coronary arteries that supply blood to heart
muuscle itself
● Then leads to capillary beds in head and
arms forelims
● Aorta descends to abdomen nd supplies
oxygen rich blood to arteries leading to
 capillary beds in abdominal organs and ○ diastole- relaxation or filling phase
hindlimbs ○ heart rate- number if beats oer
● Oxygen poor blod from head neck and minute
forelimbs are channelled to large vein ■ volume of blood in each
superior vena cava and trunk and ventricle pumed per minute
hindlimbs to inferior vena cava is the cardiac output
● Empty blood in right atrium where oxugen ■ rate of cintraction (heart
poor go into right ventricle rate) and stroke volume
(blood pumped by ventricle
Heart in single contraction)
● Atria (atrium) ● four valves prevent backflow of blood in the
○ Have thin walls heart
○ Serve as collection for blood ○ atrioventricular valves
returning to heart ● complete pumping and filling is a cardiac
● Ventricles cycle
○ Have thicker walls
○ Contract more forcefully
● Heart valves
○ Prevent backflow
○ Atrioventricular valves- between
atria and ventricles
■ Bicuspid valve (left)
■ Tricuspid (right)
○ Semilunar valves- between
ventricle and artery
■ Pulmonary semilunar
■ Aortic semilunar
○ Open as blood is pumped thru
○ Held in place by chordae tendineae
(heart strings)

● occurs under a second

heart conduction system

● special tissues in heart that ciordinate to
have heart rythm
○ sinoatrial node found in rights
atrium
■ sometimes called
pacemaker since it sets the
cardiac cycle
rate and timing at which all
● heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic
cardiac muscles contract
cycle
■ trigger atrial contraction and
○ systole- contraction or pumping
are delayed at the
phase
atrioventricular node
 ○ atrioventricular node found at the
junction of right and left atria and
ventricles
○ atrioventricular bundle; bundles of
His
○ bundle branches; right and left
○ purkinje fibers
● cardiac cells are characterized to ve auto
rythmic
○ contract w/o signals from nervous
○ electric signals follow set path thru
heart in establishing heart rythm
● Electrocardiogram
○ ECG or EKG
○ used to measure readings of heart
○ can record impulses that travel
during cardiac cycle
The Heart: Cardiac output
● cardiac output CO
○ amount of blood pumped by each
side of the heart in one minute
○ CO=(heart rate HR) x (stroke
volume SV)
● stroke volume SV
○ volume of blood pumped by each
ventricle in one contraction
● any changes in stroke or rate can affect
CO
○ exercise or stressors
Blood vessels: vascular system
● to deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove
waste thruout body rely in blood vessels
● taking blood to tissue and back
● arteries
○ thick string and elastic so can
accommodate high blood pump
pressure by heart
○ most arterial blood is pumped by
the heart
○ bulges when enters blood and
recoils when heart relaxes
● veins
○ convey blood back at lower
pressure do not require very thick
walls
○ use milking action of muscles to
help move blood
● capillary bed
○ consist of two types of vessels
■ true capillaries that branch
mainly from arterioles and
provide exchange between
cells and the circulation
■ vascular shunts are short
vessels that are directly
connected to arterioles and
venules at opposite ends of
beds that allow for bipass
● the exchange of substances vetween the
blood and interstitial fluid takes place ijnthe
thin endothelial walls of the capellaries bc
vessel walls are thin that allow fluid
exchange
● blood pressure exceeds osmotic pressure
throughout entire length of capillary
● other capillaries blood pressure may be
lower than osmotic pressure along or only
at a part of the capillary
● most blood proteins and all blood cells are
too large to pass thru the endothelium
Vital signs
● pulse
○ pressure wave of the blood
 ○ rate at which heart beats while
pumping blood thruout arteries
○ monitored mainly at radial artery at
the wrist but can be seen in various
‘pressure points’
■ facial
■ carotid
■ posterior tibial
■ dorsalis pedis
● blood pressure
○ measurement by health
professionals are made on the
pressure in large arteries
○ recorded as two readings
■ systolic- occurs during
maximal conraction of heart;
pressure at the peak of
ventricular contraction
■ diastolic- resting pressure;
pressure when ventricles
relax
○ pressure in blood vessels decrease
as the distance away from the heart
increases
○ each molecule of hemoglobin binds
up to 4 molecules of oxygen
○ in mammals, mature RBC lack
nuclei and mitochondria
● platelets
○ are fragments of cells and are
important in blood clotting
○ pinched off cytoplasmic fragments
of specialized bone marrow cells
○ can function in structural and
molecular function of blood clotting
● leukocytes WBC white blood cells
○ 5 major types
■ monocytes
■ neutrophils
■ basophils
■ eosinophils
■ lymphocytes
○ function in defense by
phagocytizing bacteria and debris
or by putting up immune response
against foreign substances
○ found in and out of the circulatory
system

