1

FOOT STEP POWER GENERATION SYSTEM

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

G.KALAIVANAN (090106302013)

R.PRABAHARAN (090106302025)

K.R.SASITHARAN (090106302030)

A.JAYARAMAPRAKASH (100406302009)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

in

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ERODE SENGUNTHAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE,

THUDUPATHI, ERODE - 638 057.

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600025

APRIL 2013
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ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “FOOT STEP POWER GENERATION

SYSTEM” is the bonafide work of

G.KALAIVANAN (090106302013)

R.PRABAHARAN (090106302025)

K.R.SASITHARAN (090106302030)

A.JAYARAMAPRAKASH (100406302009)

who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Mr. L.VIJAY ANAND, Mr.A.ANBARASAN,
SUPERVISOR, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT,
Department of Electrical and Electronics Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, Engineering,
Erode Sengunthar Engineering College, Erode Sengunthar Engineering College,
Thudupathi 638057. Thudupathi 638057.

Submitted for the Anna University Practical Examination held

on____________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our heartfelt thanks for our Founder, Udyog
Rattan Thiru. J. SUDHANANDHEN for his blessings to bring out this project in
a successful manner.
We render our sincere thanks to our secretary Thiru. S. SIVANANTHAN,
for providing the necessary facilities to complete the project in an efficient way.
We express our deep sense of gratitude to our beloved correspondent,
Er. R. MOHANRAJ, B.E., M.I.E., F.I.V., for supporting us to do the
project and offering adequate duration in completing the project.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to our
principal,Dr.A.T.RAVICHANDRAN, for providing constant support and
continuous encouragement to do the project work.
We are grateful to Mr. A. ANBARASAN M.E., (Ph.D)., Head of
Department, Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his anchoring support in
doing this project.
We would like to thank our project coordinator,
Mr.E.IMMANUEL BRIGHT., Asst.prof., of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering for giving valuable suggestions to complete our project work.
We express our sincere thanks to our project guide,
Mr.L.VIJAY ANAND., Asst.prof., of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for
her constant guidance, constructive appreciation and encouragement throughout
project work.
We also thank all the teaching and non-teaching staff members who directly
and indirectly helped us in bringing out the project.
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ABSTARCT
In this project, some of the shortcomings in the existing system has been
proposed to be rectified. The advances have allowed numerous ways for power harvesting
systems in practical applications in order to meet the power demand. The use of piezoelectric
crystal is to generate electric output from surrounding vibrations. Piezoelectric materials have a
crystalline structure that they can convert mechanical energy into electrical charge and is vice-
versa. These materials have the ability to absorb mechanical energy from their surroundings,
usually ambient vibration, and transform it into electrical energy that can be used to power other
devices.

The produced electrical energy from the piezoelectric crystal is very low in the
order of 2-3volts and is initially stored in a 2v rechargeable battery through a charge controller
,since it is not possible to charge a 12V battery through crystal output . In order to increase the
voltage, the boost converter circuit is used. The use of boost converter is to increase the level of
voltage ranges about 12V and is stored in a 12V battery. In order to supply power to the load an
inverter circuit is required by which the generated voltage is fed to the CFL lamp load .This
project can be implemented in dense populated areas like railway station, bus stands etc where
more amount of vibrational energy will be obtained. In this paper, we discuss about many
researches that has been performed in the area of power harvesting.
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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT

Man has needed and used energy at an increasing rate for his purpose. Due to this a lot of
energy resources have been exhausted and wasted. The utilization of waste energy of foot power
with human locomotion is very much relevant for highly populated countries where the roads,
railway stations, bus stands, temples, etc. The human bio-energy being wasted if it can be made
possible for utilization it will be very useful energy sources. Walking is the most common
activity in day to day life. While walking, the person loses energy to the surface in the form of
vibration. This energy can be tapped and converted to electrical form.
One of the most suitable method for obtaining the energy surrounding a system is
achieved by using piezoelectric crystals. Piezoelectric crystals is one of small scale energy
sources. The piezoelectric crystals are subjected to vibration they generate a very small voltage,
commonly known as piezoelectricity. It has a crystalline structure that converts an applied
vibration into an electrical energy .

1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

1.2.1 Piezo-based power generation, Umeda et al. (1996)
The Piezo crystal sought after a device that would eliminate the need to charge up
portables before taking them anywhere. The device would charge the mobile device enroute
while traveling. To accomplish this, they constructed a piezo-generator that transforms
mechanical impact energy to electrical energy by using a steel ball which impacts the generator.
The steel ball is initially 5mm above a bronze disk (27mm in diameter and 0.25mm thick). The
ball falls and strikes the center of the disk producing a bending vibration. The ball continues to
bounce on the disk till it stops. The piezo patch converts the vibrational energy of the bouncing
ball to electrical energy and stores a voltage in a capacitor. They performed analyses on two
things. The first case was on the first impact. The second case was on multiple impacts from the
ball. For the first case, higher voltage and capacitance affects the generator. If the capacitance is
small, the voltage will go up quickly, limiting the time current will flow. On the other hand, if
the capacitance is large, it takes time for the voltage to build up and allows the current to flow
for more time. For the second case, the capacitance affects multiple impacts the same way it does
for a single impact. As the initial voltage increases, the charge decreases for each capacitance.
The achieved a maximum efficiency of 35% which is over three times higher than a solar cell.
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1.2.2 Piezo-based power generation applications, Hausler (1984)

The paper discusses implanting piezoceramic patches into a living body to harvest power
from breathing, more specifically the elongation of the inspiration phase. The area where the
patch might be located could be the lateral area of an upper rib. The power requirement for
pulmonary ventilation is between 0.1 and 40W. So the 5mW needed to get 1mW with a 20%
coupling coefficient is negligible. They used two PVDF with a 15% coupling coefficient and a
max strain safety strain of 2%, weighing 128mg, and allowing a max power of 240μm . These
sheets are rolled into a tube with a 2.6mm diameter and length of 40mm. Simulating rub
movements with an external mechanical arrangement, they measured an electric power of 20μW
. A mongrel dog weighing 25kg was operated on to attach the device. A voltage of 18V
corresponded to a power of 17μW . This power was constant for three hours until the experiment
was terminated. The strain was only 0.5% instead of 2%. In conclusion, this power is too small.
A film with 30% coupling coefficient and a mass of 100mg and an electric power output of 1mW
should be more appropriate. Also, the alternating voltage would need to be rectified and stored in
a Lithium accumulator.

1.2.3 Non-piezo-based power generation, Lakic (1989)

This makes an airbag that can be adjusted for snugness in a ski boot. The foot warmer
mechanism is mounted entirely on an insert for the outer boot or shoe, and includes an electrical
resistance heater, an electrical generator, a mechanical transducer to translate vertical movements
of the wearer's heel into uni-directional rotational movement of a flywheel, and a gear box
mechanically coupling the flywheel to the electrical generator. Specific features of the invention
include an air pump to supply air pressure to an air chamber, including an air bag which extends
over the instep of the shoe to control the snugness of the shoe; and communicating channels
within the shoe to direct air across the electrical generator and heater and to the air bag, thereby
warming the entire foot of the wearer. Further embodiments include tubing to direct warmed air
to a suit having an inflated lining to warm the suit.

1.2.4 Modelling of Piezoelectric on Beams and Plates, Crawley and de Luis

It develops analytical models of mechanical coupling between piezoelectric actuators and
substrates. Static models are established to couple structures to several different actuator
configurations, including surface-bonded and embedded configurations. These static models are
then coupled into a dynamic model of a cantilever beam. They use the Rayleigh-Ritz equation of
motion to model the beam. A scaling analysis is also performed to determine how changes in the
structure affect the actuator efficiency. Also within the scaling analysis, Crawley and de Luis
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determined that taking the second derivative of the structure mode shapes and finding the
resulting roots (“zero crossing points”) represented “strain nodes.” These “strain nodes” are
points along the beam where the strain changes from positive to negative. Piezoelectric should
not be bonded across these “strain nodes” in order to maximize their effectiveness.

1.2.5 Electrical Power Generation Using Piezoelectric Crystal, Anil Kumar

The usefulness of most high technology devices such as cell phones, computers, and
sensors is limited by the storage capacity of batteries. In the future, these limitations will become
more pronounced as the demand for wireless power outpaces battery development which is
already nearly optimized. Thus, new power generation techniques are required for the next
generation of wearable computers, wireless sensors, and autonomous systems to be feasible.
Piezoelectric materials are excellent power generation devices because of their ability to couple
mechanical and electrical properties. For example, when an electric field is applied to
piezoelectric a strain is generated and the material is deformed. Consequently, when a
piezoelectric is strained it produces an electric field; therefore, piezoelectric materials can
convert ambient vibration into electrical power. Piezoelectric materials have long been used as
sensors and actuators; however their use as electrical generators is less established. A
piezoelectric power generator has great potential for some remote applications such as in vivo
sensors, embedded MEMS devices, and distributed networking. Developing piezoelectric
generators is challenging because of their poor source characteristics (high voltage, low current,
high impedance) and relatively low power output. This paper presents a theoretical analysis to
increase the piezoelectric power generation that is verified with experimental results.

