MA NU

Z O O L O G Y .

M I LN E E D W A R D S
'

M E M B ER OF TH E I N ST I T L T

A D O P TE D B Y T H E CO UN C I L O F P UB L I C I N S TR UCT IO N O F F R A N C E .

TR A N S L A TE D BY

R . K NO X , M D . .
,

’
L BC T L R E R ON A N A T OM Y ,

A ND CO R R ES P O N D I \ G M E M B E R O F T H E I M P E IU \L OF

| L L US T RA T E D BY 5 0 0 F l R S T C L A S S '
W O O D E NG R A V ING S .

LON D ON

HE NR Y R ENS H A W ,
S TR A N D .

1 8 56 .
 N OTI CE .

T H I S m an u a l is on e o f thr e e which t ak e n to ge th e r fo r m th e
, ,

E l e m e n t a ry Co u rs e o f N at u ra l H ist o ry pre scrib e d a n d s a n c

t i o n e d by the Co u n cil o f P u blic I n str u cti on o f Fr a n c e Th e .

B o t a n ic a l w o rk w as w r itte n by th e gr an ds on of the ce l e bra te d

G
J u s s i e u th e M i n e r a l o gic a l an d e ol o gic a l p orti on o f the c o u rs e
by M F S Be ud a n t a g e n tl e m an distin g u ish e d fo r his k n o w
. . .
,

l e dge o f th e se sci e n c e s ; the Z oo l o gica l M an u a l n o w fo r ,

t h e first ti m e tr a n sl a te d is th e pro d u ctio n o f m y m o st

,

e stee m ed fr i e n d M M il n e Ed w ar ds o n e o f the fir st o f li v i n g
,
.
,

zoo l o gists .

The w o rk i n its o rigi n al fo r m h as a lre ady p a ss ed thr o u gh

, ,

s e v e n e diti on s : a s u r e pr oo f o f i ts m e rit It is a d m i ra bly .

a d a pt e d by th e si m plicity o f its styl e a n d pr a ctica l ch a r ac te r

, ,

to fo r m a s a fe te x t b o o k i n a l l sch o ols a n d c o ll e g e s a n d to
-
,

a i d i n th a t whi ch I h a v e n e v e r l o st sight o f n a m e ly — t he , ,

i n tro d u cti o n o f m y fa v ou rite pursuit Zo o l o gy i n to u n iv e r , ,

sitie s a s a r e co g n is e d bran ch o f g e n e ra l e du ca tio n .

Thi n ki n g it w o u ld b e b u t a n act o f j us tice tho u gh ta rdy , ,

to pl ace b e fo re the E n glish r e ad e r a w o rk o f a n e st e e m e d

fri e n d w hich a cco rdi n g to the fa shi o n o f the d ay has fo r m e d
, , ,

the s to c k i n tr a de o f s o m a n y E n glis h S c otch Irish an d , , .

A m e ric an lite ra r y co n tr a ba n dists I wr o te M E dw a rds o n

, .

t he s u bj ect an d re c e iv ed fro m him t he fo llo wi n g l e tte r

, a ,
-
v i NO TI C E .

g u a ran t e e to the p u blic th at the Tr an sl ati o n has b e e n un d e r

’
t ak e n wi th the A uth o r s full a ppr o b ati on
V r et l
e n es B a in s Py ren ee s O ri en t ale s
, ,

l e 2 8 A o nt , 1 8 55 .

M on si e ur e t ch e r Co n fr ere — ’
I l n e p eu t m etr e qu e tr es ,

a g r é abl e d e v o ir ar a i t r e s o u s v o s a u spic e s u n e tr a ducti o n

p
a n gl a is e d e m o n p e tit o u vr a g e él é m e n t aire d e Z oo l o gi e ;
a u s s i tot m o n r e t o ur a P a ri s j a u r a i s l e pl aisi r d e v o u s
a dr e ss e r u n e e x e m pl a ir e d e l a d e rn i e r e é diti o n L e n o mbr e .

’
( l es e x e m pl a ir e s d ej a v e n d u s s e l ev en t e n t o ut a pl u s d e

ce qu i m e fa it e sp ér e r qu e l a tr a ducti o n an gl a is e s e

pl a c e ra it bi e n .

V e u ill e z a gr é e r M on si e u r et ch e r Con fr ere l a n o uv e ll e

, ,

a ssur a n c e d e m a p a rfa ite con s i d er ati on .

M I L N E E D AR D S W .

A M . le D o ct e u r K n ox .

As sci e n tific m an a n d a t e ach e r o f An ato my an d o f the

a ,

gre at pri n cipl e s o f Z oo l o gy to th o us an ds i n cl u din g the n ame s ,

o f m an y o f the m o st c e l e br at e d sci e n tific m e n o f the d a I

y ,

o u ght n o t p e rh a ps t o n o tic e th e lit e r a ry pir at e s to wh o m I

h a v e j u st a ll u d e d w e r e it n o t th at d u ri n g the l a st hu n dr e d
, ,

y e a rs th ey h av e i n d e spite of m an y e x c e ll e n t E n glish writ e rs

, , ,

gre atly re t ar de d the progre ss of Z oo l ogy i n Brit a i n an d e ls e

wh e re wh e re v e r i n d e ed the E n glish l an gu age is spo k e n
, , , .

Ca re fu lly e x cludi n g fro m th e ir c o m pil ati on s al l e l e v a t e d an d

c o rr e ct vi e ws o f sci e n ce th ey h av e by th e ir an e cd otic an d
, ,

q u asi -p o pul a r styl e c on tribute d to d e b a s e the w orks o f the

,

m o st e mi n en t z ool ogists to such an ex te n t th at th e gran d ,

l a b o u rs o f Bu ffo n the m ast e rly r e s e a rch e s o f Cu vi e r the

G
, ,

pr o fou n d vi e ws o f oe th e Ok en an d Spi x can sc a rc e ly b e , , ,

re co g n is e d Th e ir vi e ws ar e a n ti -sci e n ti fi c an ti e d u c ati o n a l ;
.
,
-

c alc u l a t e d i f n ot d e vis e d to r e t a rd the progre s s o f t he

, ,

h u m an m i n d .

A si n gl e r e m a rk is r e quire d a n d w ill I tr ust su ffic e to , , ,

 NO T I C E .

’
ex pl a i n why this tra n sl ati on o f m y e st e e m e d fri e n d s w o rk
o ccu pi e s a c o n sid e r a bly l e ss sp a c e th a n the o rigi n a l The
'
.

tr a nsl ati on b e i n g addre ss e d to E n glishm e n l o v e rs of m a tt e rs

,

o f-fa ct i n sci e n c e a s w e ll as i n o th e r thi n gs it b e ca m e a d uty

, ,

I o w e d the p u bli c a n d publish e r to a v o id al l r e p e titi o n s ,

a l l Fr e n ch idi o ms a l l l e n gth e n e d tr e at m e n t o f physi ol o gica l

,

a n d m e t aphysic a l hyp o th e s e s ; b u t i n d o i n g s o I h a v e s cr u

u l o u sl a v o id e d o mitti n g a n y fa ct o r id e a o r o pi n i o n o f th e
p y
a uth o r . The c u rt a ilm e n t h a s b e en i n the l an gu ag e a l on e .

The an a to m ic a l d e t a ils o f th e w o rk I h a v e e n d ea v o ur e d to
giv e i n as bri e f c o n cis e an d si m pl e a m an n e r as be fits such
, ,

m a tte rs A n ato my i s a sci e n c e o f fac ts an d o f d e mo n str atio n s

.

e v e n wh e n th e o bj e c ts ar e pr e se n t as i n l e ct u r e s ( a n d this w a s
,
.
’
the o rigi n a l fo r m o f M Ed war d s s wo r k ) i t is a mist a k e to o v e r
.
,

l o ad th e ir d e scripti o n with t e r m s wh e th e r t e ch n ica l or po p u l a r

,

m y v as t e x p e ri e n c e a s a t e ach e r o f A n a t o my e a rly t a u ght m e

this I n Fr e n ch the e rr o r is l e ss o bvi ou s th an i n E n glish a
.
,

l an gu age which do e s n ot r eadily acc o m m o d at e its e lf to th o s e

c o m bi n atio n s o f u n cl as sic al t e rms which a l l scie n ce u n fo r
tun ate l y r e qu ir e s ; which s o u n d h a rshly to the e a rs o f th e
cl assic a l sch o l ar a n d h av e gr e atly r e t arde d n o d o ubt the
, , ,

acc o mplishm e n t o f th a t o bj e ct which is th e a i m o f this w o rk ,

na m e ly — the i n tr o d u cti on i n E n gl a n d o f Z o o l o gy as a bran ch

,

o f pr i m a ry e d u c ati on .

R . K .
 T A BLE OF CONT ENT S .

P A GE P A GE

Prel i mi n a ry Id ea s 1 Ge n e ra l Ch a ra cte rs of An i
Di vi si on of Nat u ra l Bodi e s m a ls
i n to Th r ee Ki n gd om s 2 Organi c Ti ssu e s an d Organ s
Re l ati on s u nde r whi ch Li v of A n i m a ls
i n g Be i n g s ar e S t u di e d 6 Cl a ssi fi ca t i on of F u n cti on s .

C O O
NF R M A TI O N A ND CLA S S I F I CA TI N O F O A N I MAL S .

F u n cti on s of Nu tri ti on F un c t i on s of Re l ati on

A b s orp t i on N e r v ou s Syste m
D i ge sti on Se n s i b i l i ty
Bl ood Tou ch
Ci rc u l at i on Taste
Sm ell
Ex h al ati on H eari n g
Se cr eti on s . Si g h t
Nu tri t i v e A ss i mi l at
i
on an d Move m en ts
Dec om posi ti on Voi ce
Ani m al H ea t I n te ll i ge n ce an d In st i n ct

O
H I ST R Y OF TH E P R I NC IPA L P H Y S I OO L G I CAL F UNCTI O NS .

Con si d e ra ti on s on th e Ge n e Ve rte b ra te A ni m als

ra l Pla n of th e Or gani ze .

ti on
Zool ogi ca l Cl as si fi ca ti on s
D i vi si on of t he An i mal
Ki ng d om i n to Pri m a ry
Di vi si on s an d i n to Cl ass e s
X T A B L E O F CO NT E N T S .

P A GE

A rti cul a te d A n i mal s Gaste ro pod as 471

I n sects Pte ro pod es 475
Myr i apod es A ce pha la 4 75
Mo ll u sco i d es
’

Ar ach ni d es 4 78
Cru sta cea Tun i ca ta, proper l y so cal l ed 4 78
W or ms ( Ve rm e s ) Br i ozoari a 4 80
A n n e l i d es . Zooph yte s 4 81
Rotatoria Echi n od e rma ta 4 83
Tur b e l l ari a A ca l eph a 4 84
H el m i n thi a Pol yps 4 85
I nfu sori a
''

Ce sto i d es 4 89
Moll u sca Sp on g iar i a 4 90
Moll u sca , prope rl y so cal l ed The Geog raphi ca l Di str i b u
Ce phal opode s ti on of Ani mal s
 L I S T O F TH E W O OD EN GR A V I NGS

CON T A I N E D I N T H I S WORK .

F IG .
F IG .

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ex
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a n o 29 . Ca
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.

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c a u k y a e on e . 32 . Art ri l S st e m i
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6 . H ad f E l p h t ( A s i a t i c )
e o an e an . 33 . S ct i o
e th H rt
n 0 e ea .

7 . Th e B tl ( C r b s )ee e a a u . 34 . V rt c l S ecti o f th H ea rt
e i a n o e .

7a .J ws f th s m I s ect
a o e a e n . 35 . V l l e s f th H art d Art i e s
a vu o e e an er .

8 M ll sc o f t h G s C l m ar e t
o u e e nu a 36 S ct i
u P m p r p re s e ti g th
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10 . L ow r w d T e e th o f th
e a an e

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n Ge rm o f a e

T oo th
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t h W hal b i i t ( th W h l e 45 i th L bste r
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Ar i c l —L um b ri c us M ari s
15 . ea o e av a o e u a on n n e .

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.

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e r ou s Th e e s n an . e t my o s .

i g sh w s th re c p t l e
n av n o e e ac 55 . N r s Syst m i M
e vo u e n an .

ft o Ch l e e . 56 . S cte o f th B r i C r b ll m
i on e a n, e e e u ,
27 . Gl ob l s o the H umu e Blo o d an , P s d M d ll O bl g t
on , an e u a on a a .

m agn i fi e d . C er bro spi l A xi s

e - na .
 xii L i sr or TH E wo o n E N GRAV I NG S .

n o . PIG .

58 . En a vi n g to D o ble
o w the sh u 1 00 Co mm o n S u i e
. q rr l .

oo ts

sud t
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1 05 Th e X oco p e — a p e n e B e e
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59 . S pe ri o r po rti
u o f th e G n gli on a . yl C r t r .

r y Syste m
o ni i . 1 06 N e . o f the X st o o p e , o r Ca r yl c
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60a
61 .
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t h e G rd e s
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t r
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an u n o 1 1 0 Th e . e a ve B r .

th e E a r . 111 e . N st
o f t he e u i an R p bl c .

63 . Sm a ll B o n e s o f th e E ar . 1 12 e . V rt c l
i a S ec i o n o f a a
’
Ne t W sp s st .

64
65
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,

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.

66 .
Li ght .

D i a gram i ll u st ra ti n g th e R e fr ac
ti o n o f L i ght from a ra r e i n to a
1 1 5 C i m anz é
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.

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n n 1 18 S e e on
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68

69
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1 19
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.

a n i um a n d c a e
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70

71
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74 . 1 22 Th Cra w fi h
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75
76
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79
80
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. 1 26 to 1 30

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84 S e . tok tc h sh
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a .

e
o f th e S e a
o f th e
ty l o p te r u s
in i —D ac Fly g F sh l . a rr
s i ti o
A p ar tu
ge m e t d re l ti po an
f th e g r t Or g i c
n
i th V e rt b ra t a
o
a ses n
n an

e
ea
a

e
ve
an

pm o re s peci l ly i n M am
.
,

90 Th e Ga e o i th ecu s
. l . an ‘ e a
. k l t
9 1 S e e o n o th e B a t . m a ls .

92 . o f t he V t r
ul u e . 1 3 8 Sk e l to n o f t h O st ri c h
. e e .

thr t d p Mo n 1 3 9 N e r o s S yst m o f I s e ct
93 t i te -
—C r b s f t h G rd s
. oa e S a ajo u . v u e an n
e ofk ys A r c
me i a . a a u o e a en .

94 na o m
. A t y
o f the H u m an L a nx ry . 1 40 Id l S e c t i o
. ea f t h e B dy f n o o o a
95 Cra w fi h - s

1 41 Th e S co l p e d ra —
. .

96 ’ C e ti pe d e o n n .

Th eA n t -l i c ti
i .

. 1 42 Id al S ct i o
. e f th B o dy f e n o e o a

98 . L r
The a va o f th e A n t -l i o n . C ph alop d o us M ll u s
e o o c .

99 . P
The i tfa ll o f d i tt o . 1 43 . Li m n e us S tag u al i s .
 L I ST O F TH E W OOD E N GRAV I N G S . x iii
F IG
1 44
1 45 .
.
.

n a om
i ni a
A t
Act
o f th e S u
.
y l g .
PI G
1 84 .
.

Th e R b ck
c ll d C h
a
oe
e
u .

am ois
( A t p ag e
by an e
23 5 i t i s
rr r
o of
1 4 6 Tal i tr u s
. .
r ss )
th e e .

1 47 u u
. I l s .
1 85 . Th e ol e.
1 48 A i o n

1 50 .
g
.

1 49 Be thy l u s
.

e p u aTh l h s
r .

.
1 86

1 87 .
.

F
1 H m r s o f th e M l e
.

o
o
u
e ar
S t m c hs o f th e S h p
a
e
r - m d H d o f th e M o l e
2
u
an an

ee .
o . .

1 51 om e
. D st
i c Sp i e d r . 1 88 . In t ri r o f the S to m achs of th e
e o
1 52 Th e

1 54
.

1 53 Th e
.

o if e a
.
ee

R
e ei
t r
L ch
N r s
.
.

.
1 8 9 Ca u ca s w n
1 90
.

.o n o i an
ac e
M g l
a e
S he e
p.

RR c .

1 55 As a i
1 56
.

e vo u
.

c
c rs
N r s yst
S e m o f th e
.

— p ia A lys .
1 9011 The o un
.

i n g th e o
e m n on ,

p i
fr
ac e ,
Y
ep e en
a wn
gM
C tc R r rs t
dr
P rc l —
n al
°

1 57 S o i al A s c1 di ae
. P o r 0 ph o r a . om th e o .

1 58 o e ai n e Cy r 1 906 on o , omM g l fr ’
l a r k e s Tr a ve l s
P l d —H l
.
p aea . . .

1 59 S e o f t h e
. h ll a u ina e ix . 1 900 B o s e sm an , o r
.
'

e ow A i ca n Y ll fr
1 60 n a om
. A t of th e ac a M tr ace , fr ’
o m B ur ch e ll s Tr a ve l s
Ac p l o s M o ll sc)
e a u u i n S ou the n Af r i car .

161 . Th e H y l a ea .
l 90d B o s e s m an
.
p a in l y g
'
on th e
P olyp of Ari s o r h fr o m B u rc h e ll
1 62 Th e c p s
—
. u , or u a ,
.

t o tl Po lpe u e . 1 900 . A n A b ri gi l N ti e o f A u
o na a v s

1 63 . Th e H o l th r i o u a . t ral i fro m P ro a, e n .

1 64 . P olyp o f th e C r l o a . 1 9Qf . Sk l l of uT sm i a a a n an .

i m ( Ne g r o C rani m )
‘

1 65 . R hi s t mzo o a . C fi aC re r an u u

1 66 . S t al k f th e C o ral
o .

1 67
1 68
1 69.
.

.
P olyp o f th G e n s C a yophil l i s
S po g e
I f s ri a
n u
n
o
.

.
e u r . 1 90i
1 91
1 92
.

.
e.

o
e
an
C h ro k e H e a d
E thi p i
a
Wh t
ce
i e -fac e M aki , wi th i tsYo u u g
Rd .
.

1 70 . C o mm o D olp hi o P o rpoi s e
n n, r : 1 93 D o g - ace
. f
a oo n dB b .

th d o lp hi
e f th e ci ts w s n o an en a Th e an e P th r .

t h p rp o i s e ; th e d l p hi n o f
e o o 1 95 Th e S p o e
. aen att d H y .

m o d r s i l rs i s fish Th e S o a , o r t t W s l
—
e n a o a . ea e .

1 71 . Th S ri g
e a Op o ss m ue u . Co mm o n O tter .

1 72 Th e P rc p i e o u n F ox
Th e S e al—P h o c a
. . .

1 73 . Th P g l
e an o in . .

Th e B a t c all e d O re il l ard o r
1 74
1 75
.

. R
S k le t
e

Hor d
n
f t h C am e l
on o
hi o c ro s o f In di a o r S i gle
ne
e
.
e

,
.

n
201 . Bat w al ki n g
,
-
,

W i d e e a re d ; als o Gre a t ca re d
.
-
.

1 76 . H a d f th G a t
e o e o . 202 . M u s arai gn e o r S hre w Mo u s e ,
.

1 77 . H e d o f th E l k
a e . 203 . Th e H e dg e h o g .

Th e C am p a gn o l o r W a t e r Ra t
1 78
1 79
.

.
The A si t i c E l ph t
H a d o f th T p i r
e
a
e
e
a
an
.
.

205 . H e a d o f a o de n t R ,

.
.

1 80
1 81
.

. k
Th e D e s m
S el t f a C e t ace n —D g o g
e on o
N B Th s l ct i n o f th k
. .
an .

e e e
a
o
u

e s
n
e»
.
Th e L e ro t
Th e J e r b o a
H e ad o f r d ll o
.

th e A m a i
.

l e t o o f t h D go g t e
n e u n o r Th e Arm ad i ll o C b a ss ou a .

pre s t C t en s to ab e ace an , i e 21 0 . e Th e Z b r
a .

r gre tt e d f tw re s s th
e or o a on e 21 1 . o o H i pp p t am u s .

D go g i o t stri ctly c t a
u n s n a e 21 2 . on Bi s .

c eo a im l ;
us a d s c
n dl y a n e on , 21 3 . u x M sk O .

th fig r i t h o ri gi l 2 1 4 M ouflo n
'

e n n e na

s? c pi d fr m th e
e u e v . .

i s ob i
Os m se s
v ou
s il
w hi ch sk l to th st r m i
of C
en i r i
e e
o s
n
o
es
e
e

e nu
uv e
o

,
n

s
2 1 5 The S a
21 6
21 7
.

.ei n - e e
.
R t g
D r
.

w ti g I
an n mi d i t wi th
. ex a ne 21 8 . a e Wh l .

B ro C i r hi m s l f
a n uv e e . 21 9 an a o o
. K gr .

St r Sh l d r B n e s r th rhynchu s
r C as qu e—
1 82 . e m nu d an ou e o 2 20 O n i
. o .

o f t h e O rni th o rhy ch s P ar n u a 221 Cas o a a G al e a t e d C a s

s o w a r y—C a s u ar i u s G al e a t u s
.
.

1 83 .
d oxus
v
.

P e l i s of the s am e A ni mal . 222 . S qu e l e tt e d e G oé l an d- S e l e t on k .

xi v L I ST or TH E woo n E NGRA V I N G S .

PIG . P1 6 .

of B l ack h e a d e d G ul l
th e - 26 1 C l i b ri
o H m m i g B i rd
or u n
P rr q t—A
. .
,

L a ru s M a ri n u s
L g p s—P t rmi g an
. 26 2 . a o ue ra .

22 3 . H e ad o f the E a gl e . a o u a .

2 24 . Bo n e s o f th e S h o ul d e r a n d S te r C omm H o cco on .

225 . W g —Gr F tlcF r g t B rd

n um .

i n o f th e a o n .
26 5 . Th Cr
u o
e ane

B t r f E ro p e —C o mm o n
o
.

u Bi t

2 27 .
F r é te

W —g M y rr H —kW d
Aq l
P e i can u s
ea

ui u e
i n o f th e S p a o w
i a
.
e

aw .
i
26 7
26 8 .
Fl t re
am i ngo
n

S e a S w a ll o w
.

k r—F c s
228 Pic o en E p é i ch e oo 26 9 L e za rd Ve rt P i q u e té Th e
Gre e n L i za rd—Lac e rta Vi ri di s
. .

p ec e i u
Ib s— r d Ib s—Ib s
. .

2 29 i Th e S ac e i i 27 0 T e st u d o G raeca
N aja A spi c —C o b ra
. . .

l i gi o sa . 27 1 . .

230
23 1
23 2
M ch o t
Ai gl o y l — y l E a gl e
.

A t r ch d A f q
u
an
e
u
R .

A fri ca
e
a s
’
R o
ri
a

ue
.

n
27 3 . ee
Ch al cw
G r k T rt s e —T e st u do Grze ca
o oi
k l t
27 4 S e e o n o f a
.

T o rto i s e
.

O stri ch —S t r th o C am l s
. . .

u i e u 27 5 e
. G ck
o o f th e W all s .

233 E h d E Op
c as se
’
ur e 27 6 C l
am e e o n

rd M re s —Th S e a D ck u t e—
. . . .

234 C . an a ac u e e u . 2 7 7 The
. T r l T e stu do C are tt a .

23 5 C r B ra i o f I chthy s r s
’
. d A t
e h
ve a u u r uc e n 27 8 . o au u .

th O st ri ch
23 6 Th K i t e— al c M i l
. e
e
s
c —H d o f th e
FF .

o vu .
27 9
280
.

.
Pl s s r s
e i o au u
Dr g
a on , or
P t r d c tyl
lyi n g L i zar d F .

23 7 T ete d e
.

a l co F n.
au on ea 28 1
28 2
e o a
. Br
e
ai n o f a R e ti l e u pper s urface
.

, .

2 38 H e d f Pi s ci o ro s S e B i rd
23 9 V
.

to r au
a
e
V ult r —V l t r l s
. Th
o
u
a
Y ll w F au v
v u

F e
a
e o
. 2 83 ea . H d
o f th e e r p e n t to sh o w t h e
fo rk e d t o n g u e
H e ad o f t he Cro t alu s or attl e
.
,

R
a S —S t rk—A dj t a t
u e u u u vu .
,

240 C i o g ne ac o u n sn a ke
i d —C i co i
. .

r n a 285 H e ad of th e Ra ttl es n ak e to sh ow
24 1 G é i —C m m o B e e E a te r
. .
,

. u er o n th e e n o m o u s gl a n d
v .

28 6 H e art o f a T u rtle
t —Th G o t -S ck e r
e ro p s . . .

24 2 E g o l n u e ve n e a u 28 7 H e a rt a n d La rge Ve ss e ls o f a
— C p ri m lg s Pr p ri s
. .

M i —Th Sp rr w — ri n
g il l D m sti c
o n eau
a

a o
u

e
u
e
a
a
o
o
u .

F 28 9
Croco d i l e
A n a to m y o f the Sn a e
Th e A ga m e
.

k .

M rti Péche r—The Ki n gfishe r

. . .

n- 2 90 R attl e s n ak e
—
a u .

Al c d e o . 29 1 . Crocodi l e .

Pé li c P li c n
O ocr o to l n
an P l ic s
us
e
.
a e an u 292
29 3
.

.
T o ad
Tad
.

l e o r Y o un g o f th e ro g
, F .

Cala a C as q e

ce ro s hi c ro s
o
RR
Croi ss t
hi oc r s H o r bi ll B n
no
e
u
o
e
en

.
n
an
u
294 A x o
29 5 o 2 99t .
o tl
M etam
Bl o od v es se l s
.

o
o
h o se s o f t h e F r o g
th e Tad po l e .

247 T gue f G r i or s B i rd
. on
H d f th o d p c k r
ea

Di g sti A pp r t s i the ow l
e
o
ve
o a
e W an v

a a u
o e
ou

n
e .

F
. 3 01 Bl oo d ve s s e l s
la te r st a g e o f the i r d ev e o m en t
Th e sa m e stru c tur e s i n t e pe r
o f t h e Tad le at a

B i rd—the
.

250 Ar te ri l S st m
G reb
.

l m b us
f a e o a

303
R
fe e t A n i m al
Sk e l e to n o f th e r o g
.

F
—
e, o
y . . .

251 L gs f B i rd
. un

252 L ary nx o f t h e C rb e i ll e
.
o
o ok
a .

o R .
a i n e tt e
A qu a ti c S al am an d e r
.

Th e Re d M u ll e t M ull u s B arba tus

.

E i de r —
253 . 3 06 .
-

th e E i d r G oo s e A s S k el e to n o f t h e P e rch
.

e na 307
Cran i um o f the Pi ke —E s o x
, . .

255 G
M l li i a
. a
o
et o V to ur d e A g
rd e d V l tur o Lae mm e
e
ss i n

, x r
.

au s n e au 3 09 .

i sh F R
H e ad a n d e s pi ra to ry Ap p ara t u s
.

S wo rd -E sh—
ea u e, r r of a .

ye r 31 0 E s p ad o n Xi p hi as
2 56 Th Owl —S co ps V u lga ri s
e . .

. e . Glad i u s .

D o rs al Fi n
2 57 B i d f P aradi s e
25 8 Si tt ll
2 59 L rk
.

a
r
e
o
e.
. 31 1
312
31 3
.

. D o rsal E n o f th e e m o ra
Th e e m o a R r
.

R .

2—
. . .

6 0 W ren . . 31 4 . The Tu bo t r .
 L I ST OF TH E WOOD E N G RAV I NG S . XV

A tho ph or —H d o f
F IG .

H e d o f th e Sh rk T ete
R
’
31 5 . a a . d un n e ea
31 6 . Hi pp m p s oca u t he . A thop hor t s o n a e u a, r
31 7
31 8
.

. R
S h rk
e
A b s
a

na
.

s pi r to ry A pp ar t u s o f th
a
a
3 59
W i ld B e
p p r Li p
H ym o p t r
d M di bl s o f th
a e . U e
en
e
an
.

e a
an e e

Gym t s E l ctr i s—th e E l B i s—W o d B g

. .

31 9 . no u 3 60 P i se d
e cu eo . un a es o o u .

tri c E l o f S ri m e 3 6 1 A pp r i l B cc l d
u na H emi p t er
. . a e u a
’
un e

3 20 . C mm T orp e d o
o on B cc l A p p ar t s o f
. u a a u a

3 21 E l t i c A pp r t s f t h e To H mi pt e r s I s c t o r

pz
. c r a a u e ou n e .

d o . 3 6 2 N m e st r L gi o t i s . e i na on r s r .

3 22 Th S i l r s E l t i c
e u u Pro bo sci s f B tte rfly
ec r us o a u
H ele or—V m p
. . .

3 23 . Th C m me C d o 3 64 M o ph
on o . . r us n a a .

3 24 . Th C tf e o r A t a i o
e o r ,
3 65 D i g st i App r t s o f B e tl e
s r c n. . e ve a a u a e .

3 25 Th e T un n 3 66 M l e L am p yri s M l e Gl w a a o
z
. .

D o rs l l w M laco p te rygi a
3 26

3 27
.

. Th Pi k e
a
A bd omi l i sh e s
e .
na 36 7
w rm

w rm
F
e m al L m p y i s — e m al e Gl w
a

.
n

. F o

o
e
.

.
a r F o

3 28 . Th e A ch y n ov 3 68 Ch i ll d . P ap il l M ach ao . ev e u on n

3 29 Th e P l i c a e L r f P p i li M hao a va o a o ac n.
—P p o f
. .

33 0 . Th e S t r g e o u 36 9 C hrys li d d M h
n . . a e e ac ao n u a

3 31 . Th S k te a e . P pil i o M hao a ac n .

33 2 . Th H m m r h e d d S ha rk
e a 3 70 P p i l
e - M h a e . . a io ac ao n

33 3 M o th f th e L m pr y
u o p il i o M h a e ac ao n

aS i —
. . .

The L m p r y

th B o dy f
e
a
Ve rt i c l S ecti o o f
a
f th A e
37 1 V
e
i g o f 3 72 B m b
.

M b e rry
o
n
one o
Si lkw o rm
d M uri r—M o th o f th e a R
e
n
nn
.

.
er
o
o e
a
.
e
.

l i d s G s Am p hi o m
e 37 3 C h rys li s
enu n e a
A to m y f th L r o f th e 3 74 L r e d e C si —La rva o f th
. .
, .

na o e a va . a v ou n e

Sp hi x n . G t na .

33 7 An t m y f th e B tt rfly Sph i
a o o 375 C i ( gro ss i ) G t m gn i
u e nx na a

gs
. . . u n ,

A to m y o f t h e T g m t y
Gr a ssho pp r o r 37 6 E p hem er —
na e u e ii ar e
S k l e to e f n o a E p hem er e , . a a.
L oc st 3 7 7 Th e N ym p h
A lp e s—C pri corn 3 7 8 Vr ll tt —P ti u s
u . . .

C p ri c r
a d o ne es a . i e e n .

o f th Al p s e 3 79 S c ra b é e ( Al des t a or e u cu s
C r —H o r y P s s —
. .

340 . P au s s u s o nu i ) S acre d B t le o f t n au su . ens ee e

34 1 B m by P ti t P
o x de N i t e E gyp t i s ao n n an
D rm st d u la rd— D e rm e st s
. .

E m p ro r M th
N o to c t —N t ecta
e o . e e e e

Cri q t—C i k t
ne e L d i o on ar ar u s
to — L a r a o f
. .

ue 38 1 L r
r c d e H a ve e a nn e n v
Gyri E i s
. .

t h M y -b g C kc h f r
th ri d Vé s i c te —Sp i sh
n r nu a e
C o t il i g
. e a u or oc .

M t an
M o rp h
ur
lie s —
ss
R er
M ti s
e
38 2 C
.

S
'
ly m a g i fi d
cu
t e r ll —Loc st
e an .
.

F
an

,
a e
n e .
an an

Bl tte —C ckr ach

34 7 . e ane a . au e e u .

C p ri c r C h rp ti r
O é d e—
a o ne a en e . a o o .

34 9 . rn Pl m d M th
o G ri ll
u e D m e sti q Ho se
o . on o ue u

3 51
352
.

.
C
Fo fi
P od
on Op
r l —E rwi g
cu e
s .

l l —P d r P o d e ll a
ur e e
Cri ck t
P hyl li
S
a

i f oli m )
o
i ll e S é ch ( P hyll i m
u a
.

ur u cc
e
e
F .

eu
u
e u

353
3 54
. F Ski p t il
u me L ci e r—F u
N r o s S ste m f I s cts
e v u
a
an
s 387 L i b ll l Dép ri m é
3 88 T rm i t s—
.

38 9 B o rd o
A tsoe n

B m b s o H m bl
o n
s .

e
. e
u
e u e
e
n
n

o
.

u
e .

r u e
l tte — H d o f th B —Ap i m
. .
.

355 T et e d rum
C ockro ach i we d fro m th 390 S i r g é t —Gi t Si re
. e a ea e ee a u sco .

fro t n
A pp di c s B ccaux d C ra be
. 3 91 V
,

B tt fl
v e
ss P ao d J o —P e ac ’
e .

. an e
ex
e
an
n
an
u ur
x .

oc k
—B c l A p pe d g s o f l e i pp e —D
e u un a

d P
en u er
u ca 3 92 D n s Pl a e a . a n ai e x an a i ex
C rb s
L u c u s 39 3 S h i de l Vi g ne—Sphi x o f th e
a a u .
pp i us .

3 57 L c Mé t lli q e a u an nx

pm
. u an e . a n
M e tal l i cu s . e .
x vi L I ST or TH E w oo n E NG RAV I N G S .

—O
n o .

3 94 . B o m by x fe u i ll e d e Chén e ak
l e af M o th
—P r
.

3 95 . P a l e de l a Vi gue y ali s o f th e
me . B al an u s .

3 96 . P e n t a to m aP C i m e x o n a t u s r 43 7 Li m u l u s o r M o l u cc a Cra b .

H a l y s —H a l y s ( u
.
.
,

3 97 . e s u face ) pp r r . N e rci s .

398 . C i al e C om m un e C omm o n 43 9 . L im bs o f an A n n e li d e o f th e ,

3 99
400
.
al m
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e
i ke t
F ea .
a.
.

44 1
g e n u s E un i ce
H e ad a n d Pro s
H e ad & c o f t h e N e re i s
.

o f th e Gl yce ra .

P i s —Bd B m
e .

(E st re—
. .
, ,
.

40 1 un a a Gro up o f S e r pul i e
( Est r s —é d fly
. e e u .

402
4 03
.

. T —T b s—D ly
ao n
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o S tyl op s
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x F .

m ag
F
Hyda ti n a
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.

a sci o l a H e pa t i c a .

C o mm on C alm ar—L o li go S a gi
, .

mfi ed
—th e L o s
.

405 P t a r i us
M ac hi l —M ach li s
. ou u e . .

406 .

I ul u s .
e

P o l yd e s m a P o l yd e s m u s I ul u s —
i . 44 7 . B ra n chi ae o f the Oc to pus
Or g an s o f C i rcu la ti o n a n d e spi
ra t i o n o f t h e O c t o u s .
.

R
C
o m l an a t u s p Argo n au t i n i ts s h e
yg ale — a n e a av e n ar i a
.
.
,

M Ar . 450 . N a u ti l u s .

4 1 0 E ye s o f th e
. ygale M . 451 . N e rvou s Syste m o f the S e pi a .

. r
4 1 1 N e vou s S yst e m o f th e M
y al e 4 52 . Amm on i te .

cc
4 1 2 B u al A p ar a t u s o f a S p i e r
. p . C a squ e .

4 1 3 S o pi on
. cr . An ato m y o f the Tur bo Pi ca t0 ,

414 . A
n a t o m y o f th e yga l e M . sh ow the A n a to m y o f a P ecti n i
4 15 . A H r
bdo m e n a n d e a t o f a S i d e p r . b ran chi a t e Ga st e ro po d e .

ér
4 1 6 Th i di o n m al m i g n a th e P l e ur o b ra n ch u s
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4 1 7 S r co p t d e l a G all e a u s S ca 4 56 E o i ls
ae
. . .

i i 457 a ina iaC r r

L go ste —S pi Lo bst r
. . .

A t y yst r
C lop rt —W o o o s e O i sc s
418 4 58 n a om o f th e O
T ll —T ll
. an u n e . . e .

419 4 59 e i ne e in a
Th Cr b—
o e u n u
o n e P e r l i er e — e a
. . . .

42 0 e M a ai a Ar d O P rl yst e r
P l e m —P aw
. . .

4 21 . a on r u . 46 1 B u cca r d e
. .

422 . H i pp a . . h ll
46 2 S e o f th e e e a u a T r br t l .

4 23 . N r o s Syst m of th e G b M
e v u e ra ai a . 46 3 . A
n i m al o f th e e e a u a T r br t l .

P o d p th al m s
o u . Pl
um a e a t ll .

An t ri o r P rti on f th e I e r S r
f ace o
e
f th B o dy f th Cr b M ai
C i rc l t ory A p p r t s f a Crab
u a
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o
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46 5 Bi h o r a , o n e o f th e S a pe
.

46 6 E c i n u
. sM r s
a in u , o r S e a
o r H e dg e h o g
rchi n
l
U .

A t m y f th Cr b—T o urt e
a u o
E n cri ni te s —E n cr i i i u s
. .

4 27 . na o o e a au . 46 7 . .

4 28 . R s pi r to ry App ra tu s o f th e
e a a H o l o th u ri a .

Pr w P lem o 46 9 M e d u s a P e l a gi c a
S q i lla —
a n, o r a n. . .

S h ri m p P o lyp s o f the Ge n u s A st roi d e s ’

4 29 . u . 4 70 .
, .

G i
e ca r c n L d Cr b or au a
No t re fe rre d t o by the a utho r
T o rte au —C a cer P agu
.
,

43 1 Cr b
.

a e u n
P o lyp s—V e r e ti l l aa—Aste ro i d P o
.

ms . 4 73 .

43 2 . A ni l o cr i s . l yp s .
 I NT R OD UC T I ON .

TH E task I h av e u n d e rtak e n an d which I n o w com

,

l e te is simpl e an d c o n for m a bl e to a ll my v i e ws studi e s

p , , , ,

an d pursuits .E st e e m fo r the au th or an d for a fam ily I h a v e

l ong k n ow n i n duc e d m e to u n d e rt ak e th e tr an sl ati on o f an
,

e l e m en t ar y w o rk o n Z o ol o gy o cc u pyi n g th at d ifficult an d

d o ubtful p o sitio n i n which al l such w o rks ar e o f n e ce ssity

pl ace d . A ddr e ss e d to pr o fe ssi on a l st u d e n ts an d yet n o t
,

e x cl u siv e ly s o w h o p a rti a lly e d u c at e d a s th e c a s e m ay b e a r e

, , , ,

a b o u t to qu ali fy th e ms e lv e s for e mb a rki n g i n s o m e on e o r

o th e r o f the gre at pr o fe ssi on s which fo rm th e occ u p ati o n o f

the i n te ll e ctu a l w o rld such studi e s s e e m u n ca ll e d for as

,

b arren of futur e pro fita bl e r e sults Th at such a fe eli n g pr e

.

v ai ls wi th m o st pro fe ssi on al studen ts —usi n g the te rm pr o

fe ss i on al i n its wid e st acc e pt ati on —I a m w e ll a w ar e ; i n d e e d ,

as r e g a rds the stud e n ts o f o n e o f th e s e l ea r n e d pr o fe ssi o n s ,

n on e can k n o w b e tt e r i f s o w e ll a s I d o
, , D ir e ct or o f th e
.

an ato mic a l studi e s o f m an y th o us a n ds o f m edica l st u d e n ts I ,

h av e e v e r fou n d th e m adv e rs e to sci e n ce strictly s o ca ll e d ;

,

e spe ci ally to th at br an ch o f z oo l o gical sci e n ce te r m e d N atur a l

H isto ry Th ey d e sir e d to b e pr actical Z ool ogy is n ot a pr ae

. .

tic al art i n this vi e w th e r e fo re it l eads to n othi n g

, , .

J ohn H u n te r had liv e d an d l a bo ur e d : his v a st ide a s his bril ,

li an t disco v e ri e s his vi ews which se e m m o re lik e i n spir ati o n s

, ,

th an the n atur al r e sult of an i n du stry u n s u rpa ss e d l ay bur i e d ,

i n the h all of a co rp o rat e bo dy with wh o m as a surg eo n he , ,

w as accid e n ta lly a ss o ci a te d : but he h ad l ab ou r e d i n v ai n .

x viii I N T RODUC TI ON .

H is v i e ws he pl ac ed be fo r e the w o rld i n the fo rm o f a m u s e u m ,

’
to whi c h n o n e o f the l abo urs o f m en s h an ds can b e c o m pa red
— u n l e ss it b e an d th e s e n o d o ubt e x c e l the h an diw o rk o f
, ,

th o s e w ho c a rv e d the Medice an V e n u s an d the Be lvid e re

A p oll o . F or n e v e r I b e l i e v e a t an y p e ri o d Of its hist o r y
, , ,

w as Zo o l o gy i n a l o w e r co n diti on i n Brit a i n th an th at i n
which I fo u n d it wh en retu rn i n g fro m Fran c e i n th e
, ,

s u mme r of 1 8 25 I submitte d to a sm all but s e l e ct cl as s an

G
,

o utli n e o f th o s e gr e a t vi e ws whi c h Fran ce an d e r m an y had

t a ught m e a n d which I h av e c on ti n u ed to m e dit a te a n d
,

re fl e ct o n to th e pr e s e n t d ay S i n ce th a t pe ri o d the e duca
.

ti on a l i n stit u ti on s o f the c o u n try h av e b e co m e so m e wh at

multipli e d p e rh aps i m prov e d The pr e ssure o f c on tin e n ta l
, .

Opi n i on h as told on Brita in an d er e l on g it is by n o m e an s

,

impr ob abl e the sci e n ce s o f simpl e obs e rvati on m ay b e d e e m ed ,

if n o t e q u al i n impo rta n ce to th os e gr e at br a n ch e s of hum an

k n owl e dge wrapp e d up i n the study of n u m b e rs a n d o f lit e
r atur e at l ea st e st ee me d us e ful p r actic ally c alcul a te d to
e x p a n d th e i n t e ll e ct—th e first Obj e ct o f a l l e d u c ati on
, ,

It i s a m att e r n ot on ly c u ri o us i n its elf b u t frau ght with ,

i n te r e st to the fu t u r e histo ri an to tr ac e h o w e v e r bri e fly the

, , ,

gradua l u n foldi n g o f m od e r n educa ti on as c on tra ste d n ot ,

m e re ly with the an ci e n t but with th at which e v e n i n my ,

yo un ge r d ays pr e v ail e d e v e rywh e r e The i n te re st li e s chi e fly

, .

i n co n tr a sti n g the l o w e stim ate which pr e v a il e d r e sp ecti n g

th e n at u re an d ch a r a cte r o f th e sci e n c e s o f simpl e o bs e r v a
ti on as co m pa r ed with tru e sci en ce ; th at d e scr ipti o n o f kn ow
,

l e dge which admits o f a p r i or i re as on i n g fr o m th at which ,

sca rc ely if at al l admits of such H e n c e n o doubt the

, , .
, ,

e x clusi o n o f ch e mist r y a n a to m y n at u ra l hist o ry

, , fro m the ,

cur ric u l u m o f al l u n ive rsiti e s sch ools co ll e g e s e x am i n i n g

, , ,

bo di e s Me dicin e an art mi sta k e n for a sci e n ce u surpe d

.
, ,

th e ir pl ac e an d th e s e bran ch e s o f k n o wl e d ge w e r e ta ck ed to
,

m e di ci n e fu rtiv e ly but n ot m e n ti on ed o r sp o k en o f a l ou d
, .

The sci en c e s I spe ak Of w e re m e re ly pe rmitte d to e xi st u n de r

a with e r e d an d d e gr a d e d fo rm ; an d a fac ulty which n e v er
 .
I N T RODU C TI ON . x x i

o ught to h av e h ad a pl ac e i n a n y u n i v e rsity c am e at l a st i n ,

m a n y to pl ay a pro m i n e n t p a rt ; a s i f to c o m pl e te th e mis
a ppr e h e n si o n s o f tr u e sci e n c e it r eq u ir e d o n ly to ad d to th e s e
,

the m e ch an ic a l a r t of s u rge ry ; an d this of co urs e foll o w e d

n or c o ul d it h a v e be e n o th e rwis e i n a c o u n try wh e r e co n s ta n ts

a re a l o n e l oo k e d on as v a l u a bl e a pplic a tiv e
, prod u ctiv e ; i n
,

d u str i a l facts be a ri n g o n th e gr eat qu e sti on s of pr o fit an d

l o ss —dire ct im m e di a te al on e e ste e m e d
G
, , .

e n e r a lly sp e a ki n g, the c on ti n e n t al u n iv e rsiti e s r e siste d

this po ll u ti on : th e y re fu s e d a l l a ss o ci ati on with fac u lti e s ,

m edi cal or o th e rwis e an d m o r e e sp e ci a lly th at o f Fr an c e ;

,

acce ss to the sci e n tific d e p art m e n ts o f th e a r m y w as cl o s e d by ,

th e rigo r ou s e d u c ati on an d e x am in ati o n o f th e P o lyte ch n ic

Sch oo l to al l w ho h a d n ot m a ste r e d th e e l e m e n ts at l e a st of
,

n atur a l sci e n ce ; whilst o f th e as pir an t fo r th e dipl om a of m e di

cin e a first u n i v e rsity d e gr e e w as d e m an d e d Now th at .

d e gr e e th e c an did at e c o uld n ot Obt ai n if ign o r an t o f th o s e

bran ch e s o f k n o wl e dge which c on stitut e N at u r a l H ist o ry The .

n e ce ssity pr o d u c e d a w an t n am e ly a b ri e f m an u a l o f i n stru o
, ,

ti on s u it ed to such a c a s e ; the w an t w as suppli e d i n r e sp e ct

o f Z o ol o gy by my fr i e n d M M il n e E dw a rds wh o s e w o rk i n
.
,

an E n glish dr e ss I n o w pr e s e n t to th e public ; th e b o t an ic a l

m an u a l w as the w o rk o f a d e s c e n d a n t of the ill u stri ou s

J u s s i e u ; the m i n e r a l ogic a l a n d g e ol ogi c a l by Be u d an t : th e
thre e co m prisi n g al l Natura l H isto ry .

B u t o f on e thi n g I am th o r ou ghly c on vi n c e d This i m .

pr o v e d c on diti o n o f educ ati on e v e n i n Fr an c e w as the r e s u lt

, ,

of a ccid e n t
,
— o f the accid e n ta l appe a r an c e i n F r an c e o f a m an

de sti n e d to r e v oluti on iz e a l l z oo l o gic al sci en ce vi e w e d un d e r

— G
,

e v e ry p o ssibl e a spe ct th at m an w as eo rge Cu vi e r To b e .

co n vin c e d of the truth of t his vi e w w e h a v e but r apidly to

,

tr ace th e histo ry of Zoo l o gy fro m the p e ri od o f th e i m m orta l

H i s tor i a A n i m a l i wm of A rist otl e to th at of S t P i e rr e an d
, .

F auja s St F on d
. .

Be for e R om e e xiste d an d be fo re the I l i a d w as c omp o s e d

, ,

E gypt h ad its P yr am ids an d its Th e be s ; that l an d of pr actica l

XX I N T RODUC TI ON .

sci en ce bord e re d on r e gi on s of the earth su rpas s ed b y n on e for

,

v a ri e ty i n the fo r m s o f an im al life I allude to A fric a withi n .

the tro pics N ea rly e v e ry an i m a l susc e ptibl e o f d om e s

.

ti cati on an d us e fu l to m an had b e e n appro pri a te d by the

Co ptic r ace o f E gypt an d N u bi a ; whilst al l th e wi l d e of
n atur e h ad in succe ssi on been e xhibite d to th e n ati on i n
v a ri ous t riumph al proce ssi on s B ut al l this w a s m e rely prac
.

tic al an d tr an sito ry It w as the s a m e with R om e Ea ste rn an d

.
,

We ste rn ; n o sci e n c e re sult e d fro m i t n o zoo l o gical sci e n ce at , ,

l e a st ; an d th e d a wn of civ iliza ti on whi ch r e -ope n ed i n E u ro pe

a fte r th e dre adful pe ri o d of the D ark an d M iddl e A g e s ,

fo un d z oo l o gica l an d n atur a l sci e n c e pr ecis ely wh e re i t was

l eft by P li n y—a tissu e o f pu e riliti e s of v a gu e hypo th e se s o f , ,

silly fan ci e s upo n which n o c ritiqu e h ad e v e r b e e n e x e rcis ed

, .

Notwith s tan di n g the o cc a si o n a l app e a r an c e of abl e m en it ,

c on ti n u e d i n this s ad st ate u n til th e cl o s e o f the se v en te e n th

ce n tury Ne ith e r z oo l ogy n or mi n e r al o gy n or g e o l o gy had
.

an y r e al e xi ste n ce .

I n 1 7 07 o r a bo ut th at p e ri od tw o m e n a pp e a r e d s i m u l t a
, , ,

n eo u sl d e stin e d to r e sc u e Zo ol o gy at l a st fr o m the d e grad e d

y ,

stat e to which P li n y a n d hi s imit ato rs a b ou n din g m o st ,

i n E n gl an d ha d r e d u ce d it
, Th e s e w e re Ca rl Li n n e an d the
.

'
Co un t de Bu fi on To th e s e tr uly gr e at m en we o we the first
.

a tt e mpt t o r e m o v e th e n atur a l sci e n c e s fr o m the c o n tr o l o f

th o s e i n to wh o se h an ds th e y had fall e n The ge n ius of .

'
L i n n é l ed to cl as si ficati on th at o f Bufi on to de scripti on ;
,

the on e d e fi n e d th e oth er d e scribe d

, But the ge n iu s of the .

l atte r was o f a high e r c ast : it an ticip ate d the futur e ; an d m e n

n o w r e ad with s u r p ris e a n d l e arn with a sto n ishm e n t
( a sur
pri s e an d a sto n ishm en t i n which I d o n ot p artak e ) th at Buffon
wa s n o m e re c ompil e r n o m e re li te rar y m an n o m e r e w rite r
, ,

d e sti n e d to ca pti v ate the w orld by the be au ti e s o f a sty l e u n

m atch ed I be li e v e i n Fran c e but a pro fou n d phil o s oph e r
, , , ,

w ho had a lr e ad y an ticip ate d n e a rly al l the grea t t ruths o f the

tran sce n d e n ta l i n sci e n c e Bu t n e ith e r Bu ffon n or Li n n é
.
,

whate v e r might h av e bee n the pro fu n dity of th e ir vi e ws ,

 I N T RODUC TI ON xx i

'
o fle r e d d e m on strati on o f the s e vi e ws
an This is wh at the
y .

wo rld l oo ks for an d r ightly e x pec ts ; rigid d e m on strati on

,

suppo rte d the N e wto n i an hypo th e sis e ls e N e wt o n had writt e n ,

'
i n v a i n Pal l i s s e t the po tte r had sa id as much a s Bu flon b u t
.
, , , ,

lik e him h e h ad off e re d n o d e m on strati o n an d th e w orld

, ,

l oo k e d o n the m as drea m e r s —d an ge rou s dre a m e rs —of wh o m

the l e ss n o tice th at wa s ta k e n the be tte r I n Brita i n e spe .
,
’ '
ci al l y Buflo n s w o rks a ppe a red strippe d o f al l th e ir l o fty
,

vi e ws dis fi g ur ed an d de gr ade d : h e pa s s ed e v e n i n Fr an ce
, , , ,

m e re ly a s the n atural i st w ho had be st d e scrib e d the ho t

bloo d e d qu adrupe ds as ce rta in m amm al s w e r e cal l e d e v en i n
,

m y d ays ; the bo ld conj e ct u r e s o f P al l i s s e t a n d of B u ffon

s ee med a bo ut to dis appea r fo r e v e r fr o m the fie ld of sci en c e
G
.

oe th e h ad fa i l e d to r e s u scita te th e m u n d e r o th e r for ms Th e .

ge ol o gica l th eo ri e s o f H u tto n an d P l ayfair w e re m et s u cc e ss

fu lly by the pl ausibl e hypo th e sis of W e rn e r ; wh en sudde n ly a
m an ap pe ar e d d e sti n e d to pl a c e n atur al sci e n ce fo r e v e r o n a
,

b asis w hich i f n ot s o fix ed as the E l e m en ts o f E uclid will at

G
, ,

the l e a st pro v e a s e n d u ri n g That m an w as eo rge Cuvi e r a

G
.
,

e r m an bo rn on Fr e n ch s o il ; an a n a t o m ist
,
This w on de rfu l .

m an o f a rigidly d e m on strativ e tu rn o f mi n d wh e n quite

, ,

y o u n g but w e ll educa te d be th o u ght hi m o f i n v e stigati n g

, ,
”
the u n k n o w n i n Zoo l o gy by m e a n s Of an a to m ic al re s e ar ch ,

the on ly w ay i n which it co uld b e i n qu ir e d i n to L i n n e an d .

B uflb n had de scribe d an d de fi n e d the e x te ri o r : I will i n ve s

”
tigat e h e sa id the i n te ri o r th ey o u ght to c o rre sp on d ;
, ,

th e re must b e i n tim ate r el ati on s be tw e e n th e m ; h ar m on y ; ad

j u st m e n ts See mi n gly a n d witho u t be i n g a w a re o f it he had
.
, ,

disco v e re d a n e w e l e m e n t of r ese a rch —d e scr iptiv e an atomy ;

n o t the v ag u e co mpa ra tiv e a n a to my of P e rra u lt o r D a ub e n

to n but m in u te d e scripti v e an at o m y w o rthy o f H un te r an d

, ,

of hims e lf Ye t he wa s v e ry y o u n g an d k n e w n o thi n g o f
G
.
,

H u n te r a n d b u t littl e o f D au b e n to n
,
e n i u s dir e ct e d hi s.

ste ps th at ge n i u s whi ch wh en it appe a rs a n d h appily es c a pe s

, , ,

the cr u shin g in flu e n c e s o f e st a blish e d s o ci al i s n i s fo rm s its ,

g
a e . L ik e m ost of the gre at m e n o f his d ay ( produc ts o f the
xx ii I N T RO DUC TI ON .

F re n ch Re v ol u ti on ) , he had outs t r ippe d i n his me re st yo uth

t he ag e h e l iv e d i n an d rapidly shot be y o n d
, th at which w as to
foll o w .

’
C uvi e r s early pur suits w e r e the re cti fica ti on by m ea n s o f ,
'
a n ato m y o f the cl assifica ti o n s o f Buflo n an d L in n é ; b u t he
,

quickly as it w e re i n stin ctiv e ly p as s ed be y on d this co m

, ,

p ar ati v el
y n arro w fi e ld i n to o n e which h as n o limits Whi l st .

p u rsui n g his i n qu i ri e s on the str u ctu re o f the i n v e rte brate

k i n gdom h e s oo n s aw th at the an im a l for m s he diss e cte d di f
,

fe r e d spe cific all y an d gen e ric ally fr o m th o s e fo ssil fo rms whi ch

l ay a ro u n d him P al l i sset th e po tte r h ad s een the sa m e ;
.
, ,
'
B ufl o n h a d an n o un c ed the fact : th e y w e re d e cl ar e d to b e
dr ea m e rs Cuvi e r o ffe r e d to m an k i n d the Os s e me ns F oss i l e s i n
.

proo f that th e y w e re s o an d fr o m th at m o m e n t to the pre se n t

,

d ay fe w h a ve had th e hardi h oo d to d e n y the pr oo f ; n on e but

tho s e who r e gard the N e wto n i an d e m on str a ti on as an idl e ,

un pro fitabl e dr e am .

The imp o rtan ce thu s giv en to z ool o gi ca l studi e s an d pu r

s u its by the a pplic ati on o f t he an ato mica l m e th o d to Zoo
l o gy w ou ld h a v e co mm en ce d an d te r m in a te d with Cuvi e r but
, ,

for this o n e circ u msta n ce —he h a d cre a te d ge o l o gy ; th at l a st

,

an d m o st w on d e rfu l sci e n ce which s ee m s to h a v e n o limits

, He .

h ad sh o w n th at with ou t a k n o wl edg e o f the e x ti n ct zoo l o

gi e s th e re can b e n o geo lo gy pr o pe rly sp ea ki n g ; n o n e at,

l e a t lik e ly to in te r e st m an Now this e x tin ct Z ool og y ca n n o t

s .

b e w e ll u n de rstood if at all with ou t a k n o wl e dge of the

, ,

l ivi n g z oo l o gy th at be in g the te rm an d m ean o f co mp ariso n

, .

Thus w as Zoo l o gy force d at l ast in to the sch ools u n iv e rsiti e s , ,

an d co ll e gi ate i n stit u ti on s .

The n ece ssity fo r this w as first see n an d ad m itte d i n Fran ce ,

fro m wh e n ce it n atu rall y w as impo rte d i n to En gl an d wh e re ,

C uvi e r an d his suppo s e d v i e ws h ad be co m e fa shi o n a bl e ; th e

si n gle geo l o gist a t the Bo a rd o f Ord n an ce M acC ul l o u g h , ,

w as sl o wly r e pl a c ed by a body o f sci e n ti fic m e n e ach te ach ,

i n g a d iff e r e n t d e p a rtm e n t o f n atu ra l sci e n c e : o u t o f this a ros e

a sch o o l o f practica l g eo l o gy a n d v a ri o us ch a ir s i n a si m il ar
,
 I N T RODUC T I ON . xx iii

dire cti on c am e to b e fo un d e d i n c oll e gi a te e d u c ati on a l i n sti tu

ti on s Th e il lustri ous Sedg wick to wh o m g eol o gy n uqu e s
.
,

ti on ab l y o w e s its pr e s e n t po siti o n i n Brita in s e t an e x a mpl e

,

i n Ca mbridg e which ca nn o t b e to o m u ch pr a is e d n or to o
cl os e ly fo ll o w e d
.

Thus o rigi n at e d the gr adu a l i n trod u cti on of z oo l o gica l

sci e n ce i n to the curric u lum of st u dy for u n iv e rsity h on our s
d e m an d ed o f al l I pr e sum e w ho m e an to fo ll o w out a pr o
, ,

fe ss i on al v o c ati on i n Fr an c e : E n gl an d foll ows . The littl e

w o rk I h e re pre s en t to the p u blic co n ta in s th e b e st o utli n e
e v e r ye t p u blish e d o f such st u di e s ; fr o m m e it r e q u ir e s n o

prais e ; its i n tri n sic m e rits an d the n um er ou s e diti on s it ha s

a lr e ady p a ss e d thr ou gh c on stitute its b e st r e c o mm e n d a ti on to

the E n glish r e ad e r —. R K
. .
 E L E M E NTA R Y C O UR S E

Z O O L O GY

P R E L I M I N A R Y I D EA S .

§ 1 . Obj e ct an d Uti l i ty of N a tu r a l H i s tor y —

Nat u r a l
.

H ist ory th at sci en c e which tr e ats o f the str u ct u r e of bo di e s

rs

spr e a d ov e r the s u rfa c e o f th e gl ob e or formi n g its m ass

— the ph e n om en a e x hibite d by th e s e b o di e s th e ch a r a ct e rs ,

by which th e y m ay b e distin gu ish e d fr o m e ach oth e r an d ,

th e p art th e y pl ay I n the e n tir e cr e ati o n Its r a n g e is i m

.

m e n s e an d its imp o rt an ce I s n ot i n fe ri o r to its e x t e n t So m e

, .
,

b ut littl e ac qu a i n t e d with sci e n c e s e e i n n a tu r a l hist o ry

,

m e re ly a c oll e cti on o f an e cd oti c fa cts m or e c alc u l at e d to

,

e x cit e th e c u ri o sity th an to e x e rcis e th e u n d er st an di n g or ,

a dry st u dy o f t e ch n ic a l t e r m s an d a rbitr ar y cl a ssific a ti on s .

S u ch a n Opi n i on is b a s e d o n ign o r a n c e ; an d the u tility o f

th e st u dy o f n at u r al hist o ry c a n n o t fa il to b e r e c o gn is e d by
al l w h o p o ss e ss e v e n th e pr e li m i n a ry id e a s o f th e sci e n c e .

Th e gr a n d an d h a r m on i ous V i e w it pr e s e n ts of N a t ur e ,

wh o s e b e a u i d e a l is s o much s u p e ri or to th at o f h u m an
i n v e n ti on te n ds to e l e vat e the mi n d to l o fty an d s ou n d
,

th ou ghts The k n o wl edg e o f o urs e lv e s an d of s u rr oun di n g

.

o bj e cts i s n o t giv en m e r e ly to s atisfy th e d e sir e fo r l e arn i n g

which d e v e l ops its elf alw ays acc ordi n g as the in t e llig e n c e e u
l arge s ; it fo r m s a n e c e ss ary b a sis to m a n y oth er st udi e s an d ,

is e mi n en tly c alc ul a te d to giv e to th e j u dg m en t th at r e ctit u d e

i n the a bs e n c e o f which th e m o st brilli an t qu aliti e s l o s e
th e ir v al u e an d I n the c ou rs e of life l e a d th e m i n d a stray
, .

On the oth e r h an d to b e c on vi n c e d o f the pr a ctic a l i m p o rt a n c e

,

o f th e n atur a l sci e n c e s w e h a v e onl y to l oo k to g e ol o gy an d

,

m in e r al o gy an d th e s e rvic e s th e y h a v e r e n d e r e d to i n d u stry ;
,

to b ot an y an d to the myr ia ds of b e aute o us an d us e ful pl an ts

,

B
2 ZOOLO G Y .

it d e scribe s an d to h o rtic u lt u r e o f which it is the guid e ; to

, ,

re co ll ect the a n im a ls to which we o we w oo l silk h o n e y , ,

which l e n d us th at p o w e r which m a n s o o ft e n r e quir e s o r ,

which fa r fro m be i n g us e fu l to us thre a te n our h a rv e sts with

, ,

d e structi on ; l a stly to c on sid e r the l o n g ca tal o gu e o f h u m an

,

i n fi r m i ti e s an d to r e fl e ct o n the d an g e r o u s ch a ra cte r o f th at
,

m e dic i n e which is n o t b as e d o n a sci e n tific k n o wl e dg e o f the

h u m an stru ct u re Bu t the u tility o f th e s e sci e n c e s d oe s n ot
.

st op h e r e ; i n an e duca ti on al po i n t of vi e w th e ir st u dy a cc u s
,

t o ms the mi n d to pro ce e d fro m e ff ect to ca us e te sti n g e ach ,

hyp oth e sis by an a pp e al to facts Fin ally be fore al l oth e r

.
,

st u di e s th at Of n atu r al histo ry tr a i n s the mi n d to m e tho d

, ,

th a t p art o f l ogic with o ut whi ch al l i n v e stigation is l a bo ri o us ,

e v e ry e x p o siti on Obsc u r e .

I n cl a i m i n g fo r n atura l histo ry a pl ac e i n e v e ry libe r a l

syst e m o f e d u c ati on w e do n ot m e an th at al l yo un g m en
,

sho u ld b e co m e n aturalists So v a st a stu dy an d the tim e

.

r e quir e d for oth e r studi e s fo rbid s u ch an id e a ; n o r w o uld the

a cq u isiti on o f the d e ta ils o n which n atur a l hist o ry is b as e d b e

o f an s e rvic e to th e y o un g mi n d : all th a t is n e ce ss ary i s

y
th at s ou n d co rr e ct n oti on s b e pl ace d be fore the stud e n t an d
, ,

a cq u ire d by h i m r e spe cti n g the gr e a t qu e sti o n s to s o l v e which

,

is the obj e ct o f n atural histo ry studi e s ; on the co n stitution

o f the gl o b e fo r e x am pl e an d the physic a l r e v o l u ti o n s which
, ,

s u cc e e d e ach o th e r on its s ur fac e ; on the n a tur e o f pl an ts an d

a n i m a ls ; o n the m o d e i n which th e ir fu n cti on s a r e e x e rcis e d ;

a n d on th e p ri n cip a l m o difica ti on s o f th e i r struct u re acc o rd ,

i n g to th e ki n d o f li fe fo r which th e y ar e d e sti n e d Thi s .

d e scription of k n owl e dg e on ce a cqu ire d is s eldo m fo rgotte n ;

it fo rms a b asis for the sp e ci a l studie s of tho s e who d e s i re
t o be c o m e na t ur alists ; an d is s u ffi ci e n t fo r th o s e wh o s e pur
suits do n ot l e ad to sci e n c e The Un iv e rsity (of F r a n ce ) i n
.

its pro gra m m e s a n cti on s this c ours e of study a n d e nf o rce s it ; ,

i n this w o rk w e pr o se ad o pti n g it .

2 D i v i s i o n of a l a r a l B o d i e s i n to Thr e e K i n d o m
.
g .

A l l n a t u r a l b o di e s wh e the r S pr e ad o v e r the s u rfac e o f the

,

gl o be o r co ll e cte d i n the i n te ri o r o f the ea rth ar e o f two

ki n ds —m i n er a l o r u n or g a n i ze d l i v i ng or o r g a n i ze d Th e s e
,

l ast ar e s u bdivid e d i n to two gro ups —v eg e ta b l e s an d a n i m a l s

.
,

H e n ce ha s a ris e n the e x pr es sio n o f th e t hree gr e a t ki n gdo ms

o f n a tur e — the m i ne r a l v e e ta b l e a n d a n i m a l
, , I n co m .

m e n ci n g the st u dy o f th e se t r ee k in gdo ms it is n e c e ss a ry to ,

i n qui re i n the first pl ac e o n wh at basis the se divisi on s re st

, , ,
 PR E L I M I NARY I D E A S . 3

and to i n quire i n to the fu n d am e n t al di ffe r en c e s which disti n

g u ish a mi n e ra l from a livi n g b ody a pl an t fr o m an a n i m al , .

3 D if e r e n ce s b e twee n M i n e r a l or I n or g a n i c S u b
.

i —
s ta n ce s a n d L i v n i
g Be gs n Th e s e di ff e re n c e s a r e n ume rou s
a n d strikin g ; th e y m a b e th u s summ e d up Th y di ff r in
y e e .

th e ir o rigi n m o d e of e x iste n c e d u rati o n m an n e r o f d e c ay or

, , ,

d e structi o n gen e r a l fo r m i n tim at e str u ctu r e an d e l e m e n t a ry

, , ,

co m siti o u .

4 Thus as to th e m o d e of o r i g i n — Wh e n a mi n e r a l
.
,

b o dy is fo r m e d it spri n gs imm e di at e ly fro m th e u n i on o f

,

tw o o r m o r e s u bst an ce s which by th e ir n a t u r e di ff e r e ss e n
, , ,

ti all y fr o m it an d which c o mbi n e by r e a s o n of th e ch e m ic a l

,

a ffi n iti e s th e y p o ss e ss A li v i n g b e i n g o n the c o n tra ry is

.
, ,

n e v e r th u s s p o n t a n e o u sly fo r m e d ; it spri n gs fr o m on e r e

s e m bli n g its e lf an d th e vit ality e ss en ti a l to its fo r m ati on i s

,

tran s m i tt e d i n succe ssion fro m an u n i n t e rr u pt e d s e ri e s o f

i n divid u a ls r e s e m blin g e ach o th e r Tw o s u bst an c e s i n n o .
,

w ay r e s e mbli n g e a ch o th e r chl o ri n e a n d s o di u m fo r e x a mpl e

, , ,

by th e ir u n i o n fo rm c o mm on s a lt i n d e p e n d e n t o f the pre s en c e ,

o f this thir d s u bst an c e : n ot s o th e pl a n t o r an im al ; fo r its

fo rm a ti on a p a r e n t is n e c e ss ary th at is a b e i n g r e s e m bli n g , ,

it a n d pr e c e din g it i n p o i n t o f tim e S u ch b e i n gs th e n .
, ,

r e qu ir e for th e ir fo rm ati on a fo re ign i m p u ls e an d this th ey ,

can on ly r e c e iv e fro m a p a r en t .

