REVIEWER IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

Homeostasis – Maintaining a near-constant internal environment.

o Osmoregulation – control and maintenance of ion balance in the body; Ions are lost via the skin when we
sweat
o Examples: Sweating, flattening of skin hair, redistribution of blood flow to the periphery

Respiratory System – system that performs gas exchange (Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide)
• Breathing mechanisms in Animals
o Amphibians ventilate their lungs by positive pressure breathing which forces air down the trachea. They
also rely on gas exchange across the skin to maintain sufficient blood oxygen levels
o Birds use a system of air sacs as blower to keep air flowing through the lungs in one direction only,
preventing the mixing of incoming and outgoing air.
o Mammals ventilate their lungs by negative pressure breathing which pulls air into the lungs when the
volume of the lungs expands as the rib muscles and diaphragm contract.
o Fishes breathe by taking water into its mouth and forcing it out through the gill passages. As water
passes over the thin walls of the gills, dissolved oxygen moves into the blood and travels to the fish's
cells.
• Carbon dioxide is a waste product of respiration and it leaves the body via the lungs; when we breathe out it
also carries some water vapor;
Cardiovascular System
• Path of bloodflow - arterioles, arteries, capillary beds,
venules, veins
• BLOOD VESSELS
o Blood vessel wall layers – tunica externa; tunica
media; tunima interna
o Valves in veins – prevents backflow
o Capillaries – where the exchange vessels of the
circulatory system, where nutrients, wastes, and
hormones are transferred between blood and
tissues; DIFFUSION – most important mechanism
o ARTERIES
▪ Carries blood AWAY from the heart
▪ AORTA – where all the systemic arteries
arise
▪ Substances tend to leave the bloodstream at the arterial end of the capillary because of higher
blood pressure
• HEART
o Tricuspid Valve – right atrium and right ventricle
o Myocardium – thick layer of the heart wall that contains
contractile cardiac muscle tissue
o Pulmonary arteries – carries blood from the heart to the lungs;
right ventricular systole
o Superior and inferior vena cava – veins that delivers blood from
the system and delivers it to the right atrium
o Right atrium – receives blood from the systemic vein (superior
and inferior vena cava)
o Sinoatrial node – pacemaker of the heart is located at the right
atrium
o Bicuspid or Mitral valve – prevents backflow from the left
ventricle to the right atrium
o Pulmonary vein – carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to
heart
 o Intrinsic conduction system of the heart - sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node,
atrioventricular (AV) bundle, right and left bundle branches, Purkinje fibers
o Ascending aorta – branches out to the left and right coronary arteries

Immune System
• The specific foreign substances that an individual's immune system has the ability to recognize and resist is
determined by genetic makeup
• Lymphatic System - picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to the blood

Reproduction System
• Transfer of genetic material; PROGENY have some resemblance with parents
• CLONES – have exact copies of DNA
• Binary Fission is performed by unicellular organisms
• Gametophyte - Stage of the life cycle of a plant that is haploid; stage that produces gametes via mitosis; these
gametes fuse to form a zygote that develops into a sporophyte.
• Female Reproductive System – Ovarian cycle is governed by the hormones follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
and luteinizing hormone (LH) while the menstrual/uterine cycle is under the influence of estrogen and
progesterone

Digestive System
• Liver – storing food in a form of glucose; producing digestive juice; heals itself when damaged; UREA – a waste
product from the liver
• Pancreas – produces insulin from its Beta cells; acinar cells – secretes digestive enzymes
• Small intestine – site of absorption
• CARBON - a vital part of the biomolecules (carbohydrate, protein and nucleic acids)

Urinary System
• Renal tubule – portion of the
• Renin and Aldosterone - they are produced whenever blood pressure falls and ultimately cause an increase in
blood volume and blood pressure
• Collecting duct - Antidiuretic hormone prevents excessive water loss by promoting water reabsorption in the
• Urethra – passageway of urine from the bladder to the outside of the body
• Kidney – excretion of nitrogen-containing wastes; ensuring proper blood pH; maintenance of electrolytes in the
blood

Nervous System
• The somatic nervous system consists of nerves that go to the skin and muscles and is involved in conscious/
voluntary activities. The autonomic nervous system consists of nerves that connect the CNS to the visceral
organs such as the heart, stomach, and intestines Melatonin - hormone that appears to help regulate our sleep-
awake cycles
• Spinal nerves - mixed nerves, containing both sensory and motor fibers, making it capable of transmitting
impulses in two directions.
• Parasympathetic response – constricts bronchial tubes

Excretory in Animals
• Protonephridium is an excretory tube that lacks an internal opening (vertebrates)
• Metanephridium is an excretory organ found in invertebrates like arthropods, annelids and molluscs
(invertebrates)
• Malpighian tubule, in insects, any of the excretory organs that lie in the abdominal body cavity and empty into
the junction between midgut and hindgut