1.2.6 Efficiency of energy conversion for a piezoelectric power harvesting system, YC

Shu and I C Lien
This paper studies the energy conversion efficiency for a rectified piezoelectric power
harvester. An analytical model is proposed, and an expression of efficiency is derived under
steady-state operation. In addition, the relationship among the conversion efficiency, electrically
induced damping and ac–dc power output is established explicitly. It is shown that the
optimization criteria are different depending on the relative strength of the coupling. For the
weak electromechanical coupling system, the optimal power transfer is attained when the
efficiency and induced damping achieve their maximum values. This result is consistent with
that observed in the recent literature. However, a new finding shows that they are not
simultaneously maximized in the strongly coupled electromechanical system.
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CHAPTER 2
SYSTEM ANALYSIS

2.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

In the existing system, piezoelectric polymer films were used for power generation. The
output voltage from these piezoelectric polymer films will be in the order of 4-6 volts. This
voltage is fed to a bridge rectifier circuit. Also the power generated by the Poly Vinyl Dichloro
Fluoride(PVDF) is very less in the order of 10 to 100 milli watts. The main drawbacks of this
system is that the voltage drop will be high in the bridge rectifier circuit due to the usage of four
diodes. Hence the output voltage is very low in the order of 1-2 volts which is sufficient to glow
the LED only.

2.1.1 DEMERITS
 Low output voltage 2v
 Less efficiency
 More charging time
 Low power

2.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM

2.2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 1. Block diagram of proposed system

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In the above block diagram shows that when we are applying mechanical stress on the
piezoelectric crystal it produces an electrical signals. The produced electrical energy can be
given to the 3V rechargeable battery. The rechargeable battery will store the electrical energy
from the piezo electric crystal. Then the produced electrical energy can be increased by using
boost converter. The main use of boost converter is to increase the power. Then it can be stored
in a 12v battery. By using micro inverter the power can be converted to AC for the load such as
CFL lamp.

Voltage measurement is used to control the voltage level to store in the rechargeable
battery . Peripheral Interface Controller(PIC) Micro Controller is used to generate the Pulse
Width Modulation(PWM) signals. The PWM signals is used to trigger the MOSFET driver.
After the MOSFET get triggered , the operation of boost converter is started. Then the power can
be increased and stored in a battery

2.2.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

When the piezoelectric crystal is subjected to mechanical stress , it produces a voltage
according to it. The output voltage of the crystal array is depends on the rate of stress applied. If
the stress applied is high then the output voltage will be high and is vice versa. This voltage is
fed to the 3v rechargeable nickel cadmium battery, since it is difficult to charge a 12v battery
directly by this low voltage as charging time will becomes high.
The output of the rechargeable battery is fed to the boost converter circuit which is used
to boost up the voltage level. The boost converter circuit consist of an inductance and a mosfet.
Here the mosfet act as a switch and the output of the rechargeable battery act as a source. The
inductor initially charges with left side positive and negative on the right side. The mosfet is
initially closed and normal voltage is available at the output of the boost converter.

Then the switch position is changed, i.e opened. Then the inductor releases its stored
energy in reverse polarity with negative on left side and positive on right side. Therefore the
source voltage as well as the voltage from the inductor adds up and is available at the output of
the boost converter circuit. Thus the voltage gets boosted. The output voltage is 12v and fed to
the battery. Pwm signal from the pic microcontroller is used to drive the mosfet through driver
circuit.
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Figure 2 Circuit diagram of proposed system

Since the load(CFL)is AC, an inverter circuit is used in order to convert the DC voltage
from the battery in to AC voltage. The inverter circuit consists of two transistors Q1 and Q2. One
transistor (Q1) is responsible for production of positive half cycle of AC supply and another
transistor (Q2) is responsible for production of negative half cycle.
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The transistor Q1 is initially switched on and conducts upto its saturation level , produce
positive half cycle of the AC supply and then it turns off. Now the transistor Q2 begins to
conduct upto its saturation level , produces negative half cycle of the AC supply and turns off.
Thus the process is repeated again and again to produce AC voltage for the load.

2.2.4 MERITS OF PROPOSED SYSTEM

 Comparatively high output voltage

 High efficiency
 High power output
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CHAPTER 3

PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTAL

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Piezoelectricity in Greek for "pressure" electricity, was discovered by the Curie brothers
more than 100 years ago. They found that quartz changed its dimensions when subjected to an
electrical field, and conversely, generated electrical charge when mechanically deformed. one of
the first practical applications of the technology was made in the 1920's by another Frenchman,
Langevin, who developed a quartz transmitter and receiver for underwater sound - the first
SONAR. Before World War II, researchers discovered that certain ceramic materials could be
made piezoelectric when subjected to a high polarizing voltage, a process analogous to
magnetizing a ferrous material. By the 1960's, researchers had discovered a weak piezoelectric
effect in whale bone and tendon. This began an intense search for other organic materials that
might exhibit piezoelectricity. In 1969, Kawai found very high piezo-activity in the polarized
fluoropolymer, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). While other materials, like nylon and PVC
exhibit the effect, none are as highly piezoelectric as PVDF and its copolymers.
Like some other ferroelectric materials, PVDF is also pyroelectric, producing electrical
charge in response to a change in temperature.PVDF strongly absorbs infrared energy in the 7-
20μm wavelengths (see Figure 1), covering the same wavelength spectrum as heat from the
human body. Accordingly, PVDF makes a useful human motion sensor as well as pyro electric
sensor for more sophisticated applications like vidicon cameras for night vision and laser beam
profiling sensors. A dense infrared array has been recently introduced that identifies one’s
fingerprint pattern using the pyro effect of piezo polymer.
New copolymers of PVDF, developed over the last few years, have expanded the
applications of piezoelectric polymer sensors. These copolymers permit use at higher
temperatures (135bC) and offer desirable new sensor shapes, like cylinders and hemispheres.
Thickness extremes are possible with copolymer that cannot be readily attained with PVDF.
These include ultrathin (200 Å) spin-cast coatings that enable new sensor-on-silicon
applications, and cylinders with wall thicknesses in excess of 1200μm for sonar. Piezo cable is
also produced using co-polymer.

3.2 BASIC PRINCIPLE

The process of acquiring the energy surrounding a system and converting it into usable
electrical energy is termed power harvesting.The use of piezoelectric materials to capitalize on
the ambient vibrations surrounding a system is one method that has seen a dramatic rise in use
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for power harvesting. Piezoelectric materials have a crystalline structure that provides them with
the ability to transform mechanical strain energy into electrical charge and, vice versa, to convert
an applied electrical potential into mechanical strain. This property provides these materials with
the ability to absorb mechanical energy from their surroundings, usually ambient vibration, and
transform it into electrical energy that can be used to power other devices. While piezoelectric
materials are the major method of harvesting energy, other methods do exist; for example, one of
the conventional methods is the use of electromagnetic devices.

3.3 PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTAL

A piezoelectric crystal is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to
measure pressure, acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical signal. Metal
disks in piezo material, used in buzzers or as contact microphones. Based on piezoelectric
technology various physical quantities can be measured; the most common are pressure and
acceleration. For pressure sensors, a thin membrane and a massive base is used, ensuring that an
applied pressure specifically loads the elements in one direction. For accelerometers, a seismic
mass is attached to the crystal elements. When the accelerometer experiences a motion, the
invariant seismic mass loads the elements according to Newton’s second law of motion F=ma.
The main difference in the working principle between these two cases is the way forces
are applied to the sensing elements. In a pressure sensor a thin membrane is used to transfer the
force to the elements, while in accelerometers the forces are applied by an attached seismic mass.
Sensors often tend to be sensitive to more than one physical quantity. Pressure sensors show
false signal when they are exposed to vibrations. Sophisticated pressure sensors therefore use
acceleration compensation elements in addition to the pressure sensing elements. By carefully
matching those elements, the acceleration signal (released from the compensation element) is
subtracted from the combined signal of pressure and acceleration to derive the true pressure
information.
Vibration sensors can also be used to harvest otherwise wasted energy from mechanical
vibrations. This is accomplished by using piezoelectric materials to convert mechanical strain
into usable electrical energy. Piezoelectric crystals have proven to be versatile tools for the
measurement of various processes. They are used for quality assurance, process control and for
research and development in many different industries it was only in the 1950s that the
piezoelectric effect started to be used for industrial sensing applications. Since then, this
measuring principle has been increasingly used and can be regarded as a mature technology with
an outstanding inherent reliability. It has been successfully used in various applications, such as
in medical, aerospace, nuclear instrumentation, and as a pressure crystal in the touch pads of
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mobile phones. In the automotive industry,, piezoelectric elements are used to monitor
combustion when developing internal combustion engines. The crystals are either directly
mounted into additional holes into the cylinder head or the spark/glow plug is equipped with a
built in miniature piezoelectric crystal.
The rise of piezoelectric technology is directly related to a set of inherent advantages.
The high modulus of elasticity of many piezoelectric materials is comparable to that of many
metals and goes up to 10^6 N/m²[Even though piezoelectric crystals are electromechanical
systems that react to compression, the sensing elements show almost zero deflection. This is the
reason why piezoelectric crystals are so rugged, have an extremely high natural frequency and an
excellent linearity over a wide amplitude range. Additionally, piezoelectric technology is
insensitive to electromagnetic fields and radiation, enabling measurements under harsh
conditions. Some materials used (especially gallium phosphate or tourmaline) have an extreme
stability even at high temperature, enabling crystals to have a working range of up to 1000°C.
Tourmaline shows pyro electricity in addition to the piezoelectric effect; this is the ability to
generate an electrical signal when the temperature of the crystal changes. This effect is also
common to piezo ceramic materials.
One disadvantage of piezoelectric crystals is that they cannot be used for truly static
measurements. A static force will result in a fixed amount of charges on the piezoelectric
material. While working with conventional readout electronics, imperfect insulating materials,
and reduction in internal crystal resistance will result in a constant loss of electrons, and yield a
decreasing signal. Elevated temperatures cause an additional drop in internal resistance and
sensitivity. The main effect on the piezoelectric effect is that with increasing pressure loads and
temperature, the sensitivity is reduced due to twin-formation. While quartz crystals need to be
cooled during measurements at temperatures above 300°C, special types of crystals like
GaPO4 gallium phosphate do not show any twin formation up to the melting point of the
material itself.