5 A s r e sp e cts th e ir m o d e of ex i s te n ce — Th e tw o cl a ss e s
.

o f b o di e s ar e e qu a lly disti n ct R o cks a n d mi n e r a ls r e m ai n

.

i n t e r n ally i n a st at e o f r e st or r e po s e ; if th ey g a i n an y a ddi
t i on a l substan c e it is by th e a ccr e ti on o f m a tt e r si m il ar to
,

th em ; wh at th ey l o s e is a ccid e n t al an d affe cts th e m n ot , .

L ivin g bo di e s on th e c on tr a ry ar e c on sta n tly i n a st at e o f

, ,

c om po siti on an d d e com p o sitio n the co n s e q ue n ce of i n te r n al ,

m o v e m en ts i n th e ir structur e Al l is i n m oti on Un c e a s . .

i n g l y th e y i n c o rp o r at e fo r e ign subst an c e s or m o l e cul e s with

th e ir o w n a n d giv e o u t to the e x t e r n a l w o rld particl e s Of th e ir
,

o wn . This v o rte x o r whi r lpoo l as it w e re c o n s tit u te s wh a t

, ,

is c all ed n u tr i ti on an d is e ss e n ti al to l i fe Th e y gr o w by
, .

i n tu s s u s cep ti on an d n ot by j u x tap os i ti o n lik e mi n e r als ; fo r ,

th e m o l e cul e s by which th e y i n cr e a s e p e n e tr a t e i n t o th e i n
te r i o r of o rga n iz e d b e i n gs a n d ar e th e r e d e p o sit e d
, .

6 A t l en gth h a vin g e x ist e d fo r a c e rt ai n p e ri o d th e

.
, ,

e xt r e m e limit o f which is d e fi n it e fo r e a ch sp e ci e s the livi n g ,

bo dy i n fa llibly p e rish e s : mi n e r a l or u n o rg an iz e d bodi e s o n ,

th e con tr ary o n ce fo rm e d e x ist u n til d e str oy e d by a n e x t e rn a l

, ,

B 2
4 ZOOLOGY .

fo rc e ; th e ir d u rati on is n ot li mite d ; th e y ar e n ot n e ce ss aril y

d e structibl e : but —I re pe at — al l th at liv e s is s u re to pe r ish ;
a n d th u s w e r e it n ot for the facul ty of r ep r o d u cti o n n ot
, ,

be sto w e d on mi n e rals life u n d e r e v e ry form w o u ld s oo n dis

,

a pp e a r fr o m the e a rth .

§ 7 . A s r e g a rds for m a n d siz e o r v o l u m e w e fi n d th a t

, ,

livi n g bodi e s ar e d e sti n e d to a cquire a c e rt a i n siz e a n d fo rm ,

grad u a lly an d by d e v e l op m e n t which th ey did n ot po ss e ss a t

,

bi rt h The fo r m h as n o g e o m e tr ic al simplicity ; with mi n e

.

r als it is quite o th e rwis e The sm al le st fra gm e n t o f m ar bl e

.

is a s m u ch m a rbl e as th e l arg e st m ass which can b e i m agi n e d ;

but a pl an t or an im al can onl y liv e by att ai n i n g a c er ta i n
di m e n si on b eyon d which it ca nn ot gr o w N e ith e r can th e y
, .

b e divid e d i n to fr agm e n ts lik e mi n e r a ls an d yet e x ist a s i n di

, ,

vi du a l s ; a t e rm which is chi e fly appli e d on ly to o rg an iz e d

b e i n gs Wh e n mutil at e d be yon d a c e rt ai n p o i n t th ey ce as e
.
,

to e x ist .

8 The i n tim at e structure o f livin g bo di e s fu r n ish e s oth e r

.

ch a ra cte rs Th ey a r e a lw ays c ompo s ed o f fl u ids an d s olids

.
,

t he fo r m e r b e i n g e n cl o s e d i n c e l ls fo r m e d by pl at e s l a mi n ae , ,

o r fil a m e n ts It i s this str u ctur e to whi ch the n am e Of

.

or a n i z a ti o n h as b e e n giv en
g N o thi n g o f th e ki n d is to b e
. .

s e e n i n the min e r al ki n gd om A spon gy an d ar eol ar te xtu re.

,

i n t o which liqu ids m ay r e adil y p en etrate is th e n a n e c e ss ary , , ,

co n diti on for the e x ist en c e o f l ife wh e th e r an im al o r v eg e ,

ta bl e ; an d h en ce the n am e o f o r g a n i z e d b e i n g s a s oppo s e d ,

to min e r als which r e ce iv e th e n a m e o f i n or g a n i c b o d i e s

,

9 La stly th e di sti n cti o n b e tw ee n the tw o gr e at divisi on s

.
,

o f n a tur al b odi e s th e o rg an ic a n d In o rg an ic
, e x t e n ds e v e n to ,

th e i r e l e m en ta ry o r ch e mica l co mpo sit i on .

A mi n e r al b ody m ay b e fo rm e d of m ol e c u l e s str ictly o f o n e

ki n d a s sulphur or i r on ; or m ay r e sul t from th e u n i on o f two
,

or m o r e ch e m ica l e l e m e n ts th e n u m b e r o f which e x c e e ds fi ft
, y .

With li vin g be i n gs it is diffe r e n t : th e ir Ch e mic al c om p o s i

ti on 1 8 a lw ays m o st c om pl e x an d In o rd e r to r e n d e r this cl ea r
, ,

the c on st i t u e n t e l e m e n ts o f such be in gs h a v e be e n arra n g e d

u n d e r thr e e h e a ds o r cl a ss e s 1 Th o s e which li k e w a te r
. .
,

a n d v a ri o us s a lts pre s e n t n o thi n g p e cul i a r an d b e l on g to

, ,

th e i n o rga n ic b odi e s 2 Org an ic m att e rs s u ch as s u ar

. .
, ,

an d ur e a which ar e fo rm e d un d e r the i n fl u e n ce o f i fe
, .

3 The pl a stic a n d vi a bl e pr o d u cts as alb u m e n fibri n c e l l u l o s e

.
, , , ,

which p o ss e ss ch e mic a l ch ar acte rs o f high i m po rta n c e I n to the

c o m p o siti on O f th e s e th e re a lw ays e n t e r thr ee—s om e tim e s fo u r
.
 PR E L I M I NARY I D E A S . 5

— e l e m e n ts m ely ca r bon hy drogen o xyge n an d a z o te o r

, na , , , ,

n itr o g e n S uch bo di e s d e om po s e r apidly by b e c om i n g putrid

D
.

c
w he n e x po s e d fo r a ce rta in p e ri o d to m oi sture an d w a r m th .

The y diff e r als o fr om the oth e rs In r e sp e ct o f th e ir m o l e c u l ar

con stit u ti on i n a s m u ch as e ach a to m o f an o rg an ic m att e r
,

re s ul ts fro m the u n i on o f m an y ato m s of o rg an iz e d m atte r ,

whilst an a to m o f a mi n e ra l body r e s u lts fro m the u n i on o f

but a fe w A n at o m o f c ar b on ic acid for e x a mpl e is fo r m e d
.
, ,

o f 1 a to m o f c a rb on u n ite d to 2 a to m s o f o x yg e n ; whilst 1

a to m o f s te a r i n e ( a kin d o f fat) s e e ms to c o n t a i n 1 40 a to ms

o f ca rb on 1 3 4 a to m s o f hy d r o g e n a n d 5 at om s o f o x yg en
, , .

No w th e s e o rgan iz e d m at e ri al s fo rm the b a sis of a l l th e

li v i n g p arts o f an im al s an d pl an ts whilst th e i n o rgan ic o r ,

mi n e r a l pl ay on ly a s e c o n d a ry p art i n the e c on o m y o f th e s e
be i n gs Ch e m ic ally th e n th e s e fo ur e l e m e n ts ch ar acte riz e al l
.
, ,

livi n g b o di e s n othi n g simil a r o ccurri n g i n the mi n e r al

,

k i n d om .

10 Thus livi n g bo di e s di ff er fro m the i n o rgan ic by th e ir

.

ch e mica l c o m po siti on i n te rn al structure g en e ral c o n fo rm a

, ,

tro n m o d e o f o r i gi n m od e o f e x iste n ce a n d m an n e r o f d e s tr u c
, , ,

ti on Bu t to ch aracte riz e th e m bri e fly it I S s u ffici e n t to s ay th at

.
,

th ey ar e b e i n gs which ar e n ou r i s he d an d r ep r o d u ce d th e s e ,

b e i n g the m o st re m ark able o f vit a l ph en o m en a It is the pr e .

s en c e of l if e th e n which e sp e ci ally ch ar act e riz e s pl an ts an d

, ,

an im a ls o f which th e si m pl e st e x pr e ssi o n is to b e n ou r i s h e d
, .

1 1 R e sp e cti n g th e n at u re o f l if e sci e n c e h as n o d at a ;
.
,

but a s i n physics the ca u s e o f h eat rs a s it w e re p e rs on ifi e d , ,

un d e r th e n am e o f ca l o ric s o i n physi ol o gy a S p e ci a l fo rc e is
,

a d m itte d as th e ca u s e o f ph en o m e n a wh o l ly i n e x plic a bl e by

th e o rdin a ry l a ws o f physics this I S c all e d th e v i ta l f o r ce , .

E v e n i ts l a ws a r e b ey on d cal c u l ati o n an d w e can o n ly tr a r e ,

s om e o f th e circu m stan ce s which s ee m e ss en ti al to i ts m a n i

fe stati on Th u s by d e sicca ti on life 1 3 suspen de d I n ce rt ai n
.
, ,

an im als an d pl an ts a n d r e a pp e a rs wh e n th e r e q u isi te m o istur e

,

h as b e e n s u ppli e d A n oth e r con di tion of life is a c e rt a i n

.
,

te m e r a tu r e a n d the i n fl u e n ce of the a i r
g 1 2 Org a n s —L ife m an if e sts its e lf thr ough the m e diu m
.

. .

o r by m e an s o f o rgan s or i n str u m e n ts m o r e o r l e ss n u m e ro u s , ,

c on stitu ti n g the b ody o f the a n im a l or pl an t B e tw e en the .

o rg an s an d th e fun cti on s th e y pe rfo r m th e r e I S a n e ce ss a ry co

r e l ati on ; th e m u scl e s for e x am pl e ar e the i m m e di ate i n s tr u
, ,

m en ts o r o rg an s o f m oti o n ; whil e the o rgan s o f s e n s e i n fo rm

u s o f wh a t surr o un ds u s .
G ZOOLOGY .

13 R e l a ti o n s u n d e r whi ch L i v i ng B e i ng s a r e S tu d i e d
—
. .

The study of the m o d e o f co n fo rm ati o n o f the o rg an s o f an

a n im a l or pl an t is c a ll e d a n a to m
y t h e st u dy o f th e ir fun c

ti on s p hys i o l og y A n a tomy is the sci e n ce o f str u cture ;

, .

p hys i o l ogy the s ci e n ce o f lif e Th e s e sci e n ce s ar e m u tu ally

.

d e pe n d en t , an d ca n n ot b e st u di e d apa rt with adv an t age A .

k n o wl edge of m e r e struct u r e is u n i m po rt an t un le ss c om bin e d ,

w ith a k n o wl e dg e o f fun cti on .

A n ato my an d physi o l o gy c on stitut e th e b asis o f th e n atura l

his to ry o f o rgan iz e d b ei n gs ; but th e s e m ust als o b e studi e d
u n de r oth e r r e l ati on s H e n c e the st u dy o f e xte rn al ch ar acte rs
.
,

i n o rder to disti n g u ish a n i m als a n d pl an ts r e a d i ly an d with

c e rtai n ty fro m e a ch o th e r Cla ssificati o n a ls o to ai d the
.
,

m e m o ry , b e c o m e s r e quisite The distrib uti o n a ls o o f an im a ls

.

an d pl an ts o v e r th e gl o b e is a m atte r of i n t e re st practic ally ,

an d sci e n tific ally ; whil e th e l a ws r e g u l ati n g the distrib u ti on ,

m e ri t care ful st u dy The s am e r e m ark appli e s to th e u s e s

.

m an m a k e s o f n atur al Obj e cts Fi n ally n at ur al histo ry is

.
,

n o t o cc u pi e d s ol ely with wh a t n o w e x ists up on the gl o b e but

by the e x ami n ati on o f fo ssil r e m a i n s e n d eav o urs to di sco v e r
th e hist o ry o f th o s e an ci e n t in h abit an ts of th e e a rth , o f whi ch
so m an y ist e d b e fo re m an hi m s e lf
ex .

Th e s e v a r i e d studi e s n aturall y divide th e m s e lv e s i n to tw o

bran ch e s : the study Of pl an ts is c all e d bot an y ; z oo lo gy
m ean s the histo ry of th e a n i m al kin gd om .

G E N E RAL CHARAC T E R S OF AN I MAL S .

14 . D if er en ce s b e twe en A n i m a l s an d P l a n ts .
—I
n the
im m e n s e m aj o rity of case S n othi n g is e asi e r th an to
, di s
ti n g ui sh an an im a l fro m a pl an t ; e t o cca si o n ally this is
y
d i ffic u lt i n c on s e q u e n c e o f th e gre a t S i mplicity of st r uctur e in
,

s o m e a n i m a ls This u n c e rt ai n ty a fte r al l m ay be l o n g rath e r

.
, ,

to th e i m p e rfe cti on o f ou r k n o wl e dg e th an to th e n atur e o f

thin gs ; an d thus it m ay b e s aid ge n e ral ] with o u t dw e lli n g
m o r e o n this s u bj e ct th at a n i m als di ffe r fio m pl an ts by cha
,

r acte r s o f high i mp o rt an ce draw n fro m the n ature o f the

,

ph e n o m e n a c on n e cte d with th e ir m o d e o f life fro m th e ir ,

structur a l a rr an ge m e n ts an d fro m the ch e m ica l c o mp o siti on

,

o f th e pri n cip a l co n stitu e n t m att e rs o f th e i r bo di e s .

1 5 V e ge t a bl e lif e s ee m s m ai n ly occ u pi e d wi th the n utri

.

ti on o f the i n divid u al an d the re prod u c ti o n o f oth e rs r e s e m

V e g e t abl e s are i n a n i m a te an im a ls —a n i m a te d
,

bl i n g it .
,
 G E N E RAL CHARAC T E R S OF A N I MAL S . 7

be i n gs A n i m als p e rc e iv e re fl e ct act sp on t an e o u sly o r by

.
, ,

th e ir o wn will ; n othi n g o f th e ki n d pr o p e rly sp e aki n g , ,

e x ists i n pl an ts Th u s v e ge t abl e s n e ith e r fee l n or m o v e ;

.

a n i m als fe e l an d m o v e D i ffe r en c e s al s o e x ist i n the m an n e r

.

i n which th e s am e fu n cti on s ar e c a rri e d on i n th e two cl a ss e s

o f b ei n gs ; th e s e r e m a in with m o r e pr opri e ty to b e co n sid e r e d

a ft e rw a rds .

1 6 The fa c u lti e s o f a n im al s b e i n g m o r e c o m pl e x th an
.

th o s e o f pl an ts n ec e ssit a t e a gr e at e r c om pl e x ity o f o rg an s
,
.

Th e s e o rg an s di ffe r al s o i n th e ir i n ti m at e struct u r e ; th e tiss u e s

i n the v e g e ta bl e affe ct a ce l l u l a r or u tric u l o s e ch a r act e r c ells ,

pro vid e d with prop e r w alls an d c a viti e s i n an i m als the t iss u e s ,

a r e c o m p o s e d o f littl e pl at e s o r l a m i n ae which i n t e rs e ct e a ch ,

o th e r i n such a w ay a s to circ u mscribe imp e rfe ct l acu n ae ,

an d th u s to c on stit u t e m a ss e s o r m e mbr an e s m o r e o r l e ss ,

sp on g y but n ot di v id e d i n to a n u m b e r o f u tricul e s or c e lls

, ,

i n de p e n den t o f e ach oth e r a s i n v e ge t abl e s Oft en it is tr u e

, .
, ,

the a n i m a l tissu e whilst b e i n g d e v e l op e d is s e e n to b e co m

p o s ed o f littl e b ags (u tr i cu l e s ) ; but this struct u r e which i s ,

e 1 m an e n t i n pl a n ts 1 8 g e n e r ally but tr a n sit o ry i n a n i m als

p , ,

an d 1 s p e rsist e n t o n ly m a sm a ll n umb e r o f o rg an s as fo r , ,

e x a m pl e 1 11 th e gl an ds an d e pid e r m ic m e mbr an e s
, .

1 7 Fi n ally th e o rg an iz e d m atte rs which fo rm th e b a si s

.
,

o f pl an ts a r e c o m p o s e d o f c a rb on hydr o g en an d o x e n o n ly
y, , g
.

To th e s e 1 1 1 a n i m a ls n itr o ge n is a dde d A ll owi n g h o w e v e i .

: , ,

th at th e 1 e e x ists i n pl an ts az otiz e d m atte rs an d i n an i m als ,

c om p o u n ds which m e n ot a z oti ze d ; still the o rg a n iz e d m att e 1 s

e ss e n ti a l to th e c o n stit u ti o n o f th e livi n g o rg an s o ffe r i n th e ,

t wo ki n gd o ms th e ch e m ic a l c o m p o siti on w e h av e j ust i n
di cate d .

OF TH E O RGAN I C TI S S U E S O F AN I MAL S , AND OF

T H E I R O R GAN S .

18 . D i ff e re n t
l t ry s u bst an ce s b u t ch i e fly c a rb o n
e e m en a , ,

hydr og e n o xyg e n n itroge n c om bi n e to prod u c e the m at e ri al s

, , ,

o f w hi ch a n i m a l b o di e s ar e c o m p o s e d A m o n gst th e s e m at e ri als
.

o r m att e rs so m e ar e c all e d o rg an iz e d o r pl a stic a n d fo r m

, ,

the e ss e n ti a l b a sis o f al l th e s olid p a rts an i m at e d by th e vit a l

m ov e m en t Th e s e pl a stic m at e ri als ar e l e ss v a ri e d th an mi ght
.

'
b e a t first s u pp o s e d ; for i n al l an im a ls th e b a sis ( tr a m e ) o t
the livi n g p a rts app e ars to b e c o m p o s e d o f a subst an c e c al l e d
a l b u m en o r o f
fi, b r i n — which prob ably is but album en slightly
8 ZOOLOGY .

m odi fie d The s olids als o re s e mbl e e a ch oth e r i n h avi n g

.

w ate r as a c on stitu e n t pa rt to the pre s e n c e o f which th e y n o , ,

d o ubt o we th e ir fl e x ib i lity s o ftn e ss an d oth e r physic al pr o

, , ,

pe rt i e s e ss e n ti a l fo r the d u e pe rfo rm an c e of th e ir fun cti o n s .

Bu t the m od e o f t e x t u r e o f th e s olids th u s c on stitute d v ar i e s

much an d the n a m e o f or g a n i c ti ss u e s h a s be en g iv e n to
,

th o s e p a rts which i n th e ir t u rn r e u n ite to fo r m the o rgan s .

§ 1 9 T h e pri n cip a l o rg an ic tiss u e s o f an im als a r e fo ur

.

the m usc u l a r n e rv o u s ce ll u l a r an d u tricul a r

, , , .

The m us cu l a r ti s s u e for ms wh at is co m m on ly c a ll e d the

fl e s h ; it i s th e pr od u cin g ag e n t o f al l m o ti o n an d is co m ,

po s e d o f fi b r e s susc e ptibl e of co n tracti n g or o f be in g sh or t

,

en e d. Th e s e fibre s wh e re ve r pl ace d m ay a lw ays b e disti n

, ,

u i s hed by th e ir c o n tra ctil e faculty an d ar e a lw ays fo un d

g ,

wh e r e m o ti on is p e rfo rm ed .

The n e r v ou s ti ssu e is s oft an d gen e rally whitish ; it fo rm s ,

th e brai n an d n e rv e s ; it i s th e s e a t of s e n s ati on .

The co n n e cti v e or ce l l u l a r ti s s u e al s o n a m e d a r e o l ar o r ,

sp on gy is o f al l the con stituen t m at e ri als o f the bo dy the

, , ,

m o st ab u n d an t I n s om e of th e m o re simpl e an im als it s e e ms
.

to fo rm th e wh ol e bo dy ; i n th o s e m o r e highly o rg an iz e d it
co n n e cts an d yet i n sul ate s al l th e o rgan s e n te ri n g l arge ly in to ,

th e ir c om p o siti on an d b e i n g m odifi e d i n a v a ri e ty o f w ays it

, ,

fo rms m e m bran e s an d a n u m b e r of o th e r tissu e s ; i n its sub

st an c e the fat is alw ays d e po sit e d It i s a whitish substan ce .
,

e l a stic s e mi -tr an sp ar e n t c o mp os e d o f fil a m e n t s v ari ously

, ,

i n t e rl aced an d o f sm al l l am e ll ae m or e or l e ss con sist e n t an d

, , ,

irr e gul a rly u n ite d s o as to l e av e be tw e e n th e m c e lls or l a

,

cun ae o f v a ri a bl e siz e But the w alls o f th e s e c e lls ar e i n co m

.

l e t e a n d thus p e rmit fl u ids ( o r a i r ) to p a ss fr e e ly fr o m on e

p ,

to an o th e r ; th e s e ce lls ar e m o iste n e d with a w at e ry an d

slightly albu m in ous liquid c a ll e d s er os i ty , .

The u tr i cu l a r ti s s u e is c o mpo s ed o f littl e c e l ls or bl adde rs ,

th distin ct w a lls glu e d to e ach oth e r e ith e r dire ctly o r by

, ,

m e an s o f an am o rph ous o rgan ic m atte r ; s o m e ti m e s th e s e

v e sicl e s ar e ro u n d e d a n d fill e d with s o m e p ar tic u l a r s u bstan ce
, ,

as fa t fo r e x a m pl e ; a t o th e r tim e s th e y ar e fo u n d fl a tte n e d
,

a n d d ri e d u p so as to fo r m l a m e l l aa a s m ay b e s e e n o n the
, ,

s u rface o f the ski n .

A n ato m ists d e sc rib e o th e r tiss u e s as e n te ri n g i n t o the co m

po siti on o f a n i m al b o di e s s u c h as the s e rous an d m uc ous ,

m e mbra n e s the di ff e ren t v a ri e ti e s o f the fibrous tissu e s the

, ,

c a rtil ag e s the o ss eo us tissu e & c ; b u t acc o rdi n g to al l ap

, , .
,
 FU NC TI ON S or AN I MAL S . 9

pe aran ce , th e s e v a ri ed tissu e s ar e o n ly m o dific ati on s o f th e

u tr i cu l a r or co n n e cti v e .

§ 2 0 Th e s e tissu e s , di ffe r e n tly c om bi n e d , an d affe cti n g a

.

v ari ety o f fo r m s , co n stit u te the d iffe r en t or g a n s by which the

fac ul ti e s of an i m als ar e e x e rcis e d The te rm app a r a tu s is .

a ppli e d to an a ss e m bl a g e of th e s e o rg an s , a n d th a t o f u n cti o n
f
to th e a cti on o f a si n gl e o rg an o r of m an y Th e a pp ar at u s o f .

l o c om oti o n , for e x ampl e , m e an s the a ss e m bl a ge of o rgan s ,

wh at e v e r th e y b e , r e qu ir e d for the f u n cti o n o f l oc o m oti o n —0 1
m o ti on fr om pl a ce to pl a ce Th e struct u r e o an i m al s v a ri e s ,
f
. r

th e n , with th e ir fa c u lti e s an d m o d e of life ; an d gen e rally it

m ay b e s a id , th at the m o r e v a ri e d the fu n c t i on s m e i n an y
a n im a l , th e m o r e c o mpl e x will b e its str u ct u r e .

CLA S S I F I CA TI ON OF TH E F UN C TI ON S OF AN I MAL S .

§ 2 L The fun c t i o n s o f a n i m a ls h a v e a r e l ati o n to tw o

o bj e ct s —,n a m e ly 1 The c on s er v ati on or pr e s e rv ati on o f th e

. .

i n dividu a l ; 2 The c on s e rv ation of th e ra c e Of the fo rm e r

. .
,

s o m e h a v e re fe r en c e chi e fly to the s u pp ort an d n o ur ishm e n t

o f th e b ody ; o th e rs pl ac e th e i n divid u al i n r e l a ti on to sur

r ou n din g o bj e cts H e n c e the di v isi on o f the fun cti on s i n t o

thre e gr e at cl a ss e s —th o s e of n u tr i ti on r e l a ti on an d r ep r o
.

, , ,

d u cti o n The first an d l a st of th e s e c o ll e ctiv e ly h a v e b ee n

.

c al l e d v eg e ta ti ve l if e : th e fu n cti on s o f r e l ati o n physi ol ogist s ,

ar e a gr e e d to cal l a n i m a l l
if e as b ei n g p e cu l i arly the attr i
,

bute s of an im als ; n u tr iti on an d r e pr od u cti on a r e fun cti on s

which an i m als h av e i n c om m on with pl an ts .

E ach o f th e s e g1 e a t physi ol o gic a l divi si on s l s s u bdivid e d 1 n

its turn i n to s e v e ra l o th e rs al l t e n di n g t ow ards on e en d ;
,

thus the n u tr i ti on o f an an i m a l i s accom plish e d on ly by th e

,

a i d o f s e v e r a l fun cti o n s such a s d ig e sti o n circ u l ati on r e spi

, , ,

r ati on & c : dige sti on i n its turn r e s olv e s its elf i n to m a sti
, .
, ,

cati on i n s al iv ati on d e gl utiti on th e tr an sfo rm ati on of th e

, , ,

fo o d i n to chy m e the e x tracti on o f the chyl e c on ta i n e d i n

,

th e chym e th e a bs o rpti on o f this chyl e an d th e e x pulsi on

, ,

fro m the b ody o f the re sidu e o f the a lim en t ; fin ally th e s e ,

v e ry acts o f m a stic ati on d e gl u titi on &c ar e al l the r e s u lts

, , .
,

o f div e rs ph en o m e n a d e p e n d e n t on v a ri ou s o rg an s an d fu n c

tion s .

22 The u tm o st v a ri e ty pre v a ils i n th e o rg an iz ati o n o f dif

.

fe r en t an i m als I n s om e the fu n cti on s ar e si m pl e ; an d thi s

.
,

impli e s a h arm on i ou s simplicity of the orga n s I n oth e rs co m .

,
10 ZOOLOGY .

pl e xit
y i s the l aw Be tw e en the m od e o f e xiste n ce an d the
.

m o d e o f o rg a n iz ati o n o f e ach be i n g th e r e is the m o st a dmi ra bl e ,

a ccor d The proo fs will b e giv e n i n a future p a rt o f this w o rk

. .

Th e histo ry of the fu n cti on s o f an im a ls w ill n o w e n g ag e

o ur atte n ti o n an d first o f the f u n cti o n o f n utriti on
, , .

D i gr m t k fro m th T x t B oo k f P hysi lo gy by V
a a a en e e o o ,
l ti n
a en ,
‘

in t d d to sh w th t e ry
en e ot f a i m ss w hi ch i t r
ve ar o an or an s a a s a v e rs e d by
in t rs ti c s i al l di r cti s f li q i d b gy p r ss s
e e n e on . w hi l a l u o e e o n c, e a n e a sti c o n e
is pre s t at d i t a ls re d rs th m c p bl f s r i g a fil te r R
en , o n e e a a e o e v n s a .
-
. K .

R
T e x t B o o k o f P hysi o l o gy By Val e n ti n T ra n sla te d by
s u
A . . Dr .

B ri n to n . H e n sh aw St ran d
.
, .
 H I S TO R Y

OF TH E

PRI NCIPAL F UNCTIONS OF ANI MALS .

I . OF TH E F UN CTI ON OF NUTR I T I ON .

23 . Th e
triti on o f livi n g b e i n gs c on sists i n th e i n tro
nu

d u cti on o f fo r e ign m att e rs i n to the i n t e ri o r o f th e tissu e s an d ,

the fix ati on a ssi m il ati on an d o rg a n iz ati on of the m a tte rs

, ,

s o i n tr o d u c e d E v e ry livin g a n i m a l is a ls o the s e at of a ki n d
.

o f sl o w c o m busti o n ca u si n g th e u n c e a si n g d e str u cti on of a

,

c e rt a i n qu an tity of o rgan ic m atte r Th e m att e r th u s de .

stroy e d b e i n g u s el e ss or e v e n hu rtfu l to the e c o n om y is

, ,

e x pe ll e d fr o m it .

I t i s e vid e n t th e n th at th e first c on diti o n n e c e ss a ry fo r

, ,

th e d u e p e rfo r m an ce o f this m o l e c u l ar c o m p o siti on a n d d e

co mp o siti on i s th e fac u lty o f a b sorp ti on by which the
, ,

m ol e c ul e s a r e attract e d an d i n tr o d u c e d i n t o th e c e n tre o f the

tiss u e s It is a fun cti on co m m o n to al l livi n g b e i n gs
. .

24 I n pl an ts this si n gl e fac u lty s u ffic e s for the in tro

.
,

ducti on fro m with ou t o f al l m att e rs r equisite for th e ir

n o ur ish m e n t With an i m als a p orti on on ly is dir e ctly i n tr o
.
,

du ce d i n to the tiss u e s ; b u t a gr e at po rti on r e quire s b e i n g

e l a b o r at e d by a pr o c e ss c al l e d dig e sti on by which the n u tri e n t
,

m ol e c u l e s a r e fitte d fo r a bs o rpti on This fac u lty of dige stio n

.

fo rm s on e o f th e ch a ract e rs which b e st disti n gu i sh an i m als

fro m pl an ts .

2 5 Th e liquids th u s abs o rbe d spr e a d wh e re v e r th e y ar e

.

’
r equ ir e d the distri buti on b e i n g i n s om e e fle cte d sl owly i n a
, ,

w ay an al o go us to th e a bs o rpti o n I n oth e rs by far the m o st

.
,

n um e r o u s th e di s t rib u ti on o f th e n utri e n t li quids is ae c om

,

l i sh e d r apidly by the e sta bli shm e n t o f c u rr e n ts which s e rv e

p ,

als o to r e m o v e th e m o l e c u l e s e limi n a te d fr o m th e o rg a n s .
12 ZOOLOGY .

Th u s or igi n ate s an o th e r fun ctio n the circul ati on of the ,

bl o od an d an oth e r app ar at u s o f o rgan s by which this is

,

p e rf o rm e d .

26 W e h a v e a llud ed to a ki n d of sl o w co mbusti on which

.

t ak e s pl ac e i n the i n te rio r o f a n i m al bo di e s This is e fle cte d .

by m e an s o f the o xyg e n o f the atm o sph e re whi ch is u n cea s

i n g l y abs o rb e d by m ean s o f r e sp i r a ti o n ; an d it is by the
s a m e fu n cti on of r esp i r a ti o n th at an im al s g e t q u it of the
m atte rs th u s con sum e d .

2 7 The pro ducts o f th e re spira to ry c o mb u sti on as w e ll

.
,

as th e m a tte rs e limi n a te d fr o m the tiss u e s an d which ha vin g , ,

be co m e a s it w e re fo re ign to th e e co n omy re quir e to b e r e ,

m ov e d fro m it giv e ris e by thi s n e c essity to a fun ctio n the

o p o site o f a bs o rpti on —th at o f ex cr e ti on
, , ,

The ch ar a cte r o f
p .

th 1 s proc e ss v a ri e s acc o rdin g to cir cumsta n ce s It is c all e d .

e x ha l a ti on wh en the liquids e sc a pe as it w e r e m e ch a n ic a ll y ;
,

s e cr e ti on wh en p a rticu l a r liquids wh o s e n ature di fler s fro m

,

the n o urishi n g fl u id a r e fo r m e d by a ki n d o f ch e m i ca l
a cti o n . By th e s e two w ays the e co n o my e l ab ora te s the
p articul a r j uic e s n e ce ss ar y for the e x e rcis e o f al l the fu n c
ti on s whilst at the s a m e tim e it e x pe ls all th at is us e l e ss or
,

inj uri o u s to it .

2 8 The cr eati on o f the livi n g m atte r d e sti n e d to a ugm e n t

.

the m as s o f the tissu e s o r to r e pl a ce the p ar ts which h a v e

b e en de str oy e d is a pro ce ss or w o rk which the physio l o gi s t
,

o ught n ot to co n fo u n d with an y o f the pr e c e di n g ph e n o m e n a ;

it is the act by which the o rgani sm fix e s i n its i n t e ri o r a

fo re ign m atte r o rgani z e s this m atte r an d d e ve l ops i n it
, ,

vit al pro pe rti es The fu n cti o n is c all e d as s i m i l a ti o n

. .

Thus the fun cti on s o f n utriti on co n sist e ss en ti ally o f ah

s orpti on dige stio n circul ati on r e spir ati on e x h al ati on s ecre
, , , , ,

ti on an d as simil ati on W e sh all n ow co n sid e r th e s e gre at

,
.

a cts o f v e g e ta tiv e li fe .

O F A B S ORP TI ON .

By abs orpti on is m e an t the act or fa culty by whi ch

29 .

a n im als s u ck u p an d i m bib e a s it w e re i n to the m a ss o f th e i r

, ,

h u m ou rs the s u bst an c e s which s u rro u n d th e m or whi ch are ,

d e po site d i n the in te ri o r o f the ir bodi e s .

The e x i ste n c e of su ch a facul ty m ay b e v e ry r e adily pr o v ed .

P l un ge a fr o g i n to w a te r i n s u ch a w ay h o w e v e r th at n on e
, , ,

can e n te r by the m outh n o twithstan di n g the w e ight o f the ,

 M E CHAN I S M or A B S ORP TI ON . 13

an im al a ft e r a tim e is s e n sibly i n creas e d Now this i n cre as e .

,

which u n de r fa v o u r abl e circu mst an ce s m ay re ach a third of

th e w e ight o f the a n i m al can d e pe n d on ly on the a bs o rpti on
,

o f w a te r by the s u rfa c e o f th e bo dy .

If w at e r he i n tro d u c e d i n t o the stom ach o f a livi n g do g ,

a n d the e n tr an c e to a n d e x it fr om the o rg an b e s e cur e d with

ligat u re s still the liquid wi l l dis app e a r a bs o rb e d by th e w alls

, ,

o f th e sto m a ch an d s o m i n gl e with th e bl oo d ; an d e t th e r e
, y
e x ist n e ith e r i n th e st o m ach n or e x t e r n al i n t e g um e n ts a n y
po r e s l e adi n g dir e ctly to the v e ss e ls c on t ai n i n g the bl o o d .

Th e p o re s o bs e r v a bl e on th e ski n l e a d m e r e ly to littl e c a v iti e s

i n t e n de d to s e cre t e v a ri ou s hu m ours or to fo rm the h airs .

Th u s the tissu e s fo rm i n g th e s e o rgan s (the skin a n d st om ach )

ar e pe rm eabl e to liq u ids an d this is th e c a s e with a l l th e
,

o th e r S tr u ctu r e s o f th e b o dy .

I n fa ct i n li v i n g as w e ll as i n d ea d b o di e s th e tissu e s
, ,

u n ifo r m ly i m bib e s u rrou n din g flu ids a n d ar e trav e rs e d by ,

th e m with m o r e or l e ss facility .

30. M e ch a n i s m o
f A b s m p ti o n — I t is on the p e r m e a .

b i l i ty of th e s o lid p a rt s o f an i m a l b odi e s th a t the fun cti on o f

a bs o rpti on d e p en ds The p e n e tr ati on o f fl u ids i n to th e i n t e ri o r
.

de p en ds on a pe c u li a r fo rc e or p o w e r acti n g o n th e m Capi l .

l a ry attr acti o n co n trib u t e s p o w e rfully to e ffe ct this p en e tra

ti on of e x te rn a l li quids b u t it is n o t th e on ly fo rc e or po w e r
,

c a u si n g this ph en o m e n on an oth e r w as di scov e r e d a fe w y ea rs

ag o b y D u tr och e t a n d c all e d by hi m e n d o s m os e
, If i n t o a .
,

littl e m e m br an ou s s ac s u r m ou n t e d by a t u b e w ate r h oldi n g

, , ,

g u m i n s ol u ti o n b e p ou r e d an d th e app a r at u s b e th e n pl a ce d
, ,

i n p u re w ate r a s i n Fig 1 th e w a t e r w ill b e fo u n d to ri s e i n

,
.
,

th e t u b e to a c o n sid e r a bl e h e ight H e r e is th e n an e vid en t

.

a bs o rpti on o f w a te r thr o u gh th e w al ls o f th e s ac N ex t .

r e v e rs e the e x p e ri m e n t by fillin g the s ac with p u r e w at e r

, ,

an d pl ac i n g th e a pp a rat u s i n g u m w a te r an d th e sa c will
-
,

e m pty its e lf i n st ea d o f a bs o rbi n g m o r e th e p u r e w at e r p a ss ,

~

i n g th r o u gh its w al ls i n the i n v e rs e dire cti o n Now this .

ph e n o m en on ha s th e gr eat e st a n al ogy with wh at t ak e s pl ac e

i n livi n g b o di e s an d p a rtly e x pl a i n s it ; fo r th e p u r e r liqu ids
,

fro m with o u t p ass r e adily throu gh th e sp on gy tissu e s o f

a n im a l b o di e s whilst th e d e n s e r m a te ri al withi n p a ss e s with
,

m o r e di ffi c u lty i n the o ppo sit e dir e cti o n H e n c e the accu m u .

l ati on withi n which c o u ld n ot t ak e pl a c e if b oth p ass e d with

,

e q u a l fa cility an d e st a blish e d an e q u i libri u m

,
S u ch an eq u i .

libri u m is pre ven t e d by the u n i on o f the pur e r liquid with the

14 ZOOLOGY .

d e n s e r liquid withi n the m e mbran o us s ac i n the o n e ca s e an d ,

withi n the an i m a l b ody in the oth e r H e n ce the e l e va ti on o f .

t he g um -w a te r i n the t u b e a n d the i n cre as e o f w e ight in the ,

li vi n g a n im al bo th be i n g d ue to o n e ca u s e n am e ly e n d os
, , ,

m os e .

bodie s ar e r e pr e s e n te d
31 . Org a n iz e d
b t he s ac a s s e e n i n Fig 1 Th e y a r e
li
. .

i ce d i n a surr o u n d i n g m e d i u m m o r e fl u id
p
th an th at e xisti n g i n the ir i n te ri o r H e n c e .

th e y a b sor b fi “

32 O g r a ns of A b s o rp ti o n — I n ce r .

t ai n an im a ls l ow i n the scal e o f life ,

a bs o rpti on con sists m e r e ly i n the pro ce ss

w e h a v e j ust d e scrib e d In th e s e a n im a ls .

th e re e x ists n o r eg u l a r circ ul ati on i n the

i n te ri or o f th e ir b odi e s ; but i n th e high e r
cla s e s of an i m a ls the fun cti on is m o re coms

pl e x The fluids imbib e d a s d e scri be d .

,

a bo v e p a ss i n to th e i n te ri o r o f th e v e ss e l s
, ,

a n d th e r e m i n gl e with th e n o u rishi n g fl u ids

o f the an i m al a n d th u s min gl e d an d un ite d ,

th ey p a ss with the bl oo d to ce rt ain p arts of

th e e c on o my wh e re v e r i n d ee d th at p en e , , ,

tra te s Th u s the fun cti on o f a bs o rpti on b e .

co m e s di vid e d as i t w e r e i n to two acts ; the °

first S i mply the act o f i m bibiti on thro u gh ,

th e tiss ue s ; t he s e c on d th a t o f circ u l a ti o n ,

through the i n t e ri o r o f the a n im a l .

33 I n al l an i m al s the pri n cip al ag e n t fo r this tran s

.

o r t at i o n o f th e m atte rs a bs o rb ed to v a ri o u s p a rts o f th e
p ,

b o dy is th e bl o od a cte d o n by the h e a rt to which the

, , ,

li qu ids ar e c on v eye d by the v e in s ; an d thus it h appe n s th a t

i n the gre a t m aj o rity of c a s e s th e s e v e ss e ls pl ay an i m po rta n t
p a rt i n the fun cti on of a bs o r pti on .

3 4 I n m an y an i m a ls th e r e e x ist onl y s an g u i fe r o us v e s
1.

s e ls an d the fun ctio n is pe rfo rm e d by th e m al on e I n o th e rs

,
.

h o w e v e r a n d e sp e ci a lly the m o re hi ghl y o rgan ized th e re

, ,

p s ge f l i q i ds thr gh ari o s m m br
Th e as a o s co ri n gs i
u ou v u e an o u ve s a
c m p le s bje ct sti ll p to i q i ry Th s f s p i r ts o f t rp ti b
o x u , o en n u . u , I i u en ne e
en cl s e d i
o l ss j n i t h s tt i g p f
a a t mi l pr p r t i
ar , as s i n e e n u o ana o ca e a a on n
th s lw y m s o f s r l l y rs 1 bladd e r t i f i l & i t wil l i
e an e ve a a e 0 n- o
d c ri g the t ri r o f t h e gl s bsc t h o bj e c t
e u ua a , , , C .
, n
ti m sc pe
e e a ,
an ,
ove n ex e o as , o ur e e
w i t hi n If. th th e r h d ly m g l l y r f bl dd r b s d
,
on e o an , on a s e a e o a e e u e ,
none
o f th e t rp t uW 11 sc p Thi s c uri s f c t w acc i d t l ly d s
e n i ne 1 e a rd e. ou a as en a i c o ve e
by m y b ro th r —R K e . . .
 or A B S ORP T I ON . 15

ex ists a n o th e r o rd e r of v e ss e ls d e sti n e d to a bs o rb c e rt ai n
,

s u bst an c e s Th e s e a r e ca ll e d l ymp ha ti cs an d th ey con stitute

.
,

F ig 2
. .
—Th o raci c C an a l .
’

Tho raci c ca vi ty a n d up p e r par t o f th e a bd om e n l ai d Op e n to d i s p la y th e

—
,

p o st e ri o r w a ll 1 Th e t ho ra cw d u c t o r c an al lyi n g o n th e fro n t o f t h e
e rt e b r a l c o l um n by th e s i d e o f th e a z ygo s v e i n —3 O ri gi n o f thi s ca n a l
.
, ,

v . .
,

fro m the lacte a l e ss e ls an d fro m th e co m m o n ly m ph a ti c s p oce e i n fro m

t h e lymph a t i c g an gli o n s o f th e a bd o m e n —
v ,

4 T e rm i n a ti o n o f trh e ca n
d a l gi n the
l e ft s u bcla v i an ve i n n e ar i t s ju n cti o n wi th th e l e ft ju gula r —2 L a rge
.

. .
,

H m mu by M S ap p e y )
u
’

s, .
. F
lym p h a ti c e sse ls a ri s i n g o n the l e f t s i d e o f th e h e a d a n d t e rmi n at i’n g i n th e
v

l e ft s u b clavi an an d ju g ul ar v e i n s ( i gu re Oo pi e d fro m the Tr ai té d A n a tom i

,

N o r a F o r l ef t re a d r i g ht s i d e o f th e h e ad an d n e ck at No 2 o f the a bc c
- u

fi g u r e —R
.

. K .
16 ZOO LOGY .

a syste m o f v e ss e ls to which the n am e o f a bs o r b en ts is m o r e

e sp e ci a lly giv e n .

Th ey o rigi n ate i n e xtre m e ly fi n e tub e s o r r oots i n the

a n im a l tissu e s a n d co ll e ctin g i n t o l a rge r v e ss e ls ul tim a te ly
, ,

t e r m i n ate i n the v e in s Th e i r w alls ( p a r i e te s ) ar e e xt re m e ly

.

fi n e an d th ey fr e q u e n tly c o m m uni c ate with e a ch o th e r

, The .

p o i n t o f u n i o n is c all e d an a n a s to m os i s I n m a n an d in the .

m am m al i a th ey e x ist alm o st e v e rywh e re thro u gh out th e body ,

a n d th ey t e r m i n a te a t l a st i n a S i n gl e tru n k the thor a ci c ,

ca n a l ( Fig which c o m m e n c i n g i n the a bd om e n p ass e s

.
, ,

throu gh the th o rax to t e r m i n a te fin a lly i n the l e ft s u bcl a vi an

,

v e i n Bu t oth e rs p a ss i n to v e i n s i n th e ir co urs e an d m an y
.
,

o n the right sid e un it e to fo rm a sh o rt tr un k which e n te rs

t he right s u bcl a vi a n v e i n I n th e ir co u rs e th e lymph atics

.
,

p ass throu gh s m all r ou n d e d bodi e s c alle d l y mp ha ti c g l a n d s , .

The u se of the s e is a lto ge th e r u n k n o wn Th e s e s o ca ll ed .

-

gl an ds abo un d i n the axill ae the gro in s an d i n the c a viti e s of , ,

t he ch e st an d a bd o m e n the n e ck &c ( Fig , Mo reo v e r ,

. .
,

i n th e i n t e ri o r o f th e s e v e ss e ls th e re e x ist n u m e r o us v alv e s ,

which pe rm it the c on te n ts to circul ate on ly i n on e direction ,

th at is to w a rds the h ea rt
, .

Th e s e v e ss els h a v e be e n pro v e d to e xis t i n m amm als birds , ,

r e pt i l e s an d fish e s I n s o m e r e ptil e s an d b atr achi a th e y are

,
.

e v e n m o r e co m pl e x th a n i n the high e r an i m als h a vi n g co n ,

n e cte d with th e m co n tractil e r e s e rv o irs which p u ls ate or ,

c o n tr act lik e h e a rts an d m ay b e s o r e g ard e d , .

3 5 Th e liq u id th ey co n tai n is ca ll e d l y m h Wh e n n ot
.

p .

m i n gle d with the pr o ducts o f dig es ti on it i s slightly ye l ,

l o wish an d tran sp aren t Ex ami n e d by m e an s o f the m icro

,
.

sco p e sph e ri c a l c olo u rl e ss gl o bul e s a r e di s co ve i e d i n the

,

lymph sm a lle r th an th o s e fo u n d i n the bl oo d ; l e ft to itse l f

,

i t c o ag u l ate s but l e ss str o n gly l i k e th e bl oo d

, Its com po s 1 .

tion as S h o w n by ch e mica l an alysis 1 8 w a te r a lbu m e n fibri n

, , , , ,

a n d v a ri o u s s a lts .

Littl e is k n o w n of th e m o v e m e n ts of th e ly m ph i n the
v e ss e ls It asc e n ds i n t he th o rac ic duct with c o n sid e ra bl e
.

fo rce an d alw ays i n on e dir ecti o n

,
.

bs o rpti o n by m e a n s o f th e s e v e ss e ls i n c e rta i n
§ 3 6 A .

o rg an s m ay b e r e ad il y de m o n str a te d by Obse rv ati o n o n livi n g

a n im a ls L ay o pe n th e c a vity o f the a bd o m e n i n a n an i m a l
.

wh e n dige sti on 1 8 go i n g o n an d the l a cte a ls will b e s e e n fil l e d

,

- oo i n
w ith a m i lky l k g fluid the chyl e ; h e n ce thi s po rti on o f ,

the ly m ph atic syste m ha s be e n ca ll e d l a ct e a l I n an a n im a l .

 or D I G E S TI ON . 17

f
a stin g this flui d
, n ot b e i n g pr e s en t th e s e v e ss els, ar e c o lour
e ss .

A bs o rpti on by the v ei n s m ay als o b e d e m on str at e d i n th e

s am e way th at is by e x pe rim e n ts on livi n g an im als
, ,

fl
3 7 Ci r cu ms ta n ces i n u e n ci n g A b s o rp ti on —Th e first
.

c on d ition e ss e n ti a l to abs o rpti on is the pe rm e ability of the

tissu e i n te rp o s e d b e tw e en th e subst an c e to b e abs o rb e d an d ,

the liqu ids which fo rm th e m e an s o f tr an spo rt to its d e sti n a

ti on ; so th at cwter i s p a r i b us abs orpti on is r apid i n th e dire ct
, ,

r a ti o o f the sp on gi n e ss an d s o ft n e ss of th e tiss u e It m ay .

al s o b e l a id d o w n as a pri n cipl e th a t a bs o rpti o n is r a pid i n ,

'

a dir e ct r ati o to the v a scul ar ity o f th e tiss u e A ab s orp .

s

ti on is m o stly e ffe cte d by th e v e i n s the abu n d an ce of th e s e ,

i n flu en c e s n e c e ss ari ly the fi m cti on Thus an at o mic ally m ay .

, ,

al m ost b e pr e dic a te d th e e n o rm o us di ffe r e n c e s i n the r a pidity

with which v a ri ous substan ce s ar e abs o rb e d by di ffe r e n t

tissue s Of the l un gs for e x ampl e pr e -e mi n e n tly so spo n gy
.
, ,

an d v a sc u l a r it might b e pr edi ct e d th at a bs o rpti on w o u ld i n

,

th e m b e m ost r apid ; an d this is i n fa ct the c a s e .

The ce l l u l a r ti ssu e fo rmi n g the b a sis an d co nn e cti n g

,

m edium o f m o st of the o rgan s is als o by its s oft an d spon gy , ,

n atur e t he s e a t o f r apid abs orpti o n b u t l e ss s o th an th e lu n gs

, ,

as b e i n g much l e ss v a sc u l a r .

The ski n on th e oth e r h an d b e i n g b u t li ttl e v a scul ar an d

, , ,

b e in g at the s am e tim e co v e re d by the al m o st imp e rm e abl e

ep i d er m i s o r s ca rf i s ki n e xp l a i n s w hy w e can h a n dl e d an
,

g e ron s po is on s with s a fe ty s o l on g as th e ep i d er m i s i ,

u n bro k en .

A sta te of p l e thor a ( fr o m n h fidw I fil l ) ex e rcis e s an i n ,

flu en ce o v e r the r apidity of a bs o rpti on Th e qu a n tity o f .

liquids an an i m a l bo dy m ay con t ai n is li m ite d an d d e sicc ati on ,

al so h a s its l i mits The n e are r the ani m a l m ay b e to the

.

po in t o f pl e th o ra or s aturati on the l e ss will it abs orb , .

Thu s po is on a dm i n ist e r ed to tw o livi n g d ogs will i n flu en ce

,

the on e i n a sta te o f pl e th o r a much m o r e sl owly th an the

o th e r which h as b e en pr e vi o usly r e d u ce d by a co pi ous bl e e d

i n g ; an d fi n ally cce ter i s p a r i b u s abs o rpti on will b e l e ss r apid

, ,

as th e liq u ids to b e a bs o rb e d ar e l e ss liquid an d l e ss fitt e d to

m oist en the tissu e s .

O F D I G E S T I ON .

3 8 On e of th e p ri n cip al m ean s by which th e

. ab s or
p
ti on o f the m att e rs n e c e ss a ry for th e n utriti on o f an im als
C
 18 ZOOLO G Y .

is e ffe cted i s a c avity co mm un ica ti ng wi th th e e x te ri or an d

, ,

i n t o which the foo d is i n troduce d

3 9 A l i m e n ts —W e r e str ict the m ean i n g of this te rm
.

. .
,

for the s a k e o f cl e arn e ss to th o s e substa n ce s which be i n g

, ,

i n troduce d i n to the S t om ach ar e abs orbe d o nl y a fte r be in g ,

dig e st e d It is n e ed l e ss to r e m a rk th at foo d an d ai r are

.

e ss e n ti a l to the s u pp o rt o f life .

The w an t of food is i n dic ate d by th e p ai n ful s e n s ati o n we

call hu n g er its s e at is i n the sto m a ch This w an t an d its
, .

s e n s ati on m ay b e dimi n ish e d an d k e pt of by r e st sl eep an d , ,

by wh ate v e r r e ta rds th e vit al m o v e m en ts On the con trar y .

,

it is i n cre as e d by a ctivity fr e sh ai r an d by the u s e of bitte rs

, , .

H yb e rn ati n g an im als which sl e e p duri n g wi n t e r e at n ot so

, , ,

l on g as th e l e th argy c on ti n u e s ; an d c old -bl ood e d an im als as ,

fish e s an d fro gs can liv e i n d e spit e o f a l on g -c on tin u e d a bsti

But m an an d o th e r hot-bl oode d ani m als —an d m o re
,

n cn ce

e sp e ci ally fo r an o bvi o us r e a s on th e y o u n g—p e rish spe e dily

.

, ,

wh e n food is withh e ld e v en for a c omp ar ativ e ly sho rt tim e

, .

I n D an t e s c el e br a te d e pis o d e of the d e stru cti on o f the Ug oli n i

’

fam il y by st arv ation the y o un ge st e r i sh e d fir st

Al l ali m e n tar y subst an c e s ar e liir n i sh e d by the or gan ic
, .

kin gdoms — an im al an d v e ge t abl e ; wh ate v e r b e th e ir o rigi n ,

th ey m ay b e divide d i n to a z otiz e d e l e m en ts am yl ace ous or ,

sw ee t a n d fatty b odi e s Th es e s ubsta n c e s di ffe r i n th e ir n u

,
.

t ri e n t qu ali ti e s ; an d it is a fact pr o v e d by m an y c u ri ous ,

e x pe rim e n ts th at a ce rta i n n u mb e r of di ffe r e n t subst a n ce s is

,

e ss e n ti a l fo r th e s u pp ort o f lif e
y
.

Thus r abbits fe d up on on l on e ar ticl e o f food as h ay

, , ,

wh eat c abb age c ar rots

, , d 1 e i n ab o u t fif te en d ays ; whilst
,

fe d on th e s e a rticle s c o mbin e d or giv en i n succe ssi on th e y ,

l iv e an d t h riv e .

A hyg i en i c l aw th en is the div e rsity an d v ar i e ty i n r e spe ct

, , ,

o f fo od a n d ex p e r i e n c e an d e x pe rim en t a gr ee a s to this .

It has b ee n pro v e d e x p e ri m e n tal ly th a t substan c e s ( su ch ,

as suga r o i l g u m fat) de v o id of az o te do n ot n o urish

, , , ,

h o w e v e r m uch t h e y m ay b e v ari e d The u se O f a c e rtai n

s u bst an ce s such a s th e m u scul a r fl e sh—albu
.

n umb e r o f ,

m e n an d the gluten fo u n d i n wh e at s e e ms e ss e n ti a l to the ,

sup ort o f l ife

g 4 0 D i g e s ti v e App a r a tu s — The obj e ct o f d ige sti on is
.

.
,

l s t to s e p a r a te th e n utri e n t p art o f th e a lim e n t fro m the n on

,

n u tri e n t (f c e ce s ) ; 2n d to c o n v e rt th e n u tri e n t p a rt i n t o a liquid

,

fit to m i n gl e with the bl oo d an d thus to n o u r ish the b ody , .

 or D I G E S TI ON . 19

This e l abo rati on o f the fo od t ak e s pl ac e i n an i m a ls i n a , ,

c a vity m o r e or l e ss a m pl e co mmu n ic a ti n g with th e e x t e ri o r

, ,

a n d i n to which th e foo d i s r e c e iv e d an d fro m which th e n on ,

n ut ri e n t
po rt i o n s ar e e x p e ll e d V e g e t abl e s r e quir e n o s u ch
.

a pp a r a tus The c avity to which w e al lude is c all e d the

.

d i g es ti v e .

4 1 In c e rt ai n an im als
.

the dige stiv e ca vity i s simply

a p o uch h a vi n g but a si n gl e
,

e n tr an c e by which th e fo od

is r e ce iv e d an d th e n on -n u
t ri en t p o rti on is e x p e ll e d
( Fig 3 a ) an d thi s a rr an ge
.
, a

m e n t pre v ai ls i n m o st of the
p o lyps a ste ri ae or s ea -st a rs ;
,

an d m an y o th e r an i m als
m o r e c om pl e x i n th e ir str u e
ture s a ls o sh o w this ar r an g e
m en t But for the m o st
.
,

p a rt the dige stiv e tub e or

c an al ha s two op en i n gs —an
,

e n tr an c e for th e fo o d a n d an ,

e x it fo r th e n on -n u tri en t
p art the m ou th an d the
,

a nu s .

Th e al l
y c a n a l thus
m e n tar
fo rm s a t u b e d i l at e d a t l n
F i g 3 —H yd r
, P lyp
or re sh w t r . , a,

o ,
F - a e

te r v al s an d with two Op e n
,

i n gs ( Fig Th e m o r e i m p ort a n t o f th e s e dil a t ati on s is

.

ca ll e d th e sto m ach This c a vity is s o m e tim e s si n gl e a s i n

.
,

the c a rn iv o r a ; s o m e tim e s qu ad rupl e o r at l e a st c o m pl e x a s , ,

i n the h e rbiv o r a ; an d th e r eas on as sign e d for s u ch a com

p l ex i t
y is th at v e g e ta bl e food b e i n g l e ss e a sy o f dig e sti o n
, , ,

re qu ire s a l on ge r s oj o u rn i n the sto m ach a l cavi ti e s fi“

4 2 A m em b r a n e c al l e d m u co us lin e s the dig e stiv e c a vity
.
, ,

through ou t It is an al o go us to the sk i n with which it i s

.
,

c o n ti n u ous but di ffe rs i n str ucture It is m uch softer an d

, , ,

i n pl a c e o f an e pid e rmis is pr ote cte d On its e x po s e d s u rface by

‘ ‘

a r e ti cu l a r tissu e s oft and t u rgid c a ll e d ep i the l i um

, , .

F in a lly it is m o re v ascul ar th an th e oth er an d ab ou n ds with

,
’

The sto m ach i s pro b ably s i n gle i n al l anim als b e i n g si m ply s u bd i vi d e d ,

i n s o m e i n t o d i ff e re n t co m p a rt m e n ts } I n w h al e s th o u gh st ri c tly ca r
ni v o r ou s a ni m als t h e s to m a e h i s e x trem e ly co m p l e x —R K
,
'

. . .
, ”

0 2
20 zoo no e v .

s e cr e ti n g pore s E xte rn ally it po ss e ss e s a muscul ar tun ic

A
.
,

i n te n de d to act on the co n t e n ts o f the tube s e ro us m e m .

b ran e l a rge an d tran sluce n t lik e all s e ro us m e m bran es i n v e sts

, ,

it e x te rn ally i n the a bd om en s e rvi n g to fix it 1 n i ts place an d

, ,

to facilita te its m o v e m e n ts .

4 3 The dig e sti on o f the fo o d 1 8 e ffe ct e d m a i n ly

.
y by t he
a c ti on o f di ff e r e n t h u m o urs which th e fo o d i m b i b e s wh i lst
,

p assi n g th rough the a lim e n t ary c an al Th e s e humou rs ar e .

M a xill ary Gla n d .

P r t i d Gl n d
a o a .

T rac he a .

L gs
un .
P h ryn x
a .

G u ll e t
H rt
.

ea

Th o rax .

Li r
ve .

A o rt a .

Co l o n .

C cae u m .

S m a l l I n t e sti n e .

Fi g . 4 .
—D i g e st i ve A p para t u s o f an Ape .

chi e fly the s ecre ti on s from ce rta i n bodi e s ca ll ed gl an ds situ , ,

a te d a ro u n d the dig e stiv e t u b e an d d e sti n e d to ur in to its

,

c a vity v ar i ous liquids o r s e cre ti on s The n u m r o f th e se .

s ecre ti n g o rgan s v a ri e s i n diffe re n t an im al s but gen e ra lly

C ,

th ey a r e su ffici e n tly n u m e ro us The m o re i m po rtan t ar e the .

s aliv a ry an d gas tric l an ds the live r an d the pa n cr eas

44 Fi n a lly to F
, .

a cilita te the a ct i on o f the di g e sti v e uices

.
, J
 or A B S ORP TI ON . 21

on the food it is us e fu l to divid e it m ech an ica lly To e ffect

, .

this n atur e e mpl oys as is usu al v a ri o us m e an s Som e tim e s

, , , .

the foo d is c o mpr ess e d m e r e ly by the w a lls o f th e dige stiv e

t u be ; i n oth e r a n im als a s i n b i rds an d cr abs the foo d i s
, ,

crush e d to pi ec e s i n the sto m ach ; i n oth e rs as i n m an th e , ,

m e ch an ica l divisi on of the fo o d is e ffe cte d by m e an s of th e

te e tl i situ at e d i n th e m o u th a t th e co m m e n c e m e n t o f th e
,

a li m e n ta ry tub e its e l f Th e s e ar e the m astica to ry o rg an s an d

.

a p a r a tus
p .

4 5 Th u s the dige stiv e tub e e x tr e m e ly simpl e i n s om e

.
,

an im al s i s i n o th e rs v e ry co mpl e x e x te n di n g fr o m n e a rly
, ,

on e e x tre mity o f th e tr un k o r to rs o to th e o th e r Ne v e r .

th e l e s s its grea te r p ar t is l od g ed i n the c a vi ty of th e a bd o m e n

,

( F ig . which i n m am m als is s ep ar a te d fro m the tfi or aa: by

a m u scl e c all e d th e di aphr agm or midri ff In fe ri o rly it te rmi .

n a te s i n the p e l v i s ( Fig the i n te ri o r of which po ss e ss e s

.

a s o rt o f musc u l a r fl oo r Be hi n d the c avity is shut i n by the

.
,

spi n al c olu m n an d at the side s by br o ad m u scl e s e x te n di n g

,

fro m the tho r ax to the p e lvis I n te rn a lly this c a vity is i n .

v e ste d by the s e ro us m e m bran e ca ll e d pe rito n e u m by p orti on s ,

o f which ( the m e s e n t e ri e s ) th e bo w e ls ar e m ai n ta i n e d i n
th e ir pl ac e whilst oth e r po rti on s e x ten di n g b ey on d the
, ,

m argi n s o f the st o m ach an d bow els an d thus floati n g i n the ,

ca vity o f the a bd o me n ar e call e d e pipl oo n s an d e pi pl oo i c

,

a pp e n d a g e s .

The v a ri ous po rti on s o f th e ali m en t a ry t u be thus fo rm e d

a n d l o c a te d r e c e iv e di ffe r e n t n a m e s Its first p art is c all e d .

the m ou th ; th e c a vity fo ll o w i n g it the ph a ry n x ; n ex t foll ows ,

th e g u ll e t ; th e n the sto m ach ; an d this is fo ll o w e d by the sm al l

i n te sti n e its elf subdivid ed i n to thre e po rti on s th e du od en u m
, , ,

j eju n um an d il e um A fte r this fol lows th e la rge i n te sti n e

, .
,

te rmi n at e d by the an u s
4 6 A cts of the D i g e s ti v e F u ncti on —The ph en o m e n a
.

. .

which t ak e pl ac e i n the di ffe r e n t po rt i on s o f the dig e stiv e tub e

co n stitu te a s e ri e s o f acts or fu n cti o n s al l ten di n g to on e e n d
Th ey m ay b e thus cl ass e d — 1 Th e re i s the preh en si on o f
.

the food ; 2 The m astic ati on ; 3 The i n s aliv a ti on ; 4 The

. . .

de gl u titi on ; 5 The chym i fi ca ti on or sto m ach a l dige sti on ;

.
,

6 The chyl i fi cati on or 1 n tes ti n al dige sti o n ; 7 D e faeca ti on ;

.
, .

8 The a bs o rpti on o f the chyl e

. .

L et us n o w e x ami n e th e s e o rgan s an d th e ir acts s u c

ce s s i v el y i n m an an d i n the an im al s which m o st appr oach
,

him .
22 zoo no e Y .

P r e ke n s i on f
o til e F oo d .

47 Th at this act v ari e s in diffe ren t an ima ls is e vid en t

. .

Man e mpl oys th e h an ds a n d m outh A n a to mi ca l ly spe aki n g .

,

th e te r m m o u th i n clud e s n ot on ly the o p e n i n g s o ” ca l l ed b ut
the c a vity in to which it l e ads Thi s c avity is v e r y co mpl ex
.
,

but m ay b e bri e d de sc rib e d as h avi n g two o rific e s on e

e xte rn ally o n th e f a
,

, c e the oth e r situ at e d d ee ply an d l e adi n g

, ,

to the ph a ry n x Its b o un d a ri e s a r e the p al ate ab o v e the

.
,

to n gu e an d floo r o f the m o uth b e l o w ; at the side s the ch eeks ;

b e hi n d the m o v e abl e p al ate limits its e xt e n t an d s e rv e s the
, ,

i m po rtan t p u rp o s e o f is o l ati n g it at tim e s from the ph n x ,

a n d o f pr ot e ct i n g th e p o st e ri o r n o stri ls I n m an an in .

m an } oth e r an im a ls the foo d IS pl a c e d i n th e m o uth b y th e

h an d ; o r an t er i or e xtre miti e s the li ps re ta i n it wh e n so pl a ce d .

F ig 5
. .
—Oui sti ti api n ce a u ’ .

Ce rtai n an im als in tro duc e the foo d

i n to the m on th by m ea n s of a l on g
an d pr o tractil e to n gu e I n o th e rs , .

this a ct is
cc om plish e d by m ea n s
a

o f a pr ol on g ati on o f t he n o s e as i n ,

the e l e ph an t ( Fig o r by m e an s
.

o f fee l e rs ( p a lp i ) s ur r ou n di n g the

m o u th a s i n i n s ects ( Fig 7 a )
, .
,

whilst si m il a r o rgan s ar e ca ll ed te n
t a c u l a i n the m o l lusc a ( Fig th e .

po lyps ( F i &c
F 1g 6
. .
— H e a d o f th e 4 8 T e pr e h e n si on of the liquid
E l eph a n t
.

a lim en ts o r dri n ks is e ffe cte d i n tw o

.

J a cchus P e ni cil l a tu s .
 P B E H E N sI ON o r s oo n . 23

ways Som etim e s the l iquid i s p o ure d i n to th e m outh an d

.
'

all o w e d to fal l in to it by its own w e ight ; i n oth e rs it is suck e d ,

up by the m outh e ith e r by the dil ata ti on of the th o ra x or

,

by the action of th e ton gu e acti n g as a piston Sucki n g is .

e ffe cte d by thi s l a st m e th o d .

F ig 7
. a. —
J ws a of thi s
in se ct .

8 .
—Th e M ll sk cal l d C
o u , e al ama ry .

B ee tl e .
 24 ZOO LOGY .

Ce rta i n of th e l o w er
an i m al s ar e d e stin e d to
urish th e ms e lv e s so l e no

l y by liquids fo un d i n
pl an ts or i n the bo di e s
of o th e r an i m a ls on ,

w h ich th e y liv e as pa ra
site s M an y i n s e cts ar e .

thus pro vi d e d for ; an d

th e ir m outh i n ste ad of ,

pre s e n t i n g the o rdi n a ry

structure s is fo r m ed i n to ,

a l e n gt he n e d tube o r
s o ck e t b m e an s of

;
F g 9 B o m b yl e P e m t
1 . . .
,

which th e dr aw up the
liquids th ey re qu ire ( Fig The d e tails o f this cu ri o us st ru e
.

tur e wil l b e ex pl a i n e d wh e n trea ti n g of th e histo ry of i n sects .

The liquid a lim en t qu its the m o uth an d d e sce n ds imm e ,

di ate l y i n to the sto m a ch thr ou gh the ph aryn x an d gul l e t .

The s olid p art r e m a in s for a tim e i n or d e r to un d e rgo th e

acti on of m a stic ati o n .

M as ti ca ti on .

49 M astica ti on
. is p e rfo rm e d by the t e e th .

The Te e th — Th e s e o rgan s are extre m e ly h a rd substa n ce s ,

r e s e mbl in g b on e firmly fix e d i n t o
,
the a lv e o l ar edge s of e ith e r

F ig l O
. .
—L o we r J a w an d T ee th o f th e R bb t
a i .

ja w an d s o a s to act u p on e ach oth e r or rath e r u 11 wha t

, ,

e v e r is pl ac e d be tw e e n th e m I n m an wh o m w e s e ect as t he
.
,

e x a mpl e , e ach too th is fo rm e d i n a littl e m e mbr an ous s ac

l odg e d i n the thick n e ss o f the jaw its e lf ( Fig This s ac .