Blood composition and function

● blood is a connective tissue consisting of
several kinds of cells suspended in a liquid
matrix called plasma
● cellular element occupy about 45% of the
volume of blood

Plasma
blood clotting
1. contains inorganic salts as dissolved ions,
● when vessels are broken by injury body
sometimes called electrolytes
tries to stop blood loss and risk of infection
2. plasma proteins influence blood pH and
● cascade of reactions concert inactive
help maintain osmotic balance between
fibrinogen to fibrin forming a clot
blood and interstitial fluid
● a blood clot formed within a blood vessel is
3. particular plasma proteins function in lipid
called a thrombus and can block blood flow
transport, immunity, and blood clotting

blood components
● erythrocytes RBC red blood cells
○ most numerous blood cells
○ contain hemoglobin Hgb protein
that contains iron that is important
in transporting oxygen
 ● high ratio of LDL to HDL increases risk for
atherosclerosis
● basically putok batok
● can lead to more serious problems which
happen for a prolonged period of time left
untreated
○ heart attack or myocardial infarction
is the damage or death if cardiac
muscle tissue resulting from
blockage of one or more coronary
arteries
○ a stroke is the death if nervous
● clot starts when endothelium is damaged tissue in the brain usually resulting
● exposing connective tissues in the vessel from rupture or blockage of arteries
wall to the blood in the head
● platelets adhere to collagen fibers in ○ angina pectoris is chest pain
connective tissue caused by partial blockage of the
● release substances that make platelets coronary arteries
sticky ■ pain is signal that heart is
● form plug to provide protection against not receiving enough
blood loss oxygen
● unless break us very small plug is
reinforced by fibrin clot

Cardiovascular disease
● disorders of the heart and blood vessels
● range in varying seriousness from very
minor heart and vein disturbances or life
threatening disruptions like blood flow to
heart or to brain

Atherosclerosis, heart attacks, and stroke

● lack of oxygen causes tissue to die and
● atherosclerosis there could be damage or
disease to fester
roughening of linings of arteries or
hardening of arteries by build up of fatty
Risk factors and treatments
deposits(plaque)
● high LDL/HDL ratio increases the risk of
○ cholesterol is key player in
cardiovascular diseases
development of disease
● proportion of LDL relative to HDL can be
● cholesterol travels in blood plasma in
decreases by exercise and avoiding
particles that consist of thousands of
smoking and foods with trans fats
cholesterol molecules and other lipids
● drugs called statins reduce LDL levels and
bound to proteins
risk of heart attack
○ low density lipoprotein (LDL)
● inflammation plays a role in atherosclerosis
delivers cholesterol to cells for
and thrombus formation
membrane production
● aspirin inhibits inflammation and reduces
○ high density lipoprotein (HDL)
the risk of heart attack and stroke
scavenges excess cholesterol for
return to the liver
● hypertension or high blood pressure is
contributor to heart attack and stroke
○ easy to detect and control with diet
exercise and medication