3.4 WORKING
The Piezoelectric effect is an effect in which energy is converted between mechanical
and electrical forms. It was discovered in the 1880's by the Curie brothers. Specifically, when a
pressure (piezo means pressure in Greek) is applied to a polarized crystal, the resulting
mechanical deformation results in an electrical charge. Piezoelectric microphones serve as a
good example of this phenomenon. Microphones turn an acoustical pressure into a voltage.
Alternatively, when an electrical charge is applied to a polarized crystal, the crystal undergoes a
mechanical deformation which can in turn create an acoustical pressure. An example of this can
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be seen in piezoelectric speakers. (These are the cause of those annoying system beeps that are
all too common in today's computers). The arrangement of piezoelectric crystal shown in the fig
3.

Figure 3. Arrangement of piezoelectric crystal

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CHAPTER 4

BOOST CONVERTER

4.1 INTRODUCTION
A boost converter (step-up converter) is a power converter with an output DC voltage
greater than its input DC voltage. It is a class of switching-mode power supply (SMPS)
containing at least two semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy
storage element. Filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are
normally added to the output of the converter to reduce output voltage ripple.

Figure 4. Boost converter

Power can also come from DC sources such as batteries, solar panels, rectifiers and DC
generators. A process that changes one DC voltage to a different DC voltage is called DC to DC
conversion. A boost converter is a DC to DC converter with an output voltage greater than the
source voltage. A boost converter is sometimes called a step-up converter since it “steps up” the
source voltage. Since power (P = VI) must be conserved, the output current is lower than the
source current.
A boost converter is used as the voltage increase mechanism in the circuit known as the
'Joule thief'. This circuit topology is used with low power battery applications, and is aimed at
the ability of a boost converter to 'steal' the remaining energy in a battery. This energy would
otherwise be wasted since the low voltage of a nearly depleted battery makes it unusable for a
normal load. This energy would otherwise remain untapped because many applications do not
allow enough current to flow through a load when voltage decreases. This voltage decrease
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occurs as batteries become depleted, and is a characteristic of the ubiquitous alkaline battery.
Since (P = V2 / R) as well, and R tends to be stable, power available to the load goes down
significantly as voltage decreases.

4.2 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

4.2.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to
resist changes in current. When being charged it acts as a load and absorbs energy
(somewhat like a resistor), when being discharged, it acts as an energy source (somewhat
like a battery). The voltage it produces during the discharge phase is related to the rate of
change of current, and not to the original charging voltage allowing different input voltages.

Figure 5. Boost converter schematic

Figure 6. The two configurations of a boost converter, depending on the state of the switch S.
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Figure 7. Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in continuous mode.

The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states (see figure 7):
1. In the On-state, the switch S (see figure 5) is closed, resulting in an increase in the
inductor current.
2. In the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is
through the fly back diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This results in transferring the
energy accumulated during the On-state into the capacitor.
3. The input current is the same as the inductor current as can be seen in figure 6. So it is
not discontinuous as in the buck converter and the requirements on the input filter are relaxed
compared to a buck converter.

4.2.2 Continuous mode

When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the inductor
(IL) never falls to zero. Figure 3shows the typical waveforms of currents and voltages in
converter operating in this mode. The output voltage can be calculate as follows, in the case of
an ideal converter (i.e. using components with an ideal Behaviour) operating in steady
conditions. During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input voltage (Vi)
appear across the inductor, which causes a change in current (IL) flowing through the inductor
during a time period (t) by the formula.

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore D is the duty cycle. It represents
the fraction of the commutation period T during which the switch is On. Therefore D ranges
between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on).During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so
the inductor current flows through the load. If we consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a
capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain constant, the evolution of IL is the variation of
 19

IL during the Off-period is as we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions,
the amount of energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at
the end of a commutation cycle.

Figure 8. Waveforms of voltage and current in continuous mode

In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by Fig.8. So, the inductor current
has to be the same at the start and end of the commutation cycle. This means the overall change
in the current (the sum of the changes) is zero. Substituting and by their expressions yields. This
can be written as in turns reveals the duty cycle to be operating in discontinuous mode.
Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter From the above expression it can
be seen that the output voltage is always higher than the input voltage (as the duty cycle goes
from 0 to 1), and that it increases with D, theoretically to infinity as D approaches 1. This is why
this converter is sometimes referred to as a step-up converter.

4.2.3 Discontinuous mode

In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be
transferred in a time smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through
the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described
above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle.
Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage equation.
It can be calculated as follows: As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is
zero, its maximum value (at t = DT) is during the off-period, IL falls to zero after δT. Using the
two previous equations, δ is the load current Io is equal to the average diode current as can be
seen on figure 4, the diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore
the output current can be written as Replacing IL max and δ by their respective expressions
yields. Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as follows, Compared to the expression
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of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this expression is much more complicated.
Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage gain not only depends on the duty
cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage, the switching frequency, and the output
current.

Fig9.Waveforms of voltage and current in discontinuous mode

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CHAPTER 5
MICROCONTROLLER

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER

Microcontrollers are destined to play an increasingly important role in revolutionizing
various industries and influencing our day to day life more strongly than one can imagine. Since
its emergence in the early 1980's the microcontroller has been recognized as a general purpose
building block for intelligent digital systems. It is finding using diverse area, starting from
simple children's toys to highly complex spacecraft. Because of its versatility and many
advantages, the application domain has spread in all conceivable directions, making it
ubiquitous. As a consequence, it has generate a great deal of interest and enthusiasm among
students, teachers and practicing engineers, creating an acute education need for imparting the
knowledge of microcontroller based system design and development. It identifies the vital
features responsible for their tremendous impact, the acute educational need created by them and
provides a glimpse of the major application area.

5.2 MICROCONTROLLER
A microcontroller is a complete microprocessor system built on a single IC.
Microcontrollers were developed to meet a need for microprocessors to be put into low cost
products. Building a complete microprocessor system on a single chip substantially reduces the
cost of building simple products, which use the microprocessor's power to implement their
function, because the microprocessor is a natural way to implement many products. This means
the idea of using a microprocessor for low cost products comes up often. But the typical 8-bit
microprocessor based system, such as one using a Z80 and 8085 is expensive. Both 8085 and
Z80 system need some additional circuits to make a microprocessor system. Each part carries
costs of money. Even though a product design may requires only very simple system, the parts
needed to make this system as a low cost product.
To solve this problem microprocessor system is implemented with a single chip
microcontroller. This could be called microcomputer, as all the major parts are in the IC. Most
frequently they are called microcontroller because they are used to perform control functions.
The microcontroller contains full implementation of a standard MICROPROCESSOR, ROM,
RAM, I/O, CLOCK, TIMERS, and also SERIAL PORTS. Microcontroller also called "system
on a chip" or "single chip microprocessor system" or "computer on a chip".
A microcontroller is a Computer-On-A-Chip, or, if you prefer, a single-chip computer.
Micro suggests that the device is small, and controller tells you that the device might be used to
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control objects, processes, or events. Another term to describe a microcontroller is embedded

controller, because the microcontroller and its support circuits are often built into, or embedded
in, the devices they control.
Today microcontrollers are very commonly used in wide variety of intelligent products.
For example most personal computers keyboards and implemented with a microcontroller. It
replaces Scanning, Debounce, Matrix Decoding, and Serial transmission circuits. Many low cost
products, such as Toys, Electric Drills, Microwave Ovens, VCR and a host of other consumer
and industrial products are based on microcontrollers.

5.3 EVOLUTION OF MICROCONTROROLLER

Markets for microcontrollers can run into millions of units per application. At these
volumes of the microcontrollers is a commodity items and must be optimized so that cost is at a
minimum. .Semiconductor manufacturers have produced a mind-numbing array of designs that
would seem to meet almost any need. Some of the chips listed in this section are no longer
regular production, most are current, and a few are best termed as "smoke ware": the dreams of
an aggressive marketing department.
Sl.No Manufacturer Chip Year No. No RAM ROM Other
Designation of of Features
Pins I/O

4 Bit MC

1. Texas Instruments TMS 1000 Mid 28 23 64 1K LED

1970 Display

2. Hitachi HMCS 40 - 28 10 32 512 10 bit

ROM

3. Toshiba TLCS 47 - 42 35 128 2K Serial bit

I/O

8 bit MC

1. Intel 8048 1976 40 27 64 1K External

Memory
8K

2 Intel 8051 1980 40 32 128 4K External

Memory
128 K

3. Motorola 6081 1977 - 31 128 2K

 23

4. Motorola 68HC11 1985 52 40 256 8K Serial Port,

ADC,

5. Zilog Z8 - 40 32 128 2K External

Memory
128K,

16 Bit MC

1. Intel 80C196 - 68 40 232 8K External

Memory
64K, Serial
Port, ADC,
WDT,
PWM

2. Hitachi H8/532 - 84 65 1K 32K External

Memory
1M, Serial
Port, ADC,
PWM

3. National HPC16164 - 68 52 512 16K External

Memory
64K, ADC,
WDT,
PWM

32 Bit MC

1. Intel 80960 - 132 20 MHz clock, 32 bit bus, 512

byte instruction cache

5.4. PERIPHERAL INTERFACE CONTROLLER (PIC)

The microcontroller that has been used for this project is from PIC series. PIC
microcontroller is the first RISC based microcontroller fabricated in CMOS (complimentary
metal oxide semiconductor) that uses separate bus for instruction and data allowing simultaneous
access of program and data memory. The main advantage of CMOS and RISC combination is
low power consumption resulting in a very small chip size with a small pin count. The main
advantage of CMOS is that it has immunity to noise than other fabrication techniques.
Various microcontrollers offer different kinds of memories. EEPROM, EPROM, FLASH
etc. are some of the memories of which FLASH is the most recently developed. Technology that
 24

is used in pic16F877 is flash technology, so that data is retained even when the power is
switched off. Easy Programming and Erasing are other features of PIC 16F877.