,

which is n am e d the d e n ta l cap su l e i s c omp o s ed o f tw o v as ,

on l a r m e mbr an e s an d e n cl o se s i n its in te ri o r a sm al l pul py

,

Th V ari e ga te d B o m byx
e .
 MA S TI CA TI ON . 25

ge rm or ce n tre simil a r to a gr an ul ati on in t o which r am i fy

, ,

n u m e r o u s fi n e n e rv e s an d v e ss e ls ( Fig Th is p ul p c all e d .
,

als o th e er m o r b u l b o f the too th s e rv e s to fo rm th e to o th

g , ,

gradu ally be co m i n g e lon ga t e d an d appro achi n g the fr ee e dge

j
o f the a w which it s oo n pi e rc e s
,
an d so a ppe a rs e xte rn a lly , .

The po i t i o n th u s d en ud ed an d ex po s e d beyon d the edge of th e

cor o n a o f th e too th wh i lst the p orti on c all e d
j a w is c a ll e d t h e ,

r o o t r e m ai n s imbe dd e d i n the ja w lik e a n ail driv e n i n to a

b oard The o ss e ou s ca vity thus l odg in g the to oth is call e d

.

the a l v e o l u s an d the p o i n t o f u n i on of th e co ron a an d r oo t i s

,

c all ed the n eck o f the tooth Wh en the den t al bulb is fix ed .

to the bo tt o m o f its ca psul e by o n e o r m o r e pe dicl e s th e re ,

arriv e s a m om e n t wh e n th e h a rd p a rt o f the too th d e po sit e d

on th e sur face o f th e b ul b su rr o u n ds it on a l l sid e s co m p r e ss ,

i n g its n o u rishi n g v e ss e ls s o a s to ca us e its o bl ite r ati on The .

too th ce as e s th e n to gro w the bulb w aste s a way an d a , ,

c en tr al c a vity al on e i n dica te s the pl ace of this o rgan But .

wh e n the b u lb d oe s n ot e xhibit this a rr an ge m e n t wh e n it i s ,

n ot pe d u n cu l a te d a n d wh e n th e t oo th fo rm s on ly on th e uppe r
,

sur face the growth of the too th ce as e s n ot an d no ce n tr al

, ,

ca vi ty is fo un d i n its i n t e ri or .

E g l l .
‘
Fig .

Thel arge te eth fou n d i n the fron t of the m ou th of the

g
ra bbit ( Fi 1 0) offe r an e x ampl e o f this kin d o f d e n titi on ;
.

an d i f th e i r l e n th d oe s n o t co n sta n tly i n c r e a s e it is be ca us e
g ,

th e y ar e wo rn d o wn by t ritur ati on on th e ir cuttin g ed g e i n

propo rti on as th e y gro w at the bas e .

Se c ti o n ofd e n ta l cap s u l e a cap sul e ; b b u lb o r ge rm ; c bloo d

a .
, , ,
an d n e rve s e n te ri n g th e g e rm
ls ; d fi rst r u di m cn ts o f th e i v o ry o f th e
ggip
y l
,

1
'
L o wer j aw o f a v e ry y g i f t Th
oun n an . e ou e t r ta bl e o f th e ja w has be e n
re m o e d to po s e th
v ex e c p s ul s f th t e th
a e o e e e n cl o s e d i n i ts i n te ri o r th e . (1

g um ; b l o w r d g th e ja w ; d d e n t a l c ap s ul e s ; e
,
, f th j w ;
e e gle o fe o e a 0, a n
d proce ss ; f co n dyl e o f th e j w
, ,
r
co o n o1 , a .
. 6 ZOOLOGY .

§ 50 T. ee th are c o mp o s e d o f v a ri o us struct u r e s T h e .

substan c e fo rm i n g the great e r pa rt o f the to o th u n d e rn ea th , ,

i s ca ll e d the i v org o r d e n ti n e The d e n se co v e r i n g o f the

.

co ron a i s call ed en a me l A third s ubst an ce is o ccas i o n a lly

.

fo un d to w a rds the e x tre mity o f the ro ots or e v e n e n v e l opin g ,

the e n am e l an d co r on a ( as i n th e o x ) to which the n am e of ,

ce m e n t o r cor ti ca l su b s ta n ce h as b ee n giv e n .

The i v o ry o f the to oth is c om po s e d of an an im al m atte r

a n al o go us to ge l ati n e o f ph o sph ate o f lim e ( i n the p ropo r
,

tio n o f abo ut 6 4 to 1 00 i n the ad u lt hum an too th ) o f car ,

b o n at e o f lim e (am ou n ti n g n ear ly to TS —O

p ar ts ) an d o f a ,

sm all qu an tity o f ph o sph ate o f m agn e si a The e n am e l which .

,

diff e rs s o m e wh at i n col o u r fro m the d e n ti n e or iv o ry an d ,

which is h ard e n ough to str ik e fi r e with fli n t sh ows on ,

a n a lysis slight tr ac e s o f an an i m a l s u bstan ce Th e ph o sph a te .

o f l i rn e i n its co mpo siti on a m o u n ts to ths T h e co rti ca l

% .

substa n c e or c e m e n t sc arc e ly e x ists i n the hu m an tee th ; but

i n th e t e e th o f o x e n i n which it a bou n d
,
it furn ish e s by s
, ,

ch e mica l an alysis 4 2 per 1 00 of o rga n ic m atte r 50 pe r 1 00

, ,

o f ph o sph at e o f li m e a n d 4 e r 1 00 o f c a rbon a te o f lim e

,p .

I n t he iv o ry o f th e te eth of m an w e disco v e r by m e an s ,

o f the micr os c ope a multitude o f x u o us br an chi n g t u b e s o f

, fl e
e xtr e m e te n uity c all e d H a v e r s i a n ca n a l s which p
( ) o e n o r ,

t e rm i n at e i n the c e n tral c a vity : th e s e t u b e s co n tai n cal ca r e ous

m atte r ; th e y r u n to w ar ds the surfac e o f the tooth an d th e ir ,

division s t e r m i n a t e fre que n tly i n littl e c aviti e s be a ri n g a clo s e

r e s e mbla n c e to the li ttl e ce l ls fou n d i n the o rdi n ar y o ss eo us
tissu e The en a m e l e xa mi n e d un de r the micro scope e x hibits
.
, ,

a m u ltitu d e o f fibr e s o r r a th e r h e x a gon a l p r isms i n app e ar

, ,

a n ce cryst all i n e cl o s e ly pre ss e d a gai n st e ach oth e r an d

, ,

dire cte d p e r pe n dic u la rly to w ards the s u rface of th e too th .

F i n a lly the c o rtica l subst an c e is ch a racte riz ed by the pr e

,

s e n ce o f a gre at n umb e r of o ss eo us ce llul e s an d o f ir re gul ar ,

ca lcife ro us tube s Th e s e tissu e s ar e n ot al l m e t with i n the

.

tee th o f al l an im a ls ; the e n a m e l an d c orti ca l s u bstan ce ar e fr a

q u en tly abs e n t i n fish e s ; an d occa s i on al ly the d e n ti n e i n stead ,

o f c on ta i n i n g a si n gl e m e dull a ry ca vity co n t ai n s s e v e ral

, .

51 Th e te e th i n s o m e an im als in ste a d of b ei n g
.
, ,

co n t a i n e d o r fi x e d i n the a lv eo l a r ca viti e s ( s ock e ts ) u nite ,

by th e ir b as e with the j a wbon e or m a xi l l a b e co m in g as , ,

it w e re a p art o f it : this h a ppe n s in m an y fish e s an d occa

, ,

s i on al l
y the te e th i n st ea d o f r e s e m b l i n
, bon e s o ff e r m e r ely ,

the co n siste n ce o f h o r n Fi n ally i n t e wh al e bo n e wh al e

.
,
 ma s r l cx r ro n . 27

( Fig . 1 4 ) the t ee th s e e m to b e r e pl a c e d by l arg e fl e xibl e

plate s o f wh a l e b o n e Fig d i n o th e r an im al s ,
(f a n on s ,
1 3 ) a n .

Fi g 1 4 —O ss e o u s
. . H
e a d o f th e Wh al e ,

wi th t h e t al e b o n e p e s e n t r .

e en
v m a mm a ls , ar e wh o lly w an ti n g , as i n th e
a n t -e at e r ( Fi g .

§ 52 In im al s which d n ot m stic t
'
. an o a a e ,

but m e r e ly s e iz e th e ir pr e y with th e t e e th a s ,

i n cr o co di l e s a n d m an y o th e r r e ptil e s al l the te e th ,

r e s e mbl e e a ch oth e r : th e y h av e the fo r m o f

ho oks or c on e s : but i n an im als which m a sticate ,

the t e e th h a v e di ffe r e n t fo rms an d us e s .

Fi g 1 5 —
. . H e ad of th e Ga vi al Croco di l e .

Thus i n m an an d m o st m am m a ls th e r e e xist thr ee kin ds

,

o f t e e th : 1 Th e t e e th c all e d i n ci si v e which h a v e a sh a rp
.
,

cutti n g e dge 2 Con ic al tee th which i n m an y an im al s pr o

. .
,

L arge Mola r . Sm all Mol r a . C a ni n e . I n c i s i ve .

Fi g 1 65
. .
—H um an T e e th .
28 zo o no e r .

j c e t be yon d th e pla n e o f th e o th e rs ; th e s e ar e the ca n i n e

tee th 3 Oth e rs ca ll e d m o l a r wh o s e broad an d i rre gu l ar
. .
, ,

surfac e p o i n ts o ut th e ir u s e i n the trit u rati on o f the foo d .

The m od e o f impl an ta ti on o f th e s e tee th i n th e j a ws di ffe rs ,

as w e ll as the fo r m o f the co r o n a be i n g i n fa ct i n a cco rd an ce , , ,

with th e ir u s e s The i n cisiv e in te n d e d on ly to cut or divide

.
,

the foo d h a v e but a si n gl e sh o rt r oo t ; the c an i n e p e n e tr a te

,

m u ch m o re d e e ply i n to t he j a ws th an the i n cisiv e s ; an d the

m ola r ca ll e d on to u n de rgo still stron ge r pre ssur e ar e fi rmly
, ,

fi x e d by two o r th ree r oo ts i n to th e a lv eol a r c av iti e s .

53 The h ar m on y o f o rgan iz ati on b e tw ee n the te e th a n d

.

th e ir us e s is such th at i n ge n e ra l it is e a sy by a sight of
, ,

th e t e e th o f an an im a l to say to wh at cl a ss it b e l on gs an d to
, ,

pre dict much a p r i o r i as to its n ature Thus in cam i

, , .
,

v o r o u s an im al s the m o l a rs a r e n o t gr i n di n g tee th pr o p e rly s o ,

ca ll e d b u t pr e s e n t a sh a rp e dg e divi di n g th e p re y lik e a p a ir
, ,

o f sciss ors ( Fig i n i n s e ctiv o ro us an i m als the te e th h a v e

.

a tube rc u l a te d surfa c e r o ugh with co n ica l po in ts s o arr an g e d

, , ,

a s to l o ck in to e ach o th e r I n the frugiv or o us livi n g on so ft

. ,

Fig 17
. .
—T e e th o f a C a rn i v o ro us Fi g 1 8
. .
—T e e th o f an I n s ecti vo ro u s
A n i m al .

fr uits ( Fig th e s e te e th ar e simply pro vi d ed wi th ro u n de d

.

tub e rcl e s ; i n the h e rbiv oro us th e s e tee th h a v e a br oad ro u gh ,

surfa ce re s e mbli n g a mil l sto n e ( Fig

, .

F ig 19 . . T e e th o f a n H e rbi vo ro u s Fi g 20 . .
—
T ee th o f a F r u
gi vo ro u s ni m u A .
 s r r ca r r o n . 29

Of al l the te e th the m ol a rs ar e the m o st us e ful ; h en ce th eir

pre s en c e i s m u ch m o r e fr e qu e n t th an the i n cisiv e s or ca O

i
n ne s.
Th s
e e l a tt e r fo r a n o bvi o,
u s r e a s o n ar e n e v e r w an t i ng ,

i n th e c ar ni v o r a ; b u t th e y ar e n ot u n fr e qu en tly a bs e n t i n th e
h e rbiv o r a The c an in e i n s o m e an i m als gr o w to a l a rge S l ze
. ,

a n d b e c o m e i n strum en ts o f a tt ack an d d e fe n ce ( Fig .

F i g 22. .
—H e ad o f th e A n t-e a te r?

F i g 21 . .
— H e ad of th e B o ar .

54 . bi rth it is s eld o m th at th e hum an t e e th h av e cut

At
th e gu ms ; th e y app e a r u su a lly fr o m s i x m on ths to a y e a r
afte r bi rth The te e th which first appe a r ar e c al l e d m i l ls
.

te e tb or d e cid u o us as d e sti n e d to b e thr o w n o ff an d to b e r e

, ,

pl ac e d by oth e rs Th e y ar e tw en ty i n n umb e r n am ely i n

—
.
, ,

vi z
ea ch ja w t e n fo u r i ncisiv e s o n e c a n i n e a n d tw o m ol a r
.
, , , .

A b o ut s e v e n y ea rs o f a g e th e s e be gi n to fa ll or to b e
thro w n o ff an d to b e r epl a c e d by an o th e r s e ri e s of t e e th
, ,

situ at e d i n caps u l e s imbedd e d m o r e d e e ply i n the j aws th e ir

ro ots th e r ef o r e ar e l on ge r an d th e ir i n s e rti on firm e r
, .

The te e th of th e s e co n d d en titi on ar e m o r e n u m e ro us th an
th o s e o f the first : th e y ar e thirty -two i n n u m b e r sixte e n i n ,

e ach ja w ; n a m e ly fo u r i n cisiv e s tw o c an i n e
, fo u r s m all or
, ,

fa ls e m ol a r h avi n g e a ch tw o ro ots thre e tru e m olars situ at e d

, ,

b e hi n d th e s e an d h avin g each thre e r oo ts ( Fig

, .

I n ol d ag e th e s e p e rm an en t t e eth fa ll as di d the de ci du ous ,

but th e y ar e n ot r e pl ace d
—
.

55 M e
. ch a n i s m o
f M a s ti ca ti on T h e t ee th the pas .
,

siv e i n str u m e n ts o f m a stic atio n ar e put i n acti on by the ,

muscl e s of m asti cati on actin on th e j a ws The uppe r ja w .

,

fo rmi n g a fix e d po rti on of t e h e ad i n m a mm als m o v e s on ly ,

with the h e ad ; b u t th e l o w e r by m e an s o f its a rticul ati on s

, ,

a cts r e adily an d p o w e rfully a n d by m ea n s o f m an y m u scl e s

, ,

an d with t he a id o f the ton gu e a n d ch e e ks fo rce s the fo o d i n ,

such a w ay be tw e e n the surface of the gri n di n g t ee th as to

e x po s e it fu lly to th e i r a cti on .

M yrm eco ph aga J ub ta a .

 30 zoo no o r .

This o p e rati o n 1 s an i m po rt an t o n e i n asmuch a s the

56 .
,

m ore the
fo o d is m as tic ate d the e a si e r will b e the dige sti on .

Wh en s u ch i n str um e n ts a re w a n ti n g in a n im als wh o s e foo d

still r equir e s tritu rati on this 1 s e ffe cte d by o th e r m e a n s The
, .

g i zza rd fo r e x a m pl e m m an y birds i s suffici e n tly stron g to

, ,

a n sw e r this purp o s e .

I n s a l i v a ti on .

57Whilst the foo d is u n d e rgo in g t riturati on i n the

.

m o uth it i m bib e s s a liv a whic h s o m e tim e s e v e n diss o lv e s it

, , .

58 Th e s aliv a I S fo rm e d p a rtly 1 n littl e m uc o us c aviti e s

.

h oll ow e d ou t o f the muco u s m e m bran e o f the m o uth p a rtly ,

by gl an ds situ a te d ar o u n d this c a vity an d co mm u n ic ati n g ,

with i t Th e s e gl an ds ar e co m po s e d o f s m all gran ul ati o n s

.
,

a ggl o m e r a t e d I n m a n th e r e e x i st thr e e s al iv a ry gl an ds on
.

e ach sid e pl a c e d a r o u n d th e l o w e r jaw ; the p a r o tid t he sub

Th ey l iav e e ach an ex cre to r y

, ,

m ax i l l a ry an d th e s u bl in g u al
,
.

d u ct by which th e ir s e cr e ti on s ar e po ure d i n to the m o uth i n

,

v a ri a bl e qu an titi e s The fo llicl e s o f the m u co us m e m b 1 an e o f

.

th e m on th ar e diss e mi n at e d p a rtly o v e r th e surfa ce o f the

t on gu e a n d ch e e ks an d p a rtly c oll e ct e d i n to t wo gr o ups
, ,

situ ate d i n the isth m u s o r p ass ag e by which the m o uth com

m u n i cate s with th e ph a ry n x Th e s e littl e m a ss e s o f fol licl e s
.

ar e c a ll e d a m ygd a l ae o r t o n sils , .

The mi x e d s aliv a co m i n g fi om th e s e v a ri o u s s o urc e s is ,

c o mpo s e d of 9 93 p a rts o f w a t e r to 1 000 o f s a liv a I n addi .

ti on th e r e e x ist a pe culi a r pri n cipl e c al l e d p tg a l i n e an d

,

a n i ma l d i a s ta s e v a ri o u s sa lts as s e a s a lt or chl o rid e o f

, ,

s o diu m t a rtrat e o f s od a an d a littl e un c o mbin e d so da r e n

, , ,

d e ri n g th e s aliv a a lk al i n e .

The s a liv a th u s mi x e d with the fo o d facilita te s m astica

ti on a ssists i n d e gl u titi on an d obvi o usly a ids 1 n the dige sti on
, ,

o f s o m e kin ds o f fo od .

D eg l u ti ti o n .

m a mm al s b e tw e e n the bucca l c a vity a n d the

§ 59 . In ,

ph aryn x i s a m o v e abl e musc u l a r p ar titi on the p e n d u l ou s

, ,

Fig which d u r i n g m astica t i on s e p r a te s the

p a l a te ( g
,
.

a , ,

tw o c a vit i e s fro m e ach o th e r ; b u t s o s o on as this 1 3 a e co m

l i s h ed th e cl e m e n t a m a ss o r b o l u s b e i n g pr es se d b ack
p ,

w a rds b th e to n g ue t e p e n d u l o u s p al ate is dra w n u w a rds

an d b ack
,

wa r d s so a s to p e rmi t o f the p ass a g e o f t e foo d

,

o r d r in k thr o ugh th e is t hm us i n t o the ph ary n x A t this .

 D E GLU TITI O N . 31

po i n t d e glutiti on co m m en c e s the te rm b e in g appli e d to th e

,

a ss ag e o f the foo d an d d ri n k fr o m th e ph ar yn x by the g u ll e t

p , ,

m to the st om a ch .

60 Th e ph a ryn x ( Fig 23 ) is the ca vity imm e di at

. .

l o wi n g the m outh an d co mm un ica ti n g with it by the isthmus

, .

It r e c e iv e s th e foo d fro m the m ou th an d th e ai r p a ss e s by the

,

s a m e p a ss age wh e n the n o strils ar e cl o s e d o r o bstr u cte d .

S e v e n ope n i n gs l e a d to or fro m this c avity t h e po st e ri o r n o s ,

tr i l s n a m e ly be i n g tw o ; the E ust a chi an tub e s l e a di n g to the

, ,

ea rs tw o ; the o pe n i n g to th e m o uth o n e ; th e o pe n i n g o f th e
, ,

gull e t o n e ; th e ap e rtur e l ea din g to the lu n gs thr ough th e

,

l ar y n x a n d wi n dpip e on e ; s e v en i n al l The tr ach ea is th e

, .

tube l e adi n g i n t o the ch e st s u rm ou n t e d by the l a ryn x By

, .

this tube the a i r p ass e s i n to the l u n gs pl ac e d i n the th o rax , ,

an d th e ( e s o ph a gu s or g u ll e t p a ss e s thr ough th e ch e st an d

e n t e rs th e a bd o m e n to e x p an d a s it w e r e in t o th e st o m ach
, , .

By this t u b e the foo d a n d dr i n k p a ss i n to th at o rgan .

P e d ul o s P al a t e
n u .

NOS 8
B a s e o f th e C r ani um .
.

T 0 0 811 9
P h ry
a nx .

l
S a i va ry Gl ds an .

L i n g u al Bon e .

L ry
a nx .

Thyro i d Gla n d .

T rach e a or V d
\ in
( Es o p h a g u s .
pi pe

K g 23
. .
—Ve rti cal
cti o o f th e M o th d Thro t
Se n u an a .

6 1 Whilst th e alim e n t a r y b o lus is pa ssin g fr om the

.

m outh to th e ph aryn x the ap e rtur e s of the po ste ri or n o strils

,

a r e pr o t e cte d by th e p e n dul o us p a l a te ; th e tub e s l eadi n g to

32 ZOOLO G Y .

th e ea rs by pe culi ar m e ch an ism an d by th e i r dir e cti on ;

a ,

the ope n i n l e ad i n g to the l a ry n x an d a i r p ass age o r trach ea

is pro te cte dby a ca rt il ag e o f a si n gul a rly w o n d e rfu l m e ch a
n ism , cl osi n g the ai r tu be h e r m e tica lly whil st the foo d is
pa ssi n g o v e r its uppe r s u rface ; the gull e t is th e n the on ly
a pe r t u r e l e ft by which the foo d ca n e s ca pe fro m the ph a r n x
y ,

an d this l ead s d i re ctly to the sto m ach The m o v e m e n ts an d .

co n tr acti ons r e qu i re d to e ffe ct th e s e acti on s ar e n u m e ro us ,

c ompl e x an d quite i n vol un tar y ; wh en d i stur be d th e foo d

, ,

m ay pe n e tr a te in to the l a ryn x an d win dpi pe ca u si n g fo r an ,

i n stan t te rr ibl e distr e ss an d ce rta in d e a th if n ot sp e e dil y

,

re lie v ed Fi n ally the g u ll e t be in g i n p a rt m u s cu l a r by its

.
, ,

co n tr a cti on s the foo d is r ea dily pr ope ll ed i n to the sto ma ch .

It is al m o st n e e dl e ss to say that the g ull e t is n e arly straight ,

a n d th a t th e foo d d oe s n ot d e s ce n d i n to th e sto m a ch by its

o wn gr avity .

S to m a cl i a l D i g e s ti o n or Ckym ifi ca ti o n .

6 2 The
. fo o d is chan ged i n the sto m ach i n to the s u b
stan c e c all e d Chym e The sto m ach ( Fig 24 ) i s a m e m
. .

b r an ou s b ag pl a ce d t ran sv e rs e ly i n the uppe r p art o f the

a bd o m in al ca vity an d a lm ost i mm edi ate ly be l o w the d i a
,

h r ag m i n m an it h as th e sh a pe of a b agpip e an d i n d e e d it
p ,

is with th e st om achs o f an im als h a vi n g this sh a pe th a t the

a i r r e se r v o i r o f t he b a gpipe is m ad e It dimi n is h e s gra du a lly
.

fro m l e ft to r ight an d i s c ur v e d o n its e lf s o th a t its uppe r

, ,

edg e is sh o rt an d co n ca v e its in fe ri o r call e d th e grea te r cur

, ,

v atur e o f th e sto m a ch c on v e x an d l on g By an o pe n i n g
, .

c al l ed ca r di ac (or b ette r oas Oph ag e al ) it co mmu n ica te s wi th

, , ,

the gull e t ; the o pe ni n g l ead i n g i n to the sm al l i n tes tin e is

c all e d pyl o ri c The w alls of the sto m ach ar e v e ry dil at
.

a bl e ; wh e n e mpty a n u mb e r o f fo lds m ay b e s e en i n te rn ally

, ,

which di sa ppe ar wh en th e sto m ach i s fu ll L ittl e folli cl e s .

or caviti e s m ay b e s ee n al s o The te rm p y l or u s i s de ri v ed
.

fro m the Gree k w o rd w h o o pee a po1t e r (m i ke a ga t e an d

, , ,

co es
p ,
g ua r di an ) . D urin g d i ge sti o n i n th e sto m ach the
,

pyl o ric o rifice is cl o se d an d afte rw ar ds o pe n s to a l l o w of the

,

p assag e o f th e chym e i n to the i n tes ti n e ; o v e r the i n te ri o r o f

the sto m a ch ar e n u m e r o us s m all ca viti e s ca l l ed g a s tr i c f o l
l i e l es which po ur o u t upo n th e fo o d the liquid th ey s e cr e t e
, .

This liquid is the g as tr i c j u i ce the m ost impo rtan t of a l l

,

the a ge n ts o f dige sti o n for by it th e food is co n v e rte d i n to

,

chym e . So l on g as the sto m ach i s e mpty i t is s ecr e te d ,

 D I G E S TI ON .
33

on ly i n s m a ll quan titi e s ; but i n the o rgan fill e d with food ,

e sp e ci a lly if s o lid the g a stric j uic e is s e cr e te d i n abu n d an c e

, .

Its a cid prop e rti e s ar e al w ays w e ll m a rk e d .

L i r P ylo ru s G ll t P a cr s
ve . . u e . n ea . S to m a ch .

G all Bla dd e r . S pl e e n .

C olo n .

Co l o n .

C c
ae um .

A pp dien x of

th C ae
e cum .

S m all I n t e st i n e . R ct e um .

F i g 24
. .
-D i g st i
e ve A pp ar at u s i n M an .

63 . The al im e n ta ry
substan c e s which accumul ate i n the
sto m ach b e i n g pre ss e d on by the mu scul ar w all o f the sto m a ch
an d abd om e n w oul d r e a sce n d the g u ll e t b u t ar e pr e v e n te d by
,

the co n tr acti on o f this o rg an This r e si st an c e h o w e v e r is fr e

.
, ,

qu en tly o v e rco m e as i n r e gu rgit ati on an d v omiti n g On the

, .

o th e r h an d th e c on tr a cti on o f th e pyl o r u s dur i n g dig e sti on

,

r et ai n s the foo d for s om e tim e i n th e st oma ch .

D
3 4, ZOOLOGY .

§ 64 . The
foo d thus 1 e tai n e d is c ol l e ct e d chi e fly m the ,

p art c alle d the gre at cu l d e s ac o f the stom ach So m e .

o f its c on t e n ts as w at e r al co h o lic liquids

, &c ar e t a k e n ,

u p or a bs o rb e d by th e w a ll s o f the sto m a ch a n d thus e n te r

.
, ,

the bl o o d with o ut fu rth e r ch an g e Oth e rs p a ss th e pyl o r us .

u n alte re d a n d e scape with the fae c e s ; but the gr e at e r p art

,

u n d e rgoe s the acti on o f dige sti on an d is by this tran sfo rm e d ,

i n to a p u lpy s e mi -l iqu id m as s c all e d chy me , .

It w o uld app e a r th at the alim e n ta ry fra gm e n ts pl ace d on

th e s u rfac e o f the m a ss an d m o re imm e di ate ly 1 1 c o n ta ct
,
1
with the w alls of the sto m a ch i m bib e th e ga stric j u ice be , ,

com e acid a n d s o fte n from the c i rcu m fe r en c e to w a rds the

,

c en tre .With ti m e the wh ol e m a ss u n d e rgo e s this ch an ge ,

a n d b e co m e s con v e rte d fi n al ly in to a s o ft p u lt a c e o us gr e yish

m a ss o f a fa i n t an d p e c u li a r od o ur : thi s is th e chym e min gl e d

, ,

with the deb r i s of the foo d

a tu r e of til e D i e s ti v e P r oce s s —
.

§ 6 5 N .
g P ri or to the .

e x p e rim e n ts of S p a ll an z an i th e t r u e n a t u r e o f th e dig e stiv e

,

p ro ce ss w as n ot un de rstoo d H e it w a s w ho fir st sh o w e d .
,

by dir e ct e x p e rim en t th at the s oluti on o f th e foo d i n the

,

livi n g st om ach w as du e to the acti on of the a st1 i o j uice

an d this h e pr ov e d by en cl o sin g the foo d i n tu e s o f w ood
, ,

p e rfo r ate d so a s to all o w of the a cti on of the s e cret e d liqu ids ,

but str on g en ou gh to r e sist the acti o n o f the w a lls of the

. to m ach : th u s pro vi n g th a t tritu rati on w a s n ot th e c a us e of
dige sti o n H e c ar rie d his e xpe rim en ts still fu rth e r for by
. ,

withdrawi n g by m e an s o f littl e bits of sp on g e s ecur e d with

,

thr e ads a su ffici en t qu an tity of the g astric j u ice fro m th e

,

sto m achs of cr e ws an d o th e r bir ds he i m ita te d succe ssfully ,

th e dig e stiv e pro c e ss on fo o d pl ace d i n cl o s e v e ss e ls h eat e d ,

to a r o p e r t e mp e r a t u r e
p .

It I S e vide n t th e n th at the ga stric j u ic e is the tru e s o lv e n t

, ,

of the foo d i n th e sto m ach a n d a qu e sti o n a ris e s n a m e ly to

, , ,

wh at pr op e rty it o w e s its activ e p o w e r .

§ 6 6 As c rib e d hith e rt o t o th e pr e s e n c e o f the hydr o

chl oric an d l actic a ids which alw ays e n te r in to its co m po s i

c

ti on the e x pe rim e n ts of E be rl e S chw a n an d Mull e r s ee m to

, , ,

pro v e the e x i ste n c e o f a p e c u li a r p ri n cipl e ( p ep s i n ) an a lo go us

t o the a cti o n o f d i a s ta s e o n ti n d e r B u t this s u bstan ce o r .

pri n cipl e r e quir e s to b e co m bi n e d w ith an acid the hyd ro ,

chl o ric o r a c etic for e x am pl e It ca n th e n diss o lv e fibri n .

,

c oa g u l at e d al bu m e n an d the gre ate r n u m be r of the s olid

,

alim e n ta ry bo die s ; an d it fur th e r produc e s impo rt an t ch a n g es

 CHYL I F I CA T I ON . 35

i n th e ch e mica l n atu re of so m e o f th e s e b odi e s as fo r e x ,

a mpl e 1 n a lb u m e n
, .

Ce rt a i n a lim e n ta ry s u bst an c e s as fe c u l a an d glut en m e , ,

n ot acte d 0 1 1 by pe psi n a n d i n o rd e r to b e dig e st e d th ey

,

r eq u ir e to b e pr e vi ou sly s u b m itte d to oth e r age n ts Th e .

s aliv a i s on e o f the s e ag en ts an d thu s it 1 s th at m h e rbiv or ou s

be tw e en th e m outh an d sto m ach
,

a n i m al s th e r e ofte n e xists ,

pro pe rly so ca lle d a fir st ca vity i n te n d e d to l odg e the food

, ,

whilst b e i n g m ix e d with t he s aliv a I n th e m a mm a ls .

c a ll e d r u mi n an ts this p ou ch or first st om ach as it h as b e e n

, ,

ca ll ed is n am e d the p a u n ch ( Fig
, an d i n birds the .
,

a b o t o r cr o p
j .

G ulle t .

C rdi
a a .

T hi rd S to m ach .

I n t e st i n e .

P yl r s
o u . S t p d 2nd S
. . . t o m ac h . P aun ch .

Fi g 25
. .
—S to m ac h o f th e S h e ep .

F atty s u bstan ce s us ed a s fo o d re sist th e acti on of th e s e

j uice s an d p ass the sto m ach un alte r e d It i s on ly i n the
,
.

i n te sti n e s th a t th e y m e e t an age n t equ a l to th e ir s o l u ti on .

Whilst chym i fi ca ti on pr o c ee ds the muscul ar fibr e s act ,

ci rcul arly an d p u sh the m as s at first fro m right to l e ft ;

, , ,

a fte rw ar d s fro m l e ft to right to w a rds the pyl o r u s by which

, , ,

th e chy m e p a ss e s on to the sm a ll in te sti n e This acti on i s .

c all e d p e r i s ta l ti c .

Cng l ifi ca ti on .

§ 67 .
— T
I n te sti n es
h e p orti on of th e a lim e n ta ry c an a l
.

imm edi ate ly foll owi n g th e sto m ach i s call e d the i n te s ti n e ,

Fig This m mbr n ous t u b e v a r i abl e i n its ca p acity

( . e a , ,

D 2
36 ZOOLO G Y .

is i n m an a bo u t s e v e n ti m e s the l e n gth o f the body I n .

the p u r e ly c a r n iv o r o us an im a ls it i s sh o rt e r ; an d i n the
st r ictly h e rbiv o ro us l o n ge r than i n m an who is ge n e r a lly
, ,

c on sid e re d to b e o mn iv o ro u s Thus i n the l i on it is o n ly .

, ,

thric e the l en gth o f the body whilst i n the r a m it m e as u r e s ,

tw e n ty -s e v e n tim e s the l e n gth o f the an im al The r easo n .

a ssign e d is the fa cility o n the o n e h a nd w ith which an im a l

, ,

s u bstan c e s ar e dige ste d an d the co m p ar ati v e sl ow n e ss with

,

which v e ge t abl e s u bsta nc e s u n dergo this ch an ge .

Lo dg e d i n th e a bdom e n th e i n te st i n e s ar e e n v e l o pe d an d
,

suppo rt e d by a m e mbran e c all e d the pe r ito n e u m ; th ey a r e

furth e r subdivid e d i n to the sm all an d l a rg e i n te sti n e s a n d ,

th e s e n am e s ar e pre s e rv e d th ou gh o cc asi o n ally i n applica bl e

,

to the o rgan s d e scrib e d .

The sm a ll in te sti n e fo ll o ws th e st om ach i m m e di at e ly an d ,

it is i n it th at the dig e sti on is com pl et e d It fo rms a bo u t .

thr e e fo u rths of th e e n ti re l e n gth of th e tr act o f the i n te sti n e s

-
.

Th e s m o ot hn e ss o f its e x t e r n a l surfa c e i s d u e to its p e rit on eal

c o v e ri n g ; i n te rn all y its m u cou s m e mbr an e pr e s e n ts on its
,

s u rfac e a numb e r o f v il l o siti e s an d of sm all fo llicl e s Man y .

tr an sv e rs e fo lds e x ist proj e cti n g i n to th e in te r i o r o f the t u be :

,

they ar e suppo s e d to a ssist i n r et a rdi n g th e pr og i e s s o f the '

a l i m e n t a ry m a ss an d th u s e fi e cti n g a m o r e c o m pl e t e a b s o r
, p
ti on o f th e chyl e The vill o siti e s ar e c on sid e re d as the m e an s
.

by which this abs orpti o n 1 s e ffe ct e d .

A n at o mists divid e th e sm all i n t e sti n e in t o d u o d e n um ,

j ej u n u m il e um— a divisi on o f b u t li tt l e impo rt an c e i n phy

,

si o l o J
6 8 L i v er a n d P a n cr e as
. The a lim en t ary m atte r s .

which h av e p ass e d i n to the sm all i n te stin e mi n gl e with the

fl u ids s e cre te d by its w a lls an d with two p e c u li a r liqu ids
s e cre te d by the liv e r an d p an cre a s (the bil e an d the p an cr eatic
j u ic e ) tw o gl an d u l a r o rgan s situ at e d i n the imm e di at e n e igh
,

b o u r h ood o f the in te st i n e .

The liv e r ( Fig . the org an which s e cr e t e s th e bil e 1 8 ,

the l arg e st V l S ( i 1 s i n the bo dy It is situ a te d 1 1 1 the u ppe r

.

p ar t o f t he abd o m e n m ostly on the right sid e an d e x te n ds a s

, ,

fa r a s the l o w e r e dg e of the r ibs Its u pp e 1 s u 1 fa ce i s c o n v e x .

,

the l o w e r c o n c av e an d irre gul a r ; its c o l ou r r e d -br o w n ; its

s u bst an c e s o ft ye t c o mp act ; an d wh e n t o rn it a ppe a rs to
,

b e fo r m e d o f an ag g l o m e r a ti o ii o f s m a ll s o lid gr a n ul a ti on s i n ,

which b l ood v e s se l s abou n d an d fro m which a ri s e the e x cr e

t o ry c an al s of the bile .
 CHYL I F I CA TI ON . 37

Th e s e e x cr eto ry c an als u n ite so as to fo rm sm all e r an d

l a rg e r tru n ks s u cce ssiv e ly u n t i l th ey te rmi n ate i n a si n gl e
,

tr u n k wh ich afte r a c e rt a in co u rs e te rm in at e s i n the d u o

, , ,

d e n u m a sh o rt w ay fr o m th e pyl oric o r i fic e of th e st om ach .

The h e p atic tub e th u s d e scrib e d c o mmun ic ate s by a sh o rt

t u b e with the gall bl ad d e r which is m ain t ai n ed full of bil e,

by m e an s o f the cystic duct .

I n the l o w e r a n im als th e liv e r 1 s oft en r e pl ace d by a n a g

gl om e r ati on o f sm all t ub e s te rm i n ati n g i n cu l d e s a cs a n d ,

i n s e rt e d by th e ir op e n m o uths i n to the br an ch e s o f an e x 01 e
to ry c an a l (a s i n the crabs an d l obste rs ) o r by simpl e but ,

l on g v e ss e ls a s i n i n s e cts Fi n ally l n b e i n gs o f a v e ry si m pl e
, .
,

o rg a n i z a ti o n th e liv e r I S e ith e r w a n ti n g 0 1 r e pl a c e d by a gl an
,

d u l a r tissu e s u rro u n di n g a p o rti on of the i n t e sti n e ; n e v e r the

l e ss i t is on e o f the o rg an s fou n d m ost c on st an tly to ex ist i n
,

th e an im a l ki n gd o m .

§ 6 9 T h e b i l e i s a visco us liquid
. gr e e n ish i n c o l o u r , ,

thr e a dy an d e x tr e m ely bitt e r It I S alw ays alk alin e an d h a s

, .
,

a str on g a n a l o gy with s o a p .

Ch e mic a l an alysis sh o ws it to b e c o mp o s e d o f a s a lt for m e d

o f s o d a u n it e d to a fa tty a cid o f a p e cu li a r n atu r e ch ol e s te r i n e , ,

a c ol ou ri n g pri n cipl e a littl e o f th e ol e at e o r m a rg a r at e o f

,

s od a m u c u s an d w at e r But th e bil e h as oth e r u s e s f ur

, , .
,

n i s hi n g p e c u li a r s u bsta n c e s to th e bl oo d .

§ 7 0 T h e p a n c r e a ti c j u i ce str on gly r e s e mbl e s

. s aliv a ,

physic ally an d ch e m ic ally ; but i n a dditi on it r apidly u n it e s , ,

i to a
n n e m u lsi o with fatty b o di e s ; th e p cr e ti c g d fi
n an a l a n “

which fo rms it r e s e m bl e s th e s aliv a ry gl an ds i n str u ctur e

, .

I n m an it i s a gr an u l a m a ss divid e d i n t o a gr e at n u m
r
,

b er o f l o be s a n d l o b u l e s fi r m l n c on sist e n c e an d o f a gr eyish
, ,

co lo u r slightly r e ddi sh situ at e d tra n sv e rs e ly b e tw e e n th e

, ,

sto m ach an d v e rt e bral col u m n ( Fig Fr o m e a ch o f the .

gran u l ati on s th e re aris e s a fi n e d u ct an d al l th e s e 1 e u n i te to ,

fo rm a c an a l which Op e n s i n to th e d u od e n u m cl o s e to th e
e n tr a n ce o f th e bil e d u ct
i e Ck l e —The chym e fo r m e d 1 n the
.

§ 7 1 F or m a ti o n o
.
f tl g .

st o m ach e n te rs th e i n t e sti n e by th e pyl o ric o rific e o f this

viscu s an d p ass e s thro ugh the i n te s tin e by its p e rist altic
,

m oti on .D u ri n g this p a ss ag e it mi n gl e s with the bil e pan ,

cr e atic j uice an d o th e r s e e i e ti on s fro m the m u c ou s m e m

,

br an e o f the i n te sti n e an d gr a d u ally ch an ge s its pr ope i ti e s

,

Fr om mi v al l, an d x pe a q,
'
fl e sh .
38 z oo co c x .

it be co m e s bitte r y e llo wi sh l e ss an d l e ss a cid th e n alk ali n e ;

, , ,

the a myl a ce o us a n d fatty bo di e s which had r e siste d the w h en

o f the ga stric j u ice a r e n ow acte d o n by th e bil e a n d pan cr e a tl c

j uic e ; an d v a ri o u s gas e s ar e di s e n a ge d fro m the ali m e n ta ry

m a ss diste n di n g the i nte sti n e T es e gas e s ar e chi e fly car .

b on i c a cid g as an d hydr o g en ; s o m e tim e s n itr o g e n Fi n all y . ,

the m o r e fl u id a rts o f th e chym o us m ass ar e a bs o rb e d by th e

l acte a ls which e co m e r a re r an d r ar e r t o w a rds the l o w e r po r
,

ti on o f the sm al l i n te stin e u n til th e y ar e n o l o n ge r to b e ,

fo u n d an d the m ass fo rm e d by the r e m ai n s o f the chym e l 3Y

, ,

th e bil e an d o th e r h u m o urs al r eady m e n ti on e d a cquire s 1 n

, ,

this p orti on of the t u b e m o r e con sist e n c e assum e s a bro wn ,

c ol our an d thus p ass e s in to the l arge i n te sti n e

, .

E xp u l s i on o f til e R e s i d u e l ef t f
a te r D i g e s ti on .

of
§ 7 2 The im
. en t a ry m a tt e rs al
which do n o t a dmit

d ig e sti o n r e quir e to b e e x pe ll e d fr o m th e b o dy
, F or this .

purp o s e th ey ar e c o ll e ct e d i n to th e l a rge i n te sti n e .

The L a r g e I n tes ti n e ( Fig 24 ) i s c on ti n u o u s with the .

s m all an d i n m o st m a m m als is easil y disti n g u ish e d fro m it

,

by its irr e g ul a r c e llul a r a spe ct A n at om ists di vid e it i n to .

cae cu m co l on ,an d r e ctu m The caacu m fi“ situ at e d i n th e

, .

right ili ac r e gi o n is r ol o n g e d i n to a cul d e s ac b ey o n d the

, ,

p o in t of i n s e rti on o the sm all i n te sti n e A t its l o w e r e x

tr e m i ty i t c om m u n ic a te s with a sm all tub e the a ppe n di x ,

v e rmi fo rm is which m ay b e c on side r e d as a prol on g ation o f

‘

the c aec u m A v e ry p e rfe ct v alv e fo rm e d o f folds i n te r n ally

.
, ,

at th e j u n cti on o f th e sm a ll i n t e sti n e wi th th e l a rg e is ,

pl ac e d s o a s to pr e v e n t or i m p e d e the r etu r n o f wh at e v e r has

pass e d fr o m the sm all i n to the l a rge r bo w e l .

The c ol on is a c o n ti n u a ti on o f the c ae cum It tra v e r s e s .

the abdo m e n i m m e di at e ly b e n e ath th e st o m ach g a i n s th e l e ft ,

side an d d e sc en din g to the e dge o f the p e lvis is co n ti n u o u s

, , ,

with the re ctum This l att e r t e rm i n ate s at th e an u s

. .

§ 7 3 T h e r e sidu e o f the foo d p a ssi n g fro m th e cmcu m

.

a n d c o l o n to the r ectu m r e m a i n s th e r e fo r a c e rt a i n ti m e , .

The m a tt e r has n o w acq u ir e d c o n side ra bl e con siste n c e an d a

pe c u li a r od o ur G
as e s a r e d e v e l o p e d which di ff e r fr o m th o s e
.
,

g e n e rat e d i n the s m a ll i n te sti n e ; th ey ar e the c a rbo n a te d

hydro ge n a n d a littl e s u lphur e tte d hydro ge n
, .

Th e e cum - bli n d ) fo rm s a cu l de sac at th e co m m ce m e n t of t he

cz ( ca cue , en

l a rge in te sti n e .
 AB SOR P TI ON OF P RO D U C TS o r D I G E S TI ON . 39

Fl e shy fibr e s fo rmi n g a sph i n ct e r c on st an tly i n acti on s ur

, , ,

r o un d the ap e rt u re of the b o w e l an d thus pre v en t the e s ca p e

,

o f its co n te n ts u n til t h e m om e n t a rriv e s fo r its e v a cu a ti o n

, .

This is e ffe cte d m ain ly by the m u sc ul a r a cti on of the bo w e l

its e l f a ssiste d occ a sion a lly by the di aphragm an d l e v a to r e s
,

ani m u scl e s
—
.

T T f
3
7 4. h e o r
y of D i g es ti on . h e o bj e ct o dig e sti o n i s to

fit t e fo od for abs o rpti on by th e l acte als A p o rti on o f th e .

al im e n ta ry m a s s b e i n g s o l u bl e i n w a te r is o f c on s e qu en c e
,

dir e ctly di ss olv e d by the s a liv a the gastric j uice an d the

, ,

w at e r sw allo we d as p a rt o f ou r food with ou t the i n t e rv e n ti o n

,

Of an y sp e ci al a ctiv e pri n cipl e Th e an i m al d i a s ta s e co n

.

ta i n e d l n the s ali v a po ss e ss e s th e pr op e rty of tr an sfor mi n g

fec u l a i n to gl u c o s e an d thus d e te rm i n e s the s o l u bility o f a
,

p o rti on of the a myl a ceo u s m atte rs i n tro d u c e d i n to the sto m ach .

The pe psi n c on t ai n e d i n the g a stric j u ic e acts i n an an al og o us

m an n e r u pon th e fibri n album e n &c an d l i qu e fi e s th e s e su b
, , .
,

s t an c e s i n the c a vity o f th e sto m ach The fe cul a which m ay.

,

h a v e r e s i ste d th e a cti on o f th e s e a g en ts an d has r each e d the ,

i n te sti n e u n to u ch ed th e re me ets with th e p an cr e atic flu id

, ,

who s e acti on is an al ogou s to th a t o f th e s aliv ary s e cre ti on s ,

a n d th u s th e s o l u ti on o f th e a myl ace o u s po rti on s o f th e food

is co m pl e t e d Fi n ally the fatty m atte rs which als o ha v e

.
, ,

e sc ap e d th e acti on o f th e s aliv a a n d g astric j u ic e ar e fo rm e d ,

in to e m u lsi on s by the a cti on o f th e p an cre atic s e cre ti on an d ,

s o m e tim e s by th e ai d o f the al kal i co n t ai n e d i n th e bil e ; an d

j u st as th e s e v a ri ou s s ol u ti o n s g o on th e pr o duct is t ake n u p
,

by the abs orb en ts i n con n ex i on with th e w al l s o f th e sto m ach

an d i n te sti n e Ce rta i n of the s u bst an ce s thus di ss olv e d u n d e r
.

o m o dific a ti o n s l n th e i r ch e m ic a l n a t u r e Th u s the s u g a r o f
g .

the sug a r ca n e is ch a n ge d in t o gl u co s e b u t th e m o st 1 m po r ,

t an t a n d m o st gen e r a l of the ph e n om e n a con n ecte d with

di ge sti on is the liqu e facti on of the ali m en t ary m atte r s
, .

A b s orp ti on of til e P r o d ucts f D i g es ti on

o .

7 5 The
. utritiv e m atte r thus e x tr acte d from the al i
n

m en t h as n ow to p as s i n to the m ass o f bl ood which fluid it ,

is d e sti n e d to r e n o v a te .

S om e o f th e liqu ids a n d s o lubl e m atte r s i n tr oduce d in to

th e sto m ach an d in te sti n e ar e abs o rb e d dire ctly by the v e i n s ,

which a b o u n d m the w alls of th e s e o rgan s ; b u t the gr e a te r

p ar t of the fib ri n an d fatty m atte rs w hi ch form the chyl e
410 ZOOLOGY .

foll ows an oth e r r oute an d p en e trate s an oth e r syste m o f v e sse l s

, ,

by which it re ach e s the v e i n s but i n an i n dire ct w ay Th e s e

, .

v e ss e ls call e d mdifler e n tl y l act e als ) “ or chy l ife r ou s v e ss e ls

, ,

p o1t i on o f the a bs orb e n t or ly m ph atic syst e m o f

v e ss els ( Se e
. Th e y origi n ate i n the vill o siti e s o f the
mu cou s m e m br an e of th e s m all i n te sti n e an d u n ite in to ,

bran ch e s or sin gl e v e ss e ls which ar e pl ac e d be tw e en the tw o

,

fo lds of the m e se n te ry I n th e ir co u r s e to w a rds the th o racic

.

d u ct th e s e l act e al s p a ss thr ou gh the gan gli on s c all ed m e s e n

,

t e ri o ( Fi g . A ga i n a ssu m i n g th e fo rm o f si n gl e v e s se ls
o n e m e rgi n g fro m th e s e g an gli on s th e y pr o cee d to the th o r ac ic
,

d u ct i n wh i ch th e y te rm in ate By m e an s of this duct the

, .
,

chyl e thus fo rm ed 1 8 con v eye d i n to the l e ft subcl avi an v e i n

( Fig .

A orta Th o raci c Can al L ym ph a ti c G an gli on s

. . .

R chylcl s r
adi e
ife
of
ou
th e
s
ve ss e ls .

In t e stin e .

L ym ph a ti c Ves s el s M e se t e ry
. n .

Fi g 26 —Chy l f . . t e r o us Ves se l s .

76 Wh e n an an i m al has bee n k ept with out foo d for

som e tim e th e s e v e ss e ls ar e n e arly e m pty but wh en dige s
,

Fr om the mi l k lk
- i e a pp e aran ce o f th e chyl e whi ch th e y co t n ai n .
 or TH E B LOOD . 41

ti on is goi n g on r apidly th ey b e c om e fill e d wi th chyl e the ,

c ol o u r o f which is whit e like milk ; an d h en c e the n am e o f

,

l a ct e als giv e n to th e m by th e ir dis co v e r e rs .

The a bs o rpti on o f th e chyl e s e e ms to t ak e pl ac e chi e fly by

m e an s of the vill o siti e s ; fo r s o s oon as this ph en o m e n on co m
m en ce s th ey b e c o m e sw oll e n lik e sp on g e s fill e d with milk by
, ,

imbibiti on . Fr o m th e s e the chyl e p ass e s i n t o th e lymph atic

( l a ct e a l ) v e ss e ls by a , pr o c e ss a s
ye t u n k n o w n ; a n d a fter

tra v e rsi n g the m e s en te ric gl an ds proc e e ds by oth e r l act e a ls

,

fr o m th e s e gl an ds to the th o r a cic duct The c au s e of this .

upw ard a n d on w a rd m o v e m e n t of the chyl e t ow ards the

v e in s is n ot w e ll k n ow n
—
.

77 C y . fi l e This liqu id v ari e s i n app e aran c e a cco rdi n g

.

to th e an i m al an d th e ki n d o f foo d which h a s be e n u s e d In .

m an an d i n m o st m a mm als it is of a milky -whit e c ol o u r o f a ,

pe c u li ar o d o u r an d bri n ish a lk alin e t a st e Ex a m i n e d by th e .

micr o sc op e it s e e ms co mpo s e d o f a s e r ous liquid h oldi n g i n

, ,
.

susp en si on fa tty drops an d circu l a r gl obu l e s Chyl e form e d .

fro m foo d n ot in cludi n g fatty m a tt e rs i s much l e ss Opa qu e

th an th at h av i n g i n its co m p o siti on oi l an d fat I n birds the .
,

chyl e is alm o st a lw ays tr an sp ar en t .

T ak e n fro m the l acte als n ea r th e i r o rigi n in the i n t e sti n e s

, ,

th e chyl e is fou n d to b e co mp os e d m o stly of a lb u m i n o us

m att e rs ; b ut e x ami n e d i n the th or acic du ct n e ar its j u n cti on ,

with th e subcl a vi an v e i n it is fo un d to con t a in fi br i n i n

, ,

cr e a si n g i n qu an tity th e n e are r to its p ass age i n to the v e n o u s

bl oo d On the pre s e n c e of this s u bsta n c e d e p e n ds its prop e rty
.

o f spo n t an e ou s c o ag u l ati on lik e th e bl o o d

,
It n ow b e c o m e s .

o f a light r o s e c o l o u r
-
a n d r e dd e n s slightly o n e x p o s u r e to
,

th e a i r . I n bri e f it m o r e an d m o r e r e s e m bl e s the bl oo d with

, ,

which it fi n ally m i n gl e s i n th e l e ft subcl a vi an v e in .

W e h a v e tr a c e d th e e l ab o r ate d n u tritiv e m atte r to the

bl ood This fl u id m u st n ow e n ga g e ou r a tte n ti on als o the
.
,

m an n e r i n which it i s distribut e d to al l p art s of th e bo dy .

OF TH E B LOO D .

7 8 In . im als o f the simpl e st structur e al l the liqu ids

an ,

o f t e a n im a l e c o n o my r e s e m bl e e a ch o th e r It s e em s i i i .
,

d ee d to b e o n ly w at e r ch a rg e d with a ce rt ai n a m ou n t o f
,

o rg an ic p a rticl e s ; b u t i n a n i m a ls high e r i n th e sc a l e o f b e i n g ,

the hum ou rs c e a s e to b e o f the s a m e n atur e an d th e r e is o n e , ,

disti n ct fro m al l th e o th e rs d e sti n e d to n o ur ish the b o dy

,
42 Z OO LOG Y .

thi s fluid is the bl o od It n ot o nl y n o urish e s the bo dy but .

,

i s the s o u rc e wh e n ce a r e dr a w n a l l th e s e cr e ti o n s such a s the ,

s aliv a u ri n e bil e an d te a rs
, , , .

§ 7 9 I n m a m m a ls
. birds r e ptil e s fish e s, a n d i n m o st , , ,

an i m a ls o f the cl a ss an n e lid e s the bl oo d is r e d Bu t i n the , .

gr e ate r n u m b e r o f the l o w e r an i m als the bl oo d pre se n ts

v ar i o u s h u e s an d d e n sity b e i n g ofte n thi n o r w a te ry an d , ,

slightly y e ll o w o r gre en r o s e -co l oured o r lil ac It is di ffi , .

cult th e re fo re to b e s e e n an d fo r a l ong tim e th e s e a n i m a ls

, , ,

w e re c alle d bl oodl e ss o r e x sa n g u i n e o us .

Tho s e a n im als with white bl o o d ar e v e ry n u m e ro us ;

a l l i n s e cts o f r e x
, a m p l e fi“ T h e cr u st a c e a o f a l l s o rts h a v e

o n ly whit e o r p al e -co l o ur e d bl o o d ; a n d i n this ca te g o r y m a

y
b e pl a c e d al l the m o l l u sc a z oophyt e s an d i n te sti n a l w o r m s , , .

80 By th e u s e o f the m icro sc o pe we dis co v e r th at the

bl oo d o f a r e d bl ood e d a n im al is co m p o s e d o f a y e ll o wish
-

tra n sp ar e n t liqu id c all e d s e ru m an d o f a n u m be r o f s m al l

, ,

cl id co r u s cl e s w hi ch fl oa t i n the s e rum c ll d bl d l
i ule s
p , _
a e oo g o ,

—
.

8 1 G l o b.u l e s o
f t h e B l o o d B e fo r e birth th e gl o b ules .
,

h av e dim en si on s an d e v e n a fo rm d i ffe r e n t fro m wh at th e y

af te rw a rds a cquir e Thus i n th e chick the gl o bul e s o f the
.

bl oo d ar e at first circ u l a r ; a n d it i s on ly a t a m o r e ad v an ce d
p e ri o d of i n c u b ati o n th a t the gl o bul e s a ss u m e an e lliptic
form A ft e r birth the gl o b ul e s n e v e r v a ry
. .

I n al l an i m a ls o f th e s a m e spe ci e s th e gl o b u l e s h a v e th e
s am e fo rm an d n e a rly the s a m e dim e n si o n s It is n ot S u .

with di ff e r en t sp e ci e s It has b e e n o bs e rv ed als o th at i n .

, ,

a n i m als of th e s a m e cl a s s th e bl oo d gl o b u l e s r e s e mbl e e ach

,

o th e r b u t diff e r fr o m th o s e o f o th e r cl a ss e s
,
. I n th e first .
,

th e y h a v e n e a rly al l the s a m e fo rm ; but i n th o s e o f a di ffe re n t

cl a ss th ey m ay v ary n ot on ly i n di m e n si on s b u t e v e n i n
,

fo r m .

Thus i n m an ( Fig 27 ) an d i n m o st m amm als

, .

th e gl o b u l e s o f th e bl o o d ar e circ u l ar I n the c am e l .

8 an d l a m a h o w e v e r th e y a r e e lliptic I n birds
,

r e ptil e s b atrachi a an d fish e s th ey a r e e lliptic

, ,
,

,
.
,

(F l g
The c o rp u scl e s a r e alw ays m icro sc o pic ; a n d i n m an a n d i n
m a mm a ls g e n e r a lly th e y ar e e x tr e m e ly sm all I n m an the
,
. .
,

Th e c l ure d li q i d w hi ch
red - o o u a p pe a rs w h en th e he ad of th e s e in s ects i s
cr sh e d
u , is not bl d b t co m s fr
oo , u e om th e e es .

7 Glo b ul e s o f th e h um an bloo d , m ag ni fi e nea rly 400 ti m e s ( i d i n am e e t r) .

 OF TH E B LOOD . 43

do g , rabbit an d s om e oth e rs th eir di am e te r is fro m th e

, ,

thre e -th o u s an dth to the fou r -thou s an dth p art Of an i n ch .

I n birds th e gl ob u l e s ar e l arg e r th an
,

i n m a m m al s I n th e r eptil e s an d b a
.

tr achi a th ey ar e still l arg e r I n th e .

prot e u s th e y att a i n th e ir m ax i m u m .

F i n ally i n fish e s th e bl ood gl o bul e s

, ,

ar e i n te n n edi a te b e tw e e n th o s e Of birds

an d th e b atr a chi a .

M o r e o v e r the bl oo d gl ob ul e s ar e al
,

w ays fl att e n e d an d pre s e n t a c e n tral ,

sp o t or n u cl e u s s u rrou n de d with a r i m ,

o r b o rd e r Th e ir str u ctu r e is e x tre m e ly

.

di fficult to b e cl e a rly m a d e ou t ; b u t
wh e n s ee n to m o st a dv an t ag e th e y s ee m ,

to b e com po s e d o f a c e n tr a l n u cl e u s an d
a n e n v e l op e r e s e mbli n g a bl a dd e r
, This fi g .
.

e n v e l o p e b e i n g d e pr e ss e d gi v e s to th e ,

gl obu l e th e appe ar an ce Of a di sc sw oll e n i n the middl e It , .

is o f a r e ddish c o l o u r an d s e e m s fo rm e d of a subst an c e r e ,

s e mbli n g j e lly b u t v e ry e l a stic The c e n tr a l n u cl e u s is Of a

, .

S ph e r o id a l fo rm a n d i s n o t co l o u r e d , I n m am m als the .
,

n ucl e u s is n o t disti n ct a n d th e ce n tr a l p o rti on is d e pr e ss e d ;,

but a n al o gy i n d u c e s us to suppo s e th at a s i n oth e r an i m als i t , ,

is a ls o pre s en t i n m an .

Oth e r gl ob u l e s sph e ric a l an d c ol o url e ss ex ist i n th e bl o od

, , ,

re s e mbli n g gre atly th o s e Obs e rv e d i n th e chyl e ; fr o m b e i n g

m i n gl e d with the r e d gl o bul e s th e y ar e n o t re adily Obs e rv e d .

8 2 I n the whit e bl oo d o f th e i n v e rt e br at e ki n gd om
.
,

gl o bu l e s ar e als o fo un d but diff e ren t fr o m th o s e d e scribe d ; ,

t h e siz e v ari e s m u ch i n th e s a m e i n divid u al an d th e ir surf ace ,

h a s a r a spb e rr y a pp e a ran c e ; th e ir fo rm is ge n e r ally sph e ric a l ,

but n e ith e r a c e n tral n ucl e u s n or e xt e r n al e n v e l op e is to

b e s een .

8 3 Comp osi ti on of the B l oo d — The c o mpo siti on Of the

. .

bl oo d is v e ry c o mpl e x I n th e high e r an i m als w e fin d w ate r

‘

a lb u m e n fibri n a c o l o u ri n g m att e r c o n tai n i n g ir o n

, , a y e ll o w ,

c o l ou ri n g m att e r s e v e r a l fatty subst an ce s as chol e ster i n e c e re

, , ,

bri n e ( a subst a n c e co n t a i n i n g ph o sph o ru s ) ; m a n y s a lts ,

as chl o ri d e of s odi u m or s e a s alt sul ph at e of p ot a ss , ,

F i g 28 El l i p t i c gl o b l s o f th bl o o d i b i r ds b t ra c hi u e d fish s ; e n a a, an e
— gl b l s f t h bl d i th d o m st i c f w l s —b glo b l e s
. .
,

g a,

o f t h bl
e
o u e
d i th fro g
oo

( e qu al ly m a gni fi e d )
o
n
e
gl b ul e s o f the bl oo d i
e

.
i fll
oo n

h o f th e sh r ki d
c, o
e e o ,
een
n a
n ro e ,

a k u
n
44 ZOOLOGY .

ca rb on ate s oda hydro chl o rate Of po tas s hydrochl o rate of

of , ,

a mm o n i a the c a rbo n a te s of li m e an d m a gn e si a with ph o s

, ,

h
p ate s o f s o d a lim e an d m ag n e si a ; the l acta te s o f s o d a the
, . ,

alk a li n e s alts fo rm e d by th e fa tty a ci ds ; fi n a lly fr e e c a rbo n i c ,

a cid n itr o ge n an d o x yg e n
, , Bu t this c o m pl e x ity gr eat th o ugh
.
,

it b e is yet be l o w the r e ality for th e r e ce r ta ml y e xi st oth e r

, ,

subst an ce s i n the bl oo d which ch e m i stry c ann ot de m on st ra te ,

by r e as on pro bably o f o u r i m p e rfect m e an s of an alysis By

, , .

ar r e st i n g for e x am pl e th e s e cr e ti on o f the uri m fro m the

, ,

bl oo d v a ri o u s m att e rs wi l l th en b e fo u n d m ix e d with the

,

bl oo d which co uld n ot b e pre viou sly d e t ecte d b u t which ar e ,

pre sum e d to h av e b ee n pr e s e n t u n de r the s a m e or o th e r u n

k n o wn fo rm s .

The s u bstan c e s en um e r at e d a s e n te ri n g i n to th e co mpo

siti ou of the bl ood c o mpo s e n e arly al l th e p a rts o f the an im al
,

econ o my : th e a lbu m e n fo r ms the b a is o f m an y tissu e s th e s

,

fib ri n is the c on stitue n t p art Of th e m u scl e s an d th e s alts ,

e n t e r in to th e c o m p o siti on o f the b on e s an d o f m an y h u

m o urs ; an d fr om the wh o l e o f th e fa cts k n ow n it m ay b e ,

s afely c on cl u de d th at the m ate ri als d e sti n e d to be co m e fl e sh

, ,

b i l e uri n e &c al re ady e x ist i n the bl ood the o rgan s which

, , .
, ,

ar e to appr opri a t e th e m m e r e ly dr a wi n g th e m fro m the bl oo d ,

but n ot fo rmi n g th e m : an d thus th e re e x ists s o m e r e as o n

for calli n g th e bl oo d l i qu i d e s h , fl .

84 Th e pro p o rti on s i n which th e s e c on stitu en t p arts Of

.

'
the bl oo d e xist v a ry m u ch i n di fle re n t a n i m a ls ; an d as
,

r e gards the s olid an d liquid e l e m e n ts th ey m ay di ff e r i n the ,

s am e i n dividu al at di ffe r e n t ti m e s I n m an the gl obul e s ar e .

m o r e n u m e rous an d th e w ate ry p a rt l e ss th an i n w o m an
,

te mp e ram e n t als o e x e rcis e s s om e i n flu e n ce i n this r e spe ct .

I n 1 00 p a rts o f th e bl oo d i n m an w e fin d 7 9 p ar ts o f w a te r , ,

1 9 o f albu m e n 1 p art Of s alts w ith s o m e trac e s on ly O f fibri n

, ,

a n d co l ou ri n g m atte r I n birds th e pr opo rt i on O f w a te r i n

.
,

the bl o o d is l e ss ; b u t i n th e b at ra chi a an d i n fish e s the

a m o un t is gre ate r I n the frog for ex ampl e th e re a r e 8 8 , ,

p a rts o f w a te r i n 1 00 Of th e bl oo d .

A n a l o g ou s diff e re n ce s a r e o bs e rve d i n co m p a ri n g th e r e l ativ e

qu aliti e s of the s e rum an d gl o b u l e s of the bl oo d i n di ffe ren t
a n im als ; whil e—as w e sh all s u bs eq u e n tly s ee
—th e re e xists a
re m a rk a bl e r e l a ti o n b e tw ee n th e a m o u n t o f the gl o bule s an d
the a n i m al h e a t Birds o f a l l an im als h av e the bl oo d rich es t
.
, ,

i n r e d gl o bu l e s an d i n th e m th e an i m a l h ea t is gre a te st
, .

M amm als l e ss w arm th an birds h a v e fr o m 7 to 1 2 pe r c e n t

, , .
,
 OF TH E B LOOD . 45

whilst pt i l e s an d fish e s the propo rti on d o e s n ot ex ce e d

in re ,

5 o r 6 pe r c e n t o f the wh o l e w e ight of th e bl oo d
85 Co a g u l a ti on of the B l ood — I n its o rdi n ary con
. .

. .

diti o n the bloo d is a lw ays fl u id : withdraw n from th e v e ss e ls

Of the livin g an i m al a n d l e ft fo r a ti m e to its e lf it s e p a r a te
, ,

i n to two po rti on s a s e m i s o lid m ass an d a liqu id po rti on

,
-
,

i n whi ch th e m ass fl oats ; th e s olid p a rt i s c all e d the

cl o t .

T his ph e n o m en on (the fo rm ation of the clot ) is d u e to the

pre s en ce Of fibri n i n the bl oo d ; it is h e ld i n s oluti on i n the
s e ru m duri n g life but wh e n thi s l o s e s its i n fl u en ce o v e r it
, ,

it s o l idifie s i n cl o si n g with it the r e d gl ob u l e s an d thu s fo rmi n g

, ,

the r e d g e l atin ou s m a ss ca ll e d th e cl ot Th e si m pl e e x p e rim e n t .

Of b e a ti n g u p t h e bl oo d with littl e r ods a s it fl o ws fr o m th e

v e in s an d th u s r e m o vi n g the fibri n which a dh e r e s to the
, ,

r ods pro v e s th at the coag u l ability of the bl oo d d e pe n ds on

,

th e pr e s e n c e Of this s u bst an c e .

A n oth e r e x pe ri m e n t e qu a lly simpl e sh ows th at the fibr i n is

c on ta i n e d i n the s e r u m a n d n ot i n the r e d gl obul e s a s wa s
, ,

l on g suppo s e d Thro w o n a filte r the bl oo d Of a fr o g ;

.

al l th e s e rum m ay b e m a d e to p a ss a n d the gl o b u l e s r e t a in e d ; ,

i n the s e rum thus s e p a r ate d fr o m the glo bul e s a cl ot is ,

fo rm e d which h o w e v e r is co l o u rl e ss
, , , .

86 Us e of Me B l oo d — Th e bl o o d is the sp e ci a l ag e n t
. .

Of n u triti o n an d t h e g e n e r a l r e sto r e r O f wh at is l o st
, .

8 7 B u t i n a dditi on it i s pr o v e d by th e si m pl e e x pe r i
.
, ,

m e n ts Of bl oodl e tti n g an d of tr an sfu si on to fo rm a n e ss en t i a l ,

sti m ul u s for the pe rfo r m an c e Of the fun cti o n s Of li fe By .

s e v e re bl oo dl etti n g or l o ss o f bloo d w e b e co m e e n fee bl e d an d

s e e m i n gly d e ad ; b ut if b e fo re this h app en s the bl ood Of
, ,

a n o th e r a n im a l b e tr a n sfu s e d i n t o th e v e i n s of th e s u ffe ri n g

in dividu al the vit ality is r e sto r e d Th e impo rt an c e Of the

, .

gl ob u l e s is als o pr o v e d by the s a m e e x p e rim e n t for if simpl e ,

scr u m b e so tr an sfu s e d d e ath t ak e s pl ac e, ,

.