5.5 CORE FEATURES

• High-performance RISC CPU
• Only 35 single word instructions to learn
• All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycle
• Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input
DC - 200 ns instruction cycle
• Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory,
Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM)
Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM data memory
• Pin out compatible to the PIC16C73/74/76/77
• Interrupt capability (up to 14 internal/external
• Eight level deep hardware stack
• Direct, indirect, and relative addressing modes
• Power-on Reset (POR)
• Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST)
• Programmable code-protection
• Power saving SLEEP mode
• Selectable oscillator options
• Low-power, high-speed CMOS EPROM/EEPROM technology
• Fully static design
• In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) via two pins
• Only single 5V source needed for programming capability
• In-Circuit Debugging via two pins
• Processor read/write access to program memory
• Wide operating voltage range: 2.5V to 5.5V
• High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA
• Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges
• Low-power consumption:
< 2mA typical @ 5V, 4 MHz
20mA typical @ 3V, 32 kHz
 25

< 1mA typical standby current

5.6 PERIPHERAL FEATURES

• Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler
• Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented during sleep
Via external crystal/clock
• Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler
• Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules
Capture is 16-bit, max resolution is 12.5 ns,
Compare is 16-bit, max resolution is 200 ns,
PWM max. Resolution is 10-bit
• 10-bit multi-channel Analog-to-Digital converter
• Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI. (Master Mode) and I2C.
(Master/Slave)
• Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART/SCI) with
9- Bit addresses detection.
• Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR)

5.7 ARCHITECTURE OF PIC 16F877

The complete architecture of PIC 16F877 is shown in the fig 10. Table 1 gives details
about the specifications of PIC 16F877. Fig 11 shows the complete pin diagram of the IC PIC
16F877.
 26

Figure 10.Architecture of PIC16F877

 27

5.7 PIN DIAGRAM OF PIC 16F877

s
Figure 11.Pin diagram of PIC16f877
 28

5.9 PIN DIAGRAM DISCRIPTION

5.9.1 I/O PORTS
Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate function for the peripheral
features on the device. In general, when a peripheral is enabled, that pin may not be used as a
general purpose I/O pin.

5.9.2 PORTA AND THE TRIS A REGISTER

PORTA is a 6-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data direction register is
TRISA. Setting a TRISA bit (=1) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an input, i.e., put the
corresponding output driver in a Hi-impedance mode. Clearing a TRISA bit (=0) will make the
corresponding PORTA pin an output, i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin.

5.9.3 PORTB AND TRIS B REGISTER

PORTB is an 8-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data direction register is
TRISB. Setting a TRISB bit (=1) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an input, i.e., put the
corresponding output driver in a hi-impedance mode. Clearing a TRISB bit (=0) will make the
corresponding PORTB pin an output, i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin.
Three pins of PORTB are multiplexed with the Low Voltage Programming function; RB3/PGM,
RB6/PGC and RB7/PGD. The alternate functions of these pins are described in the Special
Features Section. Each of the PORTB pins has a weak internal pull-up. A single control bit can
turn on all the pull-ups.
This is performed by clearing bit RBPU (OPTION_REG<7>). The weak pull-up is
automatically turned off when the port pin is configured as an output. The pull-ups are disabled
on a Power-on Reset.

5.9.4 PORTC AND THE TRIS C REGISTER

PORTC is an 8-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data direction register is
TRISC. Setting a TRISC bit (=1) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an input, i.e., put the
corresponding output driver in a hi-impedance mode. Clearing a TRISC bit (=0) will make the
corresponding PORTC pin an output, i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin.
PORTC is multiplexed with several peripheral functions. PORTC pins have Schmitt Trigger
input buffers.
 29

5.9.5 PORTD AND TRIS D REGISTER

This section is not applicable to the 28-pin devices. PORTD is an 8-bit port with Schmitt
Trigger input buffers. Each pin is individually configurable as an input or output. PORTD can be
configured as an 8-bit wide microprocessor Port (parallel slave port) by setting control bit
PSPMODE (TRISE<4>). In this mode, the input buffers are TTL.

5.9.6 PORTE AND TRIS E REGISTER

PORTE has three pins RE0/RD/AN5, RE1/WR/AN6 and RE2/CS/AN7, which are
individually configurable as inputs or outputs. These pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers.
The PORTE pins become control inputs for the microprocessor port when bit PSPMODE
(TRISE<4>) is set. In this mode, the user must make sure that the TRISE<2:0> bits are set (pins
are configured as digital inputs). Ensure ADCON1 is configured for digital I/O. In this mode the
input buffers are TTL.
PORTE pins are multiplexed with analog inputs. When selected as an analog input, these
pins will read as '0's. TRISE controls the direction of the RE pins, even when they are being used
as analog inputs. The user must make sure to keep the pins configured as inputs when using them
as analog inputs.

5.10 MEMORY ORGANISATION

There are three memory blocks in each of the PIC16F877 MUC’s. The program memory
and Data Memory have separate buses so that concurrent access can occur.

5.10.1 PROGRAM MEMORY ORGANISATION

The PIC16f877 devices have a 13-bit program counter capable of addressing 8K *14
words of FLASH program memory. Accessing a location above the physically implemented
address will cause a wrap around. The RESET vector is at 0000h and the interrupt vector is at
0004h.

5.10.2 DATA MEMORY ORGANISTION

The data memory is partitioned into multiple banks which contain the General Purpose
Registers and the special functions Registers. Bits RP1 (STATUS<6) and RP0 (STATUS<5>)
are the bank selected bits.
Each bank extends up to 7Fh (1238 bytes). The lower locations of each bank are
reserved for the Special Function Registers. Above the Special Function Registers are General
Purpose Registers, implemented as static RAM. All implemented banks contain special function
 30

registers. Some frequently used special function registers from one bank may be mirrored in
another bank for code reduction and quicker access.

5.10.3 EEPROM
EEPROM (electrically erasable, programmable read only memory) technology supplies
Nonvolatile storage of variables to a PIC-controlled device or instrument. That is variables
stored in an EEPROM will remain there even after power has been turned off and then on again.
Some instruments use an EEPROM to store calibration data during manufacture. In this way,
each instrument is actually custom built, with customization that can be easily automated. Other
instruments use and EEPROM to allow a user to store several sets of setup information. For an
instrument requiring a complicated setup procedure, this permits a user to retrieve the setup
required for any one of several very Different measurements. Still other devices use an
EEPROM in a way that is transparent . To a user, providing backup of setup parameters and
thereby bridging over power outages

The data EEPROM and flash program memory are readable and writable during normal
operation over the entire VDD range. A bulk erase operation may not be issued from user code
(which includes removing code protection. The data memory is not directly mapped in the
register file space. Instead it is indirectly addressed through the special function registers (SFR).
There are six SFRS used to read and write the program and data EEPROM memory.
These registers are:
 EECON1
 EECON2
 EEDATA
 EEDATH
 EEADR
 EEADRH
EEDATA holds the 8-bit data for read/write and EEADRR holds the address of the EEPROM
location being accessed. The 8-bit EEADR register can access up to 256 locations of data
EEPROM. The EEADR register can be thought of as the indirect addressing register of the data
EEPROM. EEcon1 contains the control bits, while eecon2 is the register used to initiate the
read/write. The EEPROM data memory allows bytes read and write. A byte write automatically
erases the location and writes the new data. The write time is controlled by timer in-built.

5.11 TIMERS
 31

There are three timers used Timer 0, Timer1 and Timer2

5.11.1 Timer 0
 8-bit timer/counter
 Software programmable prescaler
 Internal or external clock select
 Readable writable
 Interrupt on overflow
 Edge selects for external clock

5.11.2 Timer 1
 Timer 1 can be used as timer or counter
 It is 16-bit register
 Software programmable prescaler
 Interrupt on overflow
 Readable and writable

The timer-1 module is a 16-bit timer/counter consisting two 8-bit register (TMR1H) and
TMR1L), which are readable and writable. The TMR1 register pair (TMR1H:TMR1L)
Increments from 0000h to FFFFH and rolls over to 0000h. The tmr1 interrupt, if enabled, is
generated on overflow, which is latched in interrupt flag bit tmr1IF. This interrupt can be
enabled/disabled by setting/clearing tmr1 interrupt enable bit tmr1IE.

5.11.3 Timer-2
Timer2 is an 8-bit timer with a pre scalar and a post scalar. IT can be used as the PWM
Time-base for the PWM mode of the CCP module(s). The TMR2 register is readable and
writable, and is cleared on any device reset.The input clock (Fosc/4) has a prescale option of 1:1,
1:4 OR 1:16, selected by control bits.The timer2 module has an 8-bit period register PR2.
Timer2 increments from 00h until it match PR2 and then resets to 00h on the next increment
cycle. PR2 is a readable and writable register. The PR2 register is initialized to FFh upon reset.
The match output of TMR2 goes through a 4-bit postscaler (which gives a 1:1 to 1:16 scaling
inclusive) to generate a tmr2 interrupt Timer 2 can be shut off by clearing control bit tmr2on to
minimize power consumption.
 32

The prescaler and postscaler counters are cleared when any of the following occurs:
 A write to the tmr2 register
 A write to the t2con register
 An any device reset
 Tmr2 is not cleared when t2con is written

5.12 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER (ADC)

There are two types of analog to digital converter is present in this IC. We use 10-bit
ADC. The ADC module can have up to eight analog inputs for a device. The analog input
charges a sample and hold capacitor. The output of sample and hold capacitor is the input into
the converter. The converter then generates a digital result of this analog level via successive
approximation. The A/D conversion of the analog input signal results in a Corresponding10-bit
digital number. The A/D module has high and low voltage reference input that is software
selectable to some combination of VDD, VSS, and RA2 Or RA3.The A/D module has four
registers. These registers are
 A/D result high register (ADRESH)
 A/D RESULT LOW REGISTER (ADRESL)
 A/D CONTROL REGISTER 0 (ADCON0)
 A/D CONTROL REGISTER 1 (ADCON1)

5.13 INTERRUPTS
The PIC16F87X FAMILY HAS UPTO 14 SOURCES OF INTERRUPT. The interrupt
control register (INTCON) records individual interrupt requests in flag bits. IT also has
individual interrupt requests in flag bits. IT also has individual and global interrupt enables
bits.Though some modules may generate multiple interrupts such as (USART) They have 14
sources. There is a minimum of one register used in the control and status of the interrupts.

5.13.1 INTCON
Additionally if the device has peripheral interrupts, then it will have registers to enable
the peripheral interrupts and registers to hold the interrupt flag bits
 PIE1
 PIE2
 PIR1
 PIR2
 33

5.14 ADDRESSING MODES

5.14.1 Direct Addressing

In direct addressing, the operand specified by an 8-bit address field in the instruction.
Only internal data RAM and SFR’s can be directly addressed.

5.14.2 Indirect Addressing

In Indirect addressing, the instruction specifies a register that contains the address of the
operand. Both internal and external RAM can indirectly address. The address register for 8-bit
addresses can be either the Stack Pointer or R0 or R1 of the selected register Bank. The address
register for 16-bit addresses can be only the 16-bit data pointer register, DPTR.

5.14.3 Indexed Addressing

Program memory can only be accessed via indexed addressing this addressing mode is
intended for reading look-up tables in program memory. A 16 bit base register (Either DPTR or
the Program Counter) points to the base of the table, and the accumulator is set up with the table
entry number. Adding the Accumulator data to the base pointer forms the address of the table
entry in program memory.
Another type of indexed addressing is used in the“ case jump ” instructions. In this case
the destination address of a jump instruction is computed as the sum of the base pointer and the
Accumulator data.

5.14.4 Register Instruction

The register banks, which contains registers R0 through R7, can be accessed by
instructions whose opcodes carry a 3-bit register specification. Instructions that access the
registers this way make efficient use of code, since this mode eliminates an address byte. When
the instruction is executed, one of four banks is selected at execution time by the row bank select
bits in PSW.
 34

5.14.5 Register - Specific Instruction

Some Instructions are specific to a certain register. For example some instruction always
operates on the Accumulator, so no address byte is needed to point OT ir. In these cases, the
opcode itself points to the correct register. Instruction that register to Accumulator as A assemble
as Accumulator - specific Opcodes.

5.14.6 Immediate Constants

The value of a constant can follow the opcode in program memory For example. MOV
A, #100 loads the Accumulator with the decimal number 100. The same number could be
specified in hex digit as 64h.

5.15 OSCILLATOR AND CLOCK CIRCUIT

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output respectively of an inverting amplifier which
is intended for use as a crystal oscillator in the pioerce configuration, in the frequency range of
1.2 Mhz to 12 Mhz. XTAL2 also the input to the internal clock generator.
To drive the chip with an internal oscillator, one would ground XTAL1 and XTAL2.
Since the input to the clock generator is divide by two filip flop there are no requirements on the
duty cycle of the external oscillator signal. However, minimum high and low times must be
observed.
The clock generator divides the oscillator frequency by 2 and provides a tow phase clock
signal to the chip. The phase 1 signal is active during the first half to each clock period and the
phase 2 signals are active during the second half of each clock period.

5.16 CPU TIMING

A machine cycle consists of 6 states. Each stare is divided into a phase / half, during
which the phase 1 clock is active and phase 2 half. Arithmetic and Logical operations take place
during phase1 and internal register - to register transfer take place during phase 2

5.17 TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS IN MICRO CONTROLLER

The manner in which the use of micro controllers is shaping our lives is breathtaking.
Today, this versatile device can be found in a variety of control applications. CVTs, VCRs, CD
players, microwave ovens, and automotive engine systems are some of these.
A micro controller unit (MCU) uses the microprocessor as its central processing unit
(CPU) and incorporates memory, timing reference, I/O peripherals, etc on the same chip.
Limited computational capabilities and enhanced I/O are special features.
 35

The micro controller is the most essential IC for continuous process- based applications
in industries like chemical, refinery, pharmaceutical automobile, steel, and electrical, employing
programmable logic systems (DCS). PLC and DCS thrive on the programmability of an MCU.
There are many MCU manufacturers. To understand and apply general concepts, it is necessary
to study one type in detail. This specific knowledge can be used to understand similar features of
other MCUs.
Micro controller devices have many similarities. When you look at the differences, they
are not so great either. Most common and popular MCUs are considered to be mature and well-
established products, which have their individual adherents and devotees. There are a number of
variants within each family to satisfy most memory, I/O, data conversion, and timing needs of
enduser applications.
The MCU is designed to operate on application-oriented sensor data-for example,
temperature and pressure of a blast furnace in an industrial process that is fed through its serial or
operated on under the control of software and stored in ROM. Appropriate signals are fed via
output ports to control external devices and systems.

5.18 APPLICATIONS OF MICROCONTROLLERS

 Microcontrollers are designed for use in sophisticated real time applications such as
 Industrial Control
 Instrumentation and
 Intelligent computer peripherals
 They are used in industrial applications to control
 Motor
 Robotics
 Discrete and continuous process control
 In missile guidance and control
 In medical instrumentation
 Oscilloscopes
 Telecommunication
 Automobiles
 For Scanning a keyboard
 Driving an LCD
 For Frequency measurements
 36

CHAPTER 6

LCD DISPLAY

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) have materials which combine the properties of
both liquids and crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they have a temperature
range within which the molecules are almost as mobile as they would be in a liquid, but
are grouped together in an ordered form similar to a crystal.
An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material sand witched
in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated with transparent
electrodes which define the character, symbols or patterns to be displayed polymeric layers
are present in between the electrodes and the liquid crystal, which makes the liquid crystal
molecules to maintain a defined orientation angle.
One each polarisers are pasted outside the two glass panels. These polarisers would
rotate the light rays passing through them to a definite angle, in a particular
direction.When the LCD is in the off state, light rays are rotated by the two polarisers and
the liquid crystal, such that the light rays come out of the LCD without any orientation,
and hence the LCD appears transparent.
When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal molecules
would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing through the LCD would be
rotated by the polarisers, which would result in activating / highlighting the desired
characters.The LCD’s are lightweight with only a few millimeters thickness. Since the
LCD’s consume less power, they are compatible with low power electronic circuits, and
can be powered for long durations.
The LCD’s don’t generate light and so light is needed to read the display. By using
backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. The LCD’s have long life and a wide
operating temperature range.Changing the display size or the layout size is relatively
simple which makes the LCD’s more customer friendly.The LCDs used exclusively in
watches, calculators and measuring instruments are the simple seven-segment displays,
having a limited amount of numeric data. The recent advances in technology have resulted
in better legibility, more information displaying capability and a wider temperature range.
These have resulted in the LCDs being extensively used in telecommunications and
entertainment electronics.
The LCDs have even started replacing the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used for the
display of text and graphics, and also in small TV applications.
 37

6.2POWERSUPPLY
The power supply should be of +5V, with maximum allowable transients of 10mv.
To achieve a better / suitable contrast for the display, the voltage (VL) at pin 3 should be
adjusted properly. A module should not be inserted or removed from a live circuit. The
ground terminal of the power supply must be isolated properly so that no voltage is
induced in it. The module should be isolated from the other circuits, so that stray voltages
are not induced, which could cause a flickering display.

6.3 HARDWARE
Develop a uniquely decoded ‘E’ strobe pulse, active high, to accompany each
module transaction. Address or control lines can be assigned to drive the RS and R/W
inputs. Utilize the Host’s extended timing mode, if available, when transacting with the
module. Use instructions, which prolong the Read and Write or other appropriate data
strobes, so as to realize the interface timing requirements.If a parallel port is used to drive
the RS, R/W and ‘E’ control lines, setting the ‘E’ bit simultaneously with RS and R/W
would violate the module’s set up time. A separate instruction should be used to achieve
proper interfacing timing requirements.

6.4 MOUNTING
Cover the display surface with transparent protective plate, protect epolarizer.
Don’t touch the display surface with bare hands or any hard materials. This will stain the
display area and degrade the insulation between terminals. Do not use organic solvents to
clean the display panel as these may adversely affect tape or with absorbant cotton and
petroleum benzene. The processing or even a slight deformation of the claws of the metal
frame will have effect on the connection of the output signal and cause an abnormal
display. Do not damage or modify the pattern wiring, or drill attachment holes in the PCB.
When assembling the module into another equipment, the space between the module and
the fitting plate should have enough height, to avoid causing stress to the module surface.
Make sure that there is enough space behind the module, to dissipate the heat
generated by the ICs while functioning for longer durations. When an electrically powered
screwdriver is used to install the module, ground it properly. While cleaning by a vacuum
cleaner, do not bring the sucking mouth near the module. Static electricity of the
electrically powered driver or the vacuum cleaner may destroy the module.
 38

6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL PRECAUTIONS

Operate the LCD module under the relative condition of 40C and 50% relative
humidity. Lower temperature can cause retardation of the blinking speed of the display,
while higher temperature makes the overall display discolor. When the temperature gets to
be within the normal limits, the display will be normal. Polarization degradation, bubble
generation or polarizer peel-off may occur with high temperature and humidity. Contact
with water or oil over a long period of time may cause deformation or colour fading of the
display. Condensation on the terminals can cause electro-chemical reaction disrupting the
terminal circuit.