The fibri n Of the bl o o d a ls o pl ays an importan t p art for ,

M M ag en di e has sh o wn th at wh e n bl o o d d e priv e d Of its

.
,

fibri n is i nj e ct e d i n t o the v e i n s o f a d og the an im al di e s with ,

sym to m s r e s e mbl in g tho s e o f putrid fe v e rs .

88 The i n fl u e n c e Of the bl ood o v e r n utriti on m ay

.

a ls o b e r e ad i ly d e m on str at e d Withdr a w the bl oo d m or e .

or l e ss fr o m an y o rgan an d it gra d u ally w a ste s a w ay ,

i n pr o po rti on to th e q u an tity withdr aw n ; o n the c on tr a ry ,

th e gr e at e r siz e of the muscl e s i n th os e who e mpl oy th e m

 46 ZOO LOGY .

activ e ly and h en c e dra w to th e m a l arge r am oun t of bl oo d

, ,

i s w e ll kn o w n .

8 9 The bl oo d by thus acti n

.
, o n th e o rg a n s l o s e s its ,

n o urishi n g pr o pe rti e s It re ach e s t e m o f a bri ght v e r m ili o n

.

co l o ur ; as it l e a v e s th e m it is d a rk an d s o mbr e -co l o ur e d an d ,

h as l o st its qu aliti e s of m a i n t a i n i n g life B u t th e bl oo d thus

.

a lt e r e d h a s its v it al r o p e rt i e s r e sto r e d by b e i n g e x po s e d to
p
th e a t m o sph e r e Th 1 s imp o rtan t fu n cti o n is c a ll e d R e spira
.

ti o n The bl ood which h as b e e n e x p o s e d to the ai r is c all ed

.

a r te r i a l : th at which h a s alr ea dy a ct e d on the o rgan s is

c a ll e d v en ou s i t is chi e fly disti n g u ish e d by its da rk co l our .

C I R CULA TI ON O F TH E B LOOD .

90 The
. circul ati on o f the bl ood i n m an an d m amm a ls
w a s disco v e r e d by H a rv ey i n 1 6 1 9 .

I n ord e r to n o urish al l th e p ar ts o f th e bo dy it is n ece s ,

s a ry th at the bl oo d sh ould b e con v e y e d to the s e p arts by m e an s

o f v e ss e ls ; an d th a t to circ u l a te i n th e s e v e ss e ls th e r e sh o ul d
, ,

b e a p o w e r o r o rg an e qual to th e pr o ducti on Of s u ch a m o v e
m en t . Bu t it is a ls o n e c e ss a ry i n the high e r an i m als th a t
, ,

th e bl oo d sh o uld b e p ass e d thr o u gh th e r e spir ato ry o rg an s i n ,

o rde r to b e e x po s e d to th e a cti on of the a i r ; h e n ce the n e c e ssity

O f a circ u l a ti o n o f th e bl oo d thr o u gh th e l un gs as w e ll a s thr ough ,

th e b o dy an d h e n c e a p ul m on a ry circ u l a ti on an d a syst e m ic
91 A pp a r a tu s of tb e C i r cu l a ti o n —
, .

. In ce rt a i n of th e .

l ow e r an i m a ls the ai r p en e trate s in to the tiss u e s throu h

,

po re s sit u ate d on the surface Of th e body ; b ut i n al l t e

high e r an i m al s an d i n m an y Of th e l ow e r th e re e x ists a v e ry
, ,

co mpl e x a pp ar a t u s for th e circul a ti on of th e bl o o d : 1 A sys .

te m o f tub e s o r ca n a ls d e stin e d to co n v e y th e bl o o d i n to th e
,

v ari ou s p arts of the b ody 2 A n o rgan d e stin e d to put this

. .

fl u id i n m oti on I n oth e r w ords b l ood v e s se l s an d a h e a rt

.
, .

Th e h e ar t is th e c en tre Of th e circ u l a to ry app ar a t u s ; it is

a pou ch or b ag m o r e or l e ss co mpl e x i n to which the bl oo d is
, ,

r e tur n e d by the v e i n s an d fr o m which it p ass e s to the bo dy

, ,

thus c on stan tly circ u l ati n g It is i n fact a fo rcin g -pump

.
, ,

pl ac e d at th e ce n tre o f the cir cul ato ry syst e m .

M o st a n im als fro m m an to the spid e r h a v e a h e ar t ; but ,

the a rr an ge m en t di ffe rs i n th e v ar i o us cl a ss e s o f a n i m al s .

The b l ood v es se l s a r e o f tw o ki n ds : 1 A r te ri e s which .

,

con v e y the ae r a te d bl ood i n to the v a ri o u s p arts o f the bod y

2 V e in s which r e -c o n v e y the bl oo d to the h e art fr o m the
.
,
 U
C I R C LA TI ON OF TH E B LOOD . 47

b o dy The art e ri e s proc e e di n g fro m the h e a rt divid e an d

.
, ,

s u bdi vide i n th e ir c ou rs e as th e y pro ce e d u n til th e y b e co m e ,

e x ce e di n gly sm all : th e v e i n s fo ll o w a di ffe r e n t c our s e ; th e y

c omm en ce by e x tr em e ly fi n e r oo ts an d c oll e ct i n to l a rge ,

br an ch e s an d tru n ks as th ey procee d t ow a rds th e h e a rt I n .

the arte ri e s th e m oti on o f th e bl o o d is fr o m the h e a rt ; an d

,

i n the v e i n s to w a rds the h ea rt

, Th e arte ri e s t e rm i n at e an d . ,

th e v e i n s c o m m e n c e i n a fi n e n e tw o rk o f v e ss e ls fo rm e d
,

by bo th ; the v e ss e ls co mpo sin g this

n e tw o rk ar e c all e d c a pill ary Th e .

h e art b e i n g thus pl a c e d be tw een th e

t e rm in ati on Of the v e in s an d th e
c o mm en c e m e n t o f the a rte ri e s the ,

m o v e m e n t o f the bl oo d i n m an an d
high e r an i m als i s a c ompl e te ci rcl e ,

the bl o o d a lw ays r e t u rn in g to th e
p o i n t from w hich it sta rte d ; h e n c e
it has b e en c a ll e d the ci r cu l a ti on of
the b l oo d .

In al l an
im als i n which th e r e spira
ti on i s p e rfo rm e d by a sp e ci a l o rgan ,

the bl oo d is s e n t to it fro m th e h e art ,

an d r e tir e s fr o m it by a sp e ci a l syst e m

o f c an als ; th e circ u l a ti on thus e st a

b l i she d is c a ll e d th e r e spir at o ry or the

l e ss er ci r cu l a ti o n whilst th a t thro u gh,

th e b o d i s c a ll e d th e g r e a ter We
sh a ll co risi der fir st the ci r cu l ati o n i n
Fl g
éi fit ggi gfli f i l ie
y ‘
.

l l e
,

m an an d this wil l s e rv e as a st an d a rd
,
,

Fr g
s
o
"
t o

O f co m p ar is on with oth e rs .

D e s cr ip ti on o
f the Ci r cu l a ti on f
o the B l oo d i n the H i her
g
A n i ma l s .

92 . The H e a r t —I n m an im als si m il a rly or , an d a l l a n

a n i zed th e h e a rt is l odg e d b e tw e e n the l u n gs a n d i n the ca vity
g ,

O f th e ch e st c all e d by a n ato m ists th e tho r a x Figs

( 4 an d 4 9 ) .

its l o w e r e x tr e m ity is dire cte d s o m e wh at o bl i qu e ly t o w a rds

th e l e ft sid e an d forw a rds ; a n d its u pp e r e x tr e m ity fr om ,

which S pri n g the gr e at v e ss e ls is fix e d to the n e ighb ou ri n g ,

pa rts n ea rly i n the m e si a l pl an e Of the body Throu gh o ut

, .

a ,
a rte ri s e . v, v e i n s . Th e a rro ws p oi n t o ut th e d i re c t i o n of t he ci r
cul ati n g fl u i ds .
48 ZOOLOGY .

th e r e st o f its e x t en t the h e a rt is free b u t is su rrou n d e d by a ,

fi b r O-s e r o us m e m bran e ca ll e d the p e ric a rdi u m which n ot , ,

m e r e ly fo rms a shut s ac for co n t ai n in g th e h e ar t b u t giv e s to ,

its s u rfac e a s m oo th co v e ri n g by which it i s e n abl e d to m ov e ,

free ly i n the c av ity so fo rm e d ; an a q u e o us fluid the liqu o r ,

p e ric a r d ii l bric ate s it a t a l l ti m e s fi

u ,
“

t ac e
y

R ght L
i un g . L ft L g
e un .

cc vd a

Fig . 30 — L un gs ,
. H rt ea , and Pr c p l V e ss ls i
in i a e n M an l .
'’

Thegen e r al fo rm of th e h e art is th at Of a con e or i r re gul a r

pyr a mid r e v e rs ed ; it i s al m o st wh o lly fl e sh h oll o w an d i n , ,

m an a bo u t the siz e o f the cl o s e d h an d o r fist I n al l the .

m amm alia an d i n birds th e h e ar t is co mpo s e d of four c a vi

ti e s - n am e ly a r ight au ricl e an d v e n t ricl e an d a l e ft a uricl e
, , ,

a n d v e n tri cl e ; th e s e ar e s e p arat e d fro m e ach o the r b y a

v e rtic a l s e ptu m ( Fig cuttin g off al l co mm u n ic ati on b e
.

tw ee n th o s e o f the right sid e an d th o s e of the

r c rdi um i s o e f t h e s e ro s m m b ra e s f wh i ch s e ral e i st
Th e p e i a n o u e n ,
o ev x

in th b dy By i
e o e st i g t h e s rf c
. nv f th o rg s
n w ll as t h e w alls o f
u a e o e an ,
as e

th c e i ti s c o t i i n g th e m th y pr i d e f
av e n a n t h fri c t i
,
f s c h o rg s as
e ov or e on o u an

ar ei c st t m ti
n on an th b r i o h e rt l gs
o n , as d bd o mi
e l i s ce r
a n, a ,
un , an a na v a :
log s m m br s f d i t h rt i c l ti s
—
an a ou e ane ar e o un n e a u a on
—
.

t d d r i ght r i c l d tri cl l ft t r c l ao rt a
c aro ti d art ri s -c e a ca a i f ri r —j ju gu l ar e i ns —t trach a
0 ,
e ,
e e au q an e i v n e v_ ,
e v n e a ,

a c, e e c, v n v n e o v , v , e .
 TH E B LOO D V E S S E L S . 49

E ach icle c omm u n i cate s on ly with its co rr e spon din g

a ur

v e n t ricl e (Figs 3 1 an d .

The tw o v en tricl e s occ u py the l o w e r p art Of the h ea rt an d ,

d o n o t co m m u n i ca te with e ach oth e r but wi th th e ir co r ,

r e sp on di n g au ricl e s The o rific e s ar e c al l e d the a uricu l o

.

v en tricul ar orifice s right an d l e ft The l e ft c a viti e s Of the

, .

h ea rt co n t ai n arte ri al bl ood ; the r ight v e n ou s The au ricl e s , .

h avi n g to prop e l the bl oo d on ly in to the v en tricl e s a r e n ot so ,

fl e shy i n th e ir w alls as the v e n tricl e s ; an d o f th e s e the l e ft is

m u ch the str on ge r a s it has to driv e the bl oo d thr ough the
,

wh ol e b ody ex ce ptin g the lun gs ; w hilst the right v e n tricl e

m e r e ly prop el s it throu gh th e lu n gs .

Ve na C ava Sup . A r t P u1m

. . A rto a . A r t P ul m
. .

P lm o ary V
u n ein s
.

P ul ry V i s
m on a e n .

R
i ght A ri cl u e .
Le ft A
M i tral V l
ur i

a ve
cl e .

T ri c s pi d V l e
u a v .

Ve C I f ri r
na a va n e o .

Lef t Ve t ri cl
n e.

R i ght V t ri clen e

t u m A o rt a
Se p . .

F i g 31
. .
—Th e o re ti cal S e ct i o n o f the H e art i n M an .

93 The B l oo d v e ss e l s —Th e s e v e ss e ls ar e divi de d in to

. .

a rte r i e s a n d v e in s Th e w all s of th e s e t ub e s ar e fo rm e d of
.

m e mbran e s o r tissu e s I n the art e ri e s th e r e ar e thr e e ti s su e s

.

the i n n e r co n ti n u ou s with th e i n n e r m e mbr an e of the h e art

, ,

r e s e m bl e s the s e ro us m e mbran e s ; the middle tiss u e is

fibr ou s an d e l astic ; the out e r tiss u e ce ll u l a r an d al s o e l astic , .

The fibre s of th e middl e ti s s u e ar e disp o s e d circu l ar ly In .

the v e i n s , the m iddl e tiss u e is not s o disti n ct , b e i n g c om p o s e d

m e r e ly o f fibr e s , ir re gu l arly disp o s e d ; th e s e a r e s oft , e x te n
sibl e , an d l on gitudi n al Th u s the physic al pro pe rti e s Of the
.

v e i n s an d arte ri e s di ff e r wi dely The v e i n s h ave thi n w alls , .

which coll aps e wh en the v e ss e ls ar e e mpty ; an d th ey h e al

E
 50 Z OOLOGY .

Ar t ry
e .

Rd
a ia l

A te ri or
n
Po st e ri r o

Art ry
e .

Pr
e o n ea l

P edi o sa .

Fi g 13 2
. .
—A rt e ri a l S v s te m i n Ma n .
 TH E B L OO D V E SS E L S . 51

e as i ly wh en w oun d e d On th e con tr ary the arte ri e s wh en

.
,

cut acr o ss r e m a in Op e n an d wh en w o u n d e d d o n ot h e a l s o per

, ,

fe ctl y ; i n o rde r to cl o s e th ey must b e oblite r ate d cit-he r by

, ,

pre ssure or by the u se Of the lig atur e

—
.

9 4 A er i l y
r
. t a S s te m F ro m a si n gl e a rte ry c all e d the
.

ao rt a sprin gi n g fr om the l e ft v en tricl e Of the h eart al l the

, ,

ar te ri e s of the b ody a ris e It m u st b e bo r n e i n mi n d th at th e

.

ar t e ry c a ll e d th e p u l m on a ry spri n gs fr o m the right v e n tricl e ,

a n d ca rri e s the v e n o us bl oo d to th e l un gs Th e a cc o m p an yi n g .

figu re ( 3 2) e x pl a i n s p e rfe ctly the cou rs e Of this gre at art e ry

( the ao rt a) from its com m en c em en t i n th e h e a rt to its te r
, ,

min ati on ; als o Of al l the gre at bran ch e s which a ris e fr om it .

9 5 Ven ou s Sys te m — The v e i n s o rig i n ati n g i n th e

.

c apill ary v e ss e ls i n which th e arte ri e s t e rmi n ate fol l o w

, ,

pretty n e a rly the cou rs e Of th e arte ri e s ; b u t th ey ar e m o re

n um e r ou s an d m or e s u e r fi ci al c
p M an y a r e situ at ed i mm e
di atel y b en e ath th e ski n i m b edd e d i n th e supe rfici al fa sci a
,

o f th e b o dy Oth e rs foll o w th e c o u rs e of th e a rte r i e s to te r

.
,

m i n ate h ow e v e r at l en gth i n two l a rge trun ks which e mpty ,

th e ms e lve s i n to the right auricl e of the h e a rt ( Fig .

The v e i n s o f th e in te sti n e s pr e s e n t this r em a rk a bl e an om aly

—th at th ey u n ite i n to a sin gl e tru n k which i n ste ad Of j o i n i n g , ,

the v e n ou s syste m dir e ctly pro c ee ds t o w a rds the liv e r an d i s

, ,

r a m i fi e d thr o u gh th at o rg an a fte r th e m a n n e r Of an a rt e ry ;

b u t the v e i n s which l ea v e the liv e r u n ite with th e v en a c a v a

i n fe ri o r be fo re th at v e ss e l e n te rs the right a ur icl e
r cu l a ti on —The v en o u s bl oo d c on v ey e d
.

§ 9 6 L .e s s er C i .

i n to the right a uricl e by the two ca v ae an d by the co r on ary

v e i n p ass e s from this au ricl e i n t o th e right v e n tricl e an d by
, ,

its acti on is d r iv en al on g the pul m on ary a rte ry i n to the l un gs

( Figs 30 an d . The l att e r v e ss e l is c all e d an a rt e ry ,

a lth o ugh it c a rri e s o n ly v e n o us bl oo d I n the right lun g it .

divide s i n to thr e e bran ch e s an d i n the l e ft i n to two ; thus cor ,

r e spon di n g as it w e re with the n umb er Of the l ob e s Of each l u n g .

9 7 Th e p ul m o n ary v e i n s a s th e y a r e c all ed c a rry b ack

.
, ,

fr o m the l u n gs the wh ol e of the bl oo d which ha s b ee n c on v ey e d

to th e s e o rgan s by the p u l m on a ry a rt e ry I n th e c a pill a ry .

syst e m Of th e s e v e ss e ls the bl ood h as b e e n i n the m e a n ,

tim e ae r ate d r e v i vi fi e d an d art e ri aliz e d an d fitte d on ce

, , ,

m o r e to p e rfor m its p a rt i n r e n o v ati n g th e o rga n s an d

m a i n t a i n i n g life Fro m the l e ft a u ricl e i n which the fo u r
.
,

A s m l l e r e i n call e d co ro a ry re t ur n s th e blo o d whi ch h a s c irc u la t e d i n

a v n

w a lls o f t h e h e a r t i t o t h e s a m e c a vi t y —R K
, ,

th e n . .

E 2
 Z OOLO G Y .

fi t —Ve r ti ca l S ecti o n o f th e H e a rt .

Ve n o u s c avi ti e s o f the h ea rt —l In te ri o r o f th e ri ght ve n t ri cl e sh o w

. .
,

i th e col um n s stren gth e n i n g i ts walls 2 Po rti o n o f t he tri cus p i d

. .

o n ri s i n g u p d u ri n g th e co n tr acti o n o f th e v e n tri cle p a rti a ll y ,

clo se s th e ape rt ure le a di ng i n to t he au ri cle ; t he te nd in o us co rds a ttach e d to

t he fi n e e dg e s o f t h e v a l e p re v e n t i t re t u rni n g to o f ar to wards t h
v a u ri cl e e ,

the s e te n d o n s b e i n g a ttach e d by thei r o th e r e x tre mi t i e s to th e fle sh y co l um n s

a n d fl es hy walls o f t h e v en tri cl e .3 C a vi ty o f th e ri ght a u ri cle
. 4 Fl as hy . .

co l um n s stre n gthe ni n g t h e w a lls o f the ca vi ty 5 O ri fice o f t he gre a t

. .

. F
co ro n a ry vei n re t u rn i n g th e bl o o d fro m th e ti ss ue o f the h e a rt i ts e lf t o th e
ca vi ty o f the au ri cl e 7 8 o ss a o vali s i n the bo tto m o f whi ch m ay b e se e n
.
,

t h e re m a i n s o f t h e o p e ni n by w h i c h i n t h e f e tus the t w o a u ri cl e s co m m un i
, ,

ca te d di r ectly w i th ea c h o er 9 O ri fi ce o f th e ve n a ca va s u p e ri o r 1 0 Tru nk
. . . .

o f th e i n fe ri o r c a a
v . 1 1 Th e gre a t ar te ry ca ll e d ao rt a 1 2 1 2 The pul m o na ry
. . , .

c ms .
 M E CH A N S M I or TH E C I RCULA TI ON . 53

p u l m on ary v e in s t e r m i n at e the bl ood p a ss e s i n t o the l e ft ve n ,

tri el e an d by its p o w e rfu l action is driv e n thr ou gh the ao rt a

,

a n d its br an ch e s i n to a l l p ar ts o f the b o dy to r e tur n on c e ,

m o re by the v e in s to the right au r icl e o f th e h ea rt Th u s i s .

c ompl e te d the do u bl e circ u l ation i n m an m am m als an d bi rds , , .

M e cha n i s m of til e Ci r cu l a ti o n .

M H —
§ 98 ov em e n ts o
f . the ear t The c aviti e s of th e
h e a rt b e i n g m u scu l a r c on tr a ct an d dil at e : th e dil atati on is ,

c all e d the d i a s o l e fi the c on tracti on sy to l e j A s the au ricl e s

t “
,
‘

o f the h e art di l at e th ey r e c e iv e th e bl oo d th e r ight th at of , ,

the b o dy the l e ft th at which is r e t u r n i n g fro m the l u n gs ;

, ,

wh e n fu ll th ey co n tract on th e ir c on te n ts fo rci n g the bl oo d

, ,

i n t o th e v en tricl e s ; th e s e i n th e ir t u rn s u ffe r dil a tati on a s

th ey fi ll an d co n tractin g s u dd en ly force the bl ood the right
, , , ,

i nto the pulmon ary art e ry the l e ft i n to th e ao rt a Th e se , .

m ov e m e n ts of the h e a rt c o n ti n u e whil st l i fe en du re s an d ar e ,

m u ch i n flu en ce d by v ari ou s circ um st an c e s s u ch a s e x e rcis e , ,

dis e as e &c The n umbe r of th e s e c on tracti on s u s ually fe lt

, .
,

i n th e r a di a l a r e ry at th e m ist v a ri e s with y e ar s th ey ar e
t , ,

m o st fr e qu e n t i n the y ou n g an d a v e r age ab o u t s e v e n ty i n ,

the a d ul t at n oon , Th ey ar e affe cte d by e v e ry ch an ge i n th e

.

po sition of the body

§ 99 P a ss a e o
.
g f t he B l o o d i n to the C a vi ti e s of th e

He a r t - This h a s be en al r e ad y d e
.

scribe d b ut m ay b e th u s a g ai n bri e fly
,

a dv e rte d to The bl oo d h a v i n g an
.

e
a rt e ri al ch a racte r re t u rn s fr o m th e ,

l u n gs i n t o the l e ft au ricl e This a u .

ri e l e co m m u n i ca te s with the l e ft ve n
tr i cl e by an Op e n i n g c all e d th e l e ft
,

au ric u l o v en tric u l ar ap e rt u r e throu gh

-
,

which the bl oo d flo ws fr om the auricl e

i nto th e v e n tricl e I n this p ass age .

is pl ac e d a v alv e c alle d mitral p e r m it F 33 S ct i ,

f th
,
1 e
g on o e
_
'

tin g the bl oo d to p ass b u t n o t to r e fl “ ;, ea

t u rn The a rt e rial bl ood n o w c o ll e ct e d

.

i n the v e n tricl e is acte d on by this fl e shy c avity an d fo rc e d

F
,

r m S éAAw I di l t e
o t a or r
'
1 r om w
, aMw I . cl s ’
F are , en o e .

I Th or ti c s ti
e e o f th h rt to sho w t h m ch i s m o f t h pl y f t h
ec on e ea e e an e a o
ri cl r i i g th i s ; —
, e
l
va v e s a au e b t
e ce v n l s p r t d fr m t h
e ve n e e ve n n c e e a a e o e
l l s —d fl sh b ri dl s o st ys f the s al l s ;
.
, ,

ri cl by th
—
au e e v a vu e c, e e r a o e v vu e
—
,

f a rt ry sep ri g i g fr m t h e t
n ri c n
q l l s s
o it t d t th e tr
ve n c e , v a vu e ua e a e n an e
1 the a rte ry .
54 ZOOLOGY .

i n to the ao rt a ; at the en tran c e o f the aorta ar e th ree v al v e s ,

the s e m ilun a r p e r mitti n g th e bl oo d to flo w fr e e ly i n to the a rte ry

,

b u t n ot to r e t ur n i n to the v e n tr icl e ; dist ribute d by the ao rta

an d its br an ch e s to e v e ry p a rt o f the bo dy an d to th e fl es hy

w al ls of the h eart its e l f th e bl oo d is tak en up b th e v e n ous

,

ca pill a ri e s an d r e tu r n e d to th e right au ricl e by t e two v en ae

,

cavae an d c oron ary v e i n ; co ll e cte d i n thi s au ricl e it is st rictly

v en ous bl ood b u t has already re c e iv e d the pr oduct of di ge s
,

ti on Fro m this au ricl e an d by its a cti on the bl ood is driv en

.
,

throu gh the right au ricu l o-v en t ricu l ar o rifice in to the ri ght

v en t ricl e ; the tricuspid v alv e pe rm its it to p ass in to the
v e n tricle but n ot to re turn By the acti on of this v en tricl e
, .

the bl ood is fo rc e d i n to th e pulm on a ry a rt e ry an d by it to ,

the l u n gs th e n c e to b e r e tu r n e d to the l e ft au ricl e ( ae r ate d )

,

by m ean s o f the pulmonary v e in s A t the en tran c e o f the .

pulm on ary art e ry th e re ar e as i n the ao rta thr e e s e m il u n a r , ,

v a lv e s p e r m itti n g th e bl oo d to pass fre e ly i n to the a rt e ry

, ,

but n ot to r e turn Fr om the m e chan is m al on e o f the v alv e s

.

all u d e d to the ci rc u l ati on o f th e bl oo d might ea sily h av e

,

b ee n fore told .

F i g 35 . .
—Val vu l e s
H e rt d A t ri e s of th e a an r e .
’

1
,
pp U
er s r face o f th e h e rt
u th e ri c l s h i g b ee
r c l o t ri l r o ri fice bli t r t d by th t ri c s pi d l ; 2 fibro s
au i u -v e n cu a ,
a
o
r m, o ed
e a e
au e
e
av n
u va ve
n e

,
v .

u
ri g ur ro di th ri fic ; 3 l e ft r c l
n s un n e o t ri c l ar ri fic s rr d d
e , au i u o -v e n u o e, u o un e
by ri g d
a n ,
d by the mi tral l ; 4 ri fi c l adi g i t o th e rt
an c o ec v a ve ,
o e e n n ao a
fro m th l ft e tri cl e clo se d by th s mi l un a r al s ; 5 o rifi ce l e di g
e ve n , e e v ve , a n
i to th e p l m
n a ry arte ry fro m t he ri ght
u on en tri cl e also pr i d e d wi th t h ree v , ov
s mi l ar l s
e un va ve .
 M E CH A N S M I OF TH E C I RCULA TI ON . 55

1 00 . C f
ou r s e o the B l oo d i n til e A r ter i e s Con tra ry .
—
to wh at might h a v e be en e xpe cte d , the bl o o d flows in th e
a rte ri e s i n a con ti n u e d str eam a n d with c o n sid e r a bl e fo rc e
, .

This is due chie fly to the acti on o f th e h e art its e lf b u t p artly ,

a ls o to the e l a sticity Of th e art e ri e s th e m s e lv e s The i n fl u en c e .

o f the e l asticity of the w al ls o f th e a rte ri e s on th e p ass ag e Of

the bl oo d is pro v e d by pl aci n g two l igatu r e s at a ce rtai n

, ,

dist an ce fr om e ach oth e r on a l a rge art e ry i n a li vi n g an i m al

, ,

an d th e n u n ctu r i n th e v e ss e l a t an p o in t be tw ee n th e
p y
ligatur e s The b l o
. con t ai n e d i n this in sul ate d po rtion Of
t he v e sse l is thr o wn o ut Of it with co n sid e r abl e fo rce Thus .
,

by m e an s of th e e lasticity of the a rterie s the jet Of bl oo d or , ,

the i n te r m itte n t m ov e m e n t i m pre ss e d o n the bl oo d by the

a cti on Of th e h e a rt i s tr an sfo rm e d in to a co n t i n u ou s flo w o r
,

stre am I n the c apill ar i e s it is pre sum e d th at the blood

.
,

fl ows on by this m ean s al on e ; but s om e suppo s e th e m to b e

m u scu l ar .

1 01 Thus th e l e ft
.

ca vi tie s Of the h ea rt pe r
fo rm the fun cti on of
a dou ble fo rci n g -p um p
( Fig .
so a rr an g ed ,

th at t he two pisto n s al
t e r n ate i n th e i r m ov e
m e n ts ; th u s th e liqui d
ch as e d from th e first
b ody o f th e pu m p ( a )
is i n tr o du ce d in to the
s e c on d with ou t be i n g
a bl e to r e tr ace its ste ps ,

a n d is thr ow n by this
s e con d p u mp i n to the
can a l ( f ) repre s en ti n g Fig .

the a rte ri a l syste m .

§ 1 0 2 Wh e n the fi n g e r is g e n tly pr e ss e d ag ai n st a n
.

a rt e ry r e stin g o n a firm surfac e as a b on e an i m pu ls e or , ,

is fe lt to strik e the fin ge r r e gul arly Thi s 1 8 du e to the acti on .

a, b o dy o f the p u m p re pre s e n ti n g the au ri cl e a n d re ce i vi n g th e li qui d by

,

t h e c a n a l ; b bo dy o f th e
c ,
u m p r e re s e n ti n g th e e n t ri cl e ; d c an al o f
v ,

co m m un i ca ti on r e p r e se n ti n t e a uri c o v e n t ri cula r o ri fice fu rn i she d wi th a

-

s u cke r p e rm i tti n g th e fi ui tf to p ass fro m a to b b u t 0 I O s i n g i ts re tu rn ;

, ,

th
,

e t h e s ucke r o r
, al v e s i tua te d a t t he o p po si t e o ri fic e O
v , e pu m p b r e p r e ,
o

s e n ti n g th e s e m i l un ar alv e s o f the ao rt a an d ha vi n g the s am e actl on as th e

v ,

prece di n g v alve o r su ck er ; f can al re pre se n ti n g the ao rta

, , .
 56 ZOOLOGY .

of thel e ft v en tricl e on the fluid an d i s a phe n om en on prod u ced

,

i n a gre at m e a s ure by the r e ss u r e e x e rcis e d by th e fin g e r

p .

It is c al l e d th e p uls e an d 1 8 m o st u su ally fe lt at the wrist

,

( Fig . th e r adi al a rte ry b e i n g fav o ur ably pl ac e d i n th i s

1 es e ct
p .

1 03 Th e bl oo d d oe s n ot reach al l the 0 1 gan s with the s am e

.

swi ftn e ss D istan c e from the h ea rt 1 9 on e c au s e , but it i s n ot

.

the o nl y on e Th e arte ri e s r u n m o stly I n a to rtu o us m an n e r ,

.

a n d t his ca us e s , as is w e ll kn o wn , a r e ta r dati on o f the fl u id

circul atin g By a v a st 1 n cr e as e Of min ute bran ch e s , the bl ood

.

i s spre ad i n to m an y ch an n e ls , h e n c e a ris e s a n oth e r c au s e o f

r e t ardati on as r egar ds the arte ri e s Fin ally , Nature , all for e

.

s e e i n g , pro vid e s , by n ume rous a n a s to mos es or j un cti on s o f

the v e ss e ls , for a n y a ccide n t al st oppa ge o r o blite r ati on of th e
l a rge r or sm al l e r tru n ks
1 04 Cou r s e of the Ve n o u s B l oo d —The bl oo d p a ss e s ,
.

. .

by m ean s O f the capil l ar i e s , from the a rte ri e s i n to the v e i n s .

The impulsi on it first r ece iv e s fro m th e h e a rt de te r min e s

its co u r s e i n the v e in s This is prov e d e x pe ri m en ta lly , by
.

p l aci n g a li gatur e on the arte r y supplyin g ce rt ain v e in s , an d

t hus cuttin g o ff th e acti o n o f the h e a rt ; the h aem o r rh a g e
fr o m a pun ct ur e d v e in wi l l c eas e , e v en alth ough the v e in
be ful l Of bl oo d , an d will r etur n wh en the acti on Of the
h eart is all o w e d to i n fl u en ce it , by re m ovi n g the ligatur e from
the a rte ry .

Bu t th e re ar e o th e r ci r cum
stan ce s i nflue n cin g the m oti on of
the bl o od In th e v e i n s Th e s e.

v e ss e ls , an d m ore e spe ci ally th o s e

of the limbs , ar e pr o vid e d with

valv e s ( b ) , p e rm ittin g the bloo d

to flo w to w a rds the h e a rt , but
pr e ve n ti n g its r e flux to wa r the d
ca pil l a r i e s E v ery i n te r m i tten t
.

co m r e ss i o n o
p f the s e v esse l s con
tr i b u te s to the r e tu r n of the
b l ood to the he a r t .

1 05 The di l at ati on Of the

.

ch e st c a u s ed by re spirati on facili
t at e s the re tu r n of the bl ood to
F i g 37 —
. V e i n l ai d o p e n
.
,
w a rds t he h e a rt By e x pir ati on
. .

the m ov e m e n t Of the bl oo d i n the

v e i n s is m om e n ta rily in te rr upte d ; an d the do ubl e m oti on
 COUR S E OF TH E B LOOD I N AN I MAL S . 57

Obs e rv e d i n the brai n wh e n a p orti on o f the skul l -cap h as

,

b e e n r e m o v e d is d u e p artly to r e spirati o n p artly to the

, ,

r e sistan c e which the b a s e o f the bra i n offe rs to th e d il at a

ti on o f the a rte ri e s situ a te d betw e e n the b a s e and the sk u ll .

§ 1 06 Th
. e c o u rs e o f th e v e n ou s bl o o d an d th e m e ,

chan i sm o f th e c a viti e s thr ough which it p a ss e s fr o m th e

v e in s to the lun gs by m e an s of the right au ricle v en tricl e

, , ,

an d p u l m on a ry a rt e ry h a s b ee n al r e a dy d e scrib e d
,
I n th e .

c api ll ari e s of the pul m on ary a rt e ry the bl ood is ch an ge d i n to

a rt e ri al an d s o r e t u r n s by m e an s Of th e p u l mon a ry v e i n s to
,

the l e ft auricl e o f the h eart .

Co u r se f the B l o od i n D ifle r e n t
‘
o A ni ma l s .

1 07 M a mm a l s —Th e cir cul ation i n the s e

a nd B i r ds .

t wo cl a ss e s o f a n im a ls is th e s am e It is wh at is c al l e d
a d o ubl e cir c u l ati on the bl oo d p a ssi n g thr o u gh two s ets o f
c apill ari e s—o n e be l on gin g to the bo dy the o the r to the lu n gs ;
,

th e fo rm e r s e rvi n g fo r th e n u triti on o f the b o dy th e l atte r ,

for the ae r ati o n o f th e bl ood This ki n d o f circul ati on has

.

Sm ll r C i rc l t i a e u a on .

P ul mon a ry A rte ry .
P ul m on a ry V ei n s .

x
‘
L ft A ri cl
e u e .

R i ght A ri cl
u e

H rt ea .

V e n se C a v ae .

A rt
R ght V
o a .

i en tri cle .

L ft Ve tr cl
e n i e .

G re a te r C i rcul a ti o n
3 8 —M a m m al s a n d B i rds
.

. .

TH E O R E TI C F I G UR E O F TH E C I R C UL A TI O N .
58 ZOOLOGY .

Sma lle r C i rcul ati o n .

Ve um C av e .

A o rt a .

Si n gle Ve n t i cl
r e .

Grea te r Ci rcul a ti on
Fi g 3 9 — e p ti l e s
. . R .
.

Sm a ll e r Ci rcula ti on .

Ve t ri cl e
n .

A uri cl e

H e art .

D ors al Art e ry .

Ve i s
n .

I I
Fi g 410. .
-

TH E O R E T C F G UR E S O F TH E C R C U L A T O N
F sh s I
i e .

I .
 CO UR S E o r TH E B LOO D I N AN I MAL S . 59

Sm a l l e r Ci rcu l a ti o n .

B ran chi o -C ardi ac

C an al s .

H e art .

Arte ri e s .

Gre a te r C i rcul a t i o n .

F i g 4 1 —Cru st ac e a
. . .

’
r n s o n n r rc F I G UR E o r r m:
a cr a cu m r ro n .

al o s b een c all e d c om pl et e which m ean s th at the wh ol e of the

,

bl ood cir cul ate s thro u gh the l u n gs be fo r e b e in g re st o re d to

the b o dy .

B efo r e bi rth th e re e x ists an op e n i n g b e tw een the r i ght an d

l e ft auricl e s by which the bl ood c on v ey e d to the h e art by th e
,

v en a cav a i n fe ri o r p ass e s dire ctly i n to the l e ft au ricl e This .

bloo d co m e s m o stly from the pl ac en ta Th e p u lmon ar y .

a rt e ry al s o b e fo re b i rth divide s i n to thr ee bran ch e s in stea d

, ,

o f t wo a s i n th e a d u lt ; t he c e n tr e br a n ch
, a ss e s i n to th e

ao rt a . This p e cul i ar m echan is m co n n e cte d wit foetal l if e di s

a pp e ars s oo n a fte r bi r th l e a vi n g m e r e ly tr ace s o f its e xi ste n ce

1 08 R ep ti l asz—I n this c l ass the c i r cul ati on is n ot co m

.
,

p l e te Th e h e a rt has o n ly thr e e c a viti e s i n ste ad of fo ur as i n

m a mm als an d birds —n a m e ly two au ricl e s an d on e v e n tricl e

.
,

( Fig 3 9) the v en ous bl ood co min g fro m the v ari ous p arts of
.

I n al l th e s e fig r s t h sh d e d p rts r p r s e t th e
u e e i s ; th e p arts
a a e e n ve n
t r d r pr s t th rt r s th do tt d ci rcle r pre s t the he rt
$3 1 ace e e en e a e ie e e e en s a .

5 ; the arr w s p i t o t th e di e cti o o f th e s g m e curr e t w hi ch

o o n u r n an n n ,

i th e s am e i al l th e fig re s
s n u .
60 ZOOLOGY .

L un gs .

S to m a ch .

Ki d eys
n .

'
Ifi g 4 2
.
2 .
—C i rc l t ry App r t s i
u a o a a u n th e L i rd
za .
 M E CHAN I S M or TH E C I R CULA TI ON . 61

th e b o dy is p o ure d by th e right au ricl e i n to the si n gl e v en

tr i cl e which r e c e ive s a ls o the a rt e ri a l bl o o d fro m the l e ft
,

a u ricl e — a po rti o n o f thi s m i x e d bl oo d is r e tu rn e d to the

B ra n chi l Ar te ry
a
B ran chi a l V e ss e ls .

Ar t r l B lb
e i a u

V tri cl f
en e o th c
H rt ea

D rs l Art ry
o a e .

V P o rt
e na ee ,

L r &
i ve , c .

Ki dn ys e .

I n te st i n e .

V ena C a va D rs l Arte ry
o a or
A rt
.

o a .

43 .
—Ci rc u l a t i n g A p p r t s o f th e
a a u F sh
i .
62 ZOOLOGY .

lun gs an d the re st proce ed s to n o ur ish the bo dy The ci r cu

,
.

l ati on i n r epti l e s r e s e mbl es s om e wh at th at of the foetu s of the

high e r cl ass e s of an im als Fro m the h e art ( v e n t r icl e ) th e re
.

proce e d two a rte ri e s or a or tas which afte r h av i n g e ach fu r

, ,

ni shed a cr o ss o r a rch o n e to t he right th e oth e r to the l e ft

, ,

r e un ite to fo r m a sin gl e tru n k I n s o m e r e ptil e s the ,

c ro co dil e for e x a mpl e the circu l ati on is s om e wh at d iffe re n t

, .

W e sh all d e sc ribe it wh en sp eakin g of th e s e a ni m als .

1 09 F i s he s -I n fish e s the cir c u l ati on m ay b e s aid to

. .

b e stil l m o r e simp l i fi e d The h e ar t h as on ly o n e v en tricl e

.

an d o n e au r icl e . This a uricl e rece iv e s o n ly v e n o us bl oo d

re tu rn e d to it fr o m al l parts of the bo dy Fro m this ca vity it .

p ass e s in to the v en t ricl e fr om which sp ri n gs a sin gl e arte ry

g ,

h a vin at its o rigin a stron g arte ri al bul b ( Fig T hr ough .

,

this smg l e arte r y it is con v eye d first to the gills an d the ,

v e ss e ls retu rn i n g fro m th e s e u n ite to for m a sin gl e do rs al

a rte ry (th e ao rta ) by wh o s e bran ch e s th e bl oo d is co n v e y e d to
,

al l p arts o f th e body r e tu rni n g by th e v e i n s to th e a u ricl e

,

fr om whi ch it s tarte d Ne v e rth e l es s the cir cul ati o n is h e re

.
,

co mpl ete si n ce al l the bl ood is ae r a te d b e fo re its em pl oy

,

m en t i n n ou rishi n g the body ( Fig 40 p .

, .

1 1 0 M o l l u s ca I n m o st of the m o ll u s ca the circul ati on

. .

r e s e mbl e s th a t of fishe s b u t the hear t is a or ti c an d n ot pu l

m on ar y—th at i s to say it is pl a ced i n th e co ur s e o f th e bloo d
,

pro cee din g fro m the r e spir ato ry app aratus to the body an d ,

the v e n ous syste m is m o r e or l e ss in co mpl e te The h eart i n .

th e s e an im als is compo s ed u s u all y of a v en tr icl e ( Fig 4 4 It ) .

,

wh en ce sprin g the arte ri e s ( i ) an d of o n e or two a u r icl e s i n

,

co mm un icati on wi th th e v e sse ls which car ry the arte ri a l

blood fro m the r e spirato ry appa ratus ( d ) which this l iquid ,

r each e s by v en ou s can al s m o re or l e ss co mpl e te This is

th e ca s e i n s n a ils oyste rs an d all the cl a ss ga te ro po d a an d
, ,
s

ac e ph al a ; b u t s o m e tim e s th e r e e xist n o a u ricl e s a n d a ki n d ,

o f v e n ous h e arts is fo u n d a lto g e th e r distin ct fr o m the ao rtic

v e n tricl e an d sit u a te d at the bas e of the r e spir a to ry o rg an s

,

this tak e s pl ace i n the s e pi a an d o th e r c e ph al opod a H o w

, .

e v e r i t m ay b e th e a rte ri a l bl oo d i n al l th e s e an i m a ls t ra
,

v e rses the h ea rt the n proce e ds to a ll t he p arts of th e bo dy

, ,

an d is a fte rw a rds d i re cte d to w ar ds the re spir a to ry o rg an s .

But i n thi s l atte r p a rt o f its co urs e the bl oo d is n o t alw ays ,

c o n ta in e d i n v e ss e ls pro pe rly s o call ed Som e tim e s the v e i n s .

ar e alto g e th e r w an t i n g th e ir pl ac e b e in g s u ppli e d by l a cu n ae
, ,

o r v o id sp ac e s fillin g u p the i n te rv a ls o f the o rg an s a t o th e r

 M E CHA N I S M or TH E C I RCULA TI ON . 63

tim e s v e i n s e xist i n s om e p arts o f the body wh i lst e ls ewh e re ,

i n the s a m e an i m a l th e ir pla ce is suppli e d by v e n o us c an als ,

h avi n g n o prop e r tun ic b u t con sistin g m e re ly of the in te r,

o rg an ic l ac u n ae or th e l a rg e c av iti e s o f th e bo dy
, a s th e ,

a bd o m i na l c a vity ( m Fig Fin ally the blo od afte r h a vi n g

.
, ,

u n d e rgon e the acti on of th e ai r r etur n s to the h eart to co m ,

m e n c e its co u rs e a n e w .

Fi g 4 1
.
4
.
—C i rcu l a to ry App r t s i
a a u n a M o ll sku .
‘

111Cr u s ta ce a — I n l o bst e rs , crabs , an d o th e r an im als

. .

o f this cla ss , th e bl oo d foll o ws th e s am e co ur s e as i n th e m o]

l u sc a ; on ly the h e ar t , de stin e d to tran s m it the bloo d to all
p arts of th e b ody , c on sists of a sin gl e v en tricl e ( Fig an d .

the v e in s ar e e v e rywh e re r e pl a ce d by irr e gu l a r cav iti e s , which

h av e n ot th e for m of v e ss e ls , an d which c on stitute , i n the
n e ighbourh oo d of th e br an chi ae , a s o rt o f r e s e rv oirs , cal l e d

v e n o us si n u s e s ( Fig The v en ou s bl oo d thus b ath e s al l

.

th e organ s ; b u t th e n ou rishi n g fluid is on c e m o r e co ll ecte d

A a to m y
n of —ci th e m o u th ; b b th e fo o t ; 0 th e a n u s ;
th e S n a i l , , ,

d d th e l un g ; e th e sto m ach c o ve re d a b o v e by th e s ali va ry gla n ds ; f i n

, , , ,
t e sti n e ; the li ve r ; h the h e a rt ; i ao rt a ; j gastri c a rt e ry ; l e p ati c
a rt e ry ; g arte ry o f th e fo o t
, , , , ,

m m a bdo mi n al c a i ty s u p l yi n th e lace o f v
p , ,

a v e n o u s si n u s ; n n i rr e l a r c an al i n co m m un i c a t i o n W i th t e a b o m i n al
cavi ty an d carryi n g th e gx
,

,
co d to th e l u n g ; a o ve ss e l c a rryi n g th e bl oo d ,

fro m th e l n g to th e h e art
u .
 ZOO LOGY .

i n to v e ss e ls wh en ce it pr o ce eds from the gills to the h ea rt The

, .

circ u l ati on is con s equ e n tly se mi -v asc u l a r an d s em i -l acun ar

, , .

F i g 4 5 —Ci
. . rc l a to ry A pp ra tu s i
u a n th e L o bst r e .
‘

112 . I n se cts I n i n s e cts th e bl ood is n o

.
-
l on ge r con

tai n e d i n an y p artic u l a r system o f v e ss e ls ; th e r e ar e ne ith e r

Fi g 46 . .
— Ci rcul a ti o n in I n s e ct s ?
a , he a rt b th e o phthal m i c a rt e ry ; c the a n t e n n ar arte ry ; d the
th e : , , ,

hep a ti c a rte ry ; e s u pe ri o r a bdo m i n a l a rt e ry ; f ste rn al a rt e ry ; g g e n ou s

, , ,
v

si n u se s re ce i vi n g th e bloo d co m i n g fro m a ri o u s p a r ts o f t h e b o dy a n d t ran s

,
v ,

m i tti n g i t to th e re s p i ra t o ry a p a ra t u s ( th e b r an chi m h ) fro m w he n ce i t ,

re tu rns to the h e art by t he b ra n e i o ca rd i ac ve ss e ls i - .

f Th e a rro w s p o i t o u t th e di rec ti o o f th e cu rre n ts

n n d o rs al e ss e l i n - a
, v ,

wh ic h th e bl oo d m o e s fro m b e h i n d fo rw a rds ; b
v ri n ci p l la t e ra l cu rre n t s
p
, a .
 or TH E R E S P I RA TI ON . 65

a rte rie s v e in s an d the n o ur ishin g fluid is spread a b ou t

n or ,

i n the in te rstice s of th e organ s : sti l l the circ u l ati o n s u ch a s ,

i t i s is an im a
, by the a cti o n of a v e ss e l ca ll e d do rs al situ ,

a te d i n th e m e si a l pl an e o f the bo dy a b o v e the di ge stiv e tube

( Fi g . W e sh a ll c on side r fu rth e r on the rou te fo llo w ed

, ,

by the bloo d i n the o rg an ism o f tho s e an im als wi th a l acu n ar

cir cul a to ry app ar atus .

1 1 3 Wor ms — In the w o rms of the cl a ss ann e li de s (such

.

a s th e l e e ch an d e ar th -w o r m
) th e r e e xists o n t h e o th e r h an d , ,

a co mpl e te v asc u l a r app ar at u s ; but g e n e ral ly th e re is n o

h eart prop e rly so call e d an d the bl oo d i s se t i n m oti on by
, ,

m o v e m e n ts o f the v e ss e ls th em s e lv e s by con tracti on s o f th e ,

p ri n cip al v e ss e ls Thus the co u rs e of the bl oo d is m u ch l e ss

.

r e gu l ar th an i n the v a ri ou s an im al s of whi ch w e h av e j ust

spo ken an d frequ en tly the dire cti on is n ot c on st an t
1 1 4 Z oop /zy te s —Th e re ex ists e v e n i n s om e z o o phyt e s
, .

.
,

as i n po lyps a ki n d o f ci r cul ati on pr od u ce d by th e acti on of

, ,

the vibr atile cili a with which the w al ls o f th e c a vity acti n g ,

a t o n ce as sto m a ch an d i n te sti n e a r e pr o vid e d By m ean s , .

o f th e se cili a the c o n t a in e d liquids ar e k e pt c on sta n tly i n m o

ti on This c avity is s o m e ti m e s sin gl e b u t i n so m e it s en ds

.
,

bran ch e s to v ari ou s p arts o f the b ody .

1 1 5 Such ar e the pri n ci al m o dific ati o n s hi th e rt o ob

.

s e rv e d i n th e m o d e by which t e circul ati on o f the bl ood i s

e ffe cte d i n v a ri ou s cl ass e s o f an im al s L et u s n o w c on sid e r .

the ph en o m e n a which h app en whi lst it p a ss e s thr o u gh the

cir cu l at o ry appa ratu s .

OF TH E R E S P I RA TI O N .

116 The by its acti on on the livi n

a rte ri al bl ood
tiss u e s l o s e s its vita l prop e rti e s which can onl y b e r e sto re d
.
,

, ,

to it by be i n g e x p o se d to th e acti on o f th e ai r wh ilst tr a
v e rs i n g i n v e ss e ls an o rgan ad apte d for this pu rpo s e Thi s .

pro c e ss o f ae r ati on is c all e d re spira ti on The n e c e ssity for .

this is pro v e d by the si m pl e e x p e r i m en t if an y such w e re ,

w an t ed of pl aci n g an an i m al un d e r the r e ce iv e r o f an a i r
,

p ump an d e x h au sti n g the ai r ; i n a c e rta i n ti m e the an im a l

,

di e s asphyx i at e d Wh e re v e r th e re is life wh eth e r an im al or

g ,
.

v e e tabl e ai r is e ss en ti al Th e te rm appli e s e qu ally to a quatic

, .

an i m al s which liv e by m e an s o f the a i r h e ld i n a ki n d o f

,

sol u ti on o r mi x t u r e by the w ate rs i n w hi ch th e y e x ist .

1 1 7 The ai r w e br e ath e an d which is e ss e n ti a l to a l l

,

P
66 ZOOLOGY .

th a t liv e s is a c o m po u n d fl u id It is co m
,
. d o f — l W a t e ry se , .

v ap o ur , a lw ays pre s e n t i n gre a te r o r e s s qu an ti ti e s : an d

2 I n 1 00 p a rts o f p u re a tmo sph e ric a i r : th e re ar e 20 o f oxy
.

g en , 7 9 o f a z o t e o r n i tr o cr en with s o m e
, tr a c e s o f ca rbo n ic

a cid as O ft -
r e pe a te d che m ic a l e x pe ri m e n ts h a v e pr o v e d
g .

th at it is the o x yge n a l on e which m ai n ta i n s life The di s .

co v e r o f this s i n g u l a r fa ct w e o w e ( 1 77 7 ) to L a v o isi e r , a
y
ce l e br a te d Fr e n ch ch e mist w ho w a s b a rba r o u sly e x e cute d
,

d u ri n g the Fre n ch R e v ol uti o n .

1 1 8 By the a cti o n of re spira ti o n the ox yge n is with

.

d ra wn fr om the a tm o sph e re , an d disa ppe a rs ; i n its pl ace w e

fi n d c arbo n ic a cid g a s ; this g a s is n ot re sp i rabl e , if
bre ath ed it de str oys life I n the co n s u m pti o n of o x yge n an d
.

th e prod u cti o n of c arbo n ic acid g as re spir a ti on e ss e n t i a lly ,

co n sists .

1 19 Al tho u gh az ote o r n itro g e n b e n o t a vit a l g as , its

.

pre s en ce i n the atm o sph e re s e e m s n e c e ss a ry to dil u te th e

o x yg e n a n d it h as b e e n o bs e rv e d th at a c e rt a i n q u an ti ty o f
.

a zo te i s a bs o rb e d an d gi v e n o u t i n the a ct o f r e spir ati on .

1 20 Fi n a lly , th e r e e s ca pe s with the fl u ids e x pir ed a

.

ce rtai n a m o un t of v apou r , which be co m e s co n spic u o u s i n co ld

w e ath e r ; th i s v a po ur i s call e d p u l m on a ry tra n spirati on .

1 2 1 It is whilst p assi n g throu gh the c apil l a ri e s o f the

.

l un gs th at the bl oo d l o s e s its d a rk v e n ou s hu e , a n d be com e s

o f a bright v e r m ili o n a rte ri a l co lo u r M an y e x pe rim e n ts .

h av e bee n m ade to pro v e th a t which s ee m s o bvi ous with ou t

an y .

1 22 . The o ry of R e sp i r a ti o n .
—
\Vh at b e c o m e s of the
ox yg e n which h as di s a ppe ar ed a n d wh at is th e s ou rc e
, o f th e

car b o n ic acid as u n ifo rmly fo u n d a s a pr od u ct o f r e spi ra ti o n ?

g
The str on g an al o gy e xi sti n g be tw ee n the ph e n o m e n on o f
co mb u sti on o f a pi e c e o f ch a r co al fo r e x a m pl e a n d r e spir ati o n
, , ,

i n d u c e d Lav o isi e r to c onj e ctur e th e m to b e a l m o st i d e n tic a l

pr o ce sse s ; i n both the ox ygen dis app e a rs c arbo n ic a cid g as
, ,

is fo rm e d an d h e a t is dis e n gag e d
, .

Bu t this the or y m u st b e a ban d o n e d a s o ppo s e d to s u b ,

s e qu en t e x pe ri m e n ts a n d facts ; c ar bo n ic acid g a e xi sts s

a lr e a dy fo rm e d i n the bl ood a n d is simply e x h a l e d fr o m th e

,

s u rfa ce o f the v e ss e ls whilst the o xyge n is a bs o rbe d in to

,

the bl oo d to b e disso lv e d i n it an d to be sto w o n its p ar ticl e s

, ,

the ir livi n g qu aliti e s ch a r acte ristic of arte ri al bl ood

, .

1 23 A simpl e e x p e ri me n t m ad e by Willi a m E dw ards

.
, ,

s u fli ce s to pl a ce this m atte r i n a cl e a r l ight P l a c e i n a cl o s e .

 or TH E R E S P I RA TI ON . 67

v as e fill ed wi th n itro ge n o r a z o t e a fro g ; i n this g a s the fr o g ,

can liv e fo r a c o n sid e r a bl e ti m e No w a n alyz e it a n d yo u .

,

will fi n d th a t alth ou gh d epriv e d o f o x yge n the an i m al co n

, ,

ti n n e s to gi v e o ut c a rbo n ic a cid g a s Th e r e ca n th e n b e n o .

co mbu sti on as Lav oisi e r s u pp o s e d

,
.

1 24 I n fa ct the bl oo d alw ays c on t a in s c a rbo n ic a cid

.
,

a s diss o lv e d i n it ; an d M agn u s h a s sh o w n th a t th e bl oo d
g
can dis s o l v e a c e rt a in m e a s ur e o f a n as with which it m a
y g y
b e br o u ght i n c on ta ct b y givi n g o u t a p o rt i o n o f the g a s
,

first abs o rb e d wh e n diss o l v in g a p orti on o f th e s e co n d

,
.

Th u s by sh aki n g bl oo d i n hydro g e n a c e rt a in a m ou n t o f g as
, ,

is a bs o rb e d an d a c e rta i n q u an tity of c arb on ic a cid g a s is s e t

,

free The s a m e h app en s wh e n ox yg e n is u s e d i n st e ad o f

.

hydro ge n an d the blood a ss u m e s an art e ri al ch a r ac te r

, .

§ 1 2 5 It r.e s u lts i n de e d fr o m n u m e ro u s e x p e ri m e n ts
, , ,

th at a s the ch an ge s o bs e rv e d to t a k e pl ac e d u ri n g re sp i r a ti o n
,

e q u ally h appe n to bl o o d wh e n c o n t a i n e d m a bl a dd e r o x yg e n ,

dis app e a ri n g by be i n g abs o rbe d throu gh the w all s o f th e

bl adde r a n d c a rbon ic a cid g as app e a r i n g which m u st h a v e
, ,

co m e fro m th e bl oo d a n d e qu ally p ass e d thro u gh the w a lls

o f th e bl a dd e r the ph e n om e n a o f r e spir ation m u st in a
,

gr e a t m e a s u r e b e ch e mica l si n c e th ey t a k e pl ac e a s w e ll ,

i n bl o od withdr a w n fro m the b o dy as i n the p u l m o n a ry

v e ss e ls .

1 26 Wh a t h app en s i n th e r e spir a t o ry a ct s e e m s to b e
.

a s fo ll o ws : th e v e n o u s bl o od co m i n g fr o m all p a rts o f th e

b ody r e ach e s the l u n gs h o ldi n g i n s o l u ti on a c o n sid e r a bl e

,

a m o u n t o f c a rb o n ic a cid g a s a litt l e a z ot e an d s o m e trace s o f

, ,

o x yg e n A s it p a ss e s thro u gh th e l u n gs it c o m e s a s it w e r e
.

i n co n t act with th e a i r an d di ss olv e s a po rt i o n ; o x yg e n a n d

,

a c e rt a i n a m o u n t o f n itro g e n a r e th u s a bs o rb ed a n d th e s e ,

ga s e s by be i n g th u s t ak e n i n t o the bl oo d e x pe l a c e rt a i n ,

a m o un t o f c a rbo n ic a cid g as an d o f az o te ; the c a rbo n ic acid

a s e x h al e d e q u a ls pr e tty n e ar ly th e a m o un t o f th e o x yg e n
g
a bs o rbe d ; th e a z o t e e x h al e d a n d a bs o rb e d a r e n e a rly equ al a n d ,

i n ad d iti o n th e r e is the v a p o u r or p u l m o n ary tr a n spir ati o n .

Th u s the bl oo d lo s e s ca rb o n ic acid g a s a z o te an d w at e r , , ,

whilst it b e c o m e s ch a rg e d with ox yge n an d az ot e ; a n d th u s

it m ay b e pro v e d th at a rt e ri a l bl ood h olds di ss o lv e d m uch
,

m o re o xyge n th an v e n o u s bl o od an d th a t it is to this g a s e o u s , o

fl u id th a t a rt e ri a l bl oo d ow e s its c ol o n i a n d q u ali ti e s R e sp i .

r a ti o n c o n s i s ts the n i n the ph e n om e n a o f a bs o rpti o n a n d

, ,

ex h a l ati o n by m e an s o f which th e \ e n o u s bl o o d
, co mi ng i n ,

F 2
68 ZOOLOGY .

c on tact with the atm o sph e ri c ai r p a r ts with its c arb on ic ,

a cid a n d b e c o m e s ch a rg e d with o x g e n fi
"
, y
A s r e ga rds the so ur ce o f th e ca r bo n ic a cid g as c o n t a i n e d i n
the bl o o d an d th u s e x h al e d d u ri n g the r e spir at o ry act th e r e
, ,

is r e as on to be li ev e th at it o rigin ate s i n the u n i on o f the

o x yg e n a bs o rb e d with the c a rbo n o f t he o rgan ic p a rticl e s i n

al l p a rts o f the bo dy wh e th e r co n tain e d i n the bl oo d o r ,

re m o v e d fro m the livi n g tiss u e s The e ss en ti a l a ct th e n o f

g
.
, ,

re spira ti on s e e m s to b e a co m busti on oi n g on i n the d e pth o f

the tiss u e s an d the e x ch an g e s e ffe cte d m th e lu n gs ar e o nly the
,

pre limi n a ri e s to this w o rk

1 2 7 A cti v i ty of R e sp i r a ti on —R e spir ati on e ss e n ti a l
.

$ ,
.

to a 1 li fe v a ri e s i n a c tivity i n d iff e ren t a n im als

, .

I n birds it is the m o st activ e ; th ey c o n sum e m o re ai r i n a

given ti m e propo rti on a lly th an an y o th e r cl a ss o f an i m a ls
, , ,

a n d th e y s oon e st di e a sphyx i at e d wh e n de priv e d of it .

M a mm als h a v e als o a v e ry activ e re sp i r ati on an d m an y ,

e x pe rim e n ts h a v e b e e n m a d e to d e te r mi n e the q u an tity o f

o x yg e n r e quir e d by m an i n a giv e n tim e Now this h as .

b ee n fou n d to v ary with ag e an d a v a ri ety of cir cu mstan ce s ;

a b o ut 500 qu arts or r a th e r m o re pe r d ay m ay b e a ss u m e d to
, ,

b e the a v e r a g e Now ox yge n fo rms on ly 2 1 per ce n t o f the

.
, .

a tm o sph e ric a i r : h e n c e a bo ut 2 7 50 qu a rts o f ai r ar e r e qui r e d

e r h o ur for th e suppo rt of this r e spir a ti on

p .

A n im a ls o f the in fe ri o r cl as s e s g e n e rally an d e spe cia ll y ,

tho s e livin g i n w ate r h a v e the r e spirati on m uch l e ss acti v e , .

To m ee t this en o rm o us con sumpti on o f ox yge n whi ch ,

w o uld sur e ly e n d i n the d e str u cti on o f lif e o n th e gl o be if

n o t o bvi a te d n atur e e mpl o ys the r e spir a ti on o f plan ts
, .

V e ge ta bl e s a bs o rb the ca rbo n ic acid g as spr e ad thro ugh

’
the at m o sph e re a n d u n d e r the in fl u e n ce of t he sun s r ays
,

they e xtr a ct the c a rbo n an d s et free the ox ygen Thus , .

a n im a ls s u pply c arbo n to v e ge ta bl e s whil e the l a tte r r e t u rn ,

to a n i m al s s l
‘

ox en
y
1 28 . Th e r e ex ists a k in d of re l ati on b e tw e e n the viv a
r ght t bs r th t t he q ti ty f c rb i c ci d g c t i d i
It i s i o o e ve , a uan o a on a as o n a ne n

t h bl
e d th gh s m l l i s ffi ci t t cc t f th
oo , ou l m o f thi s g
a , t
s u en o a o un or e vo u e a s se
fr d ri g r s p r t o
ee u n Th s i m th bl d co t i s t l st 1 th f t
e i a i n . u , n an e oo n a n a ea o I s

vo ul me f g do th q t t f bl d w h ch t r rs s th l gs i
as , a n as e uan i o oo i a ve e e un n a

mi t m yb
nu e l d t 250
a i ch s b t fi fty c b i c I ch s f thi s
e v a ue a cu 1c n e ,
a ou u n e o

g asm st pas s i t h s m ti m
u N w t h hi gh st
n l ti
e af th g gi e e . o e e va u a on o e as ve n

o ff i r s p r ti
n e d ri g m i t d s t c d t w ty s
i a on u n c b c i ch s
a nu e oe no ex ee en - e ve n u i n e .

t It m i ght b s p p s d th t th f ci ti s m st b l ss p r
e u o er s p ct a e a ir o e u e e u e In e e

o f th m e a t f yg th th t f the co try ; b t e p e ri m t sh ws
o un o ox en an a o un u x en o
t ha t thi s i s no t t he cas e .
 AP PARA U S T or R ES P I RA TI ON . 69

city o f the m ov e m e n ts o f an y an i m al an d the activity o f i ts

r e spir ati o n which m ay b e e stim ate d by co m p a ri n g the m o v e
,

m e n ts o f a fr og an d bu tte rfly .

1 29 The activity o f t he m o v e m e n ts v a ri e s a ls o i n th e
.

s am e an im a l acco rdi n g to the circu m st an ce s i n which it is

pl ac ed ; an d it m ay b e e sta blish e d a s a ge n e r a l r u l e th at ,

wh at e v e r di m i n ish e s the vit al e n e rgie s te n ds to di m i n ish th e ,

qu an tity of ox ygen abs orb e d an d o f c arb on i c a cid giv en

ou t ; a n d v i ce v er s a .

Thu s i n y o un g an im als d uri n g sl e e p an d a ft e r fatigu e th e ,

r e spirato ry act is n ot s o e n e rge tic a s wh e n the o pp o sit e

circu m sta n ce s pre v ail L et u s n o w att e n d to th e o rgan s by
.

which this i m po rt a n t fun cti o n i s c a rri e d on an d th e ir v ari o u s ,

m odific ati on s i n diffe r e n t an i m a ls .

Ap p a r a tu s f
o R e sp i r a ti o n .

1 30 . i m als o f v e ry si m pl e organ iz ation th e re

In an

e x ists n o sp e ci a l r e spir a t o ry o rg an Th ey abso rb th e a i r by .

t he ge n e r a l e n v e l op e o f th e b o dy This h app e n s a ls o i n th e .

high e r an im als an d e v e n to m an hims e lf ; b u t i n al l th e

,

high e r an im a ls a sp e ci a l o rg an is pro vid e d fo r this act ; its

v a s c ul arity an d s o ftn e ss an d spon gy ch a r acte r co n tr a sti n g
,

stron gly with th e ex t e r n a l i n te gu m en ts o f th e b ody .

1 3 1 A g a i n th e s e o rg an s a r e m o difi e d a cc o rdi n g as the

.
,

a n i m a l is a q u a tic pro p e rly s o c a ll e d o r te rr e stri a l a n d a e ri a l

,
-
,
.

I n the fo rm e r the o rg an s ar e c a ll ed gills o r br an chi ae ; i n the

,

l a tt e r l u n gs o r tr ach e ae
1 3 2 Or g a ns of A qu a ti c R e sp i r a ti o n — ills v a ry m u ch G
.
,

i n th e ir fo rm So m e ti m e s th e y m o r e r e s e mbl e t u fts o r t u b e r
.

cl e s which h a v e a te x t u re s oft e r th an the re st o f the ski n

, ,

a n d a r e b e tte r s u ppli e d with bl oo d I n oth e rs th e s e o rg an s .

,

ar e c o m p o s e d o f a n u m b e r o f br an ch e d fil a m e n ts an d r e ,

s e mbl e littl e tre e s or v a sc u l a r br an ch e s ( a a F i g .

Fi n ally i n oth e rs th ey ar e fo r m e d i n sm all m e mbr an ous

, ,

l am e ll ae dispo s e d lik e the l e a v e s o f a boo k o r lik e the t e e th

, ,

o f a com b Th e first o f th e s e a rr an ge m e n ts t a k e s pl ac e
.

i n m an y m a ri n e an im a ls as i n the a r en i co l a s o co m m o n , ,

o n the c o a sts The s e co n d m ay b e o bs e rv e d als o i n s e v e ra l

.
, ,

o f th e a n n e lid e s a n d i n s o m e o f th e cru st a c e a Fi n a lly .

,

the l a st i s c o m m on to m o st m oll u s co u s an im als a n d fish e s .

It is als o to b e o bs e rv ed th at i n th e i n fe ri o r a n i m a ls the
,

br an chi ae ar e m o s tly sit u ated e x te rn ally s o as to fl o at fr e e ly ,

70 ZOOLOGY .

i n th e s urr ou n di n g w ate r ; whil st In the m o re highly o rga n iz e d ,

a s th e m o ll u sks a n d fish e s th e hr anch i aa o r ,

i lls a l e e n cl o s e d m a c a vity i n t o which the

g ,

w a te r has fre e acc e ss an d m ay ea sily b e r e ,

n e we d .

1 3 3 Or g a n s of A e r i a n R e sp i i a ti o n
. .

R e sp i r a ti o n i n A i r — The o rg an s s e rvi n g fo r
.

this fo rm o f r e spira ti on a ff e ct s o m e ti m e s the

fo r m o f trach ea}, s om e tim e s o f lun gs .

The tr a ch e a ( Fig 4 8 ) ar e v e ss e ls which

.

c om mu n ic ate with t he e x te ri o r by ape rtu res

c a ll e d s tig m a ta , an d ram ify i n t he d e pth o f
the o r g an s Th ey c on v ey th e a ir to th e s e
.

o rg a n s , a n d th u s th e fun cti o n o f r e spira ti o n

is c arri e d o n i n e v e ry p art o f the body Thi s .

m o d e o f br e a thi n g i s p e c u li a r to i n s e cts an d to
s om e a rach n id as ( spide rs ) .