6.6 TROUBLE SHOOTING

6.6.1 INTRODUCTION
When the power supply is given to the module, with the pin 3 (VL) connected to
ground, all the pixels of a character gets activated in the following manner: All the
characters of a single line display, as in CDM 16108.The first eight characters of a single
line display, operated in the two-line display mode, as in CDM 16116.The first line of
characters of a two-line display as in CDM 16216 and 40216. The first and third line of
characters of a four-line display operated in the two-line display mode, as in CDM
20416.If the above mentioned does not occur, the module should be initialized by
software. Make sure that the control signals ‘E’ , R/W and RS are according to the
interface timing requirements.

6.6.2 IMPROPER CHARACTER DISPLAY:

When the characters to be displayed are missing between, the data read/write is too
fast. A slower interfacing frequency would rectify the problem. When uncertainty is there
in the start of the first characters other than the specified ones are rewritten, check the
initialization and the software routine. In a multi-line display, if the display of characters in
the subsequent lines does not take place properly, check the DD RAM addresses set for the
corresponding display lines. When it is unable to display data, even though it is present in
the DD RAM, either the display on/off flag is in the off state or the display shift function is
not set properly. When the display shift is done simultaneous with the data writa operation,
the data may not be visible on the display.
 39

If a character not found in the font table is displayed, or a character is missing, the
CG ROM is faulty and the controller IC have to be changed. If particular pixels of the
characters are missing, or not getting activated properly, there could be an assembling
problem in the module. In case any other problems are encountered you could send the
module to our factory for testing and evaluation.
 40

CHAPTER 7
HARDWARE EXPLANATION

7.1 RESISTOR
Resistors "Resist" the flow of electrical current. The higher the value of resistance
(measured in ohms) the lower the current will be. Resistance is the property of a
component which restricts the flow of electric current. Energy is used up as the voltage
across the component drives the current through it and this energy appears as heat in the
component.
7.1.1 Types of Resistors
From operating conditions point of view, resistors can be classified into two.
1.Fixed Resistors
2.Variable Resistors
7.1.1.1 Fixed Resistors
Fixed resistors are further classified into :
a) Carbon composition type resistors
b) Metalized type resistors
c) Wire wound type resistors
7.1.1.1.1 Carbon composition type resistors
This is the most common type of low wattage resistor. The resistive material is of
carbon-clay composition and the leads are made of tinned copper. These resistors are
cheap and reliable and stability is high.
7.1.1.1.2 Wire wound resistors
These resistors are a length of wire wound an insulating cylindrical core. Usually
wires of material such as constantan (60% copper and 40% nickel) and manganin which
have high resistivities and low temperature coefficients are employed. The completed wire
wound resistor is coated with an insulating material such as baked enamel.
7.1.1.1.3 Metalized resistors
It is constructed using film deposition techniques of depositing a thick film of
resistive material onto an insulating substrate.Only approximate values of resistance can be
had by this method.
7.1.1.2 Variable resistors
For circuits requiring a resistance that can be adjusted while it remains
connected in the circuit(for eg: volume control on radio), variable resistors are required.
They usually have 3 lead two fixed and one movable.
 41

7.2 CAPACITOR
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits
because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying
DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because
capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way round,
at least one of their leads will be marked + or - .

7.2.1 Types of Capacitors

7.2.1.1 Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very large capacitance values are
required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer for one of the electrodes, a
semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly or paste is used which serves as the
second electrode (usually the cathode).
7.2.1.2 Ceramic Capacitors
Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally called, are made by
coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are then stacked
together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance values a single ceramic disc of
about 3-6mm is used.
7.2.1.3 Polyester capacitors
Polyester capacitors use a polyester dielectric and they are ideally suited to
decoupling or bypass applications

7.3 DIODES
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit
symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version
of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves.
 42

A diode is a device which only allows current to flow through it in one

direction. In this direction, the diode is said to be 'forward-biased' and the only effect on
the signal is that there will be a voltage loss of around 0.7V. In the opposite direction, the
diode is said to be 'reverse-biased' and no current will flow through it.
Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be
labeled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The
cathode is marked by a line painted on the body. Diodes are labeled with their code in
small print; you may need a magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes.

7.4 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as
indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as
a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but
modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths,
with very high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able
to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form
of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor. LEDs are often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical
components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present
many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful
enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current
and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting,
automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed
new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are
also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in
the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players,
and other domestic appliances.
The longer lead is the anode (+) and the shorter lead is the cathode (&minus). In
the schematic symbol for an LED (bottom), the anode is on the left and the cathode is on
the right. Light emitting diodes are elements for light signalization in electronics.
 43

They are manufactured in different shapes, colors and sizes. For their low price, low
consumption and simple use, they have almost completely pushed aside other light
sources- bulbs at first place.
It is important to know that each diode will be immediately destroyed unless its
current is limited. This means that a conductor must be connected in parallel to a diode. In
order to correctly determine value of this conductor, it is necessary to know diode’s
voltage drop in forward direction, which depends on what material a diode is made of and
what colors it is. Values typical for the most frequently used diodes are shown in table
below: As seen, there are three main types of LEDs. Standard ones get full brightness at
current of 20mA. Low Current diodes get full brightness at ten time’s lower current while
Super Bright diodes produce more intensive light than Standard ones.
Since the 8051 microcontrollers can provide only low input current and since their
pins are configured as outputs when voltage level on them is equal to 0, direct
confectioning to LEDs is carried out as it is shown on figure (Low current LED, cathode is
connected to output pin).

7.5 Switches and Pushbuttons

A push button switch is used to either close or open an electrical circuit depending
on the application. Push button switches are used in various applications such as
industrial equipment control handles, outdoor controls, mobile communication terminals,
and medical equipment, and etc. Push button switches generally include a push button
disposed within a housing. The push button may be depressed to cause movement of the
push button relative to the housing for directly or indirectly changing the state of an
electrical contact to open or close the contact. Also included in a pushbutton switch may
be an actuator, driver, or plunger of some type that is situated within a switch housing
having at least two contacts in communication with an electrical circuit within which the
switch is incorporated.
Typical actuators used for contact switches include spring loaded force cap actuators
that reciprocate within a sleeve disposed within the canister. The actuator is typically
 44

coupled to the movement of the cap assembly, such that the actuator translates in a
direction that is parallel with the cap. A push button switch for a data input unit for a
mobile communication device such as a cellular phone, a key board for a personal
computer or the like is generally constructed by mounting a cover member directly on a
circuit board. Printed circuit board (PCB) mounted pushbutton switches are an inexpensive
means of providing an operator interface on industrial control products. In such push
button switches, a substrate which includes a plurality of movable sections is formed of
a rubber elastomeric. The key top is formed on a top surface thereof with a figure, a
character or the like by printing, to thereby provide a cover member. Push button switches
incorporating lighted displays have been used in a variety of applications. Such switches
are typically comprised of a pushbutton, an opaque legend plate, and a back light to
illuminate the legend plate.

7.6 Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a
constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active
electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more
AC or DC voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.
 Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and
 Negative Voltage Series (79xx)

78xx
’78’ indicate the positive series and ‘xx’indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7805
produces the maximum 5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is 5V.
79xx
’79’ indicate the negative series and ‘xx’indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7905
produces the maximum -5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is -5V.
These regulators consists the three pins there are
Pin1: It is used for input pin.
Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator.
Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.
 45

Figure: Regulator

7.7 UNIDIRECTIONAL CURRENT CONTROLLER

Here in the place of unidirectional current controller we are using diodes
which allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol
shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a
valve and early diodes were actually called valves.

Figure: Diode Symbol

A diode is a device which only allows current to flow through it in one direction.
In this direction, the diode is said to be 'forward-biased' and the only effect on the signal is
that there will be a voltage loss of around 0.7V. In the opposite direction, the diode is said
to be 'reverse-biased' and no current will flow through it. By connecting this device the
current cannot flow in reverse direction from battery.
 46

CHAPTER 7

PWM BASED MOSFET DRIVER

7.1 PWM

Pulse-width modulation (PWM) of a signal or power source involves the modulation of

its duty cycle, to either convey information over a communications channel or control the
amount of power sent to a load.

7.2 Power delivery

PWM can be used to reduce the total amount of power delivered to a load without losses
normally incurred when a power source is limited by resistive means. This is because the
average power delivered is proportional to the modulation duty cycle. With a sufficiently high
modulation rate, passive electronic filters can be used to smooth the pulse train and recover an
average analog waveform.

High frequency PWM power control systems are easily realisable with semiconductor
switches. The discrete on/off states of the modulation are used to control the state of the
switch(es) which correspondingly control the voltage across or current through the load. The
major advantage of this system is the switches are either off and not conducting any current, or
on and have (ideally) no voltage drop across them. The product of the current and the voltage at
any given time defines the power dissipated by the switch, thus (ideally) no power is dissipated
by the switch. Reallistically, semiconductor switches such as MOSFETs or BJTs are non-ideal
switches, but high efficiency controllers can still be built.
 47

PWM is also often used to control the supply of electrical power to another device such
as in speed control of electric motors, volume control of Class D audio amplifiers or brightness
control of light sources and many other power electronics applications. For example, light
dimmers for home use employ a specific type of PWM control. Home use light dimmers
typically include electronic circuitry which suppresses current flow during defined portions of
each cycle of the AC line voltage. Adjusting the brightness of light emitted by a light source is
then merely a matter of setting at what voltage (or phase) in the AC cycle the dimmer begins to
provide electrical current to the light source (e.g. by using an electronic switch such as a triac).
In this case the PWM duty cycle is defined by the frequency of the AC line voltage (50 Hz or 60
Hz depending on the country). These rather simple types of dimmers can be effectively used
with inert (or relatively slow reacting) light sources such as incandescent lamps, for example, for
which the additional modulation in supplied electrical energy which is caused by the dimmer
causes only negligible additional fluctuations in the emitted light. Some other types of light
sources such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), however, turn on and off extremely rapidly and
would perceivably flicker if supplied with low frequency drive voltages. Perceivable flicker
effects from such rapid response light sources can be reduced by increasing the PWM frequency.
If the light fluctuations are sufficiently rapid, the human visual system can no longer resolve
them and the eye perceives the time average intensity without flicker.

7.3Voltage Regulation

PWM is also used in efficient voltage regulators. By switching voltage to the load with
the appropriate duty cycle, the output will approximate a voltage at the desired level. The
switching noise is usually filtered with an inductor and a capacitor.
 48

One method measures the output voltage. When it is lower than the desired voltage, it
turns on the switch. When the output voltage is above the desired voltage, it turns off the switch.

7.4 MOSFET

The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS

FET), is by far the most common field-effect transistor in both digital and analog circuits. The
MOSFET is composed of a channel of n-type or p-type semiconductor material (see article on
semiconductor devices), and is accordingly called an NMOSFET or a PMOSFET (also
commonly nMOSFET, pMOSFET, NMOS FET, PMOS FET, nMOS FET, pMOS FET).

The 'metal' in the name (for transistors up to the 65 nanometer technology node) is an
anachronism from early chips in which the gates were metal; They use polysilicon gates. IGFET
is a related, more general term meaning insulated-gate field-effect transistor, and is almost
synonymous with "MOSFET", though it can refer to FETs with a gate insulator that is not oxide.
Some prefer to use "IGFET" when referring to devices with polysilicon gates, but most still call
them MOSFETs. With the new generation of high-k technology that Intel and IBM have
announced [1], metal gates in conjunction with the high-k dielectric material replacing the
silicon dioxide are making a comeback replacing the polysilicon.

Usually the semiconductor of choice is silicon, but some chip manufacturers, most
notably IBM, have begun to use a mixture of silicon and germanium (SiGe) in MOSFET
channels. Unfortunately, many semiconductors with better electrical properties than silicon, such
as gallium arsenide, do not form good gate oxides and thus are not suitable for MOSFETs.

The gate terminal in the current generation (65 nanometer node) of MOSFETs is a layer
of polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon; why polysilicon is used will be explained below) placed
over the channel, but separated from the channel by a thin insulating layer of what was
traditionally silicon dioxide, but more advanced technologies used silicon oxynitride. The next
generation (45 nanometer and beyond) uses a high-k + metal gate combination. When a voltage
is applied between the gate and source terminals, the electric field generated penetrates through
the oxide and creates a so-called "inversion channel" in the channel underneath. The inversion
channel is of the same type — P-type or N-type — as the source and drain, so it provides a
conduit through which current can pass. Varying the voltage between the gate and body
modulates the conductivity of this layer and makes it possible to control the current flow
between drain and source
 49

7.5 Circuit Working Description:

This circuit is mainly designed to control the speed of the AC induction

motor and DC motor. The MOSFET are used to control the speed of the motor by varying the
supply voltage to the motors. The MOSFET is switched with very high speed with the help of
PWM waves. The PWM waves are generated by the PIC microcontroller. The PWM time period
and duty cycle is controlled by the software.

In the microcontroller we are generating two PWM waves with different time period.
They are used to drive the two set of MOSFET drivers through AND gate. So the AND gate is
used to change the switching time between the two set of MOSFET drivers. When the duty cycle
of both the PWM waves is high, the output of the AND (IN1) gate is high which is given to
transistor network. The transistor network is consists of BC 547 and BC 557 transistor. Now the
both the transistor is conducting, due to that 12v is given to MOSFET Q1 and Q2 gates. So the
MOSFET are switched ON and delivered the output on the center tapped transformer.

In the center tapped transformer, the DC input is given to middle terminal and other two
end terminals are connected in the each of the MOSFET drivers Drain terminal. The DC input
negative terminal is connected in the source terminal. Similarly in the next of duty cycle, another
AND gate (IN2) output is high which drive another set of MOSFET drivers.
 50

Due to high switching speed the given DC input is converted to related sine wave which
is step up through the transformer. This AC voltage is delivered in the transformer secondary.
This AC voltage can be used to drive the AC induction motor. Suppose if you want to drive the
DC motor the corresponding AC voltage is rectified through bridge rectifier.
 51

CHAPTER 8

BATTERY

8.1 NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERY

The nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd battery or NiCad battery) is a type of rechargeable

battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. The abbreviation Ni-
Cd is derived from the chemical symbols of nickel (Ni) and cadmium (Cd): the abbreviation
NiCad is a registered trademark of SAFT Corporation, although this brand name is commonly
used to describe all Ni–Cd batteries.

Wet-cell nickel-cadmium batteries were invented in 1898.A Ni-Cd battery has a terminal
voltage during discharge of around 1.2 volts which decreases little until nearly the end of
discharge. Ni-Cd batteries are made in a wide range of sizes and capacities, from portable sealed
types interchangeable with carbon-zinc dry cells, to large ventilated cells used for standby power
and motive power. Compared with other types of rechargeable cells they offer good cycle life
and capacity, good performance at low temperatures, and work well at high discharge rates
(using the cell capacity in one hour or less).

However, the materials are more costly than types such as the lead acid battery, and the
cells have higher self discharge rates than some other types. Sealed Ni-Cd batteries require no
maintenance. Sealed Ni-Cd cells were at one time widely used in portable power tools,
photography equipment, flashlights, emergency lighting, and portable electronic devices. The
superior capacity of the Nickel-metal hydride batteries, and more recently their lower cost, has
largely supplanted their use. Further, the environmental impact of the disposal of the heavy metal
cadmium has contributed considerably to the reduction in their use. Within the European Union,
they can now only be supplied for replacement purposes although they can be supplied for
certain specified types of new equipment such as medical devices.

Larger ventilated wet cell Ni-Cd batteries are used in emergency lighting, standby power,
and uninterruptible power supplies and other applications.

8.1.1 CHARACTERISTICS
The maximum discharge rate for a Ni–Cd battery varies by size. For a common AA-size
cell, the maximum discharge rate is approximately 18 amps; for a D size battery the discharge
rate can be as high as 35 amps. Model-aircraft or -boat builders often take much larger currents
of up to a hundred amps or so from specially constructed Ni–Cd batteries, which are used to
 52

drive main motors. 5–6 minutes of model operation is easily achievable from quite small
batteries, so a reasonably high power-toweight figure is achieved, comparable to internal
combustion motors, though of lesser duration. In this, however, they have been largely
superseded by lithium polymer (Lipo) and lithium iron phosphate (LiFe) batteries, which can
provide even higher energy densities.

8.1.2 VOLTAGE

Ni–Cd cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 volts (V). This is lower than the 1.5 V of
alkaline and zinc–carbon primary cells, and consequently they are not appropriate as a
replacement in all applications. However, the 1.5 V of a primary alkaline cell refers to its initial,
rather than average, voltage. Unlike alkaline and zinc–carbon primary cells, a Ni–Cd cell's
terminal voltage only changes a little as it discharges. Because many electronic devices are
designed to work with primary cells that may discharge to as low as 0.90 to 1.0 V per cell, the
relatively steady 1.2 V of a Ni–Cd cell is enough to allow operation. Some would consider the
near-constant voltage a drawback as it makes it difficult to detect when the battery charge is low.
Ni–Cd batteries used to replace 9 V batteries usually only have six cells, for a terminal
voltage of 7.2 volts. While most pocket radios will operate satisfactorily at this voltage, some
manufacturers such as Varta made 8.4 volt batteries with seven cells for more critical
applications. 12 V Ni–Cd batteries are made up of 10 cells connected in series.

8.1.3 CHARGING
Ni–Cd batteries can be charged at several different rates, depending on how the cell was
manufactured. The charge rate is measured based on the percentage of the amp-hour capacity the
battery is fed as a steady current over the duration of the charge. Regardless of the charge speed,
more energy must be supplied to the battery than its actual capacity, to account for energy loss
during charging, with faster charges being more efficient. For example, an "overnight" charge,
might consist of supplying a current equals to one tenth the amperehour rating (C/10) for 14–16
hours; that is, a 100 mAh battery takes 10mA for 14 hours, for a total of 140 mAh to charge at
this rate.
At the rapid-charge rate, done at 100% of the rated capacity of the battery in 1 hour (1C),
the battery holds roughly 80% of the charge, so a 100 mAh battery takes 120 mAh to charge
(that is, approximately 1 hour and fifteen minutes). Some specialized batteries can be charged in
as little as 10–15 minutes at a 4C or 6C charge rate, but this is very uncommon. It also
exponentially increases the risk of the cells overheating and venting due to an internal
 53

overpressure condition: the cell's rate of temperature rise is governed by its internal resistance
and the square of the charging rate. At a 4C rate, the amount of heat generated in the cell is
sixteen times higher than the heat at the 1C rate. The downside to faster charging is the higher
risk of overcharging, which can damage the battery and the increased temperatures the cell has to
endure (which potentially shortens its life).
The safe temperature range when in use is between −20°C and 45°C. During charging,
the battery temperature typically stays low, around 0°C (the charging reaction absorbs heat), but
as the battery nears full charge the temperature will rise to 45–50°C. Some battery chargers
detect this temperature increase to cut off charging and prevent over-charging. When not under
load or charge, a Ni–Cd battery will self-discharge approximately 10% per month at 20°C,
ranging up to 20% per month at higher temperatures. It is possible to perform a trickle charge at
current levels just high enough to offset this discharge rate; to keep a battery fully charged.
However, if the battery is going to be stored unused for a long period of time, it should be
discharged down to at most 40% of capacity (some manufacturers recommend fully discharging
and even short-circuiting once fully discharged), and stored in a cool, dry environment.