1 3 4 Th e lun gs ar e po u ch e s , m o r e o r l e ss
.

divid e d i n to c el ls o r ce ll u l e s , which als o r e

ce i v e a i r i n t o th e ir i n te ri o r , an d wh o s e w a lls a r e

tra v e rs e d by v e ss els co n t a i n in g bl oo d thus ,

e x p o s e d to t he v i v ifyin g a cti o n o f th e a i r .

Th e re e x ist l un gs b u t i n a state o f th e ,

great e st simplicity i n m ost araign é e s ( spid e rs ) ;

,

an d i n s om e m oll u sks as i n s n a ils R e ptil e s

, .
,

birds an d m a m m als al s o h a v e l u n gs
, .

§ 1 3 5 I n m an as i n al l m a mm a ls
.
, t h e ,

l un gs ar e l odge d i n a ca vity call e d the tl zo r aa ,

'
,

o cc u py i n g th e uppe r p a rt o f th e tr un k ( Fig 4 .
,

p Th e s e o rgan s ar e a s it w e re susp en d e d
.
, ,

i n this c avity an d ar e e n v e l o pe d by a m e m
,

bra n e or m e m bran e s (on e for e ach lun g i n

m ost m amm als ) ca ll e d the pl e u ra ; an d th e s e
m e m bran e s lik e al l s e ro u s m e mbr an e s b e
. ,

sid e s i n v e stin g m o r e o r l e ss co m pl ete ly the

e x te ri o r o f the o rg an s a ls o li n e the w alls ,

o f the th o r a x th u s pr o vidi n g fo I the s e curity

,

a n d m o bility o f the o rg an s th e ms e lv e s The .

l u n s a r e two i n n u m b e r com m u n i cat l g

? a n s o f a si n gl e d ir
,

fi fig gf
F ‘e
e
wit t he e xt e ri o r b m e

tu b e the trach e a Fig which asc e n ds

throu gh the fo r e p a rt o f the n e ck arid o pe n s i n to the ph a ryn x
.
,

.
,

Th pl ur a a e rr ge d i n fac t l i k e o th e r s e ro u s m e m b r n e s
e e r a an , , a .
 APPARA U S T or R E S P I RA TI ON .
71

O This c an a l or tub e is for m e d o f a s e ri e s o f sm a ll ca r ti l a

g m o us b an ds i n co mpl e t e b e hi n d
, It is li n e d by a muc ou s
.

48 . R
— e s pi ra to ry A pp ara t u s o f th e I n se ct ( l a Nep e )

m e mbr an e , which i s of th e sam e n ature as the muc ous m em

bran e o f th e m o u th an d n o stri ls a n d i s c on t i n u o us with
,

a, th eh e ad ; b b as e o f th e fe e t
,
of th e fi rst ai r ; first ri n g of th e
c,
tho rax ; d b a s e o f th e wi n gs ; e b a s e
, , o f th e e e f t0 t he se co n d pa i r ; f sti g
,

m a ta ; g t rach e a k acri s u v e s i cl e s
, ,
.
 72 zoo no e v .

it Fi n al]
i “g
i n fe ri orly the t rach ea subdivide s i n to two ,

bran ch e s ca l ed bron chi which ram ify i n b oth lun gs l i k e ,

the roo ts of a tre e i n th e s o il ( 0 c F i

g
.
,

Th e l u n gs sh ow
i n te r n all a v a st n umbe r of
s m a l l ce 8 in to e a ch of which ,

a br an ch o f th e c o r r espon d

i n g b r o n cl i n s o pe n s A soft .
,

d e l icate an d v ascu l ar m e m ,

bran e li n e s the w al ls of th es e
c e lls an d ai r tub e s an d it ,

is to th e s e th at the alte rn at e
bran ch e s of the pu lm on a ry
arte r y ar e distribute d by ,

m ean s o f w hi ch n ow be co m e ,

capill a ri e s the v e n o us b l oo d ,

is e x po s ed to the action of
th e ai r .

sm aller the c ell s the The ,

gre ate r wi ll b e th e e x ten t of

th e m e mbran e an d th e m o re ,

ex te n d e d th e surfac e up on
which the bloo d is e xpo s ed
to the a cti on o f th e ai r .

The sm al l n e ss of the ce lls

a n d th e activity o f r es pir a
gs a d Tr “ h e
.

E L fla n a
ti o n ar e thus i n a dir e ct
i M 1 n an .
r at i o to e a ch o th e r ; an d

this is p ro ve d by con tras tin g th e l ar ge pul m on a ry c e l ls i n

the lu n gs of the fr og with the mi cr o scopic c e lls which w e
fi n d i n the l un gs o f birds an d ma mm al s .

1 3 7 But ai r as ai r n e v e r pe n e trate s be y o n d th e li ttl e

.
, ,

ce lls o r cu l de s a cs i n which the ai r tube s te r m in ate i n m am ,

Th e s rf o f th m m br
u o f th
ac e t rach e i c e re d wi th fi e d o w
e e an e e a s ov a n n,
e ach ha i r f w hi c h hi bi ts i b til m m ts c l l d ls cil i ry Thi s
o ex v ra e o ve en ,
a e a o a .

v i bra ti l m o e m e t d t rmi s i th li q i d i co t t wi t h th i r s rf ce
v en e e ne n e u n n ac e u a ,

c rr ts wh ch e ft
u en , ry r p i d d whi h e si s t e
i ar o afte r
e n ve p rti a , an c r ve n a o on
o f th e m m b r h b e re m o e d i o m t h e
e an e y Th ci li
as mi cr
en v t . e a are o~
sc pi c Th di recti o o f th c rr t see m s to b fr m th
o . e n te ri r to wards
e u en e o e ex o
t h i te ri r
e n d th e s m m
o , m ts m y b
an bs e r e d
a th s rf ace of
e o ve en a e o v on e u
th s l f ss b t o thi g f th ki d i to b se e i th p ha ryn
e na a o ae, u n n o e n s e n n e x .

1 O f th l
ne o gs i l ft t ch e d ( d ) b t i th e th r th s bst c h
e un s e un o u u n o e e u an e as
b d str y d i rd r to e xp s e th r ght b r ch s d i t r m i fi c ti s i
tg e ; g
ei e o e , n o e o e i on u an s a a on n

un .

la ry
a , d s p ri r
nx tre mi ty o f t h tr che a ; b tr ach a ; di i si o
an u e o ex e a , e c, v n
i to b r c hi ; d o
n on f th l gs b r chi c r am usc l es
, ne o e un e, on u .
 APPARA T U S or R E S P I RA TI ON . 73

m als I n birds som e of th e se ai r tu b es ope n i n to l ar ge

. ,

m e mbr an o us po u ch e s which proc ee d as far as the li m bs an d , ,

con d u ct the ai r e ve n i n to th e i n te ri o r of th e b on e s Thu s .

re spiration b e co me s m o r e activ e i n this cl a ss of an i m als .

1 3 8 M e cha n si m of R e sp
. i r a ti on i n M a i a — By the
m o v e m en ts o f in spirati on an d e xpiration pe rfor m e d by the
w alls o f the th or ax o r ch e st the ai r is cons t an tly r e n e w e d ,

i n an d e x pel l ed fr om th e l u n gs
,
The w alls of the ch e st , .

F i g 50 —Tho. . rax of M an ‘.

ar e m ov e abl e a n d m ore e spe ci a lly on e which is n ot s e e n

, , ,

th e d i aphr a g m at i c w all ; dil a te d by a m u sc u l a r e ff o rt the ,

a i r r u sh e s i n to the c a v i ty thro ugh th e n o strils a n d tr a

ch e a pre ss e d on by the wh ol e w e ight o f the i n c u m be n t

,

O th e l ft s i d th m scl s h
n e b e re m d Th r h fo rm i g th
e e u e a ve e n o ve . e a c n e
d p h r gm to w rds th e i te ri r f the ch st i s
i a a a o th l ft s i d g
n d o o e s e en n e e e , an on
th r ght d o tt d l i m rks th t t f th s c t f t h s m m scl
.

e i d Sl e a e ne a e ex en o e a en o e a e u e
th r ght s i d ; h p i ll a r s t h di p hr gm tt ch d t th l m b r
on
i e f e , o e a a a a e o e u a ve r
t b
e ;rae le to r m scl s f th ri bs d c ll r b
i , e va u e o e , o a on e .
74 ZOOLOGY .

a t m o sph e re To e xpe l the a i r fr o m the lu n gs it is on ly

.
,

n e c e ss a ry th at th i s m u sc u l a r a cti on sh o u ld c e a s e fo r an i n

st an t ; a fo rcibl e e xpira ti on is e ff e cte d by m e an s of a v ol un

t a ry e ffo rt a n d is o n ly u s e d o cca si o n al ly Re sp i ration i s
, .

wh o lly a n i n stin cti v e acti on .

To u n d e rst an d i ts m e ch an ism s o simpl e i n its r e sults s o

, ,

co mpl e x i n the m achi n e ry it is first n e ce s sar y to e x am i n e the

,

st ru ct u re o f the th orax .

This c avity ( Fig has the for m of a co n o id with the

.
,

su m m it u pwa rds an d the b as e d o w n w ards an d its walls fo rm ,

a ki n d o f c ag e with an o ss eo us b a sis co m po s e d o f the ribs

, ,

the ste rn u m an d a p o rti o n o f th e v e rte br al co l u m n

, The .

sp ac e s l e ft b e tw ee n the ribs a r e fill ed with the i i i te r co sta l

( t e r n a l an d e x te rn al ) m u scl e s ; the sc al e n i p ass from the
in

c e rvic al v e rt ebrae to the fir st an d s e con d ribs ; po w e rfu l m u s

cl e s als o c on v ey fro m th e sh oulde r an d ar m -bo n e s to the ribs ,

thus c on tributin g i n e v e ry w ay to e n abl e the an im al to act

p ow e rf u lly du ri n g i n spir ati on wh en the grea t m u scul ar,

e ffo rts of the b ody ar e m a d e ; an d i n ad diti o n a n d th at the ,

m o st impo rt an t o f al l th e a bdo mi n al w a ll o f the tho rax is

,

fo rm e d chi e fly by the di aphrag m the gr eat muscl e of re spir a ,

ti o n.

1 3 9 The dil ata ti on o f the ch e st m ay b e e ffe cte d i n two

w ays—b y th e c on tracti on o f the di aphr a gm or by the e l e v a
.

ti on o f the ribs .

I n re p o s e ( e x pir ati on ) th e di aphra gm for m s an a rch to w a rds

the ch e st ; i n a cti on ( i n spir ati o n ) it c on tracts an d d e sc e n ds
t o w ar ds the abdom e n pu shi n g the c on te n ts o f the abd om e n
,

b e fo re it Th u s the c ap acity o f the ch e st is e n l arge d an d as

.
,

th e v acuum th u s fo rm e d i n the l un gs i s gr ad u ally be i n g

es ta bl i sh e d th e e x te r n a l ai r r u sh e s i n to fill up the sp a c e
,
.

The pl ay o f the ribs is r a th e r m or e c o mpl e x Th e se o s seo u s .

a rch e s e x t e n di n g from th e v e rte br a l c o l u m n to the ste r n u m

,

with h c pti n o f the l o w e r o n e s ) a n d ar ticul a te d with

( t e e x e o ,

bo th a r e m u ch l o w e r an te rio rly th an p ost e ri o rly an d thus

, ,

ad m it o f e l e v a ti o n an d d e pr e ssi o n
-
A s the r ibs ar e r a ise d
.
,

th ey rota te on th e m s el ve s an d th u s the c a vity o f the ch e st

,

be co m e s e n l a rge d i n al l dire cti o n s Th ey ra is e the st e rn u m

.

with th e m .

1 40 I n e x pir a ti o n the di aphr agm is re l ax e d ; th e

.
,

e x te rn a l a i r acts o n th e w a lls o f the ch e st ; the e l a sticity o f

th e lu n gs a ssists an d th u s the a i r is e xp e ll e d fr om the l un gs ;

,

the i n te rco st a l muscl e s al s o ce as e to pl ay But i n forcibl e .

 or Ea L Ar m N AND TH E SE CR E TI ON S . 75

ex pirati on g e n e rally p artly a v ol u n t a ry act the muscl e s o f the

, ,

a bd o m e n an d o th e rs a ssist i n fo rci n g the a i r fr o m th e lu n gs .

1 4 1 Un d e r o rdi n ary circu m st an c e s th e a m o u n t o f a i r

.
,

t ak e n i n a t e ach i n spira ti on d oe s n ot e x c ee d the s e v e n th p art

.

o f wh a t th e y can c o n t ai n ; on an a v e r a g e it m a b e e sti m a te d
y
a t a b o u t th e third o f a q u art The n u m b e r o f the re sp i r ato ry
.

m o v e m e n ts v a ri e s with a g e an d a v a ri e ty of circ u m st an ce s .

The y ar e m ost fre qu e n t i n the yo u n g ; i n the a d u lt the

a v e r ag e is si x te e n pe r mi n ute .

Th u s d u ri n g ord i n ary circumstan ce s th e r e en te rs i n t o the

, ,

l u n gs o f an ad u lt m al e abou t 5% qu a rts o f a i r per mi n u te or ,

a b o u t 3 3 0 by th e h o u r ; 7 9 20 by the d a
y .

1 4 2 S ighi n g y a w n i n g hicc u p l a u ght e r an d s o bbi n g

.
, , , , ,

ar e b u t m o dific ati o n s o f the o rdi n a ry a cti o n s o f r e spir a ti o n .

S i g hi ng is a d e e p an d pro l o n ge d i n spir ati on n ot a lw ays c au s e d ,

by a m o r a l s e n ti m e n t b u t o cc a si on ally by a fee li n g th at the

,

re spirato ry act d o e s n ot proce e d with s u fli ci e n t e n e rgy an d

rapidity .

Ya w n i ng is an i n spir ati on still d e e p e r acc o m p an i e d wi th ,

an alm o st i n v o l u n t a ry a n d sp as m odic co n tr acti on o f the

m u scl e s o f the ja w a n d p e n d u l ou s p al at e ,

L a ug hi n g s e e ms to de p e n d o n a s e ri e s of r apid m ov e m en ts
o f th e di aphr ag m ; s o bbi n g di ffe rs b u t littl e fr o m l a ughi n g ,

th ou gh e x pre ssi n g p assi o n s an d fee li n gs o f so oppo site a cha

r acte r .

1 43 M e cha n i s m of R e sp i r a ti o n i n o the r A n i m a l s
. .

The m e ch an is m o f r e spir ati on is e ss e n ti a lly th e s am e i n al l

m amm als , birds , a n d r e ptil e s ; i n the two l att e r cl ass e s , h ow
e v e r , the di aphr a g m is m o r e o r l e ss c o m pl e t e ly a bs e n t , an d i n

c on s e qu en c e it is pri n cip ally by th e pl ay o f the ribs th a t th e

a i r is dr awn i n to the l u n gs ; i n the to r tu e s ( t u rtl e an d to r

to is e ) an d the batra chi a ( fr ogs , s al a m an de rs ,

, the th o ra x
is n ot fo r m e d s o as to act as a sucti on p u m p , an d accord
i n e th e s e an im al s sw allo w the ai r by a s ort o f d e glutiti on .

OF EX HALA T I ON AND TH E S E CR E TI ON S .

1 4 4 W e h a v e s e e n how th e n utri e n t m att e r is di s

.

tribu te d to al l p a rts o f the body by m e an s o f th e bl oo d ; w e

h a ve n o w to e x a m i n e ho w the m atte rs c on t ai n e d i n the
g e n e ra l m ass e sc a p e fro m it , wh e th e r i n to the i n te ri o r or
dire ctly from the bo dy .

1 4 5 N utriti on w e h a v e s e en to b e e ffe cte d i n two

.
76 ZOOLOGY .

w ays ; e ith e r 1 s t by the simpl e abs o rpti on i n to the body o f

, ,

m att e rs requirin g n o m odific ati o n : 2md by the m o re co m p ] ,

fu n cti on of dige sti on : the first is alm o st m e ch an ica l ; the

s e co n d p arta k e s m o r e o f a ch e mical ch ar act e r .

I n lik e m a n n e r n ature i n free i n g the bo dy o f the use l es s

,

s u bstan ce s an d the n e c e ss a ry re s u lts o f vita l acti on s e m ,

pl oys two m e th ods o f e x pul si on ex ha l a ti on an d s e cr e ti on , .

The first o f th e se pr oc e ss e s is a lm o st physic a l an d d e pe n ds ,

o n the p e r m e a bility o f th e tissu e s ; by the se con d pe culi ar ,

s u bstan c e s ar e s e l e cte d from the bl ood an d e l i m in at ed as it , ,

w e re i n o rd e r to b e e x pe ll ed the bo dy to e ffe ct this ce rt ai n

, ,

o rg an s a r e r e q u ire d a n d th e s e a r e c al l e d s e cr e ti n g o rg a n s
, .

The proce ss bea rs to s i mpl e e x h al ati on the re l a ti on which

dige sti on doe s to a bs o rpti on .

EX HALA TI ON .

1 46 . The w a lls of the b l ood ve s sel s a re pe rm e abl e to

liquids By this m ea n s w ate r g as e s an d the thi n n e r p a rts
.
, , ,

o f th e bl oo d ge n e r a lly m ay p a ss through th e s e w al l s b y
,

e x h al a ti o n ; b u t th e y d o n o t a dmit o f t he p a ss a g e i n this

w ay o f t he gl obul e s o r d en s e r p a rts o f th e bl oo d
,
This is .

ro v e d by i nj ecti n g p ru ssi at e o f po tas s i n to the v e i n s of a

pi vi n g dog ; the s alt i nj ecte d m ay b e soo n afte r de te cte d i n
,

th e th o r ax an d a bd o m e n mi n gl e d with the fl u ids which ar e

, ,

con st a n tly e xh al e d on the s u r fa ce of s e rou s m e mbr an es .

S pi ritu o u s an d o th e r liqu o rs ar e pe rce iv abl e i n the bre ath s oo n

a tte r be i n g ta k e n .

1 4 7 M e c h a n i s m of E x ha l a ti o n — Ex h al ati on i s p u r e ly
. .

a physic al he n om e n o n h o w e v e r it m ay b e m odifi e d by the

,

pre s en ce o f ife Th u s i t i n to the v a scu l a r syste m o f a n an i m al

.
, ,

r e ce n tly d e ad an i nj e ctio n b e thr o w n c o m po s ed o f ge l ati n e

, , ,

m in gl e d with v e r m ili on fi n e ly po wd e red the fl u id p art o f the ,

i nj e cti on will e sca pe i n to th e adj o in i n g tis su e s l e avi n g the ,

v e r m ili on pa rticl e s i n the v e ss e ls ; thus imitati n g wh at s ee ms

to tak e pl ace d u ri n g life .

§ 1 4 8 .I n fa ct i n h a l a ti o n
, a lre ady e x pl a i n e d
, an d e x h a ,

l a ti o n a r e strictly a n a l o go u s an d t a k e pl a c e i n the s a m e
,

w ay ; a n d th e ir a ctivity d e p e n ds o n t he s po n gy a n d v a sc u l a r
ch a racte r o f the tis s u e In a n o th e r s e n s e th e s e fun cti on s
.
,

a r e i n t he i n v e rs e r a ti o o f e a ch o th e r
. By pre ssur e o n the .

ve i n s , the e x h a l ati o n i n to d e pe n di n g p a r t s m ay b e m uch

i n cre a s e d .
 s s cn s r i o n s . 77

1 49 .S e a t of the E x ha l a ti o n -Ex h al a ti on s ar e e ith e r

.

e x ter n a l , th at is , on the s u rfac e of the body ; or i n ter n a l ,

th at is , on the s urfac e o f the i n te rn al ca viti e s .

1 50 E x ter n a l ex ha l a ti o n must n ot b e c on fo un d e d
.

with p e rspirati on , or prod u cti on of sw eat ; it t ak e s pl ace on

th e s u rfa ce o f th e l u n gs as w e ll as o n th at o f th e b o dy , an d is
c a ll e d i n se n s i b l e tr a nsp i r a ti on , be ca u s e , be i n g e v apo r at e d by
th e ai r , it e sca pe s ou r n otic e . Me n an d an im al s l o s e much
d aily by i n s e n sibl e tran spir ati on , which , o f co urs e , is as con
s tan tl y r e sto r e d ; acco rdi n g to San ct o ri u s , th e l o ss by i n
s en sible tr an spi ra ti on i n m an am ou n ts to gths of the wh ol e
d aily l o ss .

The e v a po r ati on fr o m the s u rfa c e of the b ody v a ri e s with

m an y cir cumst an ce s a s clim at e &c ; the e sca pe of carbon ic
, , .

acid g as fr o m the l u n gs is by m e a n s o f e xha l ati on m e r e ly .

1 51 Th e se rou s m e mbr an e s foun d i n the i n t e ri or of th e

.

l a rge c aviti e s of th e bo dy ar e the s e at of i n te rn a l e x h al ati on s ,

c on sistin g chi e fly o f w a te r an d a fe w s alts mi x e d with a

, ,

s m all qu an tity of an im al m atte r The e xh al ati on which

.

ta k e s pl ac e o n th e s e su r fac e s has an e x a ct co ui i te rpo i se i n

the a bs o rpti on go in g on a t th e s a m e ti m e ; wh e n this is dis
tu r b e d t he fl u id a ccum u l at e s an d dr opsi e s t ak e pl a c e
, ,

which r e ce iv e n am e s a cc o rdin g to th e i r l oc al iti e s : hydr o

ce ph a l u s i n the h e ad ; as cite s i n the a bd om en ; hydro th or ax i n
, , ,

the ch e st an d pl e u ra ; an d hydr o ps pe ric a rdii wh e n the a ccu

m u l ati on tak e s pl a ce within th e c a vity o f the p e ric ardi u m .

SE CR E TI ON S .

1 52 Th e s e cre ti on s ar e sp e ci al h u m o urs , form e d at the

.

e xp e n s e o f the bl oo d , i n an d by o rgan s d e sti n e d e spe c i ally to

e li m i n a te th e m fr o m the bl oo d .

1 53 Th ey m ay t ak e pl a c e on the surface of m e m
.

br an e s , a s on the ski n an d m u co u s m e mbran e s ; but th ey ar e

chi e fly fo u n d i n c o n n e x i on w ith ce rta in bo di e s te r m e d gl an
d u l ar, wh o s e e ss e n ti al str u ct u re see m s to co n sist i n sm all
c a viti e s , ex tr e m e ly m i n u te , or p ou ch e s or c an als o f e x tre m e
te n u ity ; th e s e r e c e iv e b l ood ve s s e l s an d n e rve s , the l atte r n o
d ou bt pl ayin g an impo rta n t p ar t i n th e ph en om e n a o f s e cre
ti on The gl an ds h av e bee n divid e d i n to pe rfe ct a n d imp e r
.

fe e t , a cco rdi n g a s th ey ar e pr o vide d or n ot with a tu be o r

d u ct i n t en de d to ca rry aw ay the product of the s e cre ti on .

1 54 G an ds , pr o p e rly so c a ll ed , m ay a l l b e a rr an g e d ,
l.
78 ZOOLOGY .

as r e ga rds th e ir in tim at e stru ctur e u n d e r two h e ad s o r type s ; , ,

as b e i n g c o m po s e d e ith e r o f sm all s acs with o rific e s m o r e o r ,

l e ss con tracte d or of tube s of e x tre m e mi n u te n e ss ; an d the

,

di ffe re n c e s th ey pre s e n t h a v e a r e fe r e n c e m ai n ly to the m od e

i n which th e s e as it w e re e l e m e n tar y str u cture s a r e gro u pe d
, , .

1 55 The sm all s e cr e ti n g s a cs ar e ca ll e d fo llicl e s wh e n

.
,

sh al l o w they ar e c all e d cr yp ts an d m an y s u ch m ay b e s ee n ,
:

o n th e s u r fa c e o f m u co u s m e m br an e s Wh e n e ach has a .

s e p ar a te o r disti n ct o rific e o pe n i n g on the s u rface th ey ar e ,

c all e d simpl e fol l icl es an d m a n y such e xi st o n the s u rface o f

,

th e m u co u s m e mbr an e s ; i f gro u pe d cl o s e to ge th e r but s ti l l

m ai n ta in i n g di sti n ct o rifice s th ey are ca ll e d a g g r eg a te d
, ,

s u ch are the gl an ds o f Me i bo m i u s o n the ey e lids c e rta i n ,

gast ric gl an ds i n s om e an im a ls &c ; wh en grou p ed b u t , .

,

h a ving th e ir o rifice s l e a di n g i n to a sm al l ca vity c om m on to

al l , an d thus ulti m a te ly c o mm u n ica ti n g with the s u r face by

o n e o r m o r e a pe rt u r e s o n ly as i n th e a m yg d al aa o r to n sils
, ,

th ey ar e c all e d a g g l om er a te d f o l l i c l e s A t oth e r ti m e s littl e .

s ac s which fo r m th e e ss e n ti a l stru ct u re of the gl an d u l a r

,

bo di e s w e n o w spe ak of com m u n icate with th e ex te ri o r by

,

e l o n g at e d n e ck s o a s to r e s e mbl e a t u b e t e r m i n ate d by a n
, ,

Fig . 5l .
—I i i t i m a t e t ru ct u re o f
S 8 C om po sit e
Gl a n d ( th e P a ro ti d ) .

am p u ll a , th e re th e y m ay e ith e r r e m a i n is ol ate d or a g g l o
an d
m e i a te d i n b u n ch e s by m e an s o f c o m m o n e x cre to ry t u be s
, ,

which i n th e ir t u r n re un it e s u cc e ssive l y to te r m i n a te b y a
, , ,

si n gl e d u ct ( Fig 51 ) The s e t i e ti n g o r ga n s which m ay b e

.
,
 SE CR E TI ON s . 79

c al l e d a mp u l l a r y f o l l i cl e s ar e m e t with i n the s i mpl e st fo rm , ,

u n d e r the ski n o f c e rt ai n fish e s an d s e e m als o to fo rm t he ,

o d o rife r ous glan ds fo u n d i n th e h u m an i n te g u m e n ts Wh e n .

grou pe d a rou n d a co m m o n bran ch e d s e cr e tin g c an a l ( Fig .

th ey form th e greate r n u mb e r o f the comp os i te g l a nd s such ,

a s the liv e r a n d s aliv a ry gl an ds o f m a m m a ls a n d ar e n a m e d ,

by an a t o mists Con g l om er a te Gl a n d s ,
.

1 56 The ta b u l a r -fo rm e d s e cre ti n g o rgan s pr e s e n t als o

.

di ffe re n ce s an al ogous to th o s e j ust d e scrib e d Th e s e t u b e s v a ry .

i n fi n it e ly i n siz e b u t ar e al l cl os e d at o n e e x tr e mity an d o p e n
, ,

at t he o th e r for th e e sc a pe of th e e x cre t e d m atte r ; th e ir v a ri e d

a rr an g e m e n ts ar e s ee n i n th e gl an ds u n d e r th e i n t e g u m e n ts

i n fis h e s an d i n th e bil i ou s v e ss e ls
,

of s o m e of the l o w e r a n i m a ls ; i n

the p an cr e a tic coeca surr ou n di n g , a

the du od e n u m i n fish e s ; i n th e b

s tri c gl a n ds o f s e v e r a l birds ;
gl i al ly th e s e s am e tu b e s ( Fig 52)
, .

m ay a cq uir e an ex tr e m e l e n gt h
with out ch an ge i n th e i r c alibr e ,

clust e r e d or h e ap e d on th e m s e lv e s ,

to te rmi n a t e i n an e x cr e to ry tub e ,

b u t littl e r a m i fi e d at its o rigi n i n ,

s u ch a w ay as to fo r m a con g l o
m e r at e gl an d s u ch a s the kidn eys ,

a n d o th e r gl an ds o f gr e a t i m po r

t an ce : s om e gl an ds h av e a r e s e r
v oir pl ac e d i n th e c ou rs e o f the
e x cr e t o ry d u ct i n te n d ed to pe r ,

mit o f the accu m u l ati on o f th e

s e cre ti o n an d its r e sid en ce th e r e i n
,

fo r a ti m e The g all bl ad d e r
.
-

( Fig . 2 4 ) a n d th e u r in a ry -bl a dd e r
,

( Fig 53 ) ar e p ou ch e s of this
.

n at u r e .

f O
1 57 The i mp erf e ct g l a n d s
v a ry still m o r e i n th e ir m o de o f
c on fo r m ati on Som e ar e c o mpo s e d o f s m al l cl o s e d ce l ls
.

is ol a te d or aggl om e rat e d ; oth e rs c all e d v a s cu l a r g a n ,

A rti c l s cti o o f ki d y — co rti c l s bst c ; b t b l r b

,
ve a e n a ne . a , a u an e , u u a su
st c ; c ly
an e d p l is d c
c, a l f th
x an t r e v an a o e ur e e
f thi s gl d — t rm i
, .

B i ti m t str c t r
,
n a e l p rti
u f th
u e ri ry
o an a, e na o on o e u na
t b s b m d l l ry p rti o f th s s m t b s
u e , e u ath r t rm i t o th
n o e e a e u e c, ei e na i on i n e
c ly
a x .
 80 ZOOLOGY .

g l i o ns , co m po s ed o f bl ood ve s se l s o r lymph atics so l ely

ar e ,

which a fte r di vidi n g and subdividi n g aga i n r e un ite A s

, , .

e xa mpl e s o f the first m ay b e cite d the o v ar i a n v e sicl e s an d the

a di pos e ce ll u l es ; o f the s e c o n d the thyr o id the thymus ; f ,

th e sple e n ( Fig an d the m e se n te ric g an gli o n s are the

.

e xa mpl e s Th e ir fun ction s a r e un kn ow n } :

1 58 N a tu r e of Se cr e ti o n —The s e cre tin g o rgan s ar e
.

a lw a s dis pos e d i n t he fo rm o f m e mbr an e s on e surfa ce o f

h
whic is ba the d by the n o urishi n g flui d § the oth e r be i n g ,
,

fr ec an d fo rm i n g the in te ri o r of th e c a vity ; this i s the utr i

o n la r sur face This su rface the n pe rfo rms as it w e re th e
.
, , , ,

o ffice o f a filte r a l lo wi n g o n ly ce rta in substan ce s to p as s fro m

,

the i n te ri o r o f th e b l oo d ve s sel s in to the in te r i o r o f the s e cre

to r y tube I] .

1 59 The se c re ti on s di ffe r fro m e ach oth e r an d from

.
,

the l oo d o ut o f which th e y a r e for m e d i n c on ta i n i n g s u b

, ,

sta n ces i n grea t a bu n d an c e o f w hi ch b u t v e ry sm all qu an titi es ,

a r e to b e d e tecte d i n the bl oo d : th e y m ay co n ta i n fr ee a cids ,

whilst the bloo d fro m which th e y ar e dra wn is al kal i n e ;

so m e ti m e s the y also ar e al k al i n e but much m ore str on gly ,

th a n the bloo d ; whi ls t so me a r e ch ara cte riz e d by the pr e s en ce

o f m a tte rs n ot to b e fo un d e ls e wh e r e such as ur e a cas e i n , , ,

butte r & c , .

1 60 It is p ro babl e th at i n al l ca s e s the s e cr e te d m a tt e r
.

e x ists in th e bl oo d al r e ad y for m ed It was th ou ght fo r .

,

e x ampl e th a t the u r e a fo un d i n uri n e must b e fo rm e d by

,

a n d i n th e kid n e s sin c e it co uld n o t b e d e t e cte d by ch e mic a l

a n alysis i n th e by
,

ood ; but if th e s e o rg an s b e d e str oy ed i n a

Th e th r
i d i s a s po n gy , o v o i d , v a scu la mas s , o f a gla n d ul ar a pp e a an e , r c
p l ac e d i n t e n eck , a n d a ttach e d to th e f o n t o f th e t ac h e a r Its e n l a ge r . r
c r c
m e n t o n sti tu te s b o n h oce l e , an d wh e n a g ra v a te d , g oi tr e s It i s n o t p e s e n t . r
r r
i n b i ds , e p ti l e s , an d fish e s , an d i n a ni m a 8 sti ll l o w e r .

r
1 Th e thym u s i s a gla n d ul a -l oo ki n g b o dy , e x t e m e ly d e v el o e d i n the r
c r r
fe tu s , b u t w hi h d i m i n i she s aft e b i th , an d ge n e a lly alto e th e sa p pe ar s r r '

r r
It i s si tua te d i n t h e fo e a n d u i p e r pa t o f t h e h e st , b e d th e ste n u m , c r
a n d b e tw e e n th e m e di as ti n a t
l h e s p a tly o n th e p e i a di um
. r rc r .

I Th e e e n t e rc ri m e n t s o f M r r
B e n a d s e em t o sh o w th a t th e l i ve , i n
. r
c
addi t i o n to i ts o t e r fun ti o ns , s e c e t e s a s u g a y s u bst an e , r r
all e d c c
l u co s e ,
c r c p r
whi h i t p o u s i n to th e bl oo d , b u t w hi h di s a p e a s s oo n afte r , p o b a l y co n r g
s u m e d by th e e s pi a to y act r r r .

r
Th e b l oo d ve sse l s di st i b u t e d to th e wal ls o f t h e t u b e s a n d avi ti e s fo m c r
cr
i n g t h e s e e ti n g o gan s , n e v e r rc c
o m m u n i a te d i e tly wi th th e i rc i nte n a l r r
c avi ti e s .

R e c e r r
n t o bse v a t i o n s s ee m to sh o w tha t th e e ss e n t i a l s ec e ti n g o ga n s ar e
J| t e ll ul e s o r u t i l e s o f whi h t he in n e w all o f th e s e e ti n t u be s a r e r
mi n u e c , rc c r cr
r c r
fo m e d the se li ttl e e lls e m p ty th e m s e l ve s fi st , o r a r e th o w n 0 i n t o t h e r
r r
i n te i o o f th e t u b e s , an d ar e as a p i dly e st o e d o r e n e w e d r r r r
Th e y fo m t he r .

rc r r r
l a y e al le d ep i the l i u m, fo m i n g the i n n e l ay e o f a ll m u o u s m e m b a n e s c r .
 UR I NAR Y S E CR E TI ON . 81

li v in g an imal o r re m o v e d ur e a will a fte r a c e rta i n tim e b e

, , , ,

fo r m e d i n the bl ood thus cl e arly pr o vi n g th at the ki dn eys do

,

n o t fo r m it .

1 6 1 N a tu r e of the S e cr e te d L i qu i d a — Th e re is n o pe r
.

cepti b l e r e l a ti o n b e tw e e n the n a tur e o f th e fluid an d o f th e

gl an d s ecre tin g it ; an d s e cr e ti on s as pu s for e x a mpl e ar e , , ,

fo rm e d by structure s wh e re n o such s ecre ti on pr e vi ously

e x iste d ; th ey al te r als o with o u t an visibl e ch an g e i n th e
y
struct u r e o f the gl an d .

N othi n g p o sitive is k n o wn as to the n at u r e o f the se cr e ti n g

fu n cti o n b ut it is c e rta i n th at the a cti on o f the n e rv ou s sys
,

te m h a s a gre a t i n fl u en ce o v e r it Wh e n the n e rv e s o f the .

sto m ach h a v e b ee n divid e d i n a livi n g an i m a l the s e cr e ti on ,

o f t he g a stric j u ic e ce a s e s ; an d M B e rn a rd h a s sh o wn th a t .
,

wh e n a c e rta i n p or ti o n o f the spi n al m a rro w is irri tate d an ,

u n u s u ally abu n dan t s e cre ti o n o f s u g a r t ak e s pl ac e i n the

li v e r which su g ar th en a pp ea rs i n the u ri n e
, .

This fact is r e m ark a bl e vi e w e d i n c o n n e x i on with the ,

dis e as e cal le d d i a b e tes .

Ur i n a ry S e cr e ti o n .

1 62 This fu n cti on h as its s e a t i n the kid n eys tw o

.
,

l arge gl an ds sit u at e d i n th e abd om e n on e ith e r s id e o f the ,

v e rt e bra l c ol u m n an d ge n e rally s ur ,

ro un d e d with m u ch fat Th ey a r e o f a .

r e ddish -br o w n co l ou r an d i n sh ap e r e ,

s e mbl e a kid n e y -b e an ( Fig Th e ir .

s u bst an c e ( Fig 52) i s c o m p os e d e ss e n

.

ti a l l y o f s ecr e ti n g t u be s o f e x tr e m e b
t e n u ity an d o f gre at l en gth which i n
, ,

m am m a ls ar e t u r n e d o n th e m s e l v e s i n
e v e ry dir e cti on to w a rds th e ir fr e e e x

t r e m i ty wh e re th ey sw e ll i n to t he fo r m
,

o f a n a m p u ll a ( a ) a n d which af t e rw a rds
,

pro ce ed i n a straight li n e to w a rds the

middl e of the i n n e r e dge o f the gl an d F 3 U , .
,

asp a uff
y r
f
]
so a s to fo r m a c e rt a i n n u m b e r o f pyr a

mid a l fa scic u li wh o s e sum m it is

p arti a lly e n clo s e d by the m e m bra n ou s c avity c all ed ca lyx ( c) ,

a n d wh o s e b a s e dir e cte d o u tw a rds is a s it w e r e en c as e d i n

, , , ,

t h e c o rtic al subst an c e o f th e kidn e y fo rm e d o u t o f the m a ss ,

a, th e kd i ne ys b th e u e te r r; c, th e bl adde r ; d, c an a l o f the u re thra .

G
 82 ZOOLO G Y .

co n stitute d by th at po rti on o f the tu be s which i s m asse d

i n to h e aps r ol l ed o n e a ch oth e r ; the o th e r p a rt is ca lled
t u bul ar or m e dul l a ry be i n g the p art form e d by the fasci
,

cul i th e ms e lve s I n th e y o un g an d i n m an y an im als

.
, ,

t hro u gh o ut li fe s u ch a s the b ear an d otte r th e s e pyramids

, ,

r e m a i n disti n ct an d e ach kid n ey is th en c ompo se d o f s e v e ral

,

s e pa rate l o be s ; but ge n e ra lly th e y un ite to ge th e r an d the ,

ca lic e s which ar e b u t e x cr e m e n to ry t u be s u n ite to fo rm

, ,

a pe l v i s or gen e ral r e s e rvo ir fro m which proc ee ds the ,

u re te r
( Fig 52 d ). A gr e a t n umb e
. r o f b l o od v e s se l s cr ee p

b e tw e e n the s e se cre ti n g tu b e s an d con sti tut e i n the co rti ca l , ,

po rti on of the gl an d a v e ry cl o s e n e two rk i n the midst o f

, ,

which m ay b e s e en ce rt a in sph e ric al bodi e s for m e d also of ,

b l ood v e ssel s co l l ecte d i n to bu n ch e s i n th e i n t e ri o r o f the

am p u ll a al r e ady m en ti on e d .

The ur i n e is fo rm ed i n the co rtica l p art o f the kidn eys .

It d e sc en ds by the tu bu l ar p a rt i n to the ca lices an d th e n ce ,

i n to the p e lvis of the kid n ey ; this te r m i n a te s i n the u r e te r

( F i g 53 b ) by which th e ur in e d e sc e n ds to the bl a dd e r Thi s
.
, .

l att e r o rgan is situate d in the pe l v i s an d be hi n d the os pubis .

It is fo rm ed i n te rn al ly by a muco us m e m bra n e ; ex te rn al ly
y
b a muscula r an d ce ll ul ar l ay e r The pe rito n e um als o par .
,

ti al l y i n v ests it an d giv e s it s u p po rt
, I n fe ri o rly it te rmi n ate s .

i n the c anal of the ur e thra by which th e u rin e e sca pe s fro m ,

t he bo dy .

1 63 The u ri n e is a y e ll o wish acid li q u id which i n

.
,

m an i n the n o rm al state is co m po s ed of 9 3 p a rts w ate r

, , ,

3 o f a pecu li ar substa n ce call e d ur e a ; a v er y sm all po rti on

o f u r ic acid l actic acid v ari o u s s al ts as mur i at e of sod a
, , , ,

a lk ali n e sulph a te s ph o sph ate o f lim e & c

, m a k e up the 1 00 , .
,

p art s .

I n ca rn iv oro us m amm als the uri n e r e s e mbl e s th at o f m an ,

but the u ric acid i s w an tin g I n h e rbiv o rous m am m al s the .

uri n e is al k a li n e an d a pe cu li ar substa n ce is fou n d the hip

, ,

puric acid as w e ll a s m an y e arthy car bo n ate s In m an y

, .

bir ds a n d i n m o st re ptil e s the uri n e is co mpo s e d m o stly o f

, ,

u ric acid ; whilst i n fro gs an d to rtois e s ( tu rtl e s a n d t o rto is e s )

it co n ta in s ure a an d album e n Its compo siti on i n fish e s .

a ppea rs to b e th e s am e ; b u t i n i n s e cts w e aga in fi n d u r ic acid .

Dis e a s e aff e cts its c o m po siti on i n m an .

§ 1 64 T
. he e xt r e m e r a pidity with which v ari o us d r i n ks ,

m edicate d or simpl e pass fr o m the sto m ach to the bladd e r

, ,

an d s o es ca pe e x te r n ally by the u r e th ra i s w e ll k n ow n ;
ye t ,
 NU T R ITI V E D E COMPO S ITI ON . 83

it i s ce rta i n th at th e s e fluids h av e first mi n gl e d with the bl oo d

a n d b e e n by it ca rr i e d to th e kidn eys

A
.

1 65 v ari e ty of cir cum sta n ce s u n n e ce ss ar y to dw e ll

.
,

on , in fl u e n ce the activity of the s e cr e ti on an d m odify its

char act e r The liquids an d e sp e ci a lly w ate r t ak e n i n to the
.
, ,

sto m ach e sca pe eith e r by pul m on ary or c u tan e ou s e x h al ati on ,

o r by th e kid n eys a s u ri n e With h e at the cut an eo u s cx b s

.
,

l atio n is i n cr e a s e d ; by c o ld the u ri n a ry , .

The am ou n t Of s olid s u bst an c e s s e cre te d by the kid n eys

d e p e n ds gre atly on th e ab un d an ce an d n atu re Of th e foo d .

It is di m in ish e d duri n g a prol o n ge d f ast ; an d is rich i n its

s olid co n te n ts i n proporti on to the an im al i z ati on Of the foo d
e mpl oy e d .

1 66 V a ri o us d e p o sits ar e fo u n d i n th e uri n a ry p ass ag e s

. .

Th e s e ar e calle d gra v e l an d u ri n ary c alculi o r c on cr e tion s , .

Th e fo rm e r is alm o st al w ays fo rm e d Of ur ic acid The d e p o .

sits c om m e n ce us u ally i f n ot alw ays i n th e kidn eys Ur i

, , .

n a ry con cre ti on s als o us u a lly fo r m i n th e kid n e ys b u t d e sc e n d ,

i n g fr om th e s e in to th e bl a dd e r i n cre a s e by d e po sits o n th e i r
, ,

s u rfac e to a siz e e n dan ge ri ng li fe an d r equir i n g for th e i r

, ,

r e m ov al a surgic al Ope rati on .

O F A S S I M I LA TI ON AND NU T R I TI VE D E CO MPO S I TI ON .

1 67 A s si m
i l ti
a on —The substa ce s i tro duce d i to n n n

th e im a l e con om y ar e th e r e e mpl oyed i n two w ays Th ey

an .

s er v e fo r the fo r m ati on Of th e di ffe r en t p arts of the bo dy its e lf ,

o r to s u ppo rt th e r e spi ra to ry co mb u sti on which co n sta n tly

e x ists i n th e i n t e ri o r o f e v e ry an i m a l s o l on g as lif e e x ists .

Bu t n e ith e r an i m al s n o r pl an ts can o f th e m s e lv e s fo rm an y
of the simpl e s u bsta n ce s o f which th e i r bodi e s a r e c o m p o s e d ,

an d th e r e fo r e th e fo r e ign m att e rs thus in tr oduc e d must con

ta i n al l th e ir e l e m e n ts .

The pr im ary m ate ri als o f the org an is m ar e c ar b on n itrogen ,

o r a z o te hydr o g e n
,
an d oxyg en ; but s ulphur
, ph o sph o ru s , ,

lim e an d oth e r simpl e bo di e s ar e al s o r e qui re d ; it is e sse n

, ,

ti al th e n th a t s u ch bo di e s sh ould b e i n tr odu ce d fro m with ou t

, , .

Bu t an im als do n ot po ss e ss th e facul ty o f d e te rmi n in g the

c o mbi n ati on o f th e s e v ari o us ch e m ica l e l e m e n t s so a s to giv e -
,

r is e to th e v a ri o us c o mpo u n d prin cipl e s o f whi ch the o rg an is m

is fo rm ed ; or i n oth e r w o rds th e s e e l e m e n ts m u st b e al r eady

, ,

co mbi n ed Thus it is n ot by i n tr od uci n g azote hydr oge n

.
, , ,

ca rbo n &c in to the body th at an an im al can s atisfy the

, .
,

G 2
84, ZOOLOGY .

w an ts o f n utriti on ; th e s e subst an c e s must h av e b ee n alre ady

c o m bi n e d .

I n a w o rd th e s e pri n cipl e s m ust h a v e be e n a l re ady co m

,

b i n e d so as to fo r m or g a n i z a b l e pri n cipl e s o r v i a b l e m a tter s

, .

No w this on ly h a ppe n s through the i n fl u e n ce of l i fe

, It IS .

t he v e ge ta bl e k i n gd o m th e n which dir e ctly or i n dir e ctly

, ,

furn ish e s to an im a l b odi e s the ca rbon an d az ote an d a ce rtai n ,

p o rti on of hydro gen an d oxyge n w a te r fu rn ish e s the gre ate r

p o rti on O f th e r e quisite hydr o g e n
,

an d o x gen ; the li m e y
a n d v a ri o us o th e r m in e r al b o di e s c om e d i rectly fro m the
mi n e ra l ki n gdo m .

Fro m the atm o sph e re an im als de riv e the ox ygen require d

,

to c o n sum e the c arb on an d hydr o g e n ; an d th u s i n bri e f to

m e e t th e w an t s of the n ut ritiv e pr oc e ss e v e r ani m al re qu ir e s , y , ,

t o c o n v e y in to the i n t e ri o r of its o rgan iz ati on fr e e o x yg e n , ,

o rg an iz e d m att e rs rich I n car b on hy dr o ge n a z o te w a te r an d

, , , ,

v ar i o u s s a lts .

Be fo re be i n g ad apte d for n utr iti on al l substan c e s must ,

a ss u m e a li uid o r g as e o u s fo r m ; this is the o bj e ct o f dig e s

q
ti o n Th e re e x i st thr ee m od e s of in gre ss for the n ut ri tiv e
.

m atte r— the ski n the re spirat o ry m u co us m e mbran e th e

, ,

a lim e n t ary can al .

I n m an an d an im als which h a v e an e pid e r m is a bs o rpti on ,

by th e skin is co mp a rativ e ly u n i m por tan by the l un gs ,

s o m e liqu id i n the for m of v apo ur i s n o don t abs o rb e d ; b u t

th e i n t es ti n a l o r alim en ta ry c an al by m e an s of its m uc ous ,

m e mbr an e is the gre at route by which the m atte r d e stin e d

,

to as sist i n n u t r iti on r e ach e s th e i n t e ri o r of the bo dy .

1 6 8 Th e s e n utritiv e e l e m e n ts ar e at fi r s t m i ngl e d with

.

the l ood This fl u id e l a bo rat e d by proce ss e s n ot ye t dis

.
,

co v e red b e c o m e s rich i n al l the c omp ou n d pri n cipl e s o f which

,

th e tiss u e s ar e i n th e ir t u rn fo rm e d ; an d it is o u t o f this
fl u id th at al l th e o rgan s of the bo dy dr a w the m ate ri als
fitte d fo r th e ir gro wt h an d suppo r t e ach choo si n g the m o l e ,

cul e s id e n ti ca l with i ts o wn n ature .

It i s this l a t act which con stitute s a ss i m i l a ti on

s .

1 69 But n o thi n g 1 8 k n o wn as to the r ea l n a t u re o f thi s

.

act o f a s s 1 m 1l ati o n ho w br o u ght a bo u t ho w e ff ecte d S u ch qu e s , .

ti o n s to u ch too n e arly th e v e ry e sse n ce of the pri n ci pl e o f life ,

itse lf pe rfe ctly u n k n ow n l n its n at u re On e thi n g 1 5 c e rta i n .

,

th a t m a l l an i m als poss e ssi n g a n e rv o u s syste m the i n flu e n ce ,

which this e x e rcis e s o ve r a ssi m il ati on is distin ct an d u n d e

n i a bl e . No r is the d ur a ti on o f lif e i n the v ar i ous o rg an s o f
 U
N T R I TI VE D E COMPO S I TI ON . 85

the s am e ani m al th e s am e ; the thym u s gl an d for e x a mpl e , ,

ce as e s to gr o w an d de cays i n th e v e ry y ou n g The te e th
, .

h av e th e i r sta te d p e ri o ds o f e x iste n ce ; the n ai l s the h air an d , ,

ge n e rall y the epith e li al ti ssu e s c on ti n u e to gro w i n ex tre m e,

Ol d e

g
g .

1 7 0 The a ssimil ati n g f orc e p oss e ss e s the pr op e rty ,

.

e sp e ci a lly i n th e l o w e r an i m al s , o f r e sto ri n g p ar ts which h a v e

be en de stroye d b on e s ar e re un ite d by b on e a fte r b e in g

brok e n an d e ve n l arge p orti on s of th e m which h av e be en l ost
,

h av e b ee n r e sto re d The li m b of the liz ard wh e n brok en Off

.

h as gro w n ag ai n ; a n e w foot b een r epro duc e d i n cr abs an d

spide rs i n s al a m an de rs a n ew eye an d p orti on of the h e ad h av e
,

b e en r e sto r e d afte r the r em ova l of the o rigin al p arts by am pu

ta ti on. Fi n ally e arth -w orms an d m an y oth e r an n e lide s ca n
,

thus r e produce a gr e at p ar t o f the bo dy ; an d i n the hydra

a n d fre sh -w a te r p o lyp ( Fig a sm a ll fr agm e n t h as b e e n
.

foun d e q ua l to the r e prod u cti on of the e n tire bo dy .

1 7 1 M o reo v e r v ari ou s circ u mstan c e s which w e h a ve

.
, ,

n o t th e l e is u re to ex am i n e h e r e m a m o d ify th e pr o gr e ss o f
y ,

the w o rk o f a ssimila ti on r en d e r it a ctiv e r e ta rd it o r ch an ge

, , ,

its dir e cti on It is i n this w ay th at i n c e rta i n dis eas e s w e

.

s ee n u t riti on to b e a lm o st e n tir e ly a rr e ste d an d th a t i n ,

o th e rs c e rt ai n tiss u e s ch an g e th e i r n atur e It is a ls o to b e .

Obs e rv e d th at this assimil ativ e la bo u r d o e s n ot t ak e pl ac e

,

with the s am e ra pidity i n al l p a rts of the b ody ; to b e a ssur e d

o f this w e h a v e on ly to o bs e rv e th e ch an g e s i n fo r m o ft e n
,

brou ght a bou t by the pr ogre ss o f a g e ; for th e s e ch an ge s

d e p en d chi efly on this th a t ce rt a in p arts i n cr ea s e m o r e
,

r apidl y th an oth e rs Th u s from th e m om en t o f bi rth to the

.
,

a d u lt co n diti on the m e m be rs o f the bo dy o f m an gr ow m o re

,

r apidly th an the t ru n k ; wh e n ce it foll ows th at i n ge n e ral , ,

this l atte r is a po rti on the l e ss con sid e r abl e o f the wh o le as ,

th e owth i s m o r e pr ol o n g ed

1 7 2 E x cr e ti on —Whilst n ut riti on is g oi n g on deco m

.

.
,

p ositi on pro ce e ds p a r i p a s s n that is to s ay th e s ep a rati on of

, ,

a p o rti o n o f the m ol e cul e s o f th e tissu e s a n d th e ir e xp ulsi on ,

fr o m the bo dy The bon e s th e ms elv e s ar e thus co n ti n u ally

.

d e co mp o se d an d r e comp o s e d ; the utricul ar tiss u e c o v e ri n g

th e s u rface o f the li am e n ts muco us m em bran e s an d
gl an dul ar c aviti e s is i cin g co n ti n u ally re n e w ed an d d e
, ,

stroy e d ; an d the Ol d epith e li um giv e s w ay b e fo re n e w l aye rs

fo rm e d b e n e ath it i n the s u bsta n ce o f the tiss u e s .

Som e physi ol o gi sts h av e th ought th at such a r e n e w al of

86 Z OOLO G Y .

the con stitu e n t parts of an im al bo di e s a ffe cts e v e ry st r u e

tur e an d o rg an a n d th at an e n ti re r e n e w al o f the bod y
,

i n e v e ry s e v en y e a rs Thi s 0 in i o n is n o t base d o n dir ect

.

e x pe rim e n t a n d see m s
, i n de e
,
co n trary to the fa ct Man y .

o rg a n s r e m a i n fo r l o n g pe ri ods st ati on ar y alth o u gh it m ay b e ,

a dmitte d th at u n d e r pe cul i a r c i r c u mst an ce s the o rigi n al tissu e s

, ,

th e m s e lv e s m ay b e attack e d as a fte r lon g fas t i n g Thus

, .
,

the curi o u s e x pe rim e n ts Of M Cho ssat sh o w th at wh en .

birds do n ot fi n d i n th e ir foo d a su ffi ci e n t pro po rti on of

calc ar e ou s m atte rs the ph o spha te of l i m e e n te ri n g i n to the
,

c om po siti on o f th e ir b on e s is t ak e n aw ay littl e by li ttl e , .

No w th e bl oo d fu r n ishi n g as w e h a v e see n the ma te ri als

, , ,

o f the v ar i o u s h u m ou rs which th e an im al e c o n o my co n sta n tly

rej e cts a n d e x p e ls from it by the r ou te O f the s ecreti o n s ,

b e c om e s u n c e asi n gly impo v e rish e d an d might tak e aw ay ,

fro m the o rgan s the s oluble prin cipl e s th ey co n ta in i f the ,

rep eate d i n tro d u cti on o f fo re ign s u bstan ce s did n ot m ain ta i n

this liqu id alw ays s atu r ate d with the s am e pr i n cipl e s It .

r e s u lts from this th at this in trod u cti on of the ali m e n tary

,

m a tte rs in to the o rgan ism is n ec e ss ary n ot onl y to eff ect the ,

i n cre a s e o f the livin g p arts b u t to s e cur e th e con s e r v ati on or

,

pr e s e rv ati on of th e tiss u e s alr ead y e xistin g an d to pr e v en t ,

t h e r e s o rpti o n o r r e -a bs o rpti n
o o f th e i r co n stit u e n t m a te ri als .

I n bri e f the n u tri en t m atte r i n tr o duc e d c o n t in u al ly i n to the

,

bl oo d i s n ece ss ary n o d ou bt n ot on ly for the growth of the

, ,

body b u t al s o to m a i n ta in al l the o rgan s i n th e ir in te grity

, ,

a n d to re ve n t the ir b e i n g acte d on by abs o rpti on .

Fin a y the sl o w combustion ta ki n pl ace i n e v er y p a rt of

,

the bo dy als o d e stroys the co m b u s ti b e m a tte rs ; an d u n l e ss

this d e struction b e m e t by con stan t r en e w al it w ould s ee m , ,

fr o m the expe ri m en ts of D um a s an d oth e rs th at the o x yge n ,

w ould act on an d d e stroy the m ate ri al s co mposin g the o rgan s

th e ms e lve s Fro m the alim en ts th er e mus t co m e the co m
.

b us ti b l e m att e rs for the oxyge n to act on by m ean s of which ,

th ey ar e tr an sfo rm e d i n to carb on ic acid g as an d w a te r an d in ,

th at fo rm e li m i n ate d fro m the body ; fro m the s am e s our c e

a r e d e riv e d th e m a te ri a ls o f gr o wth an d o f s ecr e ti on .

But wh e th e r the c arbo n at e d an d hydroge n a te d m atte rs

thus co n sum ed co m e fro m the ali m en t di re ctl y or fro m the
tissu es th e m s e lve s on e thin g i s Obvi ous that the l o ss must
, ,

b e suppli e d fr o m with o ut u n d e r the fo rm of ali m e n ts

, .

The a li m en ta ry m atte rs which c on ta in o n ly c ar b on hy

, ,

drog en an d o x yge n i n th e ir ul tim ate co mpo siti on such as

, ,
 OF AN I MAL H E A T . 87

fe c ul a or sugar m ay b e tran sfo rm e d i n to ca rb oni c acid an d

,

w ate r l ea vin g n o re sidu e ; b u t the vital co mbu sti on o f az oti ze d

,

m atte rs giv e s ris e to oth e r pr oducts ; an d th e s e com po u n ds by

l o si n g ca r bo n be co m e rich e r i n a z ote an d con stitute pe culi ar ,

o rgan ic pr i n cipl e s such as ur e a an d uric

,

1 7 3 Ch e mistr y s ee ms to pr o v e th at it is v e ge ta bl e s
.

which fabrica te the co mbustibl e m atte rs d e st i n ed to b e

con su m e d i n an i m al b o di e s pl an ts al on e h avi n g the p ow e r ,

th u s to fix car b on un de r th e fo r m o f o rgan ic co mp o un ds ?
The c a rbo n ic acid g as an d w ate r e sc ape by r e spir a ti on ; th e
m o re s olid prod u cts as the u re a by the urin e I n the adult
, , .

a n im a l it w o ul d th u s s ee m th at t he re m a
y b e fo u n d n e a rly
,

th e wh o l e o f th e e l e m e n ts i n troduce d i n to the syste m by the

foo d or by r e spir at ory abs o rpti o n i n the pr o du cts of the r e spi ,

r ati on an d uri n ary s e cre ti on the alvin e d ej e cti on s be i n g com ,

po s e d al m o st wh o lly o f the i n dig e stibl e r e sidu e o f the foo d ,

min gl e d with v ari ou s s e cr e ti on s .

Be fo re the growt h is c om pl e t e d al l the alim en ta ry m atte r ,

is n ot bu rn t or con su m e d i n this w ay ; a p a rt i s fou n d in the

o rg an ism wh e n th e c a rb on ace ou s m atte rs t ak e n i n e x c e e d th e

po w e r o f the oxyge n to co n sum e th e r e su lt be i n g the d e po si ,

ti on o f fa t which m ay afte r wards b e c on sum e d accordi n g to

,

the e x ige n ci e s o f th e an i m al i
To c om pl e te this sk e tch of th e ph en om e n a o f n utriti on al l ,

th at r em ai n s is to sp e ak o f th e s o ur ce s o f an i m a l h e at .

OF AN I MAL H E A T .

1 74 .v a ry s o m u ch i n th e ir di ffe r en t h eat -pr o

A n im als
d u ci n g po w e rs th a t a lth o ugh al l produce h ea t so m e ar e
, ,

call e d co ld -bloo d ed a n im al s with r e fe ren c e to oth e rs The .

di ffe ren ce m ay b e sh o wn by c o mpa ri n g the am o un t of h eat

produced by a fis h an d a rabbit pl ac ed i n a v e ss e l surr oun de d ,

Wh e n th e t art ra te m al at e o r ci t ra t e o f po t a ss h as b ee n abs o rb e d o r
, ,

i n j e c te d i n to t h e v e i n s a n d s o a bso rb e d c a rbo n a te o f po t a ss i s fo u n d i n th e
, , ,

u ri n e th u s p ro vi n g th e c o m b u sti o n o f th e v e g e ta bl e ac i d e n te ri n g i n to th e i r
,

com po si ti on .

1 Accordi n g to th e re ce n t e xp e ri m e n ts o f Du ma s B o u ss i n ga ul t an d , ,

Pa en

{
.

Th f e at is de po s i t e d i n di fle r e n tl y i n e ve ry p ar t o f the b o dy It i s co m
not
'
.

p o e o w o s u bsta n ce s O l e i n e a n d s te a r i n e t h e p r o
s d ft ,
r t i o n s o f whi c h v a ry i n
,

t h e f a t o f di ff e re n t a n i m als It i s a b un d a n t i n an i m a s whi c h hy b e rn a t e a t th e
.

co mm e n ce m e n t o f wi n t e r b u t di s app e ars to wards th e clo s e o f tha t s e aso n

, .

Th e f a t i s s u p o s e d t o b e u se fu l a s a cu shi o n f o r ce rta i n o r ga n s as a re s e r
v o i r to m e e t t E
,

e c o n s u mi n g we rs o f th e o xyge n ta k e n i n to th e b o dy an d a s ,

a p r e s e r va ti v e o f th e h e a t 0 t h e b o dy .
88 zo o no o r .

with i ce ; th e qu an titi e s o f i ce diss o lv e d will giv e the am ou n t

'
o f the di ffe r e n ce , which is e n o r m o u s ; fo r , a fte r three h our s ,

the h e at pro d u c e d by the fish will sca rce ly h a v e act e d on the

i ce , whilst th at o rigi n ati n g from the r a bbit wil l h a v e pr o
du ced m o r e th an a qu a rt of w ate r Now the a m o un t o f h e a t
.

r equired to co n v e rt so m u ch i ce i n to w ate r will b e foun d

e qu a l to th at n e c e ss a ry to r a is e the te mp e r a tur e o f thr e e

quarts of w ate r from the fre e zi n g to the boili n g po i n t .

H en c e the distin cti on o f an im als i n to c old an d hot bl ood ed .

° °
I n m an th e h eat o f the ski n v a ri e s fro m 9 7 to 1 00 F ahr ; .

th at of the i n t e ri or of the body is a lw ays It is the

s am e i n m o st m a mm al s In birds the te mp e rature ris e s to
.

bl oo d i n b oth is hotte r .

Fi g 54
. .
—Th e M arm o t .

1 75 In
. gen e ral birds an d m am m als m ai n ta i n the s am e
,

t e m pe ratu re at al l s eas on s o f th e y e ar an d i n a l l clim ate s ;

but th e re ar e s om e i n which the t e mpe ra tur e l ow e rs as win te r
pro ce eds ; th e s e a re the hyb er n ati n g an im al s such as the ,

m ar m ot ( Fig . the b at an d h edge h o g

, .

1 7 6 I n the y ou n g th e pr oducti on o f an im a l h e at is n o t
.
,

e u a l to wh a t it a fte rw a rds be co m e s e spe ci all y i n th o s e bor n

q ,

wi th the ey e s cl o s ed .Thus ki tte n s or puppi e s l e ft e x po s ed

to th e air e v en i n su m m e r s oo n di e
, , Ne w -bo rn childr e n als o
.

ar e e x tr e m e ly susc e ptibl e o f c o ld .

1 7 7 This prod u cti on o f an im a l h e at is e vid e n t] co n

n e cte d with th e ph e n o m e n on o f vita l co m b u sti o n wit the ,

a b so rpti on o f o xyg e n by th e bl oo d an d the pro d u ct i on o f car

,

b on i c acid g as It s e e ms i n fa ct to be pro po rti on al to the

.
, ,
'
a m oun t o f o xyg e n abso rbe d a n d h e n c e is gr eate st i n bi r ds
,

an d m am m als .
 or TH E FU NC TI ON S or R E LAT I ON . 89

The producti on o f c arbon ic a cid g as t a k e s pl ac e i n the os

pill a ry v e ss e ls wh e r e i n fa ct th e a rte ri al bl oo d b e c om e s
, , ,

v e n o u s ; the prod u cti o n th en o f an i m a l h eat is n otcon fi n e d to

, ,

o n e sp o t as th e lu n gs b u t is e x t en d e d o v e r the wh o l e b o dy
, , .

It d e pe n ds o n the a rriv al o f fre sh a rte ri al blood an d wh e n the ,

s u pply o f this is cut off o r di min ishe d th e te mp e ratu re is ,

i m m e di at e ly l o w e r e d .

Th e re is a re m ark abl e r el ati on als o be t w een th e rich n e ss of

the bl oo d i n s olid p arts an d the pr od u cti o n o f an im a l h e at .

It is rich e st i n birds ( 1 43 o r 1 5 : i n wh o m the a n i m a l

h e a t is gre ate st ; n e x t i n m am m als (9 o r 1 2 : 1 00) fe e bl e st
i n the c old bl oo d e d as i n fro gs a n d fish e s i n wh o m the s olid
-
, ,

p arts o f the bl oo d c om p are d to the liqu id or w at e ry is a s 6

, ,

o f gl ob u l e s to 9 4 of s e ru m .

It b ea rs a c e rt a i n r e l ati on als o to the dist an c e fr om the

h e art an d thus the l imbs ar e m o st e x po s e d to b e fr ost -bitt en
, .

Thus it is to re spir ati on th a t is d u e the prod u cti on o f

a n im a l h ea t si n ce it is i n th e l u n gs th at the ox yge n is a b
,

s o rb e d B u t i n the high e r an i m als this c om bu sti on its e lf is

e vid en tly i n fl u e n ce d by an o th e r physi ol o gic al a e n t o f which
g
w e h a v e n ot ye t spo k e n the n e rv o us syst e m -
.

Nu m e r ous e x p e ri m en ts h a v e pl ace d this fa ct b eyon d a

d o ubt The l at e e x p erim e n ts o f M B e r n a rd on the ce rvic a l
. .

gan gli on s a r e i n fact n ot opp o s e d to this vi e w T ox i c .

ag e n ts which l o w e r the a ctivity o f the br a i n an d n e rv o u s

,

syste m obvi ou sly affe ct th e pro du cti on o f an i m al he at

, .

1 7 8 H ot-bl ood e d an i m als h a v e the fac u lty of r e sisti n g

.

e x t e rn al h e at wh e n r a is e d a b o v e the n at u r a l t e mp e r a tur e o f

th e ir bodi e s ; this is e ff e cte d by e v apo ra ti on fro m the s u rfac e of

the c u ta n e o us tr an spira ti on by which th e t e mp e ratu r e o f the
,

b ody is m ai n t ai n e d at n e a rly the s a m e t e m p e r atur e at the

equ ato r or withi n the p o l a r circl e .

II .
—OF TH E F UN CTI ON S OF R E L A T I ON .

1 79 . H ith e rto
h a v e be e n o cc u pi e d with th o s e fun c
we
ti on s which h av e fo r th e i r obj e ct the pr e s e r v ati on of the
i n dividu a l ; l et u s n ow atte n d to th o s e i n t e n d e d to m ak e him
acqu a i n t e d with s u rr o u n di n g o bj e cts .

1 80 Obs e rv e c ar e fully the m o v e m en ts of an an im a l

.
,
fi g 55
. .
—Ne rvou s Syst em , p ag e
 or TH E N E R V O US S Y STE M . 91

an d wil l s oo n disco v er th at s om e ar e o bvi ou sly v ol u n

you
ta r y , or di r e cte d accordi n g to th e wi l l o f th e an im al A n oth e r .

cl a ss of m o v e m en ts m ay a ls o b e obs e rv ed o v er which the ,

an im a l d o e s n o t s e e m to p o ss e ss th e s am e i n flu e n c e ; th e s e

a r e the i n v o l u n ta r
y Th e s e ph en o m e n a imply c o n tr actility
.

an d v o liti on ; but th e r e is to b e add e d an oth e r r e m ark abl e

faculty s en si b i l i ty by which the an im al p e rce iv e s t he pr e

, ,

s en c e of surrou n di n g o bj e cts an d be com e s con scious of th e i r ,

pr e s e n c e .

Th e s e thr e e fa c u lti e s s ee m to b e co mm on to al l an im als ;

but th e re ar e o th e rs Ce rt a i n an i m a ls con stru ct with the .

m o st adm ira bl e a r t dw e llin gs for th e ir y oun g an d for th e m

s e lv e s an d this th ey d o i n de p en d en t of al l i n structi on fro m
,

th e p ar e n t Oth e rs pr o c e e d on distan t v oya ge s an d j ourn eys

.
,

tra v e rsin g the ai r a s c e rt ai n ly a s if the po in t to b e att ai n e d

w e re b e for e th e ir ey e s To this faculty the n am e o f i n s ti n ct
.

h as b e e n giv e n ; it l eads a n im als to p e rform c e rt ai n a cts

which a r e n ot the e ffects o f imit ati on an d which ar e n ot the ,

r e sult of r e a s on i n g The ph en om en a ar e s om e ti m e s v e ry
.

simpl e an d s om e tim e s in co m pre h en sibly c ompl ex

, .

To o th e r b e i n gs ar e giv en the facul ty of r e ca lli n g p r evi ous

s e n s ati on s of co mp a rin g th e m w ith e ach oth e r an a lysin g th e
, ,

p ast an d pre s e n t an d d ra win g con clusi on s ; th e s e ar e th e

,

i n te lle ctu al facu lti e s .

Fi n ally s o m e an i m als can co mmun ic ate to o th e rs a k n ow

,

l e dge of the id e a s th ey p o ss e ss by m o v e m en ts or s o u n ds , .

Th e s e v ari e d ph en om e n a by w hi ch an i m als pl ac e th em ,

s e lv e s i n r e l ation w ith oth e rs m ay b e r e duce d to s i x pri n

—
,

e ip e l fac ul ti e s n am e ly ,s e n sibility c on tractility wi ll i n

, , , ,

s t i n ct i n te llig e n c e an d e x pr e ssi on
, , .

I n th e si m pl e st an i m als th e s e v ar i o us fac u lti e s of the life

,

o f r e l a ti on ar e n ot th e app an a g e of a n y o rg an i n p a rticul a r ;
but i n m an an d i n th e imm en s e m aj ority o f an im al s the ,

e x e rcis e o f th e s e faculti e s is d e pe n d e n t on th e a cti on o f the

n e rv o us syst e m .

a, brai n ; 6 l i ttl e b rai n ; 0 spi n a l m a rro w ; d faci al n e r ve ; e b rachi a l

, , , ,

p l e xu s ,
c a u s e d by th e u ni o n o f s e v e ral n e rv e s c o m i n g fro m th e s p i n al m a r
r ow ; f , m e di a n n e rv e ; g cu b i t al n e rve ; h i n te rn al c u t an eo u s n e rv e o f t h e
.
,

a r m ; i r a d i al a n d m u s cu l o cu t a n e o u s n e rve o f th e a r m ; j i n t e rco st al n e rv e s ;
,
-
,

k fe m o ra l p l e xu s ; l s ci a ti c p l e x u s ; m ti b i a l n e r ve ; n e x t e rn al p e ro n e a l
, , , ,

n e rv e ; 0 e x t e rn al s ap h e n o u s n e rv e
,
.
92 zo o m e x .

OF TH E N E RVOU S S Y S T E M .

1 81 This syste m is fo rm e d by a s o ft p u lpy substan ce

. ,

which is a lm o st flu id i n e arly l i fe but ac quire s m o re co usis ,

te n ce with y e a rs The aspe ct of this tissu e ca ll e d n e r v ous

.
, ,

v ari e s m u ch ; o cca si o n ally whit e at oth e r ti m e s gre y or as h ,

c ol o ure d ; i n s o m e p a rts it fo rms m ass e s o r gan gli on s i n ,

o th e rs e l on g a te d c o rds The c o rds ar e call e d n e r ves the

.

m a ss e s g a n g l i ons o r n er v ou s ce n tr e s
, .

1 8 2 I n m an an d i n th o s e an im als which approach him

.
,

i n structur e the n e rv o us app arat u s is c o mpo s e d of two p arts

,

the c e r e b r o spi n a l o r n e r v o u s syste m o f an im a l l ife the g an

-
,

g l i on i c or n er v ous s ste m o f organ ic lif e ; an d e a ch o f th e s e

system s is co m po s edi n its turn of two p a rts — a ce n tr al com ,

p o s e d o f the n e rv o us m a ss e s an d a p e riph e ric co mpo s e d o f

, ,

the n e rv e s which p roce e d fr o m th e s e ce n tre s to a l l p a rts o f

the b ody ( Fig
1 8 3 Cer e br o -sp i n a l Sys te m i n M a n —Th e c e n tr a l
.

po rti on of this syste m al s o cal l e d the ce r e bro -spin al axis or

,

e n c e ph al on is compo se d e ss e n tia lly of the c e re br u m ce re

, ,

b e llum an d m e dul l a spin alis an d is l odged in an o ss eo us

, ,

c a vi ty an d c an al for m ed o f the cran ium an d spin al co lum n

1 84 E n ve l op e s of the E n cep ha l o n —Three m e mbr an e s
.
,

. .

e n cl os e supp o rt
, an d n o urish the ce r e br o -spi n al
, ax is The .

fir st is the dur a m at e r a fibro us m e mbran e of co n side rabl e

,

stre n gth adh e ri n g to s e v e ral p o in ts of the o sseo us c an al an d

, ,

fo rmi n g a stron g prot ecti n g c o v e ri n g for the en ce ph al on It .

s en ds prol on gati on s to w ards the i n te ri or of the cran ium ,

s e rvi n g to prot e ct v ari ous pa rts o f th e o rgan ; an d i n its sub

stan ce ar e fo rm e d v a ri o us v en ous can al s or si n us e s i n co m ,

m u n i ca ti on with the g e n e r a l v e n o us syste m o f the b ody .

Th e s e s i n use s ar e c all e d si n us e s o f the d u r a m a ter .

Withi n the dur a m ate r i s a se con d m e mbran e ca ll ed the ,

a r a chno i d This is a s e rou s m e mbran e of e xtr e m e te n uity

.
,

a n d tr an spa r en t b u t fir m a n d lik e al l s e r ous m e mbr an e s is

, , ,

a s ac with o u t an o p e n i n g in t o it By o n e l ay e r it in v e sts
y .

the i n n e r surface o f th e d ur a m a te r an d by th e oth e r th e

bra in thus pro vidi n g for the m o v e m en ts of the o r an
,
,

g .

B en e ath the ce re bral l ay e r o f the a r ach n o id 1 8 the p i a

m a ter im m e di ate ly in v e sti n g the n e rv ou s tiss u e its e lf This
, .

is a ce l l u l o -v asc u l ar m e m bran e i n which ram i fy the v e ss e l s ,

proc e e di n g to an d fro m the bra i n ; fo r the art e ri e s e spe ciall

ar e , i n ge n e r al mi n ute ly subdi vid e d be fo re th ey actu al l
, y
 or TH E N E RVOU S S Y S T E M . 93

p en etrat e th e n e rv ou s m atte r Th e s e three m e mbran e s i n v e st .

t he e n t i r e e n ce ph al on an d pr e s e n t thus a spin a l a s w e ll a s a
,

cra n i al p o rti on .

1 85 Th ou gh co mpo s e d o f s e v e ral pa rts th e e n c e ph al on

.
,

m ay b e vi e w e d as on e ; ye t e ach divisi o n s e e m s to p e rfo rm

disti n ct fun cti on s i n a ce rt ai n s en s e
, .

1 86 The cr an i a l po rti o n is c om p o se d o f the br ai n c e r e

.
,

b e ll u m a n d po n s of V ar oli u s ; the spi n a l po rti on m ay b e

,

v i e w e d as co m po s ed of the m e du ll a o bl on gat a an d spi n a l

m arro w pr op e rly s o c all e d
, .

Th e brain ( Fig 55 a Figs 56 57 a b c) ( c e r e bru m ) i s by

.
, .
,

m u ch th e l a rge st p art o f the e n ce ph al on i n m an an d m amm a ls .

Th e fo rm o f th e sku ll i n a g en e r al w ay r e pr e s e n ts its sh ap e
, , ,

m o re e sp e ci a lly i n m an Th e ce re br u m prop e r is s u bdivid e d

.

i n to two h e m isph e r e s by a d e e p m e si a l fissure e x t e n din g qu it e ,

d o wn to the corp u s ca l l os u m in the middl e an d an te rio rly ,

an d p o st e ri o rly s e p a r a ti n g th e h e misph e r e s c o m pl e te ly fr o m

e a ch o th e r The co rp u s c a ll o sum u ni te s the h e m isph e r e s an d

.
,

m ay b e c all e d a tr an sv e rs e co m miss ur e I n the fissur e d e sc en ds .

the fal x c e re bri a p a rtiti on fo r m e d by the d u r a m a te r

, On the .

s u r fa ce of the s e h e m isph e r e s m ay be s e en t he c on v o l u ti on s
a n d a nf r a ctu os i tés o f th e br ai n s o d istin ct i n m an
.
an d ,

which h a v e giv en ris e to so m u ch sp e cu l ation Th ey ar e of .

littl e de pth i n v e ry youn g childre n an d i n m o st a n im a ls .

By t u rn in g u p the br ain an d e x am i n in g its ba se it is e a sy ,

to o bs e rv e with o u t m u ch diss e cti on th at th e bra in a dmits o f

, ,

b e i n g divid e d i n to thr e e l ob e s on e ach sid e an an t e ri o r , .

middl e an d po st e ri o r ; this l ast is n ot so disti n ct as the

,

o th e rs. It is on this s u rface als o th at the c e re be ll u m m ay be

disti n ctly s e en the so -call ed p a ns an d the l arge m ass e s of
, ,

fibre s ca ll e d cr u r a u n iti n g th e po n s to the h e misph e r e o f the

bra i n ; h e re als o m ay b e s e e n a l l the n e rv e s as th ey proc ee d ,
‘

to o r fro m the bra i n ; the l a rge a rte ri e s lik e wi s e which a l l ,

r e a ch th e c e re br a l po rti o n o f the e n ce ph a l on by the b a s e The .

t w o littl e r ou n d e d e m i n e n ce s s e e n h e r e a r e c all e d m am
m i l l ar y e mi n e n c e s .

Th e gr e y m att e r o f th e br ai n is fo u n d chi e fly o n the s u r fac e ,

a n d th e whi te m e d u ll a ry o r fibr o us i n th e i n t e ri o r b u t n ot ,

u n ifo rmly so The v e n tricl e s o f the br ai n ( Fig 56 ) al l co m

. .

m a n ica t e with e ach o th e r di re ctly or i n dir e ctly , .

1 8 7 The c e r e be l l u m is pl ace d u n d e r the po st e ri o r p a rt

o f th e br a in a n d is s e p a r a te d fro m it by th e t e n to ri u m a par
, ,

titi on fo rm e d by the d u r a m a t e r It a ls o is c omp o s e d of t wo .

 94 ZOOLO G Y .

h e misph e re s an d a m e si al po rti on c onn ect in g th e m to ge th e r

, .

On the surfac e o f the ce re be l l um th e re a r e n o con v oluti on s ,

but the m ar gi n s o f l am i n ae o r pl ate s of which the ce re be ll um ,

9 10 1 1 6

F i g 56 . . Se ct i on of th e B r i a n, C e reb llum P o s e ,
n , an d M d ulla e
O bl on ga ta .
‘

Vert i c l s ecti o o f th e c re b rum ce re b e l l m p s Var lii d m ed ulla

a n e , u ,
on o ,
an

o bl g t ; an t e ri or l b o f th br i b mi ddl l b e ; p t ri o r l b
on a a a, o e e a n , e o c, os e o e

d c r b ll um ;
,
e e e m e d ll a s p i li s ; f s e c ti o o f t h
e, u c ll m Th e
na ,
n e co us a os u .

l tr l
a e at ri cl s o f th e b ra i re s i t te d e i th e r i d
ve n e th c rp
n a ca ll oua on S e 0 e o us

su m w hi ch assi sts i f rm i g th i r p e w ll
,
n o Opt i c l o b s
n 1 lf c t ry
e u r a . e : , o a o
n er s ; 2 t h ey e b l l fr m w hi ch m y tra c d t
ve ,
e a , pt i c
o r f as t h e
a e e e o ne v e as ar

o p ti c th l mi a a lo b s C l s t th i s i s th
or e r o f th t hi rd p ai r 4 the
. o e o e n e ve e .
,

f rth p ai r di st ri b te d li k th e thi rd to th m scl s f t h e y s 5 s pe ri r

ou ,
u , e , e u e o e e , u o
m i ll a ry b ran ch o f th e fifth p i r ;
ax o p htha lm i c b ra ch f the s am e ai o f
a n o r
r es ; i nf ri o r m xi ll ry b r c h of th e s am e p i r o f
e a r es ; 6 S i xt pai r
a an a ne v
—
ne v , ,

r c d i g t o t h e bd t s m s l e 7 fa i l r
u ce n e
e d r t h o riu c f ac a ne v un e e
p rti o f the aco sti c al) e r e c ll e d ggo sso
p o n
ee ; in o
th i s r m y b e s ee
ne ve a n a o n o u , n v a
h ] 1 0
ea p e m o g stri c er e c lno se t o i t
u 1 2 t h e s p i al acc es
a n v 18 , n
5
p ar y n ; , ,

ao r y 8 8 8 th1 r e e n e rv t h e gl ss o -p h aryn gea l p m

es , o g s tr c d s p i al
o , n eu a
.

i , an n
acc ss rye o by s m e r cko e d as o e p i r ; 1 1 th n th p i r f s m e
,
are o e n n a ,
e in a o o ,

an d th e l e th o f th e rs c ll d als o hypo glo s sa l ; 1 4 an d 1 5 ce rvi cal er ves

e ev n o , a e , n .
 OF TH E N E RVOU S S Y S T E M . 95

is co mpo s ed It is co n n e cte d with the m e dull a spin a lis

.
,

th e p on s an d ce re bru m by p e d un cl e s of m e du ll a ry fibr e s
,

c all ed cru r a In v olum e it i s abo ut on e -thir d of the ce r e

.

bru m an d i s l ar ge r co m p arativ e ly i n the child th an i n the

,

a dult .

1 8 8 ( hati c L ob es — By r e m o vi n g th e upp e r po rti on of

. .

th e h e misph e r e s an d th e c o rpus ca ll o s u m th e v e n tricl e s of the ,

b rai n ar e e xpo s ed ; als o c e rtain r ou n de d m ass e s fo r m i n g as it ,

w e r e the b as e of the s e cti on The s e m ass e s n a m e d i n suc .

,

c e ssi on fr o m be for e b ackw ards ar e th e co rp ora S tri ata the , ,

th al ami n e rv o rum Opti co ru m an d the t u b e rcul a qu adri ,

ge m i n a ; an d on the back an d s om e wh at lo w e r p art o f the

th al ami m ay b e s een by raisin g the th al am i u pw ar d c ertai n
, ,

r o un d e d e l e va ti on s of a gr eyish c o l our ; th e s e a r e the c o rp o r a

g en i cul ata On al l th e s e structur e s i mpo rt an t ex p e rim en ts
.

h av e b een m ad e i n li vi n g an im als
1 89Sp i n a l
. M a r r ow M e d u l l a Sp i n a l i s — The
m e dulla spi n ali s ( Fig 55 c Fig 57 f ) , m ay b e vi e w e d a s a
. .

c on ti n u ati on of the m e dul l a obl on g ata an d th at of the bra i n

i ts el f A m e di an fissure of n o gr e at d epth divid e s it i n to
.

two l ate r al p o rti on s , an te ri o rly an d po ste ri o rly Its u pp e r .

e xtr e mity , which is e n l a rg e d , is us u ally c all e d th e bul b , by

o th e rs the m e dul l a o bl on g a ta : h e r e ar e to b e s e e n v a ri ous

sw el l in gs cal l e d Oliv ary , pyramidal , an d re sti for m bo di e s ; an d

a t the sid e s o f this m ed u ll a o bl on g at a an d o f the spi n a l

m a rro w foll o win g it , m ay b e s ee n pr oc ee di n g o utw a rds th e

n e rv e s NO n e r v e s c o m e fr o m or g o to the c e r e brum pro p e r ,
.

u n l e ss it b e the o lfacto ry Wh e re the n e rv e s l e a v e the spi n a l

.

m arro w to pro ceed to the pe cto ra l e x tre m iti e s , th e o rgan i s

us u a lly e n la rg e d ; an d the s a m e o ccurs , b u t n o t s o dist i n ctly ,

l ow e r d own , wh e re the n e rv e s l e av e to proc ee d to the p e lvic

e x tr e miti e s I n m an , the spi n al m a rr o w d e sc e n ds on ly as l ow
.

as th e S e c on d l u mb a r v e rt e br a , t e rmin ati n g i n a fi n e thr e a d

lik e bo dy , by which it is att ach e d to the l o w e r p art o f the

c o lumn The in f e ri o r p o rti on o f the spi n al c an al , l u mb a r ,
.

s acr al , an d co ccyg e a l (wh e r e it is qu ite i m p e rfe ct ) , is occu

pi ed with the m e mbran e s an d by the n e r v e s pr oc ee din g fro m
the spi n al m a rro w This a ss e m b l ag e of n e rv e s withi n the
.

can al w as ca ll ed by the olde r an ato mists the cau d a e qui n a ,

i n th e ce n tr e of which wil l b e foun d th e te rmi n atin g fi l u m
o r thr ea d o f th e o rga n its e lf .

The S pin al m ar r o w is c om p os e d , lik e the b ra i n an d c e r e

96 ZOOLOGY .

be ll um of a m edull a ry an d cin e ri
,

ti o us po rti on ; but h e re the grey

m atte r is ce n tra l an d the m ed ul
l ary e xte rn al A fluid cl ea r a n d .
,

li m pid disco v e re d by Cotu n n i a

, ,

distin guish e d N ea p oli ta n physici an ,

fil ls u p the sp ac e i n te r v e n i n g b e
tw e e n the arach n oid m embran e an d
the pi a m a te r by m e an s o f which , ,

no doubt this ex tre me ly d el ica te ,

o rg an is prot e cte d fro m sh ocks an d

o th e r i njm i e s .

1 90 S tr u ctu r e of til e E n ce .

l i a l o n — Th e rg n is c mp s d
p .
o a . o o e

of t wo disti n ct s u bstan ces the ,

cin e riti o u s an d m e dull a ry ; this l at

te r i s fibr ous an d to the tr aci n g ,

c b ro Sp i al i s se te ri o rly
Th e er e - n ax e n an
th r s h b c t thr gh t a sho rt e ne ve a ve een u ou a
di st c fr m th i o ri gin o tra l t mi an e o e r r cen er na
ti — th c r b r m ; b te ri r l be f th e on a, e e e u , an o o o
l ft h mi s p h re o f th b r i ; mi ddl e lo b ;
e e e e a n 0, e
d p st ri r l b alm o st co cea l e d by t h e
, o e o o e, n
c r b ll m ; t h e ce re b e ll um ; f e th e m e
e e u e, ,
d ll bl g t r b lb ; 1 first o o l fac u a o on a a o u , , r
t ry p i r o f r s ; 2 s eco d p ai r o
o a n e ve , n , r

p ti c ; 3 thi r d p i r m o t r s oc
O , a , or o e u
l r m ; 4 fo rth p i r o p th e ti c ; 5 t he o u , u a , r a ,
i f ci l fif th p i r ; 6 si x th p i r o
a a ,
or a , a , r
bd c t s ; 7 e r s o f th sev e th p i r a u en e ,
n ve e n a ,

f ci l ; al s th aco sti c o r p o rti or a a o e u , o

m ol by s m c ll d the di to ry d
hs , o e a e au , an
i w d d i i si f th s e th ; o th r s
v e e as a v on o e ev n e
c ll th m th e i ghth p i r ; 9 the lo ss o a e e a ,

h y g l r s c ll d th ni t p i ar ea ne a e e
b s m b th e rs t he t i or di i s i o n
n ve , n a r
o e, o an er v
0 th i ght p i r ; 1 0 th m o g stri c e e a e ne u
p , a ,
by s m i cl d d i th ghth p ai r by o e n u e n e ei ,

o th rs c lle d th te th i r ; 1 1 r e s of
e a e n a , ne v
th l th d tw e p i rs t h first ‘

e e eve n an a . e

i il acce sso
b i g i w d b d i Si o f th e v e o e “ a vv
'

y
i s il d
3 e ii e n o
ci l t b i l a r an c e s n
t hi n a g c ll d b e mi; th e ly
r
F g 5 - C e r b r0 p m a1 A s “ ; ,
i . 1 e -s n
y i th ,
a e s n n ,

th rs th t w lfth th m o to r
o r e of
e e e ,
18 e ne v
th to g ; 1 3
e nrv s f th th rt th p r
ue , ne e o b - cc p i t l ; 1 4 1 5 1 6
e i een ai , or su o i a , , ,

th fi rst s e c d
e ,
d thi rd p i rs
on f c r ic l
,
an r s ; 9 c r i c l e r es
a o e v a ne ve , e v a n v
f rm i g th e b r ch i l p l s ; 2 5 o
o n a f t h p i rs o f
a exu r s f th d o rsa l
, ne o e a ne ve o e

p o rt i f t h sp i
on l m rr w ; 33
o e o f th
na a p i rs
o f l mb r . r s; one e a o u a ne ve
h l mb r
, u d s cr l a r s f rm i g t h pl s w h ce c m the r e s
an a a ne ve o n e e xu en o e ne v
of t h lo w r e tr em i ti s ; i d j t rm i t
e ex e f th s i l m arro w call e d
an , e na i on o e na
,
ca u d q m a k gr t sci t i c
e u a r p roc di g to th w r tre mi t i e s
, ea a n e ve ee n e o e ex .
 TH E N E RVO U S S YSTEM . 97

its fib re s an ato mists ha v e i n al l ag e s giv en th e great e st

att e n ti on .

By comm en c i n g with the spi n al m a rrow an d tracin g its ,

fibre s upw ards it will b e fou n d th at it is c o mpo s e d of two

,

h alv e s u ni te d to each o th er by tr an sv e rs e m ed u ll ary fibre s

,
.

Th e s e h al v e s ar e e ach c o mpo s e d o f six m e dul l ary b an ds or

colum n s of whi ch fou r o cc u py th e an te ri o r s u rfac e tw o the
, ,

po ste ri o r The fou r a n te ri o r on e s m ay b e tr ac e d upw ar ds

.

i n to the co rre spon din g pyram id al a n d Oliv ary bo di e s pr o ,

ce ed i n g fr o m th e n ce i n to th e br ai n its el f ; th e tw o po ste r i o r

proc e ed w e sh a ll fin d to th e c e re be llum To re t u r n to the

, , .

Oliv a ry an d pyra mid al fa scicu li : we obs e rv e first th at a , ,

po rti on o f th o s e on the right sid e cro ss to th e l e ft an d ,

th o s e from the l eft to th e ri ght c o l u m n thus de cuss atin g ,

with each o th e r After thi s d e cussa ti on th ey plu n ge in to the

.
,

an n u l ar pr o tub e r an c e ( pon s v a r o lii ) an d con ti n u e d fo rw a rds

, , ,

co n stitute the crura c er e bri The fibre s fro m th e s e u lti

.

m at e ly e x p an d i n the c on v o l u ti on s Of th e an t e ri o r an d mid dl e
l ob e s of the br a i n The l on gitu di n al fibr e s of the Oliv ary
.

fascicul i a sc e n d l ik e th o s e of the pyrami ds an d p assin g ,

thro ugh the po n s fo rm the i n n e r an d p o ste ri o r p art s of the

p e dun cl e s of the b r ain ; duri n g th e ir co urs e th e y tr a v e rs e
s e v e r al m ass e s Of the cin e riti o u s s u bstan ce i n cr e a s e i n siz e , ,

an d fin a lly p a ss in t o or fo rm v a ri ous p a rt s of the brai n ,

as th e th a l a mi Optici an d c o rp o ra stri at a ; fin all y th e y ,

e x p an d i n t o th e c e r e br a l c o n v o l u ti on s S e v e r al tran sv e rs e.

co mmissur e s as the co rp u s c al l o s u m an d an te r i o r an d po s
, ,

te r i o r c o mmiss ur e s c on n e ct th e tw o S id e s Of the b r a in with

,

e ach o th e r .

The p o st e ri or c o l u m n s o f th e m e dull a obl o n g a ta ( r e stifor m

b o di e s ) un ite with s om e fibre s co m in g fr o m the n e igh
b o u ri n g po rti on s of the m e dull a spi n al is an d thus con sti tut e ,

th e crur a c e r e be l l i or c ru r a ad m e dul l a m ob l on g ata m ; th e s e

,

fibre s plun ge i n to the c e n tre of th e c e re be lla r h e m isph e re s an d ,

a ssist i n fo rm i n g the c e n tr a l m e dull ar y m a ss which be i n g i n ,

v e ste d with ci n e riti ou s m atte r fo rm s th at r e m ar k abl e a ss e m

,

bl age o f l a m iu m to whi ch an ato m ists giv e the n am e o f a rb o r

vitae s e e n on m aki n g a s e cti o n Of e ith e r h e misph e r e of the c e re
,

b e ll um . Thu s the c e re b e ll u m re c e iv es cr u r a or p ed un cl e s
fr om thre e s o u rc e s v i z the po n s the m e dull a obl o n gata
, .
, , ,

an d the t u be rc u l a qu ad r ig e m i n a
—
.

1 9 1 N er.v e s The n e rv e s or igi n ati n g or as s om e vi e w

.
,

it te rmi n ati n g i n the e n ce ph al on am ou n t to fo rty -thre e p a ir s

, , ,

H
98 ZOOLOGY .

F i g 59
. .
—S u p e ri o r P rt i o
o n of th e G a n gl i o n a ry Syste m .
‘

0 1
1 hi s wo o d gra vi n g co pi e d fro m M S a p p e y s Tr e a tis e o H u ma
en , .
’
n n
r re s e n ts th e pri n mp a l n e r e s o f the n e ck a s w el l a s th e ga n gl i o n s
A n a to my , e p v ,
 TH E N E RVOU S S Y S T E M . 99

(see Fig 55 a n.d Fig th e y ar e r e ck on e d n um e ric ally

.

fro m b e for e b ackw ards Th e first tw e lv e p airs a ris e withi n .

t he cr a n i u m a n d l e a v e the c avity by ap e rture s i n the

,

cran i al b o n e s ; the thirty -on e p airs which foll o w a ris e fr om

th e spi n a l m ar r o w an d l e av e th e o ss e ou s c an a l by o p e n
,

i n gs c all e d i n te rv ert e bral as b e i n g pl ac e d b etw e e n the ,

v e rt e br ae .

E a ch o f th e s e p airs o f n e rv e s is for m e d
o f a gre at n u mb e r o f fil a m en ts e n cl o s e d i n ,

a n e u r i l e mm a Th e s e e l e m e n t ary fibr e s ar e
.

e x tr e m e ly fi n e ; th e y d o n ot u n it e with e ach

o th e r but p a ss fr o m t he c e n tr a l e x tr e m ity
,

o f th e n e rv e to th e p e riph e r a l A t th e ir .

o rigi n th e fibr e s c o mpo si n g the n e rv e a r e

,

c all e d r o ots a n d a r e grou p e d i n the spi n al

,

n e r ve s i n to an te ri o r a n d p o ste ri o r r oo ts .

On th e p o ste ri o r r oot i s a g a n gli on thro u gh Fig .

which the fil a m en ts p a ss an d th en u n ite with ,

the an t e ri o r r oo t On c e rt a i n o f the cr a n i a l n e rv e s so m e o f
.
,

th e r oo ts als o h a v e gan gli on s E x p e ri m e n t h as sh o w n th a t .

th e p o st e ri o r ro ots ar e n e rv e s of s e n s ati on ; th e an t e ri or ,

n e rve s o f m o ti o n : wh e n n e rv e s u n ite with e a ch oth e r by

wh at is ca ll e d a n as to m os i sf ( alth o u gh th ey do n ot r e ally
u n ite but m e r e ly e x ch an ge fibr e s ) th e re r e s u lts wh a t is
, ,

c a ll e d a pl e x u s i Fi n ally i n the v a ri o u s o rgan s the n e rv e s ,

S e e m to t e r m i n a te b y fo r m i n g wid e pl e x u s e s o r l oo ps .

1 92 G a ng l i o n a r y Sy s te 7n — This syst e m — which ha s

. .

a ls o be e n c a ll e d t h e n e rv o u s syst e m o f o rg an ic life the sys ,

of th e ne ck an d tho ra x b e lo n gi n g
sym p a th e t i c syst e m o f n e r e s
t o th e v .

1 p eu m o g a st r c n e rv e t h e p ri n c p al b ra n ch e s o f w hi c h fo rm pl e x u s e s wi th
,
n i ,
i

t h e gr e a t sy m p a th e t i c t o s u p ply t h e l u n gs h e a rt st o m ach & c ; 6 7 b ra n ch e s

, , , , .
, ,

o f t h e p n e u m o g a st ri c s u pp lyi n g t h e l a ryn x ; 9 9 r e c u rre n t n e rv e a b ra n ch

, , , ,

o f th e p e u m o g a st ri c a s ce n d i n g fro m t h e b a s e o f t h e n e c k to th e l a ryn x ;
n

1 0 1 1 c ard i ac b r a n ch e s pro ce e di n g t o th e h e a r t ; 1 3 p u l rn o n a r y p l e x u s ;
, , ,

1 4 li n gu al n e rv e ; 1 5 te rmi n al p o rti o n o f th e gr e a t hyp o gl o ss a l ; 1 6 gl o ss o

, , ,

p h a ryn ge al n e r e ; 1 7 s p n al acce ss o r o f W il h s ; 1 8 c e rvi c a l n e rve o f the

v ,
i ,

s e co n d a i r o f s pi n al n e rve s ; 1 9 thi r ce r i cal pa i r ; 23 26 27 28 pai rs o f ,

v , , , ,

ce r vi c n e rv e s u n i t in g wi th th e firs t d o rs al to fo rm th e b ra chi a l p l e x u s ;
,

24 s u pe ri o r ce rv i c al g a gl o n o f t h e gre a t sym p a th e t i c ; 25 m i ddl e ce r i c a l

,
n i , v

ga gh o u ; 26 i n fe ri o r ce rv i ca l ga n gli o n 2 7 to 3 0 d o rs al g an gli o n s
n

A po rt i o n o f t he spi n a l m a rro w — m e d u ll a s p i n l s ; b po st e ri o r r o o t
, , .

. a , a i ,

o f o n e o f th e n e r e s ; c g a n gh o u S i t u a t e d o n th i s roo t ; d a n t e ri o r ro o t o f
v , ,

t h e s a m e n e rve a b o u t t o u m t e w i th t h e p o st e ri o r ro o t a ft e r th i s l a tt e r h a s
,

a ss e d t h e g a n gl i o n ; e co mm o n tru nk fo rm e d by b o th ro o ts ; f s m a ll
pra n ch pro ce e d n g t o a n a sto m o s e w i th the gre a t sym p a th e ti c
, ,
i .

1 I t i s n o t th e n a tr u e an a sto m o s i s
’
.

1: P l e x u s fro m p l e to ( I i n t e rm i n gl e ) i s a t e rm a p p li e d a ls o t o th e bl o o d
,
c ,

v e ss e ls a n d m ea n s m e re ly a s o r t o f n e t w o rk
, .
 1 00 Z OOLO G Y .

te m of g rea t sym path e tic &c —

the is c ompos e d of a ce rta in , .

n umbe r o f sm all m ass e s o f n e rv o us m atte r un ite d to ea ch ,

o th e r b fil m ts f c mmu ic ti n an d by the s a m e m e an s
y a en o o n a o ,

to the n e rv e s o f the c e re bro -spi n al syste m Fro m th e s e .

g an gli on s n e rv e s proce e d to n um er ous vit al organ s an d ar e

, ,

suppo s e d als o to foll o w the co urs e of al l the gre at blood

ve ss e ls .

The gan gli on s compo sin g thi s syst e m ar e a rran ged i n

a d o ubl e co lu m n o n e ach side th e S pin e a n te ri o rly fr o m the , ,

fir st v e rt e br a to the l a st but m an y oth e rs ar e sca tte re d throug h

th e visc e r a Th ey ar e n ot fou n d i n the lim bs
. b road di stin o . A
ti on which e x ists betw e e n the c er e bro spi n al n er v e s an d the -

gan gli on ary is th at the fo rm e r p roc e e d to the ski n o rgan s

, ,

o f s e n s e m u scl e s &c ; th e l att e r to th e vit a l o rg an s a s the

, , .
,

h e art in te sti n e s liv e r kidn eys &c : the fo rm e r ar e n e r v e s

, , , , .

of r e l ati on ; the l a tt e r h av e m o r e a r e fe ren c e to n utriti on

1 9 3 N e r v ou s Sys tem of o ther A n i m a l s —I n al l an i
.

. .

m als birds fish e s an d r e ptil e s the ar ran ge m en ts of th e n e r v o us

, , , ,

syste m ar e much as i n m an .

But in the i n v er te b r a ta it is
n ot s o ; i n th e s e the ce r e br o
s in al axis s ee ms w an ti n g an d all ,

t e n e rv e s of the body see m to

r e un ite i n c e rt a in g an gli on s m or e

or l e ss apart fro m e ach o th e r

( Fig Fi n ally i n the .
,

divisi on s o f the zoo phyt e s t he re ,

re m ai n s on ly a v e stig e of a ru di
m e n ta ry n e rv ou s syst e m an d ,

e v e n this s ee m s to b e o cc as i on ally

e n tir e ly a bs e n t I n spe aki n g o f .

th e s e v ari o us grou ps o f an im als ,

th e pe culi a riti e s h e r e a dv e rte d to

w ill b e n otice d .

Le t us n ow c on sider the fu n c
F g 60 —N e r o s Syst m
i f v u e o
ti n s o f the syste m
. .

1 t C am b s 0 f th o .

ga l?
u
r d e iz
l e
l
§ 1 9 4 S e n s i bil i ty i s the faculty .

to r e ce iv e i m pr e ssi on s a n d to ,

h av e a c o n sci ous n e ss of th e m It b e lon gs to al l an im als but i n .

,

d iffe re n t d e gr e e s A s we asce n d i n the z oo l o gic al scal e the s e n

.
,

s a ti o n s b e co m e m o r e a n d m o r e v a ri e d the k n o wl e dge a cqu i re d ,

thr o u gh th e m eate r the n e rv ous syste m m o re com pl e x , .

1 9 5 I n t e l o w e st cl as s o f a n im als the structur e is at

.
,
 TH E N E RVOU S S Y S T E M . 1 01

first vei y simple an d th e i r s e n s ation s do n ot s ee m v e ry

,

distin ct I n the e arth -wo rm a k n otted co rd ex te n ds throu gh

.
,

ou t the wh ol e l e n gt h of the bo dy a n d to an d fr o m th e s e ,

k n ots or gan gli ons the n e rve s pro cee d but each of th e s e ,

a rts s ee m s e qu a l to e v e ry o the i an d th e r e i s n o spe ci al

p ,

i zati o n o f an This S implicity of S t r uctur e giv e s w a to

y .
y a

fo rm m o re co mpl e x as w e a sce n d i n the an im a l scal e

1 96 F u ncti ons of the N er v e s —Al l p arts of the bo dy
.

. .

a r e n ot e qu al ly suppli e d wi th n e rv e s a n d th e re a r e pa rts ,

w hich s ee m to h av e n on e H e n ce n o d oubt is th e fact th at .

, ,

w h ilst s om e p arts ar e e xtre m e ly s en sitiv e oth e r s ar e b u t li ttle ,

s o or wh ol ly in s e n sibl e
, N0 e xpe rim en ts a r e r eq u ir e d to S h o w
.

th at a p art o w e s i ts s en sibility to the c on tig u ity of the n e r v e

which co n n ects it with th e ce n tra l o rgan s o f the n e rv o us
syste m The n e rv e s th e n ar e n ot th e o rgan s by which the
.
, ,

s e n s ati on s ar e p e rce iv e d ; th ey m e r e ly tran s m it th e m to the

ce n tr al syste m wh e re al l pe rce pti on r e si des fi‘
,

1 9 7 Wh e re th en i s the s e a t of th e fac u lty of pe r ce ptio n ?

.
, ,

Which i s the pe rce i vin g o rgan ?

. fl
1 98 I n ue n ce of the E ncep ha l o n —D o e s pe rce pti on .

r e sid e i n th e spi n al m a rr o w th e c e r e be ll u m o r th e ce r e brum ?

, ,

E x p e rim e n ts o n livi n g an im als s u rgica l Ope rati on s an d , ,

accide n ts ha v e r e pea te dly p ro v e d th a t th e s e at o f pe rce pti on i s

,

n ot i n the spi na l m a rr o w Th e c u tti n g this acro ss i n a livin g

.

an im al m e r e ly d e str oys th e s e n sibi lity an d p ar a lyz e s the ,

m o v e m e n ts of all the pa rt s suppl i ed wi th n e rv e s fr o m it b e lo w

the po in t divid e d .

With th e brai n it is quite oth e rwis e The su r fac e o f .

the br ain an d its s u bst an ce g e n er a lly m ay b e cut or irrit ate d ,

i n a livi n g an im a l wi th o ut i t be in g s e n sibl e o f an y i nj u ry
o r p ai n ; but r e m o v e it an d th e wh o l e bo dy of the an im a l
,

i n sta n tly be co m e s i n s ens ibl e The acti on o f the br ai n is as .

e ss e n ti a l i n the pe r ce pti on of s e n s a ti on s as fo r the acts o f

v ol iti on
y
.

1 99 Th e i n s en sibilit o f the br a in wh en out or r ud e ly

.

to uc ed is a r e m a rk abl e c i rc u mst an ce l on g kn o w n h o w e v e r ,

to sur geo n s But the faculty o f pe rce i vi n g s e n s ati on s caus e d

.

by im p r e ssi on s on the o rgan s r e sid e s in it ; an d it w ould ,

’
s ee m fro m Flou r en s 3 e xpe rim en ts to re side m o r e es p eci ally
, ,

It i s n ow ce rt ai n th a t i mp res si o n s o ce t r l organ s o f
th e
pp
e u s or n n a

th e n e rvo u s syst e m a r e 0 wo m d s ; one a tte d e d wi th co sci ous e ss th e

n n n

o th e r wi th o u t —R K
,

. . .
1 02 ZOOLOGY .

i n the h e misph e r e s o f the ce re b rum to which th e s en s ati on s ,

ar e tr an s m itte d by the n e rv e s .

200 N e ith e r o u ght it to b e fo rgotte n t h a t each n e rv o us

.

fi b r is quite disti n ct fr o m on e e x tre m i ty to a n o th e r a n d to ,

this must b e a scribe d th e disti n ctn e ss i n o u r s e n s ati on s an d ,

the r e fe rr i n g th e m a lw ays to th e ir pe riph e r a l e xtre m iti e s A fte r .

a mp u t a ti on the p a in s which o c ca si o n a lly c o n ti n u e ar e co n

,

s ta n tl f r e d to the foo t or h a n d which is n o l on g e r

y r e e r

pre s e n t
—
.

§ 2 0 1 N .e r v e s of S e n s i bi l i ty or S e ns a ti o n Al l n e r v e s .

h av e n ot th e po we r of tr an sm itti n g s e n s a ti on s to the br ain ;

s o m e on the co n tr ar y ar e cl e a rly n e rv e s of m o ti on wh e th e r
, , ,

act e d o n by ou r will o r e x cite d by oth e r m e an s S om e .

n e rv e s , as the Optic tran smit o n ly the i m pr e ssi on s r e c e iv e d

,

from c o lo u rs to oth e r sti m u l an ts this n e rv e is i n s e n sibl e .

M c S i i — TO th e s e m od i
202 o.d ifi a ti o n s o f t /1 c e ns b i
l yt O
.

fi cati on s of th e s e ns ibility w e o w e th e fi v e s en s e s the s e n s e s

o f to u ch t a st e sm e ll h e a ri n g S e e i n g ar e so m an y disti n ct
, , , , ,

faculti e s putti n g us i n r e l ati o n with the v ar i o us qu al iti e s of

the ex te rn al w o rld TO the fir st p air o f n e r v e s b e l o g e th e
e r ce i v e ciio l ured
.

s e n s e Of od ou rs ; by the s e co n d p a ir w e
p
bo di e s ; the porti o m o llis o f the s e v en th p ai r by so m e c all e d ,

the e ighth p a i r is the i n st r um e n t by which the s en s ati on o f

,

s o u n ds i s c on v ey e d to the brai n ; an d by m e an s o f a bra n ch

o f the fifth p air w e p e r ce iv e th e s a pid qu aliti e s of Obj e cts ;

whil st the spi n al n e rv e s dist r ibute d to the fin ge rs an d toe s ,

e n do w th e ir e x tr e m iti e s with fi n e t a ctil e p o w e rs .

§ 203 The roots of the spi n al n e rv e s b ei n g doubl e a

.
,

do u b l e fu n cti on had b e e n l on g s u sp e ct e d ; thi s w as pu t be y o n d

disp u t e by Be ll an d M a en di e fi“ w ho sh o w ed th at by the
g

po ste ri o r r oo ts the s en s ati o n s trav e l to the brai n whilst by ,

the a n te ri o r the po w e r o f m o ti o n tr a v e ls to the muscl e s .

S om e di ffe r en ce s h a v e b e e n Obs e rv e d i n v ari o us p a rts o f th e

spi n al m arro w ; the s en sibility is acute i n the d o rs al aspe ct
o f the o rg an a n d much m o r e fe e bl e a n te ri o rly

204 G a n g l i on a rjy Sys tem —

, .

. This syste m is but little if

.
,

a t a ll , s e n sibl e to o rdi n a ry S timul an ts ; n e ith e r cutti n g n or

i n chi n a ffe cts i t I n t h e h e a lthy st a t e t h e o rga n s to
p .
,

w hi ch t e n e rv e s Of this sys te m pr oc e e d a r e i n li k e m a n ne r
but littl e if at a ll s en sibl e ; but wh e n dis e a s e d th e ir s e n si
, ,

b i l i ti e s b e c o m e highly e x alt e d .

F
i rst by Mr A alk e r —
. R K
. W . . .
 OF TH E S E N SE OF T OUCH . 1 03

205 Sp e ci a l Or g a n s
.
f o —
tl ze Sen s e s The appa r atus O f
the s e n sibility is n ot co mp o s e d o n ly o f the di ff e r e n t p a rts
O f th e n e rv o us syste m wh o s e us e s w e h a v e al r e ady po i n t e d

ou t ; the n e rv e s fu r n ish e d with the fa c u lty o f tr a n smitti n g to

the br ai n the s e n s ati on s r e achi n g us fro m w ith o u t d o n ot ,

te rmin ate fre e ly i n the e x te ri o r so as to r e c e iv e dir e ctly the

,

co n t act o f the produ cin g ag e n ts o f o ur s e n s ati on s but te rm i ,

n a te i n po sitiv e i n str u m e n ts d e sti n e d to co ll e ct s o to sa t he

y , ,

e x cita ti o n an d to pr e p a r e it i n s u ch a w ay a s to a ss u r e its
,

acti on . Th e s e i n strum en ts ar e the o rgan s o f the s e n s e s an d ,

it is e ss en ti ally by the in te rm e dium of the s e o rgan s th at the

s en s atio n s r e a ch u s ; b u t th e y ar e n ot i n dispe n s abl e for the
e x e rcis e o f a l l th e s e fa cu lti e s : th e ta ctil e s e n sibil ity m a
y be
c all e d i n to pl ay e v e rywh e re wh e r e n e rve s e x ist ada pte d to
co n duct the o rdin a ry s e n s ati on s an d it is on ly by th e spe ci a l
,

s e n s e s th a t is to say by the tas te s m e ll h e a ri n g an d sight

, , , , , ,

that this in te r m edi a te o rgan b etw e en the n e rve an d the

e x t e rn al w o rld is a n e c e ss ary con diti on .

H a vi n g stu die d i n a gen e r a l w ay the ph e n o m e n o n o f the

s en sibi l ity as w e ll as th e o rgan s which ar e its se at w e ou ght
, ,

n o w to ex am i n e m o r e i n d e ta il e ach o f the fo rms u n d e r which

y
thi s prope rt is m an ife sted or i n oth e r w o rds e n te r on th e
, ,

p a rticul a r h i sto ry o f e ach of the s en s e s with which n atu re

h as e n dow e d an im al s .

OF TH E SE N SE OF T O CH U .

206 Al l an im als
. p o ss e ss a t actil e s e n sibility m or e or
l e ssde li ca te , an d it is e spe ci a lly by the i n te rm e di u m o f the
m e m bran e with which the surfa ce o f th e ir b odi e s is cov e red ,

th at this faculty is e x e rcis e d To stu dy it it is th e n

.
, , ,

a b o v e all n e ce ss ary to e x am i n e wh at is th e struct u r e Of th e

ski n .

I n m an the e x t e r n a l surface o f the b ody an d th at o f the

, ,

ca viti e s h o ll o w e d o u t i n the i n te ri o r b u t c om m un ica ti n g

,

e x te rn ally s u ch a s the dig e stiv e c a n a l &c

, a r e cl o th e d with
, .
,

a te gu m e n ta ry m e mbra n e m o re or l e ss thick an d quite ,

dist i n ct fro m the p arts which it co v e rs This m e m bran e is .

e v e rywh e r e c o n ti n u ous with its e lf a n d i n r e a lity it fo rms b u t

,

a c on ti n u o us wh o l e ; b u t its pro pe rti e s a r e n ot e v e rywh e r e

th e s am e an d it is c all e d by di ffe re n t n am e s wh e n it is
,

r e fle cte d i n te rn ally to li n e the i n te ri o r c aviti e s o r wh e n it is ,

1 04 ZOOLOGY .

e xte n d ed o v e r th e o ute r sur fac e o f the bo dy The i n te rn al .

po rti on o f the gen e r al te g u m e n ta ry m e mbran e is c alle d

m u cou s m e m br a n e an d the e x te rn a l po rti o n s k i n
,
.

. h ki —
207 S tr u ctu r e of t e S m Tw o p ri n cip al l ay e rs
c o mpo s e the ski n : the de rmis o r tr u e skin an d the epide rmis ,

o r sc a rf ski n .

The d e r m is fo rms the d eep e r an d thick e r l ay e r o f the i a

te gum en ts It is a str on g su ppl e e l astic m em bran e whitish
.
, , , ,

an d v e ry r e sist an t A gr e at n u m be r of fibr e s m ay b e see n

.

i n it cro ssin g e ach oth e r i n al l dire cti on s

, Be n e ath it is a .

de n s e l ay e r o f ce llul a r substa n ce c on n e cti n g it to the subj ace n t

par ts an d i n this s o m e tim e s fl e shy fibr e s ar e fo un d On its
, .

su rfac e m ay b e s een e spe cia lly i n the p alms o f the h an ds an d

,

e x tre miti e s o f th e fi n ge rs the e l e v ati on s calle d p api l l a

, , ,

a rr an g ed i n r e gul ar r ows Of the d e rm is of an im als l eath e r

.

is m ad e .

The e pid e rmis is a ki n d o f i n s en sibl e v arn ish l aid ov e r the

s en sitiv e ski n b en e ath I t is a tiss u e co mp o s e d o f d ri e d -u p
.

u t ric ul e s which fo rm on the sur fa ce o f the d e rmis an d which

, ,

h arden on ly by b e in g e xpo s e d to the ai r It is co mpo s e d of .

s e v e r al l ay e rs of which th e l o w e r or d ee pe st l aye r b e i n g s oft

, ,

an d con ta i n i n g the pigm en ta ry m atte r givi n g th e c o l o u r to

th e ski n h a s be en vi e w e d an d de scrib ed by s om e physi o l o g ists

,

as a distin ct m e mbran e u n d e r the n a m e Of r e te m u cosu m

, In .

m an an d i n m an y an im als r e s em bli n g him the e pid e rmi s is

, ,

ca st off i n the fo rm o f sm all s ca l e s which ar e con st an tly ,

r en e w ed I n s e r p en ts the en tire e pid e r m is is c as t o ff as a

.
,

sl ough .

The po r e s o f the ski n co rr e spo n d to the summits Of the

p apil l ae j ust d e scribed Th ey giv e p ass age to the pe rspir ation
.

o r sw eat a n acid li quid fo rm e d by s e cr e ti on an d whi ch must

, ,

n ot b e co n fo u n d e d with the in s e n sibl e pe rspira ti o n Th ese .

po re s e x ce e di n gly mi n ut e d o n ot tr av e rs e the s ki n ; they ar e

, ,

m e re l the o rifice s Of the e x cre to ry ca n als o f s o m an y sm al l

am pi i as l odg e d i n th e s u bsta n c e of the S ki n an d which ar e ,

th e s ecre ti n g o rg an s o f the sw e at .

Oth e r l a rge r or ifice s ar e fo un d o n th e surfac e o f the ski n ;

s o m e for the pa s sa g e o f the h airs an d oth e rs fo r the e scape ,

o f a fatty m a tte r S ecre te d by fo llicl e s l odg e d i n the substa n ce

o f the ski n Th es e ar e c a ll e d s e bac eou s gl an ds or folli cles

. .

§ 2 0 8 T h e pri n cipa l u s e o f the e pid e rmi s is to thr o w

.

o bsta cl e s i n the w a
y o f e v a po r ati on an d to prote ct the s e n ,
 OF TH E S E NSE OF S M E LL . 1 05

si ti v e S ki n be neath It de ad en s m o r e or l e ss al l impr e ssi on s

. ,

an d h e n c e its thickn e ss on the h ee l an d s o l e of the foo t

ge n e rally : it thick e n s wh en e ve r it is e xpo s e d to fri cti on .

Fi n all y i n s om e an im al s it b e co m e s e n c rust e d with c alc areous

,

m atte r s be co min g th e n al to g e th e r in fl e xibl e an d r e n d e ri n g

, ,

the surfa c e of the bod y in s en sibl e .

209 The s en sibility of t he ski n r e side s i n the d e rmis

. ,

an d d e p e n ds o n th e n e r v e s of to u ch dist ribu te d to the

p api l l ae
ch —T actil e s e n sibil ity is
.

§ 2 1 0 S
.
p e ci a l O r g a ns of T ou

spread o v e r the wh ol e bo dy b ut it is i n the e x tre mity of the

,

fin g e rs al on e th at the tru e p o w e r of t o u ch r e sid e s The h an d .

,

o f co urs e is e spe ci ally m ad e fo r th e e x e rcis e of this faculty

,
.

The d e lic acy of th e i n te g um e n ts th e l e n gth of th e fin g e rs , ,

an d the Oppo si n g thumb al l co n t rib u te to this e ffe ct

,
.

I n m o st an im a ls th e s e o rg an s a r e n ot s o fa v our ably
ar r an g e d : n e v e rth e l e ss th e pro b o scis o f the e l e ph an t is a
,

w on de rful ly ta ct i l e i n str u m e n t Th e re ar e an im als whi ch e m

.

pl oy the to n g u e for this p u rpo s e an d o th e rs ar e pro vide d with ,

p alpi te n ta c u l a &c ( Figs 7

, , . .
,

2 1 1 By to u ch w e appr e ci ate m o st o f th e physic a l pr o

.

e ti e s o f b o di e s s u ch as th e ir dim e n si o n s fo r m te mpe r atu re

p r , , , ,

co n siste n ce po lish or the oppo sit e w e ight m o v e m e n ts &c

, , , , .

So m e phil o s oph e rs h av e ado pte d e x agge r a te d id e as o f the

impo rt an c e of this s e n s e to hum an i n te l l ige n c e for which ,

th e re is n ot the slighte st occ asi on .

OF TH E S E N SE O F TAST E .

21 2 By this s en s e w e disco ve r th e s a v o urs of b o di e s

. .

21 3 Ce rta i n b odi e s ar e e x tr e m e ly sa pid o th e rs but

.
,

littl e , an d s om e n ot at al l The caus e o f th e s e di ffe re n ces i s

.

quite u n kn o w n ; but ge n e r ally sp eaki n g i n s olubl e bodi e s ar e

, ,

n ot s a pid an d wh e n th e to n gu e is dry a n d p ar ch e d the tas te

,

is n ot pe rce iv e d .

2 1 4 By t aste m o st an i m als dis ti n guish th e ir foo d ; an d

.

h en c e n o doubt the r e as on why the i n strum en t is pl ace d at

, ,

the e n tr an ce of th e dig e stiv e t u b e The to n gu e is the p ri n .

e ip e l s ea t o f ta ste ; b u t oth e r p a rts o f th e m o uth p o ss e ss th e

po w e r of pe rc e ivin g ce rt ai n s av ou rs Th e m u c o u s m e mbr an e .

which co v e rs the ton u e o f m a n is su ffi ci e n tly w e l l suppli e d

with b l oodv es sel s n e rv e s supplyi n g p apill ae Of v a ri ous
1 06 ZOOLO G Y .

for ms — l e n ticul ar fu n gi fo rm a n d c on ic al The to n gu e its e lf

, , ,

is m u sc u l a r , an d r e c e iv e s bra n ch e s o f m o to r an d s e n ti en t
n erves . A
br an ch o f the fifth p a ir is the gus tato ry ; it is
s om e ti m e s c al l ed li n gu al .

2 1 5 If this n e rv e b e cut i n the livi n g an im a l the s e n s e

.
,

o f t as te is de stroy e d but the m ov e m e n ts o f th e to n gu e

W ,

re m ai n ; if divide d ithi n the cran iu m the s en s e Of ta ste i s ,

d es troy ed al l o v e r the i n te ri o r o f the m outh .

The s e cti on of the hypo gl o ss a l n e rv e s d e str oys the m oti on

o f the to n gu e a n d o f a l l o th e r p a rts to w h i ch th e se n e rv es ro
p
cee d The s e n s e o f t a ste r e m ai n s u n affecte d The gl o s so
. .

ph aryn ge al distribu te d chi efly to the ph aryn x an d which ar e

, ,

se ns itiv e n e rv e s h a v e al s o so m e gusta to ry p o we rs
, .

2 1 6 The to n gue has n ear ly th e s am e structur e i n all

.

an im al s ; but i n bi r ds it is ge n e r a lly c a rtil agin o us an d with o ut ,

n e r v o us p a pill ae ; a cc o rdi n gly th e ir s e n s e o f t aste is con

,

s i d e r e d as Obsc u r e It is much the s a m e i n fish e s ; an d i n

.

the l o w e r an im al s th e faculty s ee ms to b e e x e r cis e d by al l

,

the i n t e ri or o f the m o uth .

OF TH E SE N SE OF S M E LL .

21 7 . pro duce d by p articl e s of ex trem e

Odo ur s ar e

te n uity which e s ca pe fro m Odo ro us bo di e s a n d sprea d

, ,

thro ugh the ai r lik e v apo u rs The q u an tit r equisite of

so m e o f th e s e Od o rous m att e rs po w e rfu lly to affe
.

ct the sm el l ,

is e xt re m e ly s m all ; a m o rs e l of m u sk for e x ampl e will pe r , ,

fum e the ai r o f a roo m for a c on sid e r abl e ti m e w ith out l o si ng

its w e ight So m e bo di e s imbibe v a po urs an d be co m e Odor ou s
.

i n th e ir t u rn such as cl oth e s an d w ate r ; but oth e rs r es i st

,

th e ir p as s ag e alto ge th e r such as gl ass Od our s m ay b e pe r

, .

ce i v ed at a gr e at dist an c e b u t the Od o r o u s pa rticl e s m us t

,

alw ays co m e i n co n t act with th e o rgan s F o r th i s the m e .

,
'
ch an i s m o f sm e l l i s a n a l o go us to th a t of tas te an d to u ch ,

whilst i n sight a n d h e arin g it is q u ite o th e rwis e .

2 1 8 As th e a i r is the o rdi n ar y v ehicl e o f o do urs the

.
,

organ p e rce ivi n g th e m is place d at the e n tran ce Of th e r e spi

r ator
y tub es I n m an . as w e ll as i n m am m a ls
, bir ds a n d , ,

re pt i le s the n as al fo ss ae ar e the s eat o f the s e n s e of sm e ll

, .

2 1 9 Th ese fo ss ae c o m m u n ica te with the e x te ri o r by the

.

n o stri ls an d o p en be hi n d in to th e ph a ryn x
,
Th ey ar e s e par ate d .

fro m each o th e r by a v e rti c al p artitio n ; th e ir w all s ar e

for m e d by v a ri ous b on e s o f the fac e an d by the c art i l age s o f ,
 or TH E S E N SE OF S M E LL . 1 07

th e n o e. sO l w all of e ach m ay b e s e e n thre

n th e t
ex e r n a e

pro m i n e n t l a m i n a cur ve d on th e m s e lv e s ; th e y ar e fo r m e d by
,

the tur bi n ate d bo n e s a n d by b e i n g th u s r oll e d on th e ms e lv e s ,

th e y thus e xt e n d c on sid e rably the pituit ary m e mbran e which ,

i n v e s ts th e m Upo n this m e m bran e the Ol facto r y n e rv e s ar e

.

dist ribu te d Fi n ally be twe en th e se turbi n ate d bo n e s th e r e

.
,

ar e lon git u di n a l groo v e s ,

c a ll e d m e atus e s Th e se m k .

fo ss ae co m mu n ic a te with
ca viti e s c al l ed si n u s e s hol
, ,

l o w e d out i n the thickn e ss

o f the fr o n t a l b o n e the s u ,

p e ri o r m a xill a ry &c The , .

pituit a ry m e m br an e is
thick an d has a v e lve ty
,

app e a r an c e ; on its s ur fa c e

m ay b e o bs e rv e d a v ibr atil e
m o v em en t pr odu ce d by
,

micro sc opic cili a ; fin a ll y it ,

is c on t i n u ally m oiste n e d by Fi g 60 bi g —N asal p o m ,

s

a visc ou s liquid c a ll e d n a s a l ,

muc u s an d it r ec e iv e s m an y n erv o us fil am e n ts fro m the

,

o lfact o r y a n d fift h p air o f n e rv e s

220 Th e m e m br an e m u st b e m o ist i n o rde r th at Od ours

.
,

m ay b e pe rce iv e d ; an d the s en s e is stro n ge st i n the uppe r

p art Of the n o stril The e xte n t o f m e mbr an e s ee ms gr e atly
.

to i n flu e n c e th e p ow e r of the o rgan ; an d i n this r e sp e ct th e

ca rn i v o ra the rum i n an ts an d s o m e p achyd e r m ata ar e r e
, , ,

m a rk abl e for the d e v e l opm e n t o f th e tu r bin at e d bo n e s an d ,

co n s eq u e n tly fo r the ex te n t of m u co us m e mbr an e co v e ri n g

th e m I n re ptil e s the o rga n i s e xtre m e ly si m pl e
. .

§ 221 I n fish e s. th e n a s a l fo ssa e d o n o t c o mm u n ica te

,

with the ph ary n x b u t ar e m e re ly c aviti e s sh u t i n at the

,

back an d th e pituitar y m e mbran e pr e s e n ts i n th e m a n u m

,

b e r o f folds ar r a n ge d lik e r ays ar ou n d a c e n tral po in t or

, ,

i n p ara ll e l r o ws l ik e the te e th of a c omb on e a ch S id e Of a ,

m e di an b an d .

Bu t th e r e ar e m an y an i m al s which h a v e a fi n e s e n s e o f

V rti c l s ecti o f the s l f ssw r p re s ti g th e o te r w ll of th

e a n o na a o e en n u a e
l ft s l f s — the m o th d p rt
,

e na a os a . a o f th
,
b e o f th e cr i m u , o i on e as an u
e, fo r h e d ; m s h oi d l s i s
e a , p i g o f th E st chi
en t b ;a p nu 71 , O en n e u a an u e 0, en
d l u o usp l te a a fro t l s i s s d
. t e i st i y g p rs s b t wi th
n a nu e o no ex n o un e on , u
ag e th e y ft cq i r c s i d r bl d m e si ons s d o th e sph oi d l si u s e s
o en a u e on e a e i n ,
a en a n .

Th y r g e rally sm ll i wo m e
e a e en a n n.
 1 08 ZOOLOGY .

sm ell as i n s ects crus ta ce a an d m ollusca an d

, , , , in which no

spe ci al o rg an o f sm e ll has e ve r bee n di s co v e red .

OF TH E S E N S E O F H E AR I N G .

§ 2 22 T h e a pp a
0
r a tus o f h e ar.i n g is v e ry co mpl e x , mi n ute ,

a nd di ffic u lt to d e scrib e , a n d its e ss en ti a l p a rt is e n cl o s e d

withi n the r ocky p o rti o n of th e te m po ral bo n e ( Fig 6 1 e )

—
. .

W e divide the e ar of m an i n to th ree po rti on s th e e x te rn a l

i

l l !
f
l l
h g e e c

Fi g 6 1 . .
—A u di to ry App ara tu s .
‘

V rti c l s e c ti on Of th e a di t o ry app r t s so m wh t m agni fi d as re sp ects

e a u a a u e a e

t h e d p r stru c t res — e t e r
,

ee e l ; 6 l b o f th
u .
; a t h e mi e ce
, x na e ar ,
o e e e ar c. e n n
ca lle d ti t ra gu s ; d c ch co ti o us wi th th t r l di to ry c n l (f )
an ,
on a, n nu e ex e na au a a
cc, rocky p rt f th t m p r l b e ; ’ m ast i d p roc ss ;
a O e e rti c l r c i ty
o a on e ,
o e a u a av
for th e co dyl e f th e l w r j w ;
n stylo i d p r ce ss o f th t m p r l bo e
o o e a o e e o a n
x tre mi ty o f th c
e l by whi ch th e i t r al ca r ti d rte ry p as se s i to
e an a n e n o a n
th i te ri or o f th e cran i m ; f a ri c l r ca
e n l ; g m e m br u tymp ani ; , u u a na , ana
h c i ty o f t h e tym p a um
,
av th s si c l au di t h e b ee r m e d ;
n e o u a us av n e ov
i O
, i g i th w ll o f the tym p
cu n n em l di n g t o ss eo u s c e ll s ; th e f
a st ra an u ea o e ne
d r t d a e clo s to this p i g ; k E stachi tu be ; l e sti
'

ov s an o un a r e o en n , u an , v
b ul m s e mi ci rcul ar c als ; cochl a ; aco u st i c e rve
e , an n, e o, n .
 or TH E S E N SE or H E AR I N G . 1 09

e ar , middl e ear an d the i n te rn al e ar The e x te rn al e ar is

the , .

co mpo s ed of the pavil on o r figure d p art of the ear an d the ,

a udito ry c an al .

The figur e d p art o f the e ar i s c o mp o s e d of a fi b r o -ca rti l a

g i n o u s l a mi n a a dh er in g to the edg e o f the a udit o ry c an a l a n d
, ,

co v e re d with a v e ry fin e an d thi n ski n dry an d te n s e an d is , ,

s o a rr an ge d a s to fo rm an ac o ustic tub e The l o be of th e e ar .

is n ot s u pp o rt e d by an y c a rtilage The a udi to ry t ub e is .

p artly c artil agi n ou s an d p artly o sseo us ; th e in te gu me n ts

p ass i n to it an d te rmi n ate by a cul -de -sac o v e r the dr um o f
,

the e ar It is i n this tub e or can a l th at w e fi n d the sm al l

s e bac eo u s folli cl e s w hich s ec r e te the ce rum en —th at i s the
.

w ax o f t h e e ar .

a b c

Fi g 62 . c l A di t s
.
—Tym p a n um an d O ss i u a u u .
’

The middl e e ar i s co m p o s e d o f the tym p an u m of the ca vity ,

o f the tymp an um an d pa r ts c o n n e cte d with it , .

The c avity o f the tymp an u m is a ca vity o f an irr e g u l a r fo rm ,

h o ll o w e d o u t i n the subst an ce o f the rocky p ar t of the te m

po r al bo n e a n d s eparate d fr om th e audit ory ca n al by the m em
,

bran e o f the tymp a n um Oppo site to this m e mbr an e ar e two .

Ope n i n gs c all e d the fen e stra o v alis an d r otun da

,
I n th e .

back w all of th e c a vity is an ope n i n g l e adi n g to the m as to id

u
R
e p res

,
ts th e c i ty f th tym p m th ss i c l au di t s d the i r
m s cl e s m a g m fi e d
en av o
c i ty f th ty m p m ; b m m b r tym p i o
.
-
a a ,
av
e
o e
an u ,

an u
e o

,
u a
e ana
u , an
an , r
r th r th e ss eo s ci rcl t w hi ch i t i tt h d ; h dl f t h m l l s
a e o u e o s a ac e 0, an e o e a eu ,

r sti n t h m i ddl
on f th m e m b r
e tym
e i ; d h d o f th m l l u s
o e an a an ea e a e

t i c ti g wi th t h i c s ;
e ,

ar a n l g h dl 0 th e m lle s pass i g i t th
e n u e, on an e a u ,
n n o e
gl i d l fiss ; th
eno a t ri o r m u scl e f the m l l s i tt ach e d t i t ; f i
ur e e an e o a eu s a o , h
t r l m scle o f th m ll e s ; g an il ; h l ti c l r b o ; i st p s ;
e na u e a u ,
v , en u a ne , a e

1 m sc l s st pe di s
c, u u u a u .
1 10 ZOO LO GY .

ce lls ; an d i n fe ri o rly m ay b e s e e n the Ope n i n g o f the Busta

chi an tube l ead i n g to the n as al fo ss ae an d thus admitti n g t he
, ,

e xt e r n a l ai r i n t o th e ca viti e s o f the m iddl e e ar Fi n a ll y this .

,

c avit is tra v e rs e d by a ch ai n o f sm all b on e s e x te n di n g fro m ,

the .
ru m o f th e e a r to the bo tt o m o f t he fe n e str a o v a lis ,

whe re it to u ch e s by the b as e of the sta pe s the m e mbran ous

v e stibul e .

The bo n e s ar e fo ur i n n u mbe r an d a r e ca ll e d th e m all e us

i n cu s l e n ticul ar bo n e an d sta pe s
, ,
,

A
s m all stal k be l on gi n g to
.
,

the m all e us r e sts o n the dru m o f th e e ar Fi n ally s m a ll .

,

m u scl e s a tta ch e d to th e s e bo n e s a u gm e n t o r dimi ni sh the

t e n sion o f the ch ai n .

The i n te r n al e ar i s als o e n cl o s e d withi n the r ocky p art o f th e

t e m po r a l b on e It is c ompo s ed o f thre e pa rts
.

the v e stibul e th e s e m icirc u l a r c an a ls an d

, ,

co chl ea The v e stib u l e is i n the m iddl e

.
,

a n d c o mmu n ica te s with the tym p an u m

by the fe n e stra o v alis The s e m i circ u l ar .

ca n als (m ) ar e thre e i n n um be r an d ar e ,

ro u n ded o s s e ous an d m embran o us t u be s .

Fin ally the cochl e a ( n ) is a si n gl e o rgan

, ,

re s e mbli n g the sh e ll of the wh e lk ; i ts

ca vit is divid ed i n t o two p arts by a l on
d '

itu n al parti ti on half o sse o us h alf m e m

0r
, ,
F’
g ff fiz
l
g fi
z fi r an o u s an d c o m m u n ic a te s with the i n te
‘ one s
,

ri o r o f the v e stibul e an d with the tym

p an um by th e fe n e s t ra rotu n d a The i n t e rn a l e ar is o ss eo u s .

a n d m e mbr an o u s con ta i n i n g a w ate ry fluid a n d e v e n i n

, , ,

m an ,
s o m e r e m a i n s o f a s e mi -
s olid bo dy an al o go u s to the ,

v it ri n e o f the eye The au di to ry n e r v e e n te rs the r ocky p a rt

.

o f th e te mpo r a l b y the i n te r n al a u dito r y ca n al an d te r m i n a te s ,

i n the i n te ri o r of th e m e mbran o us po uch e s o f th e v e stibu l e ,

se m icircul a r ca n als an d c ochl ea On its i n t e grity d e pe n d s

, .

the s e n se o f h e a ri n g
—
.

2 23 M . e ch a n i s m o f H e a r i n
g S o u n d is th e r e sult o f
.

a v e ry r a pid v ibr ato ry m o v e m e n t which the p a rticl e s o f

'
s o n o ro u s bo di e s e xpe ri e n c e wh e n struck The u n dul atio n s o i .

th e s o n o ro us bo dy ar e co mm u n ica te d to the a i r which is i n

co n tact with it an d ar e thus pro p ag a te d to a di sta n ce To
, .

b e a u dibl e th e y must reach the fl u id which i m m e di a te ly

,

bath e s the a co ustic n e r ve .