8.1.4 CHARGING METHOD

A Ni–Cd battery requires a charger with a slightly different voltage than for a lead–acid
battery, especially if the battery has 11 or 12 cells. Also a charge termination method is needed if
a fast charger is used. Often battery packs have a thermal cut-off inside that feeds back to the
charger telling it to stop the charging once the battery has heated up and/or a voltage peaking
sensing circuit. At room temperature during normal charge conditions the cell voltage increases
from an initial 1.2 V to an end-point of about 1.45 V. The rate of rise increases markedly as the
cell approaches full charge. The end-point voltage decreases slightly with increasing
temperature.

8.1.5 OVERCHARGING
Sealed Ni–Cd cells consist of a pressure vessel that is supposed to contain any generation
of oxygen and hydrogen gases until they can recombine back to water. Such generation typically
occurs during rapid charge and discharge and exceedingly at overcharge condition. If the
pressure exceeds the limit of the safety valve, water in the form of gas is lost. Since the vessel is
designed to contain an exact amount of electrolyte this loss will rapidly affect the capacity of the
cell and its ability to receive and deliver current. To detect all conditions of overcharge demands
great sophistication from the charging circuit and a cheap charger will eventually damage even
the best quality cells.
 54

8.2 LITHIUM-ION BATTERY

A lithium-ion battery (sometimes Li-ion battery or LIB) is a member of a family of
rechargeable battery types in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive
electrode during discharge, and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium
compound as the electrode material, compared to the metallic lithium used in the non-
rechargeable lithium battery.
Lithium-ion batteries are common in consumer electronics. They are one of the most
popular types of rechargeable battery for portable electronics, with one of the best energy
densities, no memory effect, and only a slow loss of charge when not in use. Beyond consumer
electronics, LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, electric vehicle, and aerospace
applications. Research is yielding a stream of improvements to traditional LIB technology,
focusing on energy density, durability, cost, and intrinsic safety. Chemistry, performance, cost,
and safety characteristics vary across LIB types. Handheld electronics mostly use LIBs based on
lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), which offers high energy density, but have well-known safety
concerns, especially when damaged.
Lithium iron phosphate (LFP), lithium manganese oxide (LMO) and lithium nickel
manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) offer lower energy density, but longer lives and inherent safety.
These chemistries are being widely used for electric tools, medical equipment and other roles.
NMC in particular is a leading contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt
aluminum oxide (NCA) and lithium titanate (LTO) are specialty designs aimed at particular
niche roles.

8.2.1 CHARGE AND DISCHARGE

During discharge, lithium ions Li+ carry the current from the negative to the ositive
electrode, through the non-aqueous electrolyte and separator diaphragm. During charging, an
external electrical power source (the charging circuit) applies an over-voltage (a higher voltage
but of the same polarity) than that produced by the battery, forcing the current to pass in the
reverse direction. The lithium ions then migrate from the positive to the negative electrode,
where they become embedded in the porous electrode material in a process known as
intercalation.

8.2.3 FORMATS
 55

Li-ion cells are available in various formats, which can generally be divided into four
groups Small cylindrical (solid body without terminals, such as those used in laptop batteries)
Large cylindrical (solid body with large threaded terminals) Pouch (soft, flat body, such as those
used in cell phones) Prismatic (semi-hard plastic case with large threaded terminals, often used
in vehicles' traction packs) The lack of case gives pouch cells the highest energy density;
however, pouch cells (and prismatic cells) require an external means of containment to prevent
expansion when their state-of-charge (SOC) level is high.

BATTERY CHARGING PROCEDURE

The charging procedures for single Li-ion cells, and complete Li-ion batteries, are
slightly different.
A single Li-ion cell is charged in 2 stages:[citation needed]
1. CC
2. CV

A Li-ion battery (a set of Li-ion cells in series) is charged in 3 stages:[56]

1. CC
2. Balance (not required once a battery is balanced)
3. CV

Stage 1: CC: Apply charging current to the battery, until the voltage limit per cell is reached.

Stage 2: Balance: Reduce the charging current (or cycle the charging on and off to reduce the
average current)while the state of charge of individual cells is balanced by a balancing circuit,
until the battery is balanced.

Stage 3: CV: Apply a voltage equal to the maximum cell voltage times the number of cells in
series to the battery, as the current gradually declines asymptotically towards 0, until the current
is below a set threshold of about 3% of initial constant charge current
 56

CHAPTER 9
COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMP
9.1 INTRODUCTION
A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also called compact fluorescent light, energy-saving
light, and compact fluorescent tube, is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace an incandescent
lamp; some types fit into light fixtures formerly used for incandescent lamps. The lamps use a
tube which is curved or folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb, and a compact
electronic ballast in the base of the lamp.
Compared to general-service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of visible light,
CFLs use one-fifth to one-third the electric power, and last eight to fifteen times longer. A CFL
has a higher purchase price than an incandescent lamp, but can save over five times its purchase
price in electricity costs over the lamp's lifetime. Like all fluorescent lamps, CFLs contain
mercury, which complicates their disposal. In many countries, governments have established
recycling schemes for CFLs and glass generally.
CFLs radiate a spectral power distribution that is different from that of incandescent
lamps. Improved phosphor formulations have improved the perceived color of the light emitted
by CFLs, such that some sources rate the best "soft white" CFLs as subjectively similar in color
to standard incandescent lamps.

9.4 CFL POWER SOURCES

CFLs are produced for both alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) input. DC
CFLs are popular for use in recreational vehicles and off-the-grid housing. here are various aid
agency initiatives in developing countries to replace kerosene lamps, which have associated
health and safety hazards, with CFLs powered by batteries, solar panels or wind generators.
CFLs in solar powered street lights, use solar panels mounted on the pole

9.5 LIFESPAN
CFLs typically have a rated service life of 6,000 to 15,000 hours, whereas standard
incandescent lamps have a service life of 750 or 1,000 hours.[11][12][13] However, the actual
lifetime of any lamp depends on many factors, including operating voltage, manufacturing
defects, exposure to voltage spikes, mechanical shock, frequency of cycling on and off, lamp
orientation, and ambient operating temperature, among other factors.
 57

9.6 COST
While the purchase price of a CFL is typically 3–10 times greater than that of an
equivalent incandescent lamp, a CFL lasts 8–15 times longer and uses two-thirds to three-
quarters less energy. A U.S. article stated "A household that invested $90 in changing 30 fixtures
to CFLs would save $440 to $1,500 over the five-year life of the bulbs, depending on your cost
of electricity. Look at your utility bill and imagine a 12% discount to estimate the savings."
CFLs are extremely cost-effective in commercial buildings when used to replace
incandescent lamps. Using average U.S. commercial electricity and gas rates for 2006, a 2008
article found that replacing each 75 W incandescent lamp with a CFL resulted in yearly savings
of $22 in energy usage, reduced HVAC cost, and reduced labour to change lamps. The
incremental capital investment of $2 per fixture is typically paid back in about one month.
Savings are greater and payback periods shorter in regions with higher electric rates and, to a
lesser extent, also in regions with higher than U.S. average cooling requirements.

CONCLUSION :
The project “FOOT STEP POWER GENERATION SYSTEM” is successfully
tested and implemented which is the best economical, affordable energy solution to common
people.
This can be used for many applications in rural areas where power availability is less
or totally absence. As India is a developing country where energy management is a big challenge
for huge population. By using this project we can drive both A.C as well as D.C loads according
to the force we applied on the piezoelectric crystal.

APPENDIX

#include<pic.h>

#include"pic_lcd8.h"

#include"pic_adc.h"

unsigned char a=0,adc1,adc2,adc3;

void interrupt timer2(void)

{
 58

if(TMR2IF==1)

TMR2IF=0;

CCPR1L=a;

void main()

TRISA=0XFF;

TRISD=0X00;

TRISC=0X00;

TRISB=0X00;

Lcd8_Init();

Lcd8_Display(0x80,"FOOT STEP",16);

Lcd8_Display(0xC0," POWER GENERATION SYSTEM ",16);

Delay(65000);Delay(65000);Delay(65000);

a=0;

GIE = 1;

PEIE = 1;

TMR2IE = 1;

CCP1CON=0X0C; //pwm mode

PR2=249;

T2CON=0X01; //prescaler is 4

TMR2ON=1;
 59

Lcd8_Command(0x01);

while(1)

adc1=Adc8_Cha(0);

adc2=Adc8_Cha(1);

adc3=Adc8_Cha(2);

adc1=adc1/2;

adc2=adc2/2;

Lcd8_Display(0xc0,"vout:",5);

Lcd8_Decimal3c(0xc5,adc2);

Lcd8_Display(0x80,"vin:",4);

Lcd8_Decimal3c(0x84,adc1);

if(adc1<55){a++;if(a>199){a=199;}}

if(adc1>65)

a--;

if(a<5)

a=0;

TMR2ON=0;

else {TMR2ON=1;}

}
 60