§ 2 2 4 T h
. e so n o ro us vibr ati on s first strik e the e x te rn a l

th m all e u s ; b th e i n c s
a, e ,
th e l ti cula r b e ; d the st pe s
u c, en on , a .
 OF TH E S E N SE or S I GH T . 111

e ar b l it th e y ar e r e fl e cte d an d str en gth e n e d an d d i re cte d

to w ardsthe m iddl e e ar by th e a udit o ry p ass age ; b u t i n m an
; ,

pro b ably fr om the s m all n e ss o f the e x t e rn a l e ar th e l o ss o f it ,

d oe s n ot gre atly affe ct the h e ari n g The v ibrati on s e x cite d .

i n the e x te r n a l e ar p a ss i n t e rn ally by th e w alls of the c an al ,

but chi e fly throu gh the ai r which fills the c an al an d so r e ach ,

th e middl e e ar .

225 Th e m e mbr an e o f th e t m pan u m i s the chi e f ag en t

.

i n fa cilit ati n g th e tr an smissi on 0 th e s on o rou s vibr ati on s o f

the e x t e r n al ai r to w a rds the a co ustic n e rv e ; this h as b ee n
prov ed b y m an y e x p e rim e n ts .

226 The vibr ati on s ar e tr an smitte d fro m the m e mbr an e

.

o f th e tym p an um to th e sm a ll b on e s o f th e e ar to the w alls ,

o f th e c avity an d to th e ai r it c on t a i n s an d thus th e y r ea ch
, ,

m e m bran e s str e tch e d o v e r ap e rtur e s l e adin g to the i n t e rn al

e ar
. Now th e po ste ri o r s u rfa c e o f th e s e m e mbr an e s is i n con
t a ct with the a queou s liq u id filli n g the i n te rn al ear an d i n ,

this liqu id ar e s u sp en d e d the m em bran ou s p o uch e s which i n , ,

th e ir tur n ar e fill e d with an oth e r liqu id i n to which plu n ge

, ,

the t e rmi n ati n g fil am e n ts o f th e aco u stic n e rv e Thus the .

vibrati on s r each th e n e rv e i t s elf by which the s en s ati on i s

c om m u n ic a te d to the br a i n .

2 27 Th e ai r c on t a i n e d i n th e c a vity of th e tymp an um
.

s ee m s to pl ay an impo rt an t p a rt i n the ph en o m e n a of h e a r
i n g for it h as b e e n o bs e rv e d th at wh en the E u st a chi an tub e
,

h as b e e n cl o s e d by dis e a s e d e a fn e ss i s al m o st sur e to fo ll o w
, .

Bu t the i n t e grity of the dr u m o f th e e a r is n o t s o e ss en ti al

fo r th e d u e p e rfo r m an ce o f th e fu n cti o n .

228 H o w e v e r i m p o rt an t th e ch ai n o f s m all b o n e s o f
.

th e ty m p an u m m ay b e i n m od e r ati n g th e i n t en sity o f s oun ds

striki n g the d ru m o f th e e a r or by a ssistin g i n its t e n si on so
,

as to en abl e u s to p e rc e iv e r e m o te o r fe e bl e s o u n ds c e rtai n it ,

is th at the l oss o f the h am m e r the a n vil an d l e n ticul a r b on e

, , ,

d oe s n ot n e c e ss ar il y c au s e the l o ss of h e a ri n g which h ow e v e r ,

i s s a id to b e sure to h app e n wh e n th e st a pe s ha s a ls o b e en
l o st .

§ 2 29 .A dmitti n g th at al l th e p a rt s j u st d e scrib e d s e rv e

to p e rfe ct the e ar o f m an it m u st a ls o b e ad m itt e d th a t th e y

,

a r e n ot a l l e ss e n ti a l to th e o rg an a s a n i n str u m e n t o f s e n s e .

Th ey als o gradu al ly dis a pp e a r a s w e d e sc e n d i n the sc al e o f

b e i n gs Th u s i n birds we h av e n o l on ge r an e x te r n a l car
.
, , .

I n r e ptil e s th e e x te rn a l au di t ory c an a l a ls o dis app ea rs ; the

drum o f the e ar b e c o m e s e x t e rn al a n d the c avity o f the tym
,
 ZOOLO G Y .

pa nn m s i mplified ; fi n al ly i n m o st fis h e s e ve ry v e stige o f,

an e xte rn al e ar a n d a m i dd l e ear dis a ppe a rs an d the a pp a r atus ,

o f h ea ri n g i s c o mpo s e d o f a m e mbr a n o us v e stib u l e s u rm o u n te d ,

by thr ee s e micirc u l a r c an als furn ish e d b e l o w with a s m a l l ,

sac which s e e ms to r e pr e s e n t the co chl ea

, th e wh o l e b e i n g ,

suspe n d ed i n the l ate ra l p art of the gre at c a vity o f the e ra

m um .

In im als pl ace d still l o w er i n the sca l e w e fin d a ls o dis

an , ,

a pp e a ri n g th e c o chl e a a n d s e m icir cul ar can als the str u ctur e s o f

, ,

which w e k n o w n ot the u se but the m embran o us v e stibul e

is an o rgan which is n e v e r w a n ti n i n an y car m e mbran ous g . A
s ac fill e d with a fl u id i n to W t l l pe n e trate the n e rv e s of
,

h eari n g is the e ss en ti al of the o rgan

, In this fluid a r e .

susp e n d e d s o m e so lid c orp uscl e s wh i ch o sci ll ate i n ce ssan tly ,

an d which m ay b e c o mp a r e d to th e otoli te s of the i n te rn al

e a r i n fish e s .

I n m o st i n s e cts th e re is n o v e stig e to b e fou n d o f th e o rgan

o f h e ari n g a n d ye t th o s e a n i m als d o n ot s e e m i n s e n si b l e to
,

s o un d Fi n ally i n z o ophyt e s an d i n an im als still l ow e r the

.
, , ,

fa cu l ty of h e ar in g its e lf app e a rs to b e w an ti n g .

OF TH E SE N SE OF S I GH T .

230 The s e n s e o f sight e n abl e s u s to d i sco v e r th e pr e

.

s e n ce o f o bj e cts by th e i r co l ours It tak e s c ogni z an ce als o o f .

th e ir form , siz e , an d r e l ativ e p o siti on to u s The optic n e rv e , .

the e ye -b all an d its appe n d a ge s , c on stit u te the app a r at u s .

—
23 1 S tr u
2 ctu re
. o
f t e E ye The gl obe of the eye is a
h
h o ll o w sph e re , c ompo s e d of m e mbr an e s , an d hum ours m o re
o r l e ss fl u id Wh en th e gl ob e o f the eye i s diss e cte d fr o m
.

witho u t in w ar ds , it is fo un d to b e co mp o s e d o f the tun ic ,

call e d s c l e r o ti c, white an d fibrous , an d of gr eat str en gth .

I n fro n t , an d c on ti n u o u s with this , is th e tr an sluc e n t c o rn e a ,

by which th e r ays o f l ight p a ss i n to the in te ri o r o f the

e ye . I f the corn e a b e o pe n ed , the a q u e ou s h u m our e s ca pe s .

By re m ovi n g th e c o rn e a , or a l a rge p o rti on o f it , w e

e x p o s e the i r i s , a c o l o u r e d circ u l a r m e m br a n e , pl a ce d lik e

a p a rtiti on b e tw e e n th e a n te ri o r a n d po ste ri o r ch am b e rs o f

th e a q u e o u s hum o urs The iris fl oa ts i n this hum ou r , is con

.

tra ctile an d by its con tr actili ty the ap e rt u re i n its c e n tre ,

,

e
Acc rd i g t th e p e ri m e ts f M
d st r ct u
o
i on o
n

f th s m i ci rc ul r c
o
ls d s
e e
ex
a
n
an a
o
oe
.

no t
Fld str sy
ou en
e ro
,
i t w o uld s e e m th a t th e
r
th e h ea r i n g , b n t e n d e s r
i t p ai n ful a n d co n f us e d .
 OF TH E S E N S E O F S I GH T .
1 13

c all e d the pupil an d w hich i n m an is circul a r v a ri e s

, ,

p e rp etu ally with the am ou n t of light to which the eye is

e x po s e d This circ u l a r m e m bran e is m uscul ar or at l e a st
.
,

fibro u s an d c on tr actil e an d is a bun dan tly suppli ed with ,

n erv e s .

Con ti n u ou s with th e iris h '

, c s

an d e x t e n din g b ackwa rds

b e n eath the scl e rotic is the ,

d a rk v asc u l ar m e m br an e ,

ca l l e d ch oro id co n n e cte d ,

with the pig m e n t o f the

e ye ; a n d withi n it th e r e

ti n a or m e m bra n e i n which
,
ca
the opti c n e rv e t e r m i n a t e s .

The h u m o urs which th e s e

m e mbran e s c on tain an d ci r
cu m scr i b e ar e i n s u cc e s
p b v c
si on pro ce e din g from be fo r e
,
F g 64 th Ey l
b ackw ards the a qu e ou s ,
’ ” e e

hu m ou r the l en s an d the
, ,

vitr e o us hu m our .

The optic n e rv e en te rs th e e y e b all t ow ar ds the b ack p ar t ,

p a ssin g thro u gh the scl e rotic an d cho ro id an d t e r m i n at e s i n ,

the r e ti n a which is g e n e r ally vi e w e d a s an ex p an si on o f this

,

n e rv e . Bu t o th e r n e rv e s e n t e r th e ey e b all s u ch a s th e ,

c il i a ry c o m i n g p artly fr o m the fi fth p a ir an d p a rtly fro m a

,

gan gli on the Ophth a lmi c with which the fifth an d thir d co m
, ,

m un i cate Fro m thi s gan gl i on th ou gh sm a ll m o st of the

.
, ,

cili a ry n e rv e s pro ce e d in to the i n t e ri o r of the eye to s u pply

the cili a ry cir cl e an d th e iris .

The c i li a ry ligam e n t or c i rcl e is a p e cu l i a r r i n g c o n n e ct i n g

0

the ch o ro id ir is an d scl er o tic to e ach o th e r

, , Its n ature an d .

fu n cti o n s h av e n ot ye t b e e n de t e r m i n ed b u t it i s w e ll su p ,

pli e d with n e rv e s i n an i m als Of stron g visi on a s i n th e ea gl e ,

an d v ul tur e Th e h u m ou rs ar e co l ourl e ss an d tr an sp ar e n t
.
,

an d the s am e r e m ark a ppli e s to al l th e p a rts situ at e d b e tw e en

c, th e tr s
a n p are n scl r t c f rt
tc r
o n e a ; a, e o i scl r t c t r d
s , po i o n o f the e o i u ne
b ck
a ds l y
to i p a p o i o n O f t h e m e mrt s
br s t t d b
an e th
Si u a e en ea I t ; ch , th e ch o

r d
oi ; v , th ert tc r
e i n a ; n , t h e Op i t r r ch b r
n e v e ; ca , a n e i o am e o f th e e ye ,
st t db t
i ua e e we e n thec r rs c
o n e a an d t h e i i , an dct th
o mm u n i a i n
g wi th e os
ch b r by
t e ri o r am e g
t h e O p e ni n s l d l th s ch
i n th e ir i , cal e t h e p u pi ; e e ai n e s
r
c t q
o n ai n th e a u e o ush r
um ou rs l
i , th e i i ; p , th e p u p i , a n O e m n g i n t h e m e
p
by h ch
w i r ys l ght ss t
th e a of i pa d r ch b r s
i n o t he e e p e am e o l t h e e y e ; or , th e
ci st l h
a l i ne r
um o u l s l ry r c ss s
p c, ci i a r s h rvi t e o u um o u
b g a p o rt i o n o f th e co nju n c ti va
or en p o e e ;
, .
1 14 ZOOLOGY .

the t i r an d the re ti n a i n the axis o f visi on or m e as u re d

e x er o ,

by the siz e o f the p u p i l The c o rn e a is e v e rywh e re ab so .

l u te l y tran sp a re n t an d s o is the c o nj u n ctiv a which co v e rs it

, .

I n the iris so m e o f t he fibre s proc ee d li k e r adi i fro m

,

the fr e e e dge o f the pupil t ow a rds the b as e ; oth e rs sur

ro u n d a s i t w e re th e pu pil an d act lik e a sphi n cte r i n
, , ,

con tra ctin g the o rific e The a qu e ou s hum our th ough qu ite .
,

tran sp are n t co n ta i n s a little a lbum e n an d s a lts such as ar e

, ,

m e t with i n a l l an im a l s e cr e ti on s Wh e n su ffe re d to e sc ape .

by a pu n ct u re or s e cti o n of the c o rn e a it is spee dil y re pl ace d , .

The cili a ry pro c e ss e s s ee n surr ou n di n g the ca psul e of th e

l e n s an d which ar e ap n dag e s of the ch oro id m e m br an e ar e
, ,

e x tr e m e ly v a sc u l a r a n m ay be the s o ur c e of the s e cr e ti on o f
,

this hum ou r an d o f the vitri n e .

The c ryst alli n e hum o u r o r l en s is a bo dy o f c on sid e r abl e

d en sity co m po s e d of c on c en tric l ay e rs It is e n v e lo p ed i n a
, .

disti n ct ca ps u l e an d wh en re mo ve d i n yo un g an im a ls m ay b e
,

replace d by an oth e r The l e n s is m o r e con v e x po ste r i o rly

.
‘

th an an te ri o rly i n m an .

The vitrin e ( vitr e o u s h u m our ) is a s e mi -s olid b o dy e n cl o s e d ,

i n a caps u l e in te rs ec te d by m e mbr an o u s p ar ti ti o n s i n which

, ,

the fl u id is co n tai n e d Its m e mbran e is c alle d the hy al o id

. .

I n a l bi n o s th e pigm e n t an app en d ag e of the ch o ro id an d

, ,

iris i s w an tin g
, .

Un d e r a high m icr o sco pe the fil am en ts Of the Optic n e rve ,

s e e m to te r m i n ate i n n u m e r ous cyli n drica l p apil l ae re s e mbl in g ,

m o s a ic
—
.

23 2 M e cha . n i s m f
o V i s i on Th e s u n an d b o di e s i n a

stat e of ign iti on ar e visibl e in th e m s e lv e s ; b u t oth e r bodi e s

a r e visibl e to us on ly by the r e fl e cti on o f li g ht i n such a w ay

a s to r e ach us .

Light m o v e s with e x tr e m e r a pidity ; it affe ct s us o n ly

wh en it r e ach e s the r e tin a ; Op aq u e bodi e s r e fl e ct o r abs o rb it ;
tran sp are n t b o di e s as ai r Offe r it a fre e p a ss age
, , .

Wh ate v e r obstru cts the fr e e p as s a ge o f the light thro ugh .

th e co nj un ctiv a c o r n e a an d h u m ou rs o f the e ye i n its w ay

, , ,

to the r e ti n a o bstr u cts or d e stroys visi on ; h e n ce the e ff e cts

,

o f o p a city o f a n y o f th e s e str u cture s : the ca ta r act which

d es troys visi on is m e re ly an o p aqu e l en s which be i n g re m o v e d ,

ou t Of th e axis of visi o n by th e s u rg eo n r e st o r e s th e fun cti on ,

of the eye .
’

B ut th ese di aph an ous p arts of the eye s e r v e o th er pu es

be side s the n e gativ e on e of pe r mitt i n g the fre e p ass ag e 0 the
 OF TH E S E NS E OF S I GH T . 115

r ays of light i n to the i n te ri o r of the eye b al l ; th ey ch an ge

the d i re cti on o f the r ays o f light Th e eye is b u t a ki n d o f
.

ca me r a o b s cu r a th e im a g e o f Obj e cts b e in g as it w e r e pa i n te d
,

o n the r e ti n a ; this im ag e w e see an d n ot the o bj ect its e lf

, .

To u n d e rstan d thi s art of the histo ry o f visi on it is o n ly

n e ce ss a ry to r e fe r bri e fl
,

y to s om e of the l a ws o f Opti cs .

L ight tr a v el s i n str a ight

div e rgi n g li n e s . Wh en the y
fal l p e rpe n dic u l ar ly on the sur
face Of a tra n spar e n t body th ey ,

tr a v e rs e it witho ut an y ch an ge
i n th e ir di r e ction ; but fal li n g
o bliqu e ly , th ey ar e alw ays
affe cte d m o r e or l e ss i n th e ir

dir ecti on If th e y ar e p assin g

.

fro m a rar e r i n to a den se r m e

di u m a s fro m ai r i n to w a te r
, ,

th ey ar e re fracte d to wa rds the F i g 65 . .

p e rp en dic u l a r ; the Oppo site

h app e n s i n p a ssi n g fr om a de n s e r i n t o a r a re r m e dium ; th e y
a r e th e n r e fra cte d fr o m th e p e rp e n dicul a r A
str aight r od fo r
.
,

e x a mpl e , plu n ge d i n to w ate r appe a rs b en t at the po i n t o f

,

i m m e rsi o n ; an d by pl a cin g a c o in i n an e mpty b as i n ( Fig .

6 5 a ) s o th at it sh al l b e i n visibl e to the eye o f the o bs e rv e r

, ,

it will b e co m e visibl e by m e r e ly fi l l in g the b asi n with w ate r

f th e n the r ays Of light fr o m the e w e r which for
( )
e,
o r

m e rly too k the dire cti on o f c a n d did n ot r e a ch th e eye of

,

the Obs e rv e r will n ow p ass i n the dir e cti on o f d b an d s o

, ,

the c o i n will b e s e e n .
116 ZOOLO GY .

The fo rm Of th e surfac e o f th e b ody o n w hich the light

fal l s m odifi e s gre atly the fu rth e r dir e cti on Of the r ay
, Thus .
,

l e t us s u ppo s e th a t thr e e r ays st a rt fro m th e s am e po i n t a ,

( Fig . trav e rs e th e ai r a n d fa ll on th e s u rface o f a c on v e x

,

l e n s The r ay a c strikin g th e sur fa c e o f t h e l en s p e rpe n dicul ar ly

.

will p a ss dire ctly throu gh it e xp e ri en ci n g n o d e v i ati on ; but

,

the r ay a d will b e r e fr a ct e d at e a n d pr o ce e d to w ards ,

the pe rp en d ic u l ar e f th e s am e will h app e n to the r ay a g ,

which b ein g r e fracte d a t f ; will be c om e a i By this r e .

fra cti o n rays o f light pa ssi n g thro ugh the l e n s m ee t at l ast

, ,

i n a fo c u s .

Wh e n th e s u rface on which th e r ays strike is con ca v e in stead

o f c on v ex th e opp o sit e e ffe ct t ak e s pl a c e as m ay b e u n d e rstoo d
, ,

by fig u r e 6 7 i n which 6 6 r epr e s e n ts the c on ca v e s u rface

,

a th e p o i n t wh en c e th e thr ee r ays st a rt a c th e p e rp en dic u l ar

, ,

ra p a ssi n g di r e ctly thr o u gh an d the r ays a d an d a i will

y ,

a ssum e th e dir e cti on o f a f an d a g .

F ig 67 . .

Th e de v ia ti on which the r ays of light th u s ex p e ri e n ce is

propo rtion ate to th e co n v exity o f th e l e n s ; an d th e d e gr e e o f
r e fr act i on i s a ls o i n the r ati o o f the de n sity of the bo dy an d
its co m bu stibility .

23 3 A pply th e s e pr i n ci pl e st o vi s i on
. Wh e n the rays .

o f light fal l o n t he c o rn e a a p a rt ar e r e fl e ct e d an d this gi v e s

, ,

to th e e e s th e ir br i lli an cy an d the po w e r o f s e e i n g Obj e cts

'

r e flec b th em as i n a l ookin g gl ass The rays p as sin g

,
- .

throu gh t e d en s e cor n e a ar e r e fracte d to w a rds t he perpe n

d i cul a r th ey n ow m e e t the aqu eous h u m ou r which b e i n g l e ss ,

r e fr an gibl e th an the c orn e a re sto r e s th e m S om e wh at to th e i r

,

pri m itiv e direction Th u s a gr e a te r n u m b e r o f r ays p a ss

.

thro u gh the p u pil th an co u ld h a v e h appe n e d by an y othe r

a rr a n g e m e n t The r ays which strik e the iris a r e a bs o rb e d o r
.
 OF TH E S E N SE OF S I GH T .

g
r e fl e ct e d ; th o se falli n on the pupil p as s dire ctly throu gh it ,

which o f co u rs e a dmi ts m o re or l e ss l ight a cco rd i n g as it is ,

m o r e or l e ss co n tracte d Un de r a stro n g li ght the p u pil

.

dimi n ish e s ; with a fe e ble li ght it d il a te s Th e r ays n o w .

m e et t he s u rface of the l en s e n cl o s e d i n its c aps u l e an d ,

th u s brou ght to a foc u s which falls o n the re ti n a the r ays

, ,

h a vin g i n the m e an t i m e p ass ed throu gh the vitri n e of

the eye .

23 4 bee n pro v ed by m an y simpl e e x p e rim e n ts

. It h as
th at th e i m a ge is re pre s e n te d on the r e ti n a a n d th a t it is ,

r e v e rs e d ; th e fo ll o win g figur e ( Fig 6 8) e xpl ai n s ho w this .

h appe n s Th e r ays of light proc e e din g fr om the p o i n t a fall

.
,

on th e r e ti n a a t b tho s e from c i m pi n ge th e r e ti n a at d
th u s the o bj e ct is pre cis e ly r e v e rs e d a p ai n te d o n th e r e ti n a s
.

F i g 68
. .

23 5 The pig m en t co v e rin g th e p o ste ri or su rfa ce o f the

.

iris an d al l th e i n n e r s u rfac e of the ch o ro id is n e c e ss a ry for

, ,

pe rfe ct vision as m ay b e s ee n by e x ami n i n g the ey e s o f

,

a lb i n o s : it is on ly at n ight th at th e ir visi o n b e co m e s
dis ti n ct .

2 36 . Th e
gl o b e of the eye i s th e m o st p e rfe ct of al l
o ptica l i n str um e n ts fo r whilst it is i n ge n e r al achr om atic ,

it pre s e n ts n o ab e rrati on Of s phe r i ci tyfi‘ an d its r a n g e is co n =

si d e r ab l e It po sse ss e s the p o w e r of ad apta ti on to v a riou s

.

dis ta n c e s i n its n o r m a l co n diti on alth ou gh it h as n ot b ee n ,

s atisfacto rily e x pl ai n e d o n wh at str u ct u re this d e pe n ds .

Withi n a sh ort r an ge it is Obvi ou sly c o n n e cte d with the

pr e s en ce o f tw o ey e s .

I n s om e th e e y e s h a v e n ot this p o w e r P r e s byop i a d e .

By achro m a ti s m i s m e a n t the o w e r o f ca u s i n g the li ght to d e vi a t e fro m

i t s co u rs e wi th o u t d e v e l o p i n g o r ge co m p o si n g i t s rays i n to th e i r p ri m i t i e
, v

c o l o u rs.

Th e a b e rra ti o n o f th e s p h e ri ci ty co n si s t s i n th e re u n i o n o f th e ra ys o f li ght
w hi c h fall o n di ff e re n t p a rts o f a l e n s W i th fo ci d i st i n c tly diff e re n t w h e n ce ,

re s ul ts a wan t o f cle a rn e ss i n the i ma ge s To p re e n t thi s a b e rra t o n o f

. v i

s phe ri ci ty as i t i s call ed 0 ti ci a n s pl ac e b e fo re th e l e n s a s o rt o f di a h r a g m
, , ,

i e ce W i th an O pe ni n g h e i ri s In t h e e y e s O f a i m a ls i s su ppo s e to p e r
n
p .

fo r mr thdi s fun cti o n o f co rrecti o n .

1 18 ZOOLOGY .

ds appa ren tly on a d e fici e n cy of con v e rge n ce o f the rays of

p
en

i g ht whi lst pa ssi n g thr o ugh the h u m o u rs o f the eye ; h en ce ,

pe rs on s s o affe cte d do n ot s e e disti n ctly o bj e cts n e ar at h an d

, , .

A n Oppo site d e fe ct is my op i a by which di st an t Obj e cts are

,

re n d e re d i n disti n ct or n ot visibl e The h a bi tu al u se o f a

, .

stron g l e n s has be e n th ou ght eq u al to the prod u cti on of th is

dis e a s e . The m yo s h as the sight impro v e d with ag e an d ,

he m ay i n tim e fa l i n t o the Oppo sit e c on diti on n a m e l ,

b e com e r e s b yoti c By gl a ss e s m an en d ea v o ur s to r e m y
bo th de iiicts
.
,

§ 2 3 7 I n s e n sibility to the r ays o f light is ca ll e d

.
g u tta

se r e na .Al l p a rts o f the r e ti n a ar e e qu a lly s u sc e ptibl e o f

i m pre ssi on s but it is the ce n tre or i n the axis o f visi on tha t
,

this s en sibility is m o st acu te fi“ The v a ri ou s po i n ts of th e

re ti n a m a b e ex h auste d Of th e ir s en sibility by to o S tron g a
light or li y gazi n g i n te n s e ly for a l on g th e at o n e obj e ct .

The impr e ssi on a ls o which e v e ry Obj e ct m ak e s o n th e r e ti n a ,

co n ti n u e s for a ce rta i n tim e a l te r t h e Obj e ct h as bee n r e

m o v e d ; thus i t is th at a bo dy m ovi n g i n a c i rcl e with grea t
,

rapidity r e s em bl e s a rin g or h oo p an d th a t a wh e e l t u rni n g

,

with gr e at ra pidity r e s e mbl e s a disc .

2 3 8 Th e s e cti on o f the o ptic n e r v e pro duc e s imm e di at e

.

bli n d n e ss But inj ur i e s o f the th al ami n er v o ru m Opti cor um

. .

o r o f the co r o r a qu ad ri g e mi n a al s o e ffe ct the s am e ; an d th u s

p ,

it is e v id en t th at th e s e bo di e s h av e the m o st i n tim a te rel ati on

with the o ptic n e rv e s an d the fun cti on of visi on .

Wh e n the ce re bra l h e misph e r e o f o n e sid e ha s be en de

stroy e d i n a livi n g ani m al it is the Oppo site eye which l o se s
,

its p ow e r ; an d th i s is p artly e x pl ai n e d by the an a to mi cal

fact of the de cuss ation o f the optic n e r v e s ; by this d e cus sa
ti on the right r e tin a d e ri v e s m os t o f its fibre s fro m the l eft
,
.

sid e of the brain an d v i ce v er s é ( Fig

23 9 M o tor Or g a n s of the E ye b a l l — The a pp a ra tu s
.
,

. .

o f V i si on is c o mpo s e d o f the e y e b al l an d i ts a ppe n d age s ; o f

th e s e l et us first e x ami n e the m u scl e s

, .

240 The m u scl e s e n a bli n g us to dir e ct th e eye ba lls an d

.
,

co n s e qu e n tl h axi s o f visi o n p o n an y po i n t a r e six i n

'

y t e U , ,

n u m be r Th ey ar e att ach e d p o st e ri o rly ( with o n e e x c e pti on )

.

to the o ss e o us o rbit a r o u n d o r n e a r to the e n tr an ce o f th e

,

o ptic n e r v e an d by th e ir oth e r e xtr e miti e s to the scl e r o tic or

,

It i s a re m ark a bl e fact th a t a t th e po i n t wh e re i s i o n i s m o st di st i n ct
v ,

t h p u l py re ti n a i s w a n ti n g i n m an a n d i n t h e a pe s o f t h e Ol d W o rld
e The
a pp e ara nc e i s c a ll e d th e fo ram e n c e n t ral e re t i na — R K
.

. .
 OF TH E S EN S E OF S I GH T . 1 19

fibr o us tu n ic of th e e ye b all ( Fig Th e gl obe of th e .

e e r e sts o n a cushi o n o f a fa tty c e ll ul a r substan ce an d thus

y ,

th e s e m u scl e s can re adi ly

m o v e it i n al l dire ctio n s .

The n e rv e s b e side s the ,

Optic a re the third fo u rth

, , ,

a br a n ch o f the fi fth a n d ,

the six th p airs

24 1 P r o te cti ng
—
.

p ar ts o
f til e Ey e Th e s e
ar e ,1 , the o ss eo us o rbits .

24 2 2 The e ye . .

brows , th e ey e lids , an d the

te ars The ey e bro ws r e
.

quir e n o de scripti on : th e ir ”
fo rm is s o m eti e s ch r c
m a a
E g 69

te ri s ti c O f di ffe r e n t r a ce s o f m en .

243 The ey e lids ar e two i n n u m be r an d ar e h o ri

A ,
.

zon tal . third w he n pre s e n t is v e rtic a l ; th e y ar e c all e d

, ,

u ppe r a n d l o w e r a n d di ff e r i n th e ir a n ato m ic a l str u ctur e

, .

E x t e rn ally th ey ar e fo rm e d o f a d e lica te i n t e gu m e n t s u p ,

p o rte d ea ch by a fib r o -c artil ag e ( c a rtilago t arsi ) ; i n t e rn ally

th ey ar e li n e d by th e m e m bran e c all e d c onj u n ctiv a which , ,

be sid e s for m i n g a l ay e r o f the eye lids i n v e sts the fro n t o f ,

th e ey e ball On th e e dg e s o f the ey e lids ar e o bs e rv e d

.

cili a or ey el ash e s an d a littl e b ehi n d the s e the M e ibo mi an

,

gl an ds ar e s e e n ; th e s e s e cret e a p e c u li a r m atte r pre v en ti n g ,

the ad h e si on o f th e ey e lids d u rin g sl e e p F u rth e r i n e ach .

,

e y e lid th e o rbicul aris muscl e or sphin ct e r giv e s a l ay e r a n d ,

i n th e u ppe r ey e lid w e fi n d th e t e r m i n ati on o f th e m u scl e

ca ll e d l e v a to r p alpe brae s u pe ri o ris which rais e s the ey e lid ,

fro m Off the s u rface of the eye .

The u s e s of th e e y e lids ar e o b v i o us Th e sub -muco us ch a .

r a cte r o f the conj u n ctiv a a ssists i n e n abli n g th e ey e lids a n d

e y e b a ll to pl ay fr e e ly on e a ch o th e r ; but th is is n o t s u ffici e n t

an d a cc o rdi n gly to s e c u r e to the sur face o f the e ye th e r e qu i

,

sit e d e gr e e o f m o istur e the te a rs h av e b e e n pr ovid e d , .

24 4 The l achrym al app ar a tus is c om o s e d o f a gl an

.

p
dul a r bo dy pl ace d withi n the or bit b ut e xt er i or to the ey e b all
, , .

V rt i cal s cti
e f th erb i t — th e c r a ; b th scl ro ti c ; th e
on o e o a, o ne ,
e e c,

Op t i c ; d i f ri o r r ct s m s cl e Of t h e y ;
n er v e , n e r ct s s p ri r f ec
e u u e e 3, e u u e o , r
t us ex te rn a p rt i o
ns : h b re m o e d to sh o w th pti c n e r e ; 9 x
o n as een v e O v , e
t mi ty f th
re s m ll o bl e m s cl ; h th gr t Obl i que or tro chl e ato r ;
o e a i u u e , e ea
i l e ato r o f th e pp e r e y d k l achrymal gl a n d
'

,
v u e , .
1 20 ZOOLOGY .

Fro m this so call e d l achrym al l an d a fe w ducts proce e d g ,

a n d p e n e tr a t e thro u gh th e conj u n ctiv a to w a rds the oute r

an gl e o f th e e e ; by th e s e t h e t e a rs ar e c on v ey e d to th e
y
s u rfac e Of the ey e b al l H e re th ey ar e spr e ad o v e r the surface
.

by the m o v e m e n ts o f the e ye b all an d ey e lids u n til th ey ,

co ll e ct to w a rds the i n n e r an gl e of the e ye wh e r e will b e ,

fo u n d th e o pe n i n gs o f two sm a ll d u cts ( p un ct a l achrym al i a )

1 e ad
j t o c o n v ey a w a y th e s u e rfl u ou s te a rs
p T h e fl u id .

e n te rin g th e s e tw o sh o rt d u cts i s co n v e y e d by th e m i n to th e

l achry m al s ac which a g ai n c omm u n ic ate s with the i n fe ri o r

,

m e a t u s of e ith e r n o stril by th e n as al d u ct Wh e n this is .

o bstruct e d the t e a rs flow o v e r the l o w e r e y e li d

, con stitu ti n g ,

th e dis ea s e c all e d fist u l a l ach r ym al i s .

T ow a rds th e i n n e r an gl e Of th e eye i s a s m all body c all e d ,

th e c ar u n cul a l ach r ym al i s ; al s o a fold of the co nj u n ctiv a ,

which 1 s v e ry sm al l i n m an b e i n g m e re ly th e v e stige of a ,

structur e w h ich i n s om e oth e r an im als as i n birds is carri ed

, , ,

to its hig h e st d e v e l opm e n t .

245 The st r uct ure of thi s app ar at u s i s pre tty n ea rly

.

th e s a m e i n al l m a mm al s birds re ptil e s an d fish e s The eye

, , , .

i n c e rta i n m oll u sca als o r e s e m bl e s the e ye of an i m als much

high e r i n th e r an ge ; but i n m o st Of thi s cl a ss the struct u re
is v e ry di ffe re n t an d a s w e d e s ce n d to i n s e cts crust a ce a
, , ,

arachn i d e s & c , th e diffe re n c e i n structu re b e co m e s m o r e an d

.
,

m o re stri ki n g Th e s e p e culi a riti e s will b e adv e rte d to h e r e

.

a fte r.

O F TH E MOV E M E NTS .

M u s cu l a r Con tr a cti o n .

§ 24 6 By
. s en s ati on m a n an d a n im als pe rc e iv e the e x
,

t e m al w o rld ; by m o ti on th ey react u p on it This l att e r s e ri e s

, .

o f fu n ct i o n s 1 s d e p e n d e n t on the prop e rty o f co n tr a c ti l i t

y .

I n s om e v e ry si m ply o rgan iz e d an i m als e v e ry p a rt o f the ,

body s e e m s susce ptibl e o f con t 1 acti n g a n d e lon gati n g its e lf ,

a s i n the hydra ( Fig b u t a s w e as cen d i n the sca l e o f

.

a n i m a ls w e fi n d th a t th e pr o p e rty b el on gs e x cl us iv e ly to t he

m us cu l a r fi b Co ll e cte d 1 1 1 m a ss e s th e s e for m the m u s cl e s ,

which ag ai n c on stitut e the fl e e /l o f a n im als Th e ir c ol our .

,

which v ari e s fro m a d e ep r e d to whitish d e pe n ds o n the pre ,

s e n c e O f t he bl ood a n d 1 s n o t i n h e re n t 1 n th e i 1 s tr u ctu 1 e

24 7 S tr u ctu r e of tb c M u s c l e s —The m uscl e s ar e co m

, .

p o s e d O f fa sciculi o r bu n dl e s o f fibre s u n ite d by ce ll ul ar tiss u e

, ,
 APPARA US T OF MO TI ON I N G E N E RAL . 1 21

an d th e s e ag ai n o f bun dl e s Of fibr e s m o re an d m o re d e lic ate ,

u n til a n e l e m e n ta ry fibre o r wh a t m ay b e co n sid e r e d so

, is ,

r e ach ed an d this ca n on ly b e s e en by m e an s o f the m o st

,

p ow e rfu l m icro sco pe It s ee m s a s if it w e re co m po s e d of a

.

s e ri e s of di scs Afte r d e ath the muscul ar fibre is s oft an d

. ,

e a sil y to r n ; d u ri n g li fe it is firm a n d e l a stic It is co m po s e d .

e ss e n ti a lly o f fi b r i n to which is u n it e d a lb u m e n o sm a z om e
, , ,

a n d s o m e s alts .

2 48 By m e an s Of c e rt ai n sti m u l an ts such a s the w i l l

.
, ,

m u scl e s co n tr act ; th at is th e y sw e ll sh o rt e n th e m s e lv e s an d
, , ,

b e co m e e x tre m e ly h ar d ; the ph e n om en a m ay r ea dily b e Oh

s e rv e d by b e n di n g the fo re ar m u p on the ar m -
.

The m e ch an is m by which this is e ffe cte d h as n ot yet b e e n

disc o v e r e d On e thi n g al on e is ce rta i n th at the two ex tr e
.
,

m i ti e s o f the fibr e o r m uscl e approach e ach oth e r an d th u s , ,

O f n ece ssity act o n wh a te v e r th ey m ay b e a tt a ch e d to th at is

,

m o v e a bl e displ aci n g o n e or b o th an d o f cou rs e th e body

, ,

its el f H en c e th e s e o rgan s h a ve b e e n c al le d the a cti v e o rgan s

.

o f m o ti o n i n c on tr a disti n cti on to the b o n e s which a r e

, ,

p a ssi ve .

24 9 . The m uscl e s ar e a ttach ed to the

b o n e s by fibre s of
gr eat stren gt h i n s e n sibl e an d of a de a d -whit e c ol ou r ; th e y
, ,

a r e ca ll e d te n di n o u s or t e n don s ; wh e n m e m br an i fo rm i n th e i r

a rr a n g e m e n t th e y ar e c all e d a p on e u r os e s

fl
.

250 I n u e n c e of tb e N e r v ou s Sys te m on M u s cu l a r
.

Co n tr a cti o n — The muscl e s ar e th e on ly p a rts o f an i m a ls

w hich po ss e ss th e faculty o f con tr acti n g ; but this pro p e rty is
displ ay e d on ly thr ou gh the i n fl u e n ce o f the n e rv o us syst e m
fl
.

i e N e r v e s — E a ch m usc u l a r fa sci
§ 2 5 1 . I n u e n ce
of t l
c u l n s r e c e iv e s s e v e r al n e rv o us fil am en ts Th e s e pro ce ed pa .

ra ll e l with the fibre s e n cl o s e d i n a n e u ril e m m a ; th e y als o

p a ss tr an sve rs e ly acr o ss the m u sc u l a r fibre s an d fo rm l oo ps ,

b u t h o w th e y te rm i n at e is n o t k n o w n Th ey s e e m to fo r m a
.

c on ti n u o u s circl e .

By c u tti n g the n e rv e acr o ss which suppli e s a muscl e i n a

livi n g an i m al the m u scl e b e co m e s p a r al ys e d By co mpr e ssin g
, .

t he br a i n o f a li v i n g an i m al a l l po w e r o f m o ti o n is l o st
, .

2 52 The n at u re o f this in fl u e n c e o f the n e rv e s o v e r th e

.

m u scl e s h a s be e n m u ch i n v e stig a t e d ; an d th e i n quiry l e d

G a lv an i a n d V o lt a to s o m e bri lli a n t disco v e ri e s Th e y pro v ed .

th at e l e ctric curr en ts h o w e v e r pro d u ced a ct o n m u scl e s i n a

, ,

simil ar w ay to fi l e w i l l produci n g co n tra cti on s i n th e m e v e n

,

a ft e r d e a th an d s o cl o s e ly did the ph e n o m e n a r e s e mbl e e ach

1 22 ZOOLOGY .

o th e r th at it was at fir st th o ught tha t e l e ct ricity produc ed in

, ,

the bra i n a n d fl o wi n g th e n c e i n to the muscl e s w a s the e ffi

, ,

ci e n t ca us e o f muscul a r c on tracti o n a hypo th e sis i n co m patibl e

with ce rta i n fa cts re ce n tly Obs e r v ed The n e rv o us syste m is
.
,

n o d o u bt t he d e te r m i n i n g c au s e o f m u scul a r c on tr acti o n
, .

25 3 M uscl e s pre s e n t v e ry i m po rt an t di ffe re n ce s am on gst

.

th e ms e lv e s : s o m e Ob ey the will ; oth e rs i n additi o n to this , ,

a ls o a ct i n d e p e n d e n t ly o f it ; whilst th e r e a r e o th e rs o v e r

wh o s e a ct s the wil l has n o p o w e r The muscl e s o f th e limbs

.

m ay b e cit d as i n st an ce s Of the first cl a ss ; th o s e o f r e spir atio n

e

be lo n g to the s ec on d ; th e h e art an d sto m ach to the third .

'
The m u scl e s Of v o lu n t a ry m oti on as th ey are c all e d di fle r
, ,

g en e ral ly from the i n v o l u n t ary i n be in g m a rk ed with tran s

,

v e rs e stri ae ; b u t the fibre s of the h e a rt h a v e the s e s tr i m ,

alth o u gh it is i n n o r e sp e ct a v ol u n t ar y m u scl e .

254 The muscl e s o b eyi n g the wi ll al l d e riv e th e ir

.

n e rv e s fro m the c e r e bro -spi n a l ax is

fl
255 I n ue n ce of the E n cep fi a l o n —
.

. A tr an sv e rs e se c
.

ti on o f the spin al m a rro w i n a li vin g an im al p a ralys e s th e ,

acti on o f al l t he m u scl e s suppli e d by n e rv e s which l ea v e th e

spi n a l m arro w b e l o w the s e cti on ; th o s e ab ov e the s e cti on

r em ain u n i n fluen ce d The de stru cti on o f the brai n p aralys es
.

a l l the m u scl e s I nj ur y d on e to the co mu s s tr i a tu m r e n d e rs

.

t he m u sc u l a r m ov e m e n ts co n fu s e d an d u n c e rta in ; th e po w e r
o f r e tiri n g is l o st th e m o v e m e n ts b e i n g a lw ays i n a dv an ce
,

a n i nju ry d on e to th e c e r e be ll u m ( i n birds ) s e e m s o n the ,

con tr a ry to dis a bl e the a n im a l fr o m ad v an ci n g ; its m o v e

,

m en ts ar e c on stan tly ba ckwa rds .

By di vidi n g v e rti c ally i n a liv i n g an im al on e h e misph e re

o f the c e r e b e llum o r on e sid e of th e pe n s th e an im a l m o v e s
, ,

i n ce ss an tly roun d an d ro un d to w ards the injure d side The .

vital po in t o f the e n c e ph al on se e m s to b e clo s e to the o ri gi n

o f the p n e u m o ga stric n e rv e s The ce r e be llum an d the ad
.

j o i n i n g p arts o f the brai n s ee m to re g u l ate th e m o v e m en ts o f

l oc o m o ti o n .

The m o v e m en ts which th o u gh o be yi n g the will ye t t a k e

, ,

l a ce i n d e pe n de n tly of its i nflu e n c e s e e m to b e d e riv e d th e n

Rom the i n flu en ce o f the spin al m arrow The re spirato ry
, , ,

m o v e m e n ts for e xampl e g o on a ft e r the bra i n has l o st its i n

, ,

flu en ce o v e r the r e sp i ra to ry m u scl e s .

I f l G i S m — T h mus
2 6
5 . n
fl u e n ce o t i e a n
g l o n a r
y y s te e

cul a r fibr e s which ar e co m pl e te ly i n d e pe n d en t of the will

, ,

rece iv e th e ir n e r v o us in flu en ce fr o m this syste m .

 APPARA US T OF MO TI ON I N G E N E RAL . 1 23

257 Thus it w ou ld s ee m th at , whilst v o liti on p r oce e ds

.

fr om the brai n , the re gul ati on o f the m o v e m e n ts pro c ee ds fr om

the ce re b e ll u m ; whilst i n re spect o f th o s e m u sc u l a r a cti o n s
,

which ar e i n d e pe n d e n t of the bra in , th e pri n ciple o f acti on

s e e ms to re sid e i n the sp i n al m arro w an d g an glio n ary syst e m .

258 D u r a ti o n a n d F o r ce of the M u s cu l a r Con

tr a cti o n s —The c o n tr acti on of the m u sc u l a r fibr e s is a ph e
.

n o m e n o n e ss e n ti al ly i n te r m itte n t ; the y re l ax an d co n tract

a lte rn a t e ly E v e n the h e a rt d oe s thi s ; b u t the v olun ta ry
.

muscle s re qui re a mu ch l on ge r in te rv a l Of r e po s e ; a l assitud e

co m e s on a t l ast , r en de ri n g al l fu rth e r action i m po ssibl e .

M u scul a r fatigue v a r i e s m u ch i n diffe r e n t i n di vidu al s ; so

al s o d oe s the str e n gth of c o n tr a cti on displ ay e d In pa ssi on
g
.

an d i n a m an i a c a l st a te it is pr o di i o us The d e v e l o pm e n t
.

o f the muscul ar syste m is b e st s ee n I n the a th l e te .

Of til e App a r a tu s f M o ti on
o i n Gen e r a l .

2 59 The . fu n cti on we h a v e n o w to co n side r is chi e fly

m ec an i cal ; it r e sp e cts th e v a ri o us m o v e m en ts Of an im a l
bo di e s .

I n the l o w e st an im als th e muscl e s a r e al l c on n e ct ed with ,

an d d e p en de n cie s o f, the i n te gu m en t , which is s o ft a n d
fl exi bl e , an d by actin g on this th e y m o ve the body i n wh ol e
,

or i n p a rt ; but i n an im a ls o f a m or e p e 1f ect str u ctu r e the ,

m oto r app a r at u s be co m e s m o r e an d m o r e co mpl e x , an d is

fo rm e d n ot on ly of m u scl e s , but of a sk e l e to n , its e l f com
po s e d of s olid p arts c a lcul at e d to au gm en t the pre cisi on , th e
e x t e n t , an d th e fo r ce of the m o v e m e n ts , to pro te ct the visc e r a

a ga i n st e x t e r n a l vi ol e n ce , a n d to d e t e r m i n e the g en e r al for m

o f the bo dy .

260 This fra m e w o rk o r sk e l e to n , to which th e muscl e s

.

a r e chi e fly a tta ch ed , is i n m a n , an d al l an i m als c al l e d v e rte

br ate , situ ate d i n te rn ally , an d is co v e red by the s oft p arts .

I n s o m e fis h e s ( a s i n t he sk ate ) the sk e l e to n is fo r m e d of a
white Opali n e c om p act h om o ge n eous s u bsta n ce at on ce v e ry
, , , ,

re sisti n g an d el as tic It is ca ll e d ca rtil age I n all an im als

. .
,

wh e n v e ry y ou n g the sk e l eto n is at fi rst ca rtil a gi n o us b u t

,

this co n diti on which is p e r m an e n t i n ce 1t ai n fish e s is on ly

, ,

tr an sito ry i n the gr e a te r n umbe r o f an i m als an d the ,

til ag i n ou s pi e ce s s oo n b ec o m e ch ar ge d with ca lc ar eo u s s
by whi ch they be com e fir m h ar d c omp arativ e ly brittl e : i n
, ,

this state th ey ar e ca lle d b on es .

1 24 ZOOLO G Y .

26 1 .
— To pro v e the pre s e n ce Of ca r tila g e
Of the B o n e s
a s th e a l l th a t is r e q u ir e d i s to i m m e rse a
b a sis o f a l l b on e s ,

bo n e i n dilute m u ri atic acid which disso l vi n g the ca lca reo us , ,

p art l e a ve s a c a rtil age o f the pre cis e fo rm a n d di m e n si o n s o f

,

the bo n e its e l f A cc o rdi n g to Be rz e li u s the bo n e s Of the

.
,

h u m an sk e l e to n ar e co m po s e d o f ca rtil ag e v e ss e ls , ,

pho sph ate o f lim e with a littl e o f the fluo r ate Of ca lcium
, ,

c arbon ate o f li m e pho sph ate Of m ag n e si a

—i n
, ,

s o d a with a litt l e o f th e chl o ri n e Of s o dium

, ,

l OO OO p a rts
‘

The s am e ch e mist fou n d the b o n e s O f th e o x

.

to b e simil arly co m po se d b u t with much l e ss c a rbo n at e o f ,

'
l im e Th u s bon e s by bo il i n g aflor d much g e l ati n e
. .

The o ssific ati o n o f the sk e l e ton c o mm e n c e s with v a ri ous

o ss eo u s po i n ts i n the c art il a g e s ; th e s e ar e ca ll ed n ucl e i o r
ge r m s I n yo uth the y ar e n u m e ro us b u t th ey grad ua lly
.
,

co al e s ce ; th u s the fe m u r i n a yo un g p e rs o n co mpo s e d Of , ,

fi ve di stin ct p o rti on s is at l ast fo rm e d of o n e

,
I n the l o w e r .

v e rt e br a te an im als m an y Of th o s e re m ai n d i sti n ct whi ch i n ,

th e high e r c oale sc e or b e com e fus ed .

The s u rface O f b o n e is co v e r e d with a ce ll u l O-fi b r ou s an d

v a scul a r m e mbr a n e c all e d p e ri o ste u m,
Th e bo n e s th e m s e lv e s .

a r e c o mp o s e d o f a c o mp act tissu e e x te r n a lly a n d a c e llul a r ,

a n d r e tic u l at e d o r c an c e llo u s i n te r n ally .

I n the i n te ri o r o f the l on g bon e s ar e fo un d ca viti e s con

ta i n in g m a rro w The tissu e itse lf wh en ex ami n e d un de r the
.
,

micro sc o pe se e ms co m p o se d o f t u be s or ce llul e s surro un d e d

, ,

with con ce n tric l am e ll ae be tw e e n which m ay b e s ee n Opaque

,

o v o id co rp u scl es .

§ 2 6 2 T h e b on e s v a ry much i n fo r m
. a n d an ato m ists ,

h av e divid e d th e m i n to l o n g sh ort an d broa d Th e ir s ur , , .

face s pre s en t e l e v ati on s (proce ss e s ) an d de pre ssi o n s s om e o f ,

which ar e for the attachm e n t o f m u scl es

o n e s —B
.

§ 2 6 3 A r ti cu l a ti o n of
. t/ce B y a rtic ul a ti on is

m e an t th e u n i on of two or m o re b on e s ; th e y ar e divid ed i n to .

th e im m o v a bl e o r fix e d an d the m o v e a bl e , The fi x e d m ay b e .

e ffe ct e d by j u xta po siti o n s u tur e an d impl an ta tion ; o f the

, ,

first ce rt a i n bo n e s o f th e face Off e r an ex a m pl e the b o n e s o f

,

the cr a n i u m u n ite chi e fly by s u t u re an d th e te e th a r e fix e d ,

i n to the al veo li by i m pl an tati on this m od e o f a rtic ul ati on is

a ls o c a ll e d go m ph o sis .

264 I n the m o v e abl e ar ti c u l a ti o n s th e bo ne s a r e h e ld

.
,

i n th e ir l a c e by liga m e n ts m a i n t a i n in g th e m i n j u x t a po siti on
b
.

This on d Of u n i on is s o m e ti m e s a fi b r O-c artil age which ,

 APPARA US T OF MO TI ON I N G E N E RAL . 1 25

pe r mits the b on e s to m o v e si m ply by r e as on of its e l a sti city ;

i n oth e r j oi n ts th e b on e s S lid e o v e r e a ch o th e r an d ar e h e ld
, ,

i n th e ir pl ace by lig a m en ts atta ch e d to both b o n e s a n d pe r ,

mitti n g of m oti on on ly i n c e rt a in dir e cti on s ; this m od e o f

a rticul a ti on is c all e d a r ti cu l a ti on by con ti g u i ty an d it ,

a lw ays e x ists wh e r e e xte n siv e m oti o n s t a k e pl ace To m e e t .

the fricti on ca u se d by this th e e x tr e m iti e s o f the b on e s ar e

,

furth e r pro vide d with a ca rti l ag e Of i n cru st ati on an d a sy mo ,

vi al m e mbran e r epr e s en ti n g a s e rou s m e mbr an e i n mi n i a

tu r e an d is co n sta n tly b e d e we d with an u n ct u ou s flu id c all e d
, ,

sy n o vi a s e rvi n g the p u rpo s e Of a j o i n t o i l By m e an s o f

,
-
.

this m e m br an e the ai r is e ffe ct ual l y e x cl u d e d fr om the j o i n ts ,

s o th a t the r e l ativ e p o siti on o f th e b on e s to e a ch o th e r i s

furth e r s e c u red by the pre ss ur e of th e ex t e rn a l ai r o n the e x

te r i o r Of th e li m b
—
.

§ 2 6 5 A cti on o
.
f t h e M u s cl e s on th e B on e s A l l th e
muscl e s de sti n ed to p e rfor m e x te n siv e m ov em e n ts ar e attach e d
to the b o n e s by th e ir tw o e x tr e m iti e s s o th a t by co n tr act i n g ,

th ey displ ac e the m o r e m o v e abl e b on e i n the dir e cti on of that

which is l e ss m o v eabl e or fix e d Thu s g en e r ally sp e aki n g .
, ,

th e muscl e s in te n de d to m o v e th e fin g e rs proc e e d fr o m th e
fo r e -a r m s ; th o s e m o vin g the fo re -arms ar e att ach e d to the
a rm s o r sh o u ld e rs ; an d th o s e a cti n g on th e ar ms h a v e th e i r

fix e d p o i n ts i n th e tr un k Bu t th ey m ay of c ou rs e m o v e th e
.

p ar ts to which th e y ar e atta ch e d by e ith e r e x tre m ity or b o th , .

To a c e rta i n e x t e n t al s o the dir e cti on Of th e m o v e m e n t de te r

,

min e s the po siti on Of the m u scl e s Th u s th e fle x or s of the .

,

fin ge rs ar e sit u ate d on the fron t of th e ar m ; th e e x te n s ors on

th e b ack O f the li m b Wh e n di ffe ren t m u scl e s act i n pr o
.

d u ci n g the s a m e m o v e m en t th e y ar e c all e d co n g en er ou s
a n ta on i s ti c if th e y pr o d u c e Oppo sit e m o v em e n ts Fi n ally
g .
,

th e y ar e n am e d fr om th e ir u s e s fle x or s e x t e n s ors a h
, , , ,

d u cto r s & c
, .

26 6 Th e str en gth Of a m u scl e d e p e n ds n o d ou bt

.
,

cc o n its siz e ; b u t th e e fle ct d e p e n ds al s o i n a
e ter i s p a r i b u s , ,

gr e a t m e asure on its m o d e o f a tt ach m en t to the b on e

, .

Thus all thi n gs b e i n g eq u al the m ov em e n t o f a m uscl e

, ,

wil l b e s o m uch the m o re e xte n siv e the l e ss obliqu e ly it is

a tt ach e d to a bo n e .

I n fact i f the muscl e m ( Fig

, wh o s e forc e we S h al l
, .

con sid e r as eq u al to 1 0 b e fix e d pe rp e n di c ul arly to the

,

b on e l w h o s e e x tre m ity a is m o v e abl e On th e po i n t Of su p

,

p ort r it wil l h av e to o v e r co me only the w eight of the bo n e

, ,
1 26 ZOOLOGY .

an d w i ll carry it fr om the po siti o n a b i n the dire cti on of the

li n e a c th u s m aki n g it tra v e rs e to th e po i n t to which
, ,

it is i n se rte d a sp ace which w e still r e pr e s en t by 1 0 But

, ,
.

if the muscl e acts o bliqu e ly o n the bo n e i n the directi on ,

o f the li n e n b it will th en ,

h a v e a t e n d en cy to c ar ry it
i n the dir e cti o n o f b n an d ,

cons e qu e n tly to c ause it to

a ppr oa ch the a rticul a r sur

face r on which it re sts as ,

a p o i n t o f suppo r t Bu t .

this bei n g an i n fl ex ibl e body ,

thi s displ a ce m e n t c an n ot
t ak e pl ace ; the bon e can
F i g 70 . . on ly t u r n on th e po i n t r as

on a piv ot an d t he co n tr ac ,

tion of th e m u s cl e n with ou t l o sin g an y of th e e n e rgy

,

assign e d to it can o n ly c arry th e b on e i n the di r e cti on o f

,

a d . Thr ee fo urths o f its stre n gth will b e l o st an d it will

-
,

o n ly b e e q u a l to e ff e ct a displ a c e m e n t for which on e -fou rth o f

the str e n gth e x p en d e d w o uld h a v e s u ffic e d h ad its att a chm e n t

bee n pe rp en dicu l ar to the b on e as the m u scl e m .

No w i n an im a l b o di e s m u scl e s ar e ge n e r ally in se rte d v e ry

,

o bliqu e ly , an d thu s v e ry u n fa v ourably i n r e spe ct of th eir

i n te n sity o f co n tr acti on Th e .

e n l a rge m e n t Of th e e x tr e m iti e s

o f the bo n e s a s co m p a r e d with ,

the sh afts se rv e s to c o un te r ,

b a l an c e this o bl iqu ity i n a ce r

ta in d e gre e givin g to the j oi n ts ,

a t th e s am e tim e m o r e s ecu rity .

The t e n d on s ( i ) o f the m u scl e s ( m )

Fi g 7 1 F i g 72 sit u a te d a bo v e the a rticul a ti on s
.

ar e i n s e rte d gen e rall y im m e

di ate ly be n eath the en l arge d e x tre mity of the bon e an d thus ,

r each th e m o ve a bl e b on e ( 0 ) i n a di re cti on m o re a pproachin g

the p er p e n dicul a r a s m ay r e a dily b e un de rstoo d by co mp ari n g
,

figure 7 2 with 7 1 .

26 7 The dist an ce which s e p ar ate s the po i n t o f a ttach

.

m en t o f the m u scl e from the p o i n t o f s u ppo rt On which the

bon e m o v e s an d o f the O po s i te e x tre mity o f the l e ve r which
,

this o rgan r e pre s e n ts i n ue n ce s a ls o i n the m o st po w e rfu l

,

m an n e r the e ffe cts pr oduc e d by its con tra ctio n .

 OF TH E MO T ORY AP PARA US I N MAN T . 1 27

The b on e s r e pr e s e n t l ev er s which m ov e on a fix ed p oi n t
, ,

ca ll e d the p oi n t of s upp or t The fo r ce which p u ts th e l e v e r

.

i n acti on is the p ow e r a n d th at whi ch Opp o s e s its di s pl a ce

,

m e n t is the r e si s ta n ce F i n a lly th e n am e Of a r m of the

. ,

l ev er Of the po w e r an d a r m of the l e ver o f the r e sistan ce

, ,

i s giv en to the distan ce s e p ar ati n g the p oi n t o f s u ppo rt

fro m th at to which is appli e d on e o r o th e r of th e s e fo rce s .

No w the l e n gth of th e s e arms of the l e v e r h a s a p o w e rful

i n flu e n c e o v e r the fo rce r e qui re d to pro d u ce an e qu ilibriu m
to a giv e n r e sist an ce Obs e rv e th e m ech an ism o f th e ba l an c e
.

cal l e d s te e l -ya r d ( Fig

.
The b e am is divid e d i n t o two
.

u n e q u al p a rts by the po i n t of s u p

po rt a A t th e ex tr e mi ty Of o n e
.

O f th e br an ch e s ( r ) which is v e r y
,

sh o rt is pl ac e d the r e sista n ce th a t
, ,

is the Obj e ct to b e w e igh e d ; an d

,

o n th e o th e r ( p ) slid e s an y w e ight

which pro du ce s the e quilibri u m to Fi g 73

a w e ight or r e sist an c e a lw ays th e
. .

m o r e con sid e r abl e th at it is furth e r r e m o v e d from th e p oi n t of

s u ppo rt an d th at w e e l on g at e i n c on s e q u e n c e the ar m of th e
, , ,

l e v e r o f the po w e r the l e v e r o f r e sist an c e r e m a i n i n g a lw ays

,

the s a m e .

On the s a m e pri n cipl e it is th at w e can r a is e a s o much

greate r w e ight with the arm fl e x e d in st e a d of e x te n d e d It .

is a qu e sti on ( s ee th e figu re ) of sh o rte n in g or l e n gth e n i n g the

r e spe ctiv e a r m s o f th e l e v e r to or from the p oi n t of s upp ort .

By m e ch an ics we l e ar n th at i n orde r to e st ablish a p e rf ect

,

e quilibri u m ( or to w e igh th e b ody a s i n th e fi g u r e ) i n an

y
l e v e r it is n e c e ss ar y th a t th e r e sist an c e an d th e po w e r (the
,

w e ight an d the w e igh e d b ody ) he r e ciproc ally pro p o rti on al to

the l e n gt h o f the a r m s of the l e v e r ; th at is to s ay th at ,

m ultipli e d by th e s e a r m s o f th e l e v e r r e sp e ctiv e ly th ey b oth ,

giv e the s a m e prod u ct .

Th us to pro d u c e a n e qu ilibri u m to a r e sist an ce (r ) e qu a l

,

to 1 0 a ppli e d to the e x tr em ity Of a l e v e r ( a b ) o f a l en gth

,

e qu a l to 20 it is n e ce ss a ry th a t th e p o w e r ( p ) if it b e a ppli e d
, ,

to the s am e po i n t a n d c o n se q u e n tly e q u a ll y dista n t fr o m

th e p oi n t o f s u ppo rt a b e als o e qu a l to 1 0 ; b u t if it w e r e
,

a ppli e d to th e p o i n t c to pr o d u c e the s am e e flect it must b e

,

e q ua l to 20 ; for the r e sist an ce e qua l t o 1 0 b e i n g m u ltipli e d

by the l e n gth o f its ar m o f the l e v e r 20 will giv e a s a pro d u ct ,

200 ; a n d on the oth e r h an d the ar m o f the l e v e r o f th e ,

1 28 ZOOLOGY .

o w e r ( c d ) b e i n g o n ly e qu a l to 1 0 this m u st b e m ultipli ed
,

y a fo rc e e q u al to 20 to giv e the s am e prod u ct 200 Fi n all y , .

,

by pl ac i n g the fo rm e r stil l n e a re r to the p o in t o f suppo r t at d ,

a fo rc e m ust b e giv e n , b u t e q u a l to 1 00 fo r its ar m o f ,

th e l e v e r will n o l o n ge r b e m o r e th a n 2 an d 2 x 1 00 , 200 .

F i g 74
. .

The disp o sition of the l e v e rs has a s much i n flu e n ce o v e r

the r api d ity o f th e m o v e m e n ts pro duc ed as o v e r th e ir fo rce ;
,

an d if by e mpl oyin g a p o w e r co mp a r ativ e ly fee bl e w e m ay

th u s o v e rco m e a much str on ge r r e sis t an c e w e m ay als o by

e mpl oyi n g a m o vin g ,

fo rce h a vin g a c e rta in qu ick n e ss Obta i n ,

,

by m e an s o f th e se In strum e n ts a m o v e m e n t sl ow e r or m o r e
,

r apid .

Th u s l et u s suppo s e
th at the po w e r ( p ) acts
o n the l e v e r ( a r ) s o a s

to c a u se it to p a ss to th e
po in t o f i n s e rti on c a,
'
spac e of 5 i n a s e c on d it I
,

w i ll displ a c e a t the s a m e
t i m e the e x tr e mity ( r ) o f
th e l e v e r an d wil l c aus e
,

it to a r riv e at b with a
quick n e ss equ a l to 25 , F i g 75 . .

for the distan c e p ass e d

thr o ugh i n e q u a l ti m e s by this p oin t wi ll b e fi ve t i m e s
gre ate r th an th at p a ss e d through by the po in t d With .

a fo rce e q u a l i n r a pi d ity to 5 w e produce by a pplyi n g it to the

,

poi n t c the s am e re sult as if w e a ppli e d to the po i n t r a fo rce

,

h a vin g a qui ckn e ss equ a l to 25 But a l l tha t is g a i n ed in

.

ra pi dity is l o st i n po w e r o r fo rce ; fo r it i s chi efly by e x te n d

i n g th e ar m Of the l e v e r o f r e sista n ce to a l e n gth d i s pr o
o r ti o n ate to th a t of the fo rc e th a t w e Obta i n th e s e r e s u lts
p , .

No w in the an im al econ o my a lm ost all the le v e rs ar e so

,
 OF TH E MO T OR Y AP P ARA U S I N MAN T . 1 29

d isp o s e d fav o u r r apidity of m o ti on at th e ex p e n s e o f

as to
fo rc e Th u s i n l o w e ri n g the e x t e n d e d ar m i f th e r apidity
.
, ,

wi th which the m u scl e s c on tr a ct b e s u ch th at th e ir p oi n t o f

i n s e rtio n b e displ a ce d thre e i n ch e s i n a s e c on d the ex tr e m ity of ,

the li m b w ill p a ss fr o m its o rigi n a l p o siti on with a r a pidity

o f n ea rly thr e e fe e t e r S e c on d
p .

f M o tor y App a r a tu s i n M a n
D es cr ip ti o n o the .

268 Th e m o to ry a pp a r at u s —a s w e h av e a lr e ady
.

m e n ti o n e d— is c om p o s e d i n m an an d a l l v e rt e br a t a o f th e
sk e l e ton the m u scl e s an d th e a rtic u l a r a pp ar atus
, , .

Th e sk e l e to n is di v id e d i n to the h ea d tr u n k a nd e x tr e m iti e s
The H e a d — The
.
, ,

26 9 . .
p
sk e l e to n o f th e h e a d is c o m p o s e d

Of two p o rtion s — the cr a n i u m

an d fa c e The cr a n i u m l od g
.
,

i n g the br ai n c e r e b e ll u m a n d , ,

p on s with th e ir m e m bran e s th e
, ,

v e ss e ls pro c e e di n g to an d fro m
th e m an d the roots o f the cran i a l
,

n e rv e s is c om p o s e d o f e igh t
,
6 mi j t az c a
b on e s : the fro n t al o r co ron a l
( Fig 7 6.
f) th e tw o p a ri e t al p F i g ,
.

t he two t e mp o r al t th e occi ,

pit al o be hi n d an d the sph e n o id s an d the e th m o id

, , , ,

be l o w Th e s e bon e s ar e ge n e rall y bro ad an d flat o f a co m

.
,

p a ct tiss u e ex t e rn al ly an d i n t e r n ally an d ar e i m m o v abl y u n ite d ,

by s u tur e s d ov e ta i l e d i n t o e ach oth e r This a dds gre atly to .

th e str e n gth o f the cr an i u m an d o f th e a rch it fo r m s : th e

i n t e rl ocki n g o f the sph e n o id a ls o with al l th e othe r bo n e s
o f th e cr a n i u m co n tribut e s gre a tly to its g e n e r a l str e n gth .

A t th e ba s e o f the skull will b e s e e n a gre a t n u m b e r of

a p e rt u r e s for th e e gr e ss o f th e cr a n i a l n e rv e s a n d o f th e ,

b l oo d v e s sel s e n te ri n g or l e a vi n g the cra n i u m I n the o ccipit a l .

b on e cl o s e to its c on dyl e s is the f o r a m e n m a g n u m by w hich

, , ,

the m e d u ll a S pi n a li s p a ss e s to w a rds the br ai n ; th e v e rt e br a l

a rt e ri e s a ls o i n t e n d e d to s u pply t he br a i n e n t e r by this l arg e
, ,

a p e rt u r e The cra n i u m is a rtic u l a t e d by m e a n s o f th e s e t wo

.

co n d l e s o f the o ccipit a l b o n e with the a tl a s o r first c e rvi c a l

y
f fr t l o c l ; p p ri e t l ; t t m p r l ; cci pi t l ; th sp h
'
‘
,
on a r or o na ,
a a ,
e o a o, o a a, e e
nO id th n,s l ; m s p ri r m l l y ; j j g l
e na a h k b
s, u ; mi e o an ar ,
u a or c ec one ,

i f ri r m i ll ry
n e o l w rj w b
ax a t r r p m g f th
or o e st ri l s ;
a one na ,
an e i o O e n o e no
ta ,
di to ry c l o f r m
au yg m t i c rc h ; b d h s f rm g th
an a r o a en az , z o a a a , c , ue o i n e
f ci l gl
a a an e.
1 30 ZOOLOGY .

v e rt e bra o n which it re sts n e arly but n ot quite i n equipo ise

, , , ,

s o th a t d u ri n g sl e e p the h e a d n atu r ally fa l ls to w a rds the

ch e st The po w e r fu l muscl e s m o vin g the h ead are c hie fly

.

pl ace d on the b ack o f the n e ck .

A t the sid e s Of the cr an i u m m ay b e s e e n the m as toi d ro

p
ce ss e s ( Fig 7 8 a ) to which ar e att ach e d th e ste rn o -cl ei d o
.
,

m a st oid muscl e s s ee n s o con spicuo u sly on the fron t an d side s

,

Of the n e ck ; by m e a n s o f th e s e th e h e ad is turn e d fro m sid e

to sid e An te ri o r to th e s e m ay b e s e e n the o rifice l e adi n g to

.

th e m i dd l e e ar an d to which the ex t e rn al e ar is attach ed

,

222 Fig 6 1 e ) , . .

2 7 0 The fol l o wi n bo n e s co mpo s e the S k e l eto n o f the

fac e : the s u pe ri o r m ax i lIar y 2 ; p alatin e 2 ; m al a r 2 ; l ow er
.

, , ,

turbi n at e d 2 ; l a chrym al 2 ; v o m e r 1 ; i nfe ri or m axil l ar y 1

, , , , .

To th e se s o m e ad d the i n ter ma x i l l a r y Of which the v e sti ge s ,

r e m ain i n m an 2 ; the sph en oid al turbi n ate d 2 ; fi n al ly the

, , ,

e th m o id a n d sph e n o id co n tribut e a l so to the for m ati on Of th e fa c e .

Th e s e bo n e s a ssist i n for mi n g ce rta in oss eo us ca viti e s co n

u s ete d with the face as the o rbits the n as a l fos s aa
, ,

an d the m o u th .

The sk e l e to n o f the n o se i s co mpl eted by ca rtil a g e s which ,

be i n g re m o v e d i n the sk e l e ton m ak e s the an t e r io r o pe n i n gs of

,

t he n as a l fo ss ae app e a r s o l arge Th e s e ca viti e s ar e v e ry .

l arg e an d co mpl e x c omm u n ic atin g with the an t e ri or an d ,

po ste ri o r e thm o id c e lls ; the sph en o id a l an d s u pe ri o r m ax ill ary

a n d fron ta l si n u s e s a n d als o with the middl e e ar , Th ey .

a r e s e p a r at e d fr om e ach o th e r by an o ss e o us an d c a rtil a gi n o us

p a rtiti on o r s e ptum an d fro m the m on th by the o ss e ou s ,

p al a te It is i n the ca viti e s o f the n o st rils th a t w e fi n d the

.

s o -c al l e d turbi n a t e d b o n e s Of which two ar e distin ct bo n es , ,

th e o th e r fo ur b ei n g b ut proc e ss e s of the e thm oid a l The .

impo rt an c e o f t h e s e b on e s as r e gards the s e n s e Of sm e l l has , ,

b e e n a lrea dy a dv e rt e d to .

It i s i n to the sup e r i or m ax ill ar bo n e ( speaki n g with re fe

re n c e to m an ) th a t ar e i m pl an te dy al l the t ee th Of the u ppe r
j a w fi“ I n y o u th it is lik e m o st o th e r bo n e s fo r m e d o f , ,

s e v e ra l disti n ct ge rm s n uclei or p orti o n s which ultim a te ly , , ,

coal e sc e .

Th es e i n t e r m axill ar y b on e s which fu se so e arly i n m an , ,

A t m i sts w g r lly dm i t th t m h i t m ar fll y bo
na o no ene a a a an as n er ar ne s as
w ll e th r m m m ls wh i ch e rly b c m f s d wi th th e m i ll ry
as o e a a ,
a e o e u e ax a , so tha t
nea rly l l t r s f th i r rly i st c
a ace l st Th i i i t th
O e ea ex en e ar e o . e nc s ve ee a l w ys a

p p r i th s b i th pp r j w d wh t r b th i r sh p so lo n g
c ll d i c i e —R K
a ea n e e one s n e u e a , an a e ve e e a e ,

as th y b l g t th s b s
e e on o e e one ,
a re a e n is v . .
 OF TH E MO T ORY AP PARA US I N MAN T . 1 31

r em ai n di sti n ct throu gh out l ife i n m an y m amm als a n d oth e rs ,

a n d fo r m a dis ti n ctiv e fe at u r e Of t he fac e Th ey ar e a ls o .

c a l l e d pr e m axill a ry (i m Fig 7 7 .

Fi g 7 7 . .
—H e a d Of th e H o rs e .
*

I n m an the ge rms of the l o w e r j a wbo n e be c om e fu s e d at

a n e arly a g e ; i n m a n y m a mm a ls it is fo r m e d o f two pi e ce s ,
u n it e d by c artil age at the sy m physis of the chi n A bri e f .

i n spe cti on o f the l o w e r j awbon e sh o ws its m o re r e m a rk

a bl e p o i n ts : its a rtic u l a r sur fa c e , by which it r e sts o n the

gl e n oid c av ity o f the t e mpo r al ; the co ron oid proc e ss pr oj e ct

i n g u pw a rds i n fron t of th e c on dyl e , an d to whi ch is a ttach ed
th e p o w e rfu l t e mp o r a l muscl e ; the a lv eol a r e dg e o f th e jaw ,
fo rmi n g its d e n t ar p orti on ; th e symphysis or u n ion of the
chi n , an d the ba s e an d an gl e The m a stic atin g muscl e s ar e .

v e ry p o w e rfu l , e spe ci ally i n th e ca rn iv o r a ; an d i n s om e an i

m als the disp o siti on o f the m u scl e s r e n d e r i n g the ar m o f th e
l e v e r o f r e sist an c e e qu a l to , or e v e n sh o rt e r th a n th at Of the
po we r dds to th e ir stre n gth
,
a .

The hy o id o r li n gu a l b on e s ( Fig pl ace d i n fro n t o f the .

n e ck r e pr e s e n t a tiv e s o f an o th e r a pp a r a t u s o f which i n m a n
, , ,

m am m als birds an d m o st re ptil e s w e h a v e on ly the r udi

, , ,

m e n ts an d which on ly att ai n th
,

ao , cci pi t l t e m p o r l
t, f ,
o d fro t l b a es ;
, s al b e ; a ,
an n a on n , na on
s p ri r m i ll ry ; i m i t rm l l ry ; mi i f ri o r m a i l l ry ;
u e o ax a ,
n e o rb i t ;
a xi a , n e x a o,

i c si t t h
i n i ve c i ; m m lr
ee c, an n e o, o a .

—
,

l
‘
Pr
'
c i ] m i ns c l s f t ha f c d hu d erb i c l r m scl s f th e e y
O e a e an ea 0, o u a u e o e
li ds i t ,
d t o cl s th
n en ey li ds d t t th
o y s ; b b o rb i c l r m s l
e e e e an ro e c e e e , u a u c e

O f th l i p s i t d d t cl s th m
e ,
n en t e c t ri b t gr tly t s p h th
o o e e an o on u e ea o ee c , e

ex p r ss i e f t h e p ss i o s
on o & c ; j m s cl s f th ch ks ; m m ss t r
a n , .
, u e O e ee , a e e

m s cl
u i t d d to cl s t h e j w s by r i s i g th l w r m i ll ry b
e, n en e o e ; a a n e o e ax a one

t t m p r l m s cl h
,
e o a i g th s m e f c t i
u e ; yg m ti c rch ;
av n ea tia un on z, z o a a c, r cu
l ti
a f t h e l o we r j w ;
on o di t o ry m t s d m sto i d p r c ss
a a , au ea u an a o e .

x 2
1 32 ZOOLOGY .

iv e a tta chm e n t t o t h e mu s cl e s of the t o n g u e a n d to o th e rs

g .

Th ey a r e n o t c o n sid e re d a s pa rt o f the sk e l e to n pro p e rly s o ca ll ed , .

27 1 . 1 71 6 T r u n k o r T o r s o — The m o st
,

impo rta n t part o f the sk e l e to n o f the trun k is the

v e rt e bra l co l um n c o m po s ed o f the b o ne s c all e d v e r
c
,
'

te b r zc . It s u ppo rts the h e ad which m ay be c o n ,

s id e r e d a s a c o n ti n u a ti on o f it ; b u t an a to mists sti ll

sp e a k o f the v e rte bra l co lum n a a p a rt disti n ct s

fr om the h e ad I n this v ie w it is c ompo s e d o f

.

d 3 3 v e rte br ae n am e l y 7 c e rvica l ( c)
, , 1 2 d o rs a l ( d ) ;
5 lumb a r ( l ) ; 5 sa cr a l ( s ) ; a n d 4 co ccyge al It
pre s e n ts s e v e ra l curv e s whe n vi e w e d i n pro fi l e but ,

is str aight wh e n s e e n fro m b e fo re b a ckwa rds or ,

fr o m b e hi n d fo rw a rds A t first a l l t he v e rte br ae

.

l
are disti n ct but with y e a rs c e rt a i n o f th e m
,

be co m e fu s e d i n to o n e or m o re : the 5 s acra l
v e rte brae g e n e rally u n i te s o as to fo rm on e m ass ;
a

an d the co ccyg e a l bo n e s ar e a ls o dispo s ed to ;

fu s e i n to on e bon e i n the a d u lt .

F i g 79
. . The e ss en ti a l ch a r act e r o f a v e rt e br a ( wi t/1 ce r
ta i n ex cep ti o n s ho we ver ) is to b e fo r m e d o r com
,

po s e d o f a b ody an d pro ce ss e s an d to h av e a fo r a m e n o r sh o rt
, ,

c an al b e hi n d the b o dy i n which the spi n a l m a rro w an d i ts

, ,

m e m bran e s ar e l o dg e d . Bu t t he c o ccyg e a l v e rte b r ae i n m an

a r e qu it e r u dim e n ta ry a n d c a n n o t b e i n cl u d e d i n
,

this d e fin ition A t the sid e s of the c olum n ar e

.

o pe n i n gs for the p a ss a g e o f t he n e rv e s ; th e y ar e

c a ll e d the fo ra m i n a i n te rv er te b r a l i a an d ar e ,

gen e ra lly fo rm e d by the u n i on o f t wo v e r te brae .

The bo d y o f a v e rte br a is a disc ( a ) with ,

p a ra ll e l surfa c e s e ach u n it e d ( with c e rta i n e x ce p

,
F i g so
. .

ti on s ) to the adj oi n i n g v e r te br a by a s u bsta n c e

c a ll e d i n te rve rte bral ; this is a fi b ro -c artil a ge o f gre at stre n gth ,

fl e xi bility an d cl as ti ci t o n which the stre n gt h a n d m o bility

o f th e co lum n gr e a tly d epe n ds
,

Fo u r articul a r proc e ss e s a ls o gre atly c o n trib u t e to its stre n gth

a n d li m it its m o v e m e n ts i n c e rt a i n dir ecti o n s The spi n o u s .

pro ce ss 6 as w e ll a s the tr a n sv e rs e pro c e ss e s 0 gi v e att ach

, ,

m e n ts to n u m e r o u s m u scl e s a n d the l att e r s u pp o rt the ribs

, .

The m o bility o f the c o l u m n v a ri e s i n di ff e re n t r e gi o n s be i n g ,

m o st e x te n siv e i n the n e ck a n d l o i n s The e re cto r muscl e s

.

o f th e spi n e th o s e i n t e n d e d m e r e ly to r a is e the bo dy u pright

, ,

a n d to co u n t e rb a l an c e the w e ight o f a ll the visc e ra sit ua te d i n

 F ro nt al B on e . P ri e tal B on e
a .

O rb i t .

L o we rJ aw .

Cl a vi cl e .

H um e ru s

l li um .

C rp s
a u
M e t c rp s
a a u _

P hal a g s n e .

F emu r

P t ll
a e a .

T a rs u s .

Me t a t a rs u s
I
.

1
I

P h al a n ge s .
 Z OO L O G Y .

fro n t ar e pl a c e d o n the do rs al sid e o f the co lum n fil l i n g up

, ,

the groo v e s call e d v e rte br al a n d which m ay b e s e e n e x te n d i n g

,

on e ith e r sid e the sp i n o u s pr o c es s e s fro m the h e a d q u it e to t he

,

e x tr e mi t o f the s acr a l v e rt e br a Th e y s e e k att achm en ts

.

al s o i n t e ribs a n d tr an sv e rs e pr oc e ss e s o f the v e rte br a .

The spi n ous pr o c e ss e s ar e l on g an d p o w e rfu l i n m an

qu ad rupe ds ( Fig .The muscl e s o n th e oth e r h an d , :
sit u ate d o n the flex o r side o f the bo dy ar e ge n e ra ll y sm al l , ,

as be i n g but littl e r e q u ir e d

The first c e rvica l v e rte br a 1 s c all e d th e A tl a s an d is much ,

82 .
—Sk e le t o n of th e C am e l .
‘

m o re m o v e abl e th an the oth e rs ; it r e s e mble s a ri n g an d turn s ,

on a piv ot fur n ish e d it by th e s e c o n d v e rte br a o r d e n ta t a ( ax i s ) .

The m o v e m e n t of the yh e a d fo rw ards an d b a ckw ar ds ta k e s

Th e d ark li n e re pre s e n ts th e o u tl i n e ( si l ho u ette ) o f th e li vi n g a ni m al ;
cc, c r ca l v e rte b ra ; cd do rs al v e rte b ra ; vl l u m b ar ve r te b ra ; ca s acrum
e vi , , ,

or sa cra l ve rt e b ra vq v e rte b ra o f th e ta il o r ca u d a l c th e ri bs 0 s capula , ,

h u m e ru s ; cu cu b i t u s ; ca ca rp us ; mc m e t aca rp u s ; p h pl i al an ge s
, , , ,

h, , , , , ,

fe ,
fe m u r r o ro tu l a ti ti bi a ; ta t ars us ; mt m e ta t ars us
, , , , , .
 or TH E MO T ORY AP P ARA US I N MAN T . 1 35

pl ac e at the a rticul ati on o f the o ccipit al bo n e an d atl a s ;

r ot atio n o f the h e ad is pe rfo rm e d by the atl as a n d h e ad
m o vi n g as on e ar oun d the p r ocess u s d e n ta tu s o f th e ax is or
s e co n d v e rt e br a Th e re ex ist ch e ck lig a m en ts to pr e v e n t
.

this m ov e m e n t go in g too far .

2 7 2 To the d o rsa l v e rte bra are a rtic u l ated the ribs

.
,

24 i n m an , 1 2 on e ach sid e The h ead o f the rib r e sts .

o n th e v e rte br al c o lum n an d th e tub e rcl e o n th e tr an sv e rs e

,

proc e ss ge n e r all y ; the an te ri o r e x tr e m ity o f the rib is u n it e d

to a ca rtil a g e by m e an s o f which it is pr o l on ged to the
,

ste rn u m dire ctly i n the first s e v en ribs an d i n dire ctly i n the

, ,

r e m a i n i n g fi v e H en ce the divisi on of the ribs i n to tr u e an d

.

false o r s te r fl a l an d a s ter n a l ( Fig

, .

27 3 L
. i m bs —The sk e l e to n of the limbs m ay b e divid e d
.

i n to a b asil ar p orti on an d a l e v e r o r e x t en d e d a n d m o v e abl e

,

p art . I n the p ec to r a l e x tr e m ity th e b a sil a r p o rti o n or

sh ou ld e r co n sists o f two b on e s the sc a p u l a an d the co ll a r ,

bo n e or cl avicl e With the sc apul a a l a rg e an d flat bon e i s

.
, ,

a rticul a te d the hum e r u s o r a rm b on e Th e artic ul a r c a vity .

( gl en oid ) has b u t littl e d e pth On th e i n n e r sid e o f this .

gle n o id ca vity is a stron g pro c e ss c all ed c orac o id an d o n th e , ,

d ors al sid e of the bon e a stron g spi n e ru n n i n g fro m n e ar its ,

b a s e an d te r m in ati n g i n a pro c e ss c alle d a cr o mi on ; su r

,

m o un ti n g the sho ulde r -j o in ts an d attach e d to this pro c e ss is

th e cl a v icl e a cyli n dric a l a n d sl e n d e r bo n e co mp a r ativ e ly ; its
, ,

o th e r e x tr e m ity is art icul ate d with th e m an u brium o f th e

ste rn u m ( Figs 81 an d .

The m o r e o bvi o us u s e of th e cl a vicl e is to m ai n t ain the

sh o uld e rs ap ar t an d h e n c e the fre qu en cy o f its fr a ct u re wh en
,

fo rce d to w a rds the ste rn u m Th e s e cl a vicl e s a r e str on g in.

bi rds o f po w e rfu l flight an d w ea k i n tho s e diffe re n tly cir cum

,

s ta n ce d : c on t r a st fo r e x a m pl e the e a gl e an d the t u rk ey
, , In .

an im als lik e th e h o rs e o x &c th ey ar e wh olly w an ti n g ; the

, , .
,

scapul a as the e ss en ti al bon e of the sh ou lde r n e v e r

, , .

N u m e ro u s po w e rfu l m u scl e s fix th e sh ou ld e r -bo n e s to th e

tr un k ; of th e s e m ay b e m e n tion ed the tr ap ezius rh o m bo ids , ,

an d l e v a to r of the an gl e of th e sca pul a ; a m uscl e o f gr ea t

po w e r e ve n i n m an b ut m u ch m o re s o i n th e l ar ge r
, ,

qu a dr up ed m amm als as the h o rs e ox &c con n e cts the

, , , .
,

sc apul a with the ribs viz th e s e rratus m a gn us

, . .

27 4 The ar m is divid e d i n to ar m fo re -ar m an d h an d

.
, , .

I n t e sk e l e to n of th e arm th e re is on e bo n e the h u m e rus i n ,

th at of the fore -arm two bo n e s the radius an d ul n a ; the ,

1 36 ZOOLOGY .

sk e l eton o f the h an d is subdivid e d i n to three s e gm e n ts the ,

us m et aca rpus a n d fi n ge rs ; i n the c a rpus th e re ar e

Egh
i t bon e s ; i n the m etacarpus fi ve an d i n each fin e r th e re
, ,

,
g
are thr e e b o n e s with the e x ce pti on o f the th u mb i n whi ch
, ,

o n ly t w o a r e 1 e ckon e d .

The hum e r u s has a b all an d s ock e t m oti on u pon the

scapul a a n d i s m o v e d by s e ve r a l p o w e rful muscl e s o f which
, ,

s om e pro c e e d f 1 o m the sca pu la ( s ub -sca p ul ar supr a spi n al , ,

i n fra-spi n al t e re te s ) ; o th e rs fro m the tru n k as th e p ecto ra lis

, ,

V rt b r l C o l m
e i bs
e a u n R .

"
Thi r d Ri b .

Ste r
I
"

n um .

S e v e n th Bi b .

C a

F i g 83
. .
—Tho ra x of M an .

m aj o r , l atissimus d o rsi By i ts l o w e r or dista l e x tremity ,

.

i t ar tic u l at e s with the r adi u s a n d ul n a .

§ 2 7 5 T .he r adi u s a n d u l n a fo rm th e sk e l e to n o f th e

fo r e arm Of th e s e , the r adi u s i s the m o re m o v c abl e , an d

.

up on its r otati o n o n the e x tre m ity o f the hum e rus d e pe n ds

the m o v e m en t o f r o t a ti on an d supin a ti on o f th e h an d Th e re .

i s o r ota ti on
n a t th e e lb w j i t , b oth bo n e s m ovi n g on the
o - o n

Se e ex pla t i ona n of thi s figure at p a ge 7 3 .

 OF TH E MO T OR Y APP ARA U S T IN MAN . 1 37

hum eru s m e re ly i n fle x i on an d e x te n si on ; b u t it is cl o s e to
this t hat the radi u s r ot-ate s on the u l n a an d slide s o v e r the ,

sm all e r h e ad o f th e h u m e r u s which m o v e m en t d e te rm i n e s
,

the r o ta tio n o f th e h an d i n s u pi n a ti o n an d pr on ati on Th e .

l o w e r e n d o f the ul n a is stylifo rm an d has i n te rpo s ed be tw ee n

,

it a n d the c a rpal bon e s a fi b r o -ca rtil ag e of a tri an g u l a r sh ap e

, ,

which attachi n g the radius at its e x tre mity to th e ul n a ,

pe r m its the fo rm e r to rota te a ro un d the l ow e r e n d of the

t h e l a tte r whic h r e m ai n s
, .

Th e s e two bon e s at th e ir ca rp al e xtr e miti e s als o m o v e

r e a dily i n fle x i on an d ex t en si on .

Th e pr oc e ss c all e d o l e cr a n o n b e l on gs to th e u l n a or c u bit
to it a r e att a ch e d the e x te n s o r m u scl e s o f th e fo r e ar m -
.

2 7 6 I n the h an d w e h a v e the c a rp u s m e ta car pu s an d

.
, ,

fin ge rs o r digita l po rti on
, .

The c a rp u s is c om po s e d of e ight bo n e s fo u r i n e ach r o w ; ,

th e y ar e sc ar ce ly m o v e a bl e an d the stre n gth o f the a rch th e y

,

fo r m is con sid e ra bl e I n th e first r ow w e fi n d the s cap ho i d

.
,

s e m i l zm a r r a m i d a l an d i s if or m e i n the s e co n d ro w th e
py , p , ,

tr ap e z i u m tr ap ezoi d es m a g n u m an d u n mf m m e
, , ,On th e ‘
.

fle x o r sid e o f the h an d th e y fo rm with the c a rpa l b on e s th e

a n t e ri o r an n u l a r liga m e n t o f th e c ar p u s a ca n al i n which , ,

a r e l odge d an d pr o te ct e d m o st o f th e fle x o r t e n d o n s an d o n e o f ,

t h e gr e a t n e rv e s ( m e di an ) pr o ce e d i n g to the p al m o f the h an d “
.

The m e t aca rp u s is co m po s e d of a si n gl e r o w o f s m al l l on g
, g
bo n e s co rr e sp o n di n to th e n u m b e r of the fi n g e rs al l dif ,

fe r e n t a n d r e adily d 1 s tin g u i s hab l e fr o m e ach oth e r Fou r o f ‘

th e s e m ov e b u t li ttl e ; the fir st which suppo rts the th u mb , ,

a n d which s o m e vi e w as the p r ox i m a l p l za l a n x o f th a t fi n g e r ,

i s v e ry m o v e abl e c o rr e sp on di n g to the gr eate r m o bi l ity of

,

t h e th u m b a s c om p a re d with th e o th e r fi n ge rs .

Fin a l ly th e fi n ge rs h a v e e a ch three bo n e s c al l e d pr ox im al
, , ,

middl e an d dista l ph al an ge s ; i n the th u m b th e re a r e o n ly

,

two . The dist a l ph a l an g e supp orts the n a i l an d i s s om e tim e s ,

ca ll e d th e n a il bo n e .

2 7 7 Wh e n w e c on sid e r the ar m as a s er i e s o f brok en l e v e rs ,

w e o bs e rv e th at the ar m is l on ge r th a n the f or e -a r m an d this , ,

l o n ge r th an th e h an d ; or i n oth e r w o rds th at the m obility

, ,

o f the struct u r e s an d th e ir fl e x ibility an d p o w e r of ad a pta ti on

i n cr e a s e as w e approach the ex tre mity prop e rly so ca l l ed , .

2 7 8 The str uct u re o f the i n fe ri o r or p e lvic e x tr e m iti e s

.

h as the stro n ge st a n al o gy to th at o f the s u p e ri o r limbs ,

a n d the pri n cip a l di ffe re n ce s to b e o bs e rv e d h a v e a n e ce s ,

s ary r e l ati on to th e ir fun cti on s ; to m ak e o f th e m i n fa ct,i n ,

1 38 zo o no c r .

s tr u m e n ts of
l o co m oti on rath e r th an o f pr eh en si on H en ce .

th e ir s o lidity at the e x pe n s e o f th e ir m o bil ity Th ey al so

, .

h av e a basil a r po rti on the h au n ch the r e pre s e n tativ e o f the

, ,

S h o uld e r an d an a rtic u l a te d l e v e r fo rm e d o f t hr ee pri n cip al

p a rts — the thigh th e l o an d the foo t —c0 1r e spo n di n g to t he

, ,

ar m the fo re -ar m an d t e h an d
, , .

2 7 9 The h au n ch o r ba sil ar po rti on of th e a bdom i n al or

.

p e l v w e x tr e m ity is co m po se d o f o n e bo n e on e ith e r sid e th e ,

o s i n n om i n a tu m or h au n ch bo n e In the yo un g thi s bo n e .

i s c o mpo se d o f three l ar g e po rti o n s c all e d pubic il i ac an d , , ,

ischi atic po rti on s Th e s e h a v e be e n c o n sid e r e d an al o go us to

.

th e sc ap u l a co ra co id proc e ss an d cl av icl e
, Th e s e bo n e s the
, .
,

o ss a i n n o mi n a t a ar e a rtic u l a te d in the m o st s o lid m an n e r with

,

th e s a crum by stro n g a rtic u l ati o n s an d with e a ch o th e r at ,

th e pubis ; th e s e j oi n ts ar e i m m o v a bl e i n th e ir n o r m a l S t a te ;
with the s acrum an d c o ccyx the i n n omi n at a fo rm the o ss e o u s ,

g i rdl e call e d the p elvis s u rrou n di n g the l ow e r p a rt o f the

, ,

t ru n k To this b asin o r p e l vi s ar e co n s eq u e n tly attach e d th e

.

po w e rfu l e re cto rs of the spin e the m u scl e s which ar e to ,

m o v e the l o w e r ex tr e miti e s an d th os e which S hut i n the ,

a bd o m in al an d pe lvic ca v iti e s .

§ 2 80 I n t he. thigh th e r e is but on e b on e th e fe mu r ,

( Fig . Th e h e ad of this bo n e by which it ar ticul ate s ,

with the pe lvi s for ms with the co tyl oid ca vity o f the h au n ch
, ,

bo n e a pe rfect ball -an d -s ock e t j o i n t prote cte d by a ca ps u l ar

, ,

ligam e n t pe rmitti n g of circ u l ar m o v e m e n ts or n e ar ly so

, , .

A sh o rt n e ck ( cer v i x ) co nn e cts the S ph e rica l h e a d o f the

fe m ur to a po w e rfu l cylin dri ca l sh aft which e n l arge s tow ards ,

its l o we r e xtre mity by which it articul ate s with the tibi a

, .

This i s by much the lon ge st an d stron ge st b on e o f the body .

P o w e rful muscl es surr o u n d an d m o v e it i n a l l dir e cti on s ,

e x ec ti n g b a ckw a rds o r i n e xte n si on .

2 8 1 The S k e l e to n o f the l e g i s co mpo s e d o f two bon e s

.
,

the tibi a an d p e ro n e or fibu l a Th e r otu l a or p ate ll a atta ch e d

.
,

to the tibi a by a p o w e rfu l li g am e n t o r r ath e r te n d on is a , ,

s e sa m oid bon e d e v el op e d i n a fi b r o -c arti l ag e co n n ecte d with

,

the syste m o f the te n d on s Th e tibi a ca rri e s the wh ol e .

w e ig ht o f th e bo dy tran s m itte d to it thro u gh the fe mur

, ,

which it tran smits to the as tragalus Th e re is n o rota ti on at .

the k n e e -j oi n t i n ge n e ra l n or at the ank l e The m all eo li

, .

fo r m e d by the l o w e r e n ds o f the tibia an d fibul a a ssist i n

fo rmi n g a ca s e for the h ea d o f the a str agal us .

d e d i n t o three
§ 2 8 2 T h e foo t
. lik e the h an d is , divi ,
 or TH E A TT T U I DE S AN D or LOCOMO T I ON . 1 39

r e gi on s : the tar s u s m e t a ta r s u s an d toe s

, I n th e tar s u s, .

th e re ar e s e v e n bo n e s the as tra ga l u s os cal ci S scaph o id

, , , ,

c u bo id an d thr e e cu n e ifo rm b on e s ; i n the m e ta ta rsus th e re

,

a r e fi ve b on e s r e ck on e d n u m e ric ally fr o m th e i n n e r to the

, ,

o u te r sid e of the foo t ; an d i n th e r e gi on o f the toe s th e r e ,

ar e fo r the gr e a t t oe t wo ph a l an g e s a n d for th e o th e rs thr ee

, ,

b e sid e s th e se a i n the han d th e re ar e tw o s e s am o id b on es

,
s
, ,

c on sta n t an d r e gul ar d e v el ope d i n the t e n don o f th e S h o rt

,

fle x o r b e l o w the b a ll o f the grea t to e .

I n m an the gre at to e ca n n o t b e opp o s e d to the oth e rs the

s e c on d to e is the l on g e st i n al l w e ll -for m e d fee t The t ars al .

a n d m e t a t a rs a l bo n e s fo rm a str on g a rch to w ards th e i n n e r

an d l o w e r surfa c e o f th e fe e t pr o te cti n g th e v e ss e ls n e rv e s
, , ,

a n d te n d o n s p a ssi n g fr o m th e fo o t to th e l e
g an d the Opp o site ,
.

The sh o rt fle x or s o f the to e s a r e pl a c e d i n the s ol e of the foo t ;

the te n d o -A chill e s the stro n g te n don thro u gh which the
‘

e xt e n s o r m u scl e s a ct o n th e foo t i n w a lki n g is a tt a ch e d to ,

th e tub e r o sity o f the c a lc an e u m The siz e o f th e pe ron eal .

muscl es is a pe culi a rity i n the hu m an l e g .

Of ti re A tti tu de s f L ocom oti on an d o .

§ 2 8 3 Al l
. m a m m als birds r e ptil e s an d fish e s
, h a ve a
, , ,

sk el e ton fo r m e d on the s am e pl an a s in m an It giv e s to the .

bo dy its gen e ra l fo r m r e g u l ate s i ts d e v el Opm e n t an d m ovem e n ts

28 4 S ta ti on o r S ta n d i ng —With th e ex c e ption o f
.
,

. .

s e rp e n ts m o st an i m als re st on the s o il by m e an s of li m bs or
,

e x tr e miti e s Th e y
.

stan d by m e an s o f
the acti on o f th e e x
te n s o r muscl e s ; an d
thus sta n di n g for a
l o n g tim e e r ect b e
co m e s m o re fati gu i n g
th an w alki n g for ,

i n this the flex o r s

an d e xte n s o rs ar e

u se d alte rn ate ly .

§ 2 8 5 But .th e
body m ust a ls o b e 1235 34 .

in e gu i l i br i o , or

b al an ce d on its b as e of suste n tati on an d the p oi n t aro un d

which all its m o v e m en ts ar e pe rform e d is c all e d the cen tr e of
g r a v i ty N
. o w to supp o rt the ce n tr e of gr a vity it is n e ce ss ary
, ,
1 40 ZOOLO G Y .

th a t the b as e of su s ten ta ti on b e situat e d v e rt ica ll y be l o w

"

the ce n tr e o f gr a vity The wid e r th e n the b as e o f suste n ta

.
, ,

ti on is the m o r e s e c u re the po siti on : thus we S ta n d s afe r

,

o n t wo fe e t th an o n e ; o n the s o l e o f th e foo t th an on the toe s

o r h e e l & c ; fo r i n pr o po rti on to th e e xt e n t o f th e b a s e o f
, .

s uste n ta ti o n so m ay t he ce n tr e o f gr avity b e displ a c ed

,

with o ut risk o f its fa lli n g bey o n d th at b as e The l aw h olds .

goo d i n al l h e a vy b odi e s ; thus the t abl e ( a ) re pre se n te d i n ,

Fig 84 m u st fa ll be c aus e the v e rtica l

.
, l e t fa ll fro m its
cen tr e o f gr avi ty w o u ld fa ll b ey on d the limits of its bas e of
Su ste n ta ti on ( a ) o r i n o th e r w o rds the foo t o f the t abl e or th e ,

s a ce o cc u pie d by it ; wh e re as the t abl e ( 6 ) w ou ld n o t fall f or

tp
, ,

e b a s e o f s u st e n t a ti on is su fli ci en tl y l a rge to al l o w the
v e rtic al fro m the ce n tr e of g ravi ty to fa l l within its limits .

On th e s e si m pl e p ri n cipl e s m ay
read ily b e e x pl ai n e d the s a fe ty
o f th e p o si ti o n o f the qu ad ru
-

p ed as h e sta n ds on four limbs

h ow it b e co m e s l e ss s afe on
thr e e still l e ss on two ; an d ho w ,

re adil y the bir d s e cur e s its e lf

o n o n e l e g i n c o n s e qu e n c e o f the

bre ad th o f the fo ot which is the

ba s e o f sust e n ta ti on M an st a nds .

r e a dily o n on e lim b an d with ,

littl e fa tig u e e sp e cial ly if he u s e ,

the o th e r to s e cur e his equ i l i

b r i u m for the ce n tre of gra vity
b e i n g i n him tow a rds the mi ddl e
o f the p e lvis all th a t is r e quire d ,

is to r e cli n e the bo dy a l ittl e

to on e sid e s o th a t th e c e n tre o f ,

gra vity m ay fa ll o n the s ol e o f

th e foo t which r e ce ive s the
Pi g 86
w ei g h tfi“
.

F i g sa t
.

ith e r M ost qu adr u p e ds can n e

St di ng
an fo t wi th b t li ttl m u sc l r fl t r q ui r s the c tre o f
o n on e o u e u a e
'
or , e e en

g t
r a vi y t b thr
o w ef rw r ds o n t foll t w r dsa t h f r p r t f t h b as
so as f o a o a e o e a o e e o
s s t t t i ; th k
u

e
en a
d r d i m m bl by th p
e

t F i g 85 h i d f t { t h
.
on
ova

,
t ds th t b d b ckw rd b t i fi e d a d r
n
e
e i
oo
n ee
lig m
0
en
t o f i sl w R K
e o
e
e o
en

s t rh rs e H g 86 f t f t h st g ; t th t i bi ;
o
o

.
a
en
en

.
a

,
W oo
a
n
o
,

o .
u

e
-
s
.

a
x
.
n

e
en

a
ta fi rst w f t h b s f th t rs s ; t s ec d w ; m t t rsu o
, ro o e o ne
’ o e a u a ,
on ro c, e a a s r
ca no n b ; t l i th fo rm d by t h e sk l t
o ne 8, s i f r di m t ry fi g ;
e e e on o a u en a n er
th r e e aretw s ch p p ro i m l p h l
o u c ll d the gr t p te rn p i
,
x a a anx, a e ea as ,

mi ddl p h l nx ( li ttl p as te rn ) p t di st l p h al x o co fli b o e of e te i
e a a e , a an ,
r n n v r
na n a ns .
 or TH E A TTIT UD E S AN D or LOCOMO TI ON . 141

stan d o n on e foo t n o r e v e n o n the two hi n d e r limbs ; it is

i m po ssibl e fo r th e m to m ai n t ai n e x c e pti n g fo r a fe w s e c o n d
, s
,

s u ch a po sition ; the b as e o f s u st e n t ation is to o n a rro w ; th e i r

c en tr e o f gr a vity is to w a rds th e ch e st a n d t he m u scl e s are ,

n o t stro n g e n o u gh to m a i n ta i n the a ttit u d e Bu t i n m an this .

p o siti on is e asy n at u ral an d be l o n gs to hi m by the ch a r a cte r

, ,

o f his o rg a n iz ati o n .

n t he v e rtic a l p o siti on it is chi e fl t s r

§ 28 6 I th
‘

.
y e e x e n o
m u scl e s which ar e c al l e d in t o pl ay the li m b s fo r m i n g brok en
l e v e rs b e c o m e fi x e d ; the k n e e an d an kl e b e co m e i m m o v a bl e
,
.

§ 82 7 S itti. n g is l e ss f a tig u i n g th an st a n di n g ; b u t th e

h o riz on t a l p o siti o n is t hat al on e which giv e s a bs ol u te r e st to

th e b o dy
—
.

288 W a
. l ki n
g Wh en w .e w alk o n e o f o u r fe e t i s ,

:
ca rr i e d fo rw a rds w hilst th e oth e r is e x te n d e d o n the li m b ;
,

a n d a s this fo rcibly e x te n d e d fo o t r e sts o r pr e ss e s a g a i n st a

;

r e sisti n g s oil its e l on gati on displ ace s the p e l v is a n d th u s

, ,

pr oj e cts the wh o l e b ody fo rw ards ; at th e s a m e i n stan t the ,

p e lvis t u r n s a littl e on the fe m u r o f the opp o sit e sid e an d the ,

l e g which at first r e m a i n e d be hi n d be n ds is c a rri e d fo rw a rd , , ,

a n d i n its t u r n i s pl a c e d o n the so il to ca r r y fo r wa rd th e ,

wh ol e b o dy by the e x t e n si on o f the fo ot By the a i d o f th e s e .

a lt e r n a t e m o v e m e n ts o f fle x i o n a n d e x t e n si o n e a ch li m b c a rri e s ,

i n its t u rn the w e ight o f the bo dy a n d a t e a ch st e p th e c e n tr e ,

o f gr a vity i s p u s h e d fo rw a rd s F o r an i n st a n t the b o dy is
.

c a rri e d a lte r n ate ly o n on e foot an d the c e n tre o f gra v ity is

,

c a rri e d fle x u ou sl y fr o m sid e to side a t e ach st ep a n d this i n ,

pro p o rti on to th e width o f th e p e lvis .

2 89 A s the fun cti o n s o f e v e ry a pp ar at u s a r e a lw ays i n

.

r e l atio n with the str u cture s s o the li m bs o f v ari o u s a n i m a ls

,

sh o w gre at v a ri e ty i n th e ir disp o siti on Th u s am o n gst .

,

m a m m a ls s o m e ar e d e sti n e d to m o v e i n w a t e r o r o n l an d
, ,

th a t is to swi m o r w alk as s u its th e m o r to swi m on ly ;

, , ,

o th e rs h a v e the limbs fo r m e d fo r sp e e d ; o th e rs a s b a ts fly , ,

lik e birds ; s o m e u s e th e ir fo re li m bs on ly a s i n s t r u m e n ts o f
pre h e n si on o r t o u ch ; a n d ye t the li m bs i n al l th e s e a n i m als
a r e fo r m e d pr e cis e l y o n on e pl an In th e swi m m i n g li m bs
.

o f the s e al t he wi n g o f the ha t the fo r e li m bs o f t he sq u irr e l

, ,

o r m o l e w e fi n d th e s a m e n u m b e r a n d a rr a n g e m e n t o f the
,

b on e s ( Fig 8 1 ) as i n the h um a n a r m
. .

§ 2 9 0 I n m am m als o rg a n iz e d fo r sp ee d
. t h e li m bs a r e ,

sl en d e r an d the fe e t s m all ; w e s e e this i n the h o rs e sta g a n d , ,

c am e l i n which the t oe s a r e but littl e divid e d ( Fig

,
an d .
1 42 ZOOLOGY .

the n umbe r of
toe s is r ed u c e d to its mi n i m u m ; i n the
the
h or s e for e x a m pl e th e re is b u t o n e to e or fi n g e r pe rfe ct two
, , ,

o th e rs be i n g i m p e rfect a n d c o n c e a l e d
( Fig i n o th e r s .

th e re ar e tw o e ith e r alo n e o r with v e stige s o f on e or two

,

o th e rs a n d th e s e al w ays sh o rt a n d n ot v e ry m o v e a bl e
, .

In th o s e a ls o r e m a rk abl e fo r sp ee d o f foo t the limbs ar e ,

l on g ; a n d this is a n e ce ss a ry re sult o f the m e ch an ic a l p ri n

ci l e s a lre ad y e x pl a i n e d
p .

Fi g 87 . .
— S ke l e to n of t he K gran a oo .

29 1 .
—I n w alki n g the w eight of the bo dy i s
L e ap i n g .
,

susta in ed by a po rti on o f the l oc o m oto ry app a ra t u s whilst its ,

ce n tre o f gra vity is be in g p u sh e d fo rw a rd by the oth e r pa rt

o f th e app a r at u s s o th at m an n e v e r c e a s e s to t o u ch the s o il
, .

I n l e api n g it is o th e rwi s e ; the bo dy i s thro w n i n t o the a i r ,

a n d be co m e s as it w e re
, a pr oj e ctil e To e ffe ct this the
, .
,

a rtic u l ati on s ar e str on gly fl e x e d s o th at by a stro n g an d , ,

fo rci bl e an d s u dd e n e xte n si o n th e body m ay b e fo rce d u p ,

w a rds fro m the r e sisti n g s o il B e tw e e n the bo dy an d the .

s o il th e re is i n fa ct an app a ratus r e pr e se n ti n an e l a sti c

, ,

sp ri n g— the j oi n ts ; on th e s e e x te n di n g vi o l en t y an d s u d
d e n l y o n e of tw o thi n gs must h a pp e n if the spri n g b e s u f
—
,

fi ci e n tl y str o n g e ith e r th e so il m u st yi e ld o r t he body a n d ,

this be i n g ge n e ra lly the on ly m ov e a bl e gi v e s w ay a n d b eco m e s ,

the p r oj e ctile W e re th e s o il to yi e ld u n d e r t he fee t it is

.
,

o b v i o u s th a t n o l e a p co ul d ta k e pl ace With qu adr u p ed s it .

,

is pri n cip ally the hi n d e r e x tr e m iti e s which act a s the s p ri n g

o r fo rc e ; a n d h e nc e i n a n im als o f gr e at sp e e d as the an te
, ,

l ope h o rs e & c th e s e li m bs ar e l o n g an d fl e x e d an d sl e n de r
, ,
.
, , , .
 OF TH E A TTI T D E S U A ND OF LOCOMO TI ON .

In s o m e as i n the j e rb o a
, k an g ar oo the an te ri or li m bs
an d ,

a r e but littl e if at al l u s e d
,
i n pro gre ssi on
,
.

29 2 S wi mm i F l i — Th e s e m o v e m e n ts a r e
. n
g o r y n
g .

a n a l o g ous to l e a pi n g th e o n ly di ffe r e n c e b e i n g i n fact i n th e

,

m e di u m i n which th ey t a k e pl a c e The po i n ts to b e con .

s i d e r e d a r e first th e m e di u m which i n th e c a s e o f flyi n g is

, , ,

the a i r a n d this by r e aso n o f its r a rity a n d the fa cility o f its

, ,

displ ac em en t r e qu ire s be in g str u ck with much gre ate r fo rc e

,

a n d r a pidity th an if it w e re w a te r or th e still m o r e r e sisti n g ,

s o il H e n c e the g re at fo rc e r e qu ire d by birds i n the m u s cu l a r

.

a pp a r at u s by which flight is e ffe cte d S e c o n d di m i n u ti on .

,

of th e s u rfa c e o f th e m o to ry o rg an s duri n g th e a dv an c e
°

o f th e bo dy s o a s to o ffe r l e ss r e sist an c e to th e p ass a ge o f th e

,

bo dy throu gh the ai r No w th e s e two con diti on s w e sh a ll

.
,

fi n d u n ifo r m ly t ak e pl ac e i n a n i m a ls which fly o r swim

n at u r a lly ; the e x p a n d e d fo o t o f th e s e a l di m i n ish e s d u ri n g

th e m o m e n t o f a dv an c e an d th e wi n g o f th e bird a ppro ach e s

,

th e sid e s ; th e fl an ge s a tt a ch e d to th e a rchi m e d e a n scr e w ar e

but po o r imit ati on s o f the t ail fi n o f the wh al e -
.

F i g 88
. .
— S k e l e to n of th e Se a l .
‘

§ 293 . The
p al m at e d fe e t o f the o tte r an d s e al o f the ,

sw an an d d u ck re pre s e n t an d e xpl ai n the m e ch a n is m by which

,

n at u r e pr o v id e s fo r t he w a n ts of a n a n i m a l r e q u iri n g a t

ti m e s to swim a t oth e rs to w alk o n the s o il ; the o tt e r als o

fu r n is he s a g oo d e xa m pl e o f this m e ch an is m But n a tur e d oe s .

n o t fo r a l l this d e pa rt fr o m he r r t pl i th c structi
g e a an n e o n on
o f a n i m a ls ; th e sk e l e t o n o f t he h a n d a n d foo t o f the s e a l

Th e b o e l tt r d i F g 82
n e s ar e e e as n i . .
1 44 zo o r o e r .

re s e mbl e s ours ( Fig ad m itti n g th a t i n s o m e as i n t he

.
,

wh al e the n umbe r of ph al an ge s a ppe ars to e x c ee d th at o f

,

m a m m als ge n e ra lly a n d th a t the fi n ge rs th e m s e l v e s s e e m to

,

b e re pl ac e d by a n u m b e r o f o ss e o u s p i e c e s r e u n ite d u n de r ,

a c o mm o n i n te gum e n t a s is s e en i n the fi n s o f fish e s

,
.

E g 89 . .
—Th e lyi n g F Fh
is ( th e D actylopt e r s ) u .

§ 294 . The st ructu re of the o rgans which e n a bl e an

an im a l to fly has m u ch
, a n al o gy with the fi n s g e n e ral ly ;

thus th e re a r e fish e s ( Fig 8 9 )

'
.

which u s e i n d i fi e r e n tl y fo r pr o
r e ss i o n i ai r o r w a te r th e ir
g n

p e cto ra l fi n s .

So m e squ i r r els an d th e a n im a ls
,

ca ll ed g al eo pi theci h av e a wi d e
,

e x p a n si o n o f the co m m o n i n te u
g
m e n ts e x te n d i n g o n e ith e r side ,

fro m th e n e ck to the t a il a n d
hi n d e r e x tre m iti e s ; a n d by this
th ey can s u ppo rt th e ms e lv e s i n
the a i r fo r a sh o rt ti m e it an sw e rs
i n fa ct th e purp o s e o f a p ar ach u te .

I n the v e rt e b r a ta the wi n gs,

a 1 s a lw a ys fo 1 m e d b y the pe c
t o r al e x tre m iti e s with o u t r e
,

quir i n g 0 1 1 the pa1 t o f the limb

a n y v e ry e x tr ao r d 1 n a1 y m e ta m o r

ph o sis . The figu r e ( 9 1 ) r e pr e

90 —
.
G a l e o pi th e c u s . s e n ti n g the sk e l e t on o f t he b at
e x pl a i n s this s u ffici e n tly ; the ph a

l an ge s o f the fi n ge rs a r e much e x te n ded a n d with th e m the

,

in t e gum e n ts .

The wi n gs o f bi r ds which ,
at first sight s e e m to di ff e r
 OF TH E A TTIT UD E S AND OF LOCOMO T I ON .

e ss e n ti ally fr om the ar m o f m an the foo t o f the h o rs e an d , ,

the swi m m i n g pa w o f the wh a l e i n p o i n t o f fa ct d o n ot di ffe r , ,

a s r e g a rds t he b a sis o f the i n str u m e n t th e sk e l e t on To the , .

F i g 9 1 — Sk e l e t o n *
. . of th e B a t .

b on e s r e pr e s e n ti n g the fo r e ar m an d h an d an al o go u s to -
, ,

th o s e o f m an a r e atta ch e d th e p o w e rfu l fe at he rs o f th e wi n g ;
,
-

th e h an d is s m all an d th e di git a l p o rti o n m e r e ly r u di m e n t a ry ;

,

b u t th e b a sil a r p o rti on o f the li m b is a lw ays p o w e rfu l a n d ,

p e r fe ctly ad apte d fo r flight .

The wi n gs o f i n s e cts ar e c o n str u ct e d pr e tty n e a rly o n the

s am e pl a n a s th o s e of birds b u t the t e g u m e n t a ry p a rt i s ,

s u ppo rte d on h o rn y st alks i n st e a d o f o ss e o u s a s i n the

, ,

v e rt e br a t a .

P h i — By slight m o dific ati on s

29 5 O g r . a ns of r e e n s o n .

i n the fo r m o f th e b o n e s a n d i n the disp o siti o n of th e ar ti cu

,

l ati on s th e li m bs b e c om e i n str u m e n t s o f pr e h e n si on i n ste a d

, ,

o f m e r e l oc o m o ti o n a n d s u pp o rt To b e s atisfi e d o f this it is
.
,

on ly n e c e ss a ry to c o m p a r e the p e cto ra l a n d a bdo m i n al

e x tr e m iti e s i n m an s e cti o n by s e cti on a n d b o n e by b o n e ;
, ,

the r ot ati o n o f th e ra di u s a n d th e c o n s e q u en t m o v e m e n ts o f
,

pron ati on an d s u pi n ati on t o ge th e r with a n opp o si n g th u m b

, ,

c on s t it u t e i n r e a lity th e chi e f di ffe r e n c e s b e tw een the a r m s

a n d li m bs M an y a p e s o f the Ne w Co n ti n e n t ( A m e ric a ) h a v e
.

Th be s h e th e s m l e tt rs i fig
on e av a e 82 l th cl i c l ;
e as n ur e : c , e av u e
th e th u m b .
146 ZOOLOGY .

pr e h e n sil e t a ils ; am on gst re ptil e s , the ch a me l eo n o ffe s r th e

s am e pe c uli a rity .

OF TH E V O I CE .

§ 2 9 6 I n c e rta i n o f th e l o w e r a n im a ls th e r e e x ists n o
.

tr ac e o f this fa c u lty ; i n i n s e cts , the s o u n d produce d by the

fricti on o f th e ir w i n gs , or o f s o m e o th e r te gu m e n ta ry p arts ,

is a n e ce ss a ry re s u lt o f th eir m o v e m e n ts , —a s o f flight , for

e xam pl e —an d ca n sc a rce ly b e v i e w e d as a ph e n o m e n on o f
,

e xp re s si on Bu t i n the high e r an i m al s the v o ice acqui res

an oth er i mpo rt an c e it is u n d e r the dire cti on of the wi l l ; it
.

is m o re v ari e d a n d d e p e n ds o n a tota lly di ffe re n t cau se ; for

,

i n al l th e s e , it is ca us ed b y the p ass a g e o f th e a i r i n a d e te 1
mi n ate po i n t o f the r e spir ato ry ca n al , dispo s e d i n s u ch a way
as to c a us e the a i r to vi br a t e .

29 7 The l a r y nx ( Fig
. surm ou n ti n g the tra ch e a
.

F i g 92
. .
—S ke le t o n o f th e Vult u re .
‘

The d i ff e re n t b o n e s a r e d ca te d by t he s am e l e tt e rs as
in i i n t he p re c e d i g
n
fi g u re s .
 TH E LARYN X . 1 47

an d co mmun icati n g di r e ctly with the ph aryn x an d by its ,

m e an s with the n o strils an d m ou th is the organ o f the v o ic e ,

i n m an an d i n m amm als It m ay b e fe lt on the s u rface of the

.

n e ck a, littl e be lo w the hyo id bo n e s E x p e rim en ts on .

livi n g an i m al s an d obse rv ati on s m ad e on th o s e w ho h av e

,

u n d e rgon e the op e rati on of tr ach eoto my th at is of h avin g an , ,

F i g 93
. .
—Whi te -thro a te d S aja p o u .

a pe rt u r e m ad e i n to the wi n dpip e betw e e n the lun gs an d the

l a rynx pro v e th at the v o ic e is fo r m e d i n th at o rg an
—
.
,

§ 2 98 T/ze L a r nx
.
y T h e l a ryn x i s a sh o rt an d wid e
.

t u b e susp e n de d to the lin gu a l bo n e s an d c o n ti n u ous wi th

, ,

the tr ach e a o r wi n dpip e i n fe ri o rly ( it Fig Its w alls ar e

, .

fo rm e d o f ca rtil a g e s c all e d thyroid ( t) cric oid ( c) a rytaen oid , ,

( a r Fig
, The s ali e n t an gl e o f the thyr oid fe lt
.

on th e s u rf a ce o f th e n e ck i n m an still r e t ai n s t he vulg ar ,

n am e o f p o m u m A d a m i ( a ) ; a m uco us m em br an e con ,

ti n u ou s with t h a t c o v e ri n g the to n gu e m o uth n o strils an d , , ,

ph ary n x li n e s its i n te ri o r an d e x te n di n g d ow n w ards in to

, ,

the tr a ch e a be co m e s th e muco us m e mbr an e of the lu n gs

,

th e ms e lv e s I n th e i n t e ri o r o f the o rg an thi s muc ou s

.
,

L 2
1 48 ZOOLOGY .

m mbran e fo rms four folds two supe ri o rly c all e d the fal se
e
,

v o c a l c o rds an d two in fe ri o rly ca lle d the tru e v o c a l co rds

,
.

It 1 8 h e re , upo n th e ed ge o f th e se fo lds by the ai r i m pi n gi n g ,

an d c a us i n g th e m to vibrate th at the v o ic e is fo rm ed ,

( F i gs 95 an d .

F i g 96. .

Fi g .

Th e s e folds ar e i n c on s e qu e n ce ca ll e d the v ocal c o rds o r

ligam en ts o f the gl o ttis the space b e tw e en the tr u e liga m e n ts ,
'

b e i n g ca ll e d the g l o tti s or r i m a g l otti d es ; the tr u e v oc al co rds

a r e fo r m e d i n te ri o rly o f fo lds o f muco u s m e mbr a n e a n d e x ,

te ri o r l y o f e l a sti c lig am e n ts which stre tch fro m th e i n te r i o r ,

o f th e s ali e n t a n gl e of th e thyr o id ca rtil a g e to the a ryt ae n o id

ca rtil ag e s By the muscu l ar app aratus a tt ach e d to the l ary n x
.

n ot o nl y th e e n tir e l a ry n x can b e m o v e d u p a n d d o wn i n th e

n e ck but th e s e ligam e n ts or tru e v oca l co rds ca n b e m ad e

,

ten s e o r re l ax ed s o as to di m i n ish enl arge o r a l l but cl o se

,
'
, ,

th e ap e rtu r e c a ll e d r i m a g l o tti d zs thr o ugh which the ai r must ,

p as s an d r e p ass i n its w ay to an d fr o m the lu n gs B e tw ee n .

t h e tru e an d fa ls e liga m e n ts o f th e gl otti s o r v o ca l c o rds o n ,

e ith e r sid e th e r e is a ca vity ca ll e d th e v en tricl e o f th e l ar yn x , .

F i g 94 . l ary n x vi e w e d i n pro fil e 71 hy o i d bo n e ; 1 bo dy o f
. Th e m al e : , ,

t h e hy o i d gi vi n g a ttac h m e n t to th e b a s e o f th e to n gu e ; t thyr o i d ca rt il ge
, , a

a s a li e n t an gle o f th e thy ro i d ca r til ag e w hi c h m ay b e f lt

,
n t he s ur fac e o f
,
e o

th e n e c k ( p o mu m A d m ) a m e m b ran i f o rm li ga m e n t u n i t e s t h e thy ro i d
a :

carti l age to th e h ci d b o e s ; cri co i d carti l e ; tr tra ch e a o r wi n d p i pe ;

n c, ,

o s te ri o r wall 0 t h e l a ryn x i n re l a t i o w i th t e ull e t

o , g n .

g 95 V e rti c a l s ec ti o n o f th e l a ryn x h hy 0 d b o n e s ; t th ro i d car

'

. . : ,
1 , y

til ag e ; c cri co i d ca rti l a g e ;

,
a r y taan o i d ca rt il a g e s ; var e n t ri cl e o f t h e
, ,
v

glo tti s a n d o f th e la rynx fo rm e d as d e scri be d i n th e t e x t ; e e pi glo tt i s ;

, ,

t r trac h e a
, .

Fi 96 L a rynx fro n t vi e w
. th e c o n to u r o f th e i n n e r w a ll i s i n d i ca t e d by
,

t h e o tte d l i e s b b ; i s t ru e oca l co rds fa ls e d i tto o r

'
n aa ,
o r i n fe n o r ; 13
,
v , , ,

an e r i o r Th e o th e r p ar ts ar e i n d i c t e d by t h e s a m e l e tt e rs as i n t h e p r e
. a .

n g fig u re s
'

0 .
 M E CH AN SM I or TH E VOI CE . 1 49

L a stly , s u pe ri or ly the u ppe r ape rtur e o f the l a ry n x ( which

m u st n ot b e c on fo u n d e d with the ri m a gl ottidis ) is pr ot e cte d
by a fi b r o -ca rtil ag e of a tri an g u l a r sh ap e c al le d e pigl o ttis
, , ,

by m e an s of which du ri n g de gl u titi on the l ary nx is still

, ,

fur th e r prot ecte d from the accid en ta l p a ss a ge of fo o d o r dri n k

i n t o the ai r t u b e s the e ffe ct of which a ccid e n t unl e ss
, ,

i n st an tly r eli e v e d is s uff o ca ti on

, .

2 99 M e c/i a n i s m of the Vo i ce — I n the o rdin ary st at e

.

th e ai r p a ss e s an d r e pass e s the l aryn x an d n o s o u n d is h e a rd

,

b u t wh e n th e m u scl e s o f th e l aryn x c on tr act s o as to m od ify

th e v o ca l co rds as to t e n si on an d to affe ct th e di am e te r o f th e
,

r i m a gl o ttidis s o u n ds ar e i m m e di at e ly pr o d u c e d Th e c e l e
G , .

b r ate d al e n divid e d i n a livi n g an im a l the n e rv e s pr o ce e di n g

to the l a ry n x an d first sh o w e d the ph e n o m e n o n to d e p e n d on
,

m u sc u l a r a cti on in fl u e n c e d by th e n e rv e s By cu ttin g th e .

tru e v o c al c o rds the v oic e is d e str oy e d alt oge t he r .

3 00 Mo st physi o l o gists ar e di sp o s e d to thi n k th at th e

.

v o ice is s ol e ly pr o du c e d by the vibration s o f the tr u e v o c a l

co rds acti n g i n th e m an n e r of th e r ee d o f th e h au tb oy ; this
w ou ld m ak e of th e h um an o rg an of v o ice a wi n d i n stru m en t .

Oth e rs sp e ak o f it as if it m or e r e s em bl e d th e vi o li n or w as ,

a str i n g e d i n strum e n t Th e h u m an v o ic e w hich s u rpas s e s

.
,

a l l m u sic al i n str u m e n ts p a rt a k e s s e e m i n gly of the qu aliti e s

,

o f b oth ki n ds o f i n strum e n ts It has b e e n pro v e d e x pe ri

.

m e n t ally o n th e livi n g an d d e a d l a ryn x th a t th e e l astic co rds ,

tr lig am e n ts o f th e gl ottis ) vibr a t e str on gly whilst th e

( u e

v oic e is b e i n g produ ce d an d th at th e ap e rt u r e b e tw ee n th e m
,

be com e s m u ch c on tr acte d d u r i n g the e x e cu ti on o f a cu t e or

shrill s o un ds ; th e y m ay e v e n b e m ad e to tou ch fo r a l a rg e
p art o f th e ir c ou rs e Th ey di ffe r al s o i n le n gth i n m an an d
.

w om an an d i n childre n
,
.

T h e i n te n sity o f the v o ic e d e pe n ds p ar tl y on th e
§ 30 1 .

fo rce with which the a i r is e x p e ll e d fr o m th e l u n gs p ar tly on ,

th e siz e o f v a ri o u s p arts o f th e l a ry n x p a rtly o n th e fa cili ty

,

with which its v ari o u s p arts vibrate I n s o m e m am m als .

,

l arge c e lls e xi st c om m un ic atin g with th e l ary n x an d it is to

, ,

th e s e c ells th at the stre n gt h o f the v o ic e is attrib u t e d This .

str u ct u r e is m et with i n the as s an d m o re e sp e ci al ly in the

,

ap e s o f A m e ric a c all e d h o wl e rs
,
.

3 02 Th e ti m b r e ( qu a lity ) of the v o ic e s e e ms to d e p e n d
.

p art ly on the physic al pr op e rti e s o f the lig am e n ts of the

gl ottis an d w alls o f the l ary n x p a rtly on th o s e o f the ai r
,

t ub e fo ll o wi n g th e l a ryn x T
. he q u a lity fo r e x a mpl e of , ,
1 50 Z OOLOGY .

music al i n st rum en ts is k n ow n to vary much acc ordi n g as ,

the ar e c on struct ed o f w oo d m e ta l o r o f o th e r subs ta n ces ;

, ,

a n dyc e rta i n m o dific a ti on s o f th e v o ic e s e e m to b e r e fe r a bl e to

a h a rd e n i n g o f th e tiss u e s c o m po sin g the l a ry n x an d e spe ,

ci al l y the c a rtil a g e s I n w o m e n an d childre n th e s e cartil es

.

ar e s o ft a n d fl e x ibl e ; whilst i n m e n an d i n w o m e n wit a ,

m a sc u li n e v oice th e s e c artil a g e s h a ve b e c om e o ss i fi e d
, .

The fo rm an d d i r ecti on of the p a ss ag e s thr ough which the

a i r p ass e s a fte r h a vin g e sc a p e d bey o n d the r i m a g l o tti d i s ,

aff e ct al s o th e ch a r a cte r o f the v o ic e Thus i n p assi n g .

,

s tro n gly throu gh the n o strils it b e c om e s n as a l an d u n pl e a

s an t ; the fo r m of the m o uth p ala te an d v e lu m p a l ati affe ct
, , ,

n o dou bt the qu ality o f the v o ic e

, .

3 03 I n birds as will b e a ft e rw a rds m or e fu lly e x pl a in e d

.
, ,

the v o ic e is fo r m ed i n a suppl e m e n t a ry l a ry nx fo rm e d much

l o w e r d o w n o r i n the trach e a ; i n si n gi n g bir ds this o rgan is
v e ry co m pl e x
3 04 M o d ifi ca ti o a the Voi ce —The s ou n ds produce d
.

by the v o c al app a ra tus m ay b e divid e d i n t o the cr y the song , ,

an d the or d i n a ry o r a cqu i r e d v o ic e .

The cr y is the o n ly s ou n d which m o st an im al s can pr o

d u ce It is n ot m od u l ate d an d is gen e rall y sh a rp an d dis
.
,

a gr e e abl e . The cry o f m an is i n sti n ctiv e an d n ot ge n e r ally a ,

v olu n ta ry act It is quit e p e culi ar whe n it ex pre ss e s ag o n y

.

or distr e ss The child can on ly c ry a n d it is by imitati on o f

.
,

his fe llo ws as he gr ows u p th at he l ear n s the a rt of m o du

l ati n g hi s v oic e so as to prod u c e a rticul at e s o u n ds This .

a c u i r e d v o ice di ffe rs fr o m the i n sti n ctiv e cr b u t is e s se n

q y ,

ti a l l y fo rm e d i n the s a m e w ay th at is by s oun ds wh o s e
, ,

i n te rv als an d h ar m on ic r el ati on s ar e imp e rc e ptibl e to the ca r ,

at l e a st cl e a rly an d distin ctly

,
S i ng i ng on the c on tr ar y is
.
, ,

co mpo s e d o f appre ci a bl e or musica l s ou n ds o f which the ,

o scill ati o n s ar e r e gul a r a n d m ay a s it w e re b e r e ck on e d by

, , ,

the e ar .

305 Man als o po sse ss e s the r e m a rk a bl e p o w e r o f a rti cu

.

l ati n g the sou n ds o f his v o ice , an d this act is c all e d p r o

n u n ci a ti on .

Th e o rg an s o f pr on u n ci ati o n are th e ph a ryn x , the n as al

fo s s w, an d the v a ri o u s p a rts o f th e m ou th But m an i s n ot the .

o n ly an i m a l which h a s this po w e r , alth ough h e is the o n ly o n e

w ho k n o ws h ow to a ttach m ea n i n g to the w o rds he pr o

n o u n ce s , an d to the a rr a n ge m e n t he giv e s th e m ; he a l o n e is
gifte d with the po w e r o f sp ee ch .
 OF TH E I N T E LL I G E NC E A ND OF I N S TI NC T .

3 06 H avi n g e x am in e d the o rg an s by which m an an d

.

o th e r an i m a ls acqui r e th e ir kn o wl e dg e , the re r e m ai n s the

study o f the p p o w e r which d e te rmi n e s th e ir acti o n s an d the
ph e n om e n a o f the u n d e rstan din g This br an ch of physi ol ogy .

h av i n g be e n m o re cul tivate d by phil o s ophe rs th an n at u r a lis t s ,

we sh a ll c on fin e ou r re m a rks th e re on to a brie f spa c e .

It 1 5 m an al on e w ho po ss ess e s the facul ti e s w e al l u d e to m

a high o rde r an d it is m an w ho n a t u r al ly h as b e e n m o st
,

o bs e rv e d i n this r e sp e ct ou r co mp ar is on s h a v e r e fe r e n ce
c on stan tly to m an by him we j u dge of oth e r an im al s
, .

3 07 F a cu l ti e s of til e H u m a n Un de r s ta n d i ng — I m
. .

r ess i o n s m ad e o n the e x te rn al s e n s e s by th e e xte rn a l w o rld

p
ar e tr an smitte d to th e br a in by the n e rv e s : th ey ar e th e n
call e d s en s a ti on s Se n s ati on th e n is qu ite disti n ct fro m an
.
, ,

impre ssi on ; it is an i m pre ssion p er cei ve d it i m pli e s con ,

sci o u sn e ss ; wh a t is n ot pe r ce iv e d h a s n o e x iste n ce for us .

Th e pe rce ivi n g faculty l s u s u ally sp o k e n of a the m i n d th e

s
spirit ( e sp r i t) the s ou l the thin ki n g pe rce iv i n g an d r efl e ct
,

, , , ,

ing w e r co n sci o u s o f its o wn i n d e p e n d e n t e x i ste n c e

, .

3 08 Ov e r thi s con s cio u s n e ss w e h av e n o po w e r d ur i n g

.

sl ee p b u t wh e n a w ak e w e ca n dir ect it to on e o bj e ct to the

,

e x cl u si on of o th e rs Wh en th u s fo rcibly an d stro n gly c a ll e d

.

o n by on e impr e ssi o n p a i n ce a s e s to b e fe lt an d th e e xte rn al

, ,

w orld 1 8 n o l on ge r o bs e rv e d This facu lty i s c all e d the p o w e r

.

o f a tten ti on which v a ri e s al m o st 1 n e v e ry i n dividu a l

, .

309 The co n st an t r e l a ti o n o f ce rta i n s e n s ati o n s to cer

.

ta in impr e ssi on s l e ads to the i n fe ren c e th at the o n e c a use s '

th e oth e r ; th a t the o n e is the efi e ct th e o th e r th e c a us e W e , .

a r riv e a t thi s c o n cl u si on by th e n atur al po we rs o f i n d u cti on .

W e th u s a cqu ir e a k n o wl e dge of the e x te rn al w or ld a n d w e ,

l e arn to j u dge by c omp a ris on of the di ffe re n t qual iti e s o f

obj e cts .

i
Soo n the m i n d d oe s n o t sto p at this po n t but pr oce eds to
w e igh m o r e an d m o re c are fully the i m pr e ss i on s an d s e n s ati on s
,

th u s r e c e iv ed ; the faculty o f j udgi n g an d co m pa rin g b e

c om e s rapid an d s u r e r ; it is n o t th e s en s e s which a r e
e x e rcis ed it i s the j u dg
,
’
m
e n t ; th e o rgan s o f s e n s e 1 equ i 1 e n o

e d u c ati on An d h e r e m an s faculti e s w o u ld sto w e r e it n o t

.

p ,

fo r an o th e r fac u lty b y which s en s a ti on s l o n g sin c e re ce iv e d

,

ca n b e r e c all e d an d c omp a r ed with e a ch o th e r an d with th o s e

,

th en an d th e r e pre s e n t .
 1 52 ZOO LOGY .

$
3 1 0 This fac u lty is the me m or y ; by its m e an s w e
.

r e c a the s e n s ati o n s m o re o r l e ss v ividly m o re o r l e ss ao

, ,

cu r a te l
y a cc o rdi n g to o u r n a t u r a l po w e rs o f p e rce pti o n
, T h e .

po w e r v a ri e s a l m o st i n e v e ry p erson It m ay b e d e stroy ed .

by dis e a s e o r stre n gth e n e d ( P) by e x e rcis e ; activ e i n y o uth it ,

b e co me s d u ll with ag e e sp e cia lly a s r e g ards the e v e n ts o f ,

y e st e rd ay , whilst the s e n s a ti o n s o f y o u th are re a dily r e c alle d ,

e v e n i n e x tr e me o l d a g e Yo uth , th e n , is the ag e fo r a cq u i ri n g
.

k n o wl e dge .

No thi n g i s m o re cap1 i ci o u s th a n this fac u lty c a ll e d m e mo ry ;

it w o u ld s e e m a s i t the re w e 1 e s o m an y disti n ct me mo r i e s ,

which di ffe re n t m e n po ss e ss i n v a ri o us d e gree s S om e h av e .

a m e m o ry fo r w o rds o th e 1 s fo r d a te s oth e rs fo r l an g u a g e i n
, , ,

its l a rge st s e n s e ; an d by dis e a s e on e o f th e s e m e m or i e s m ay

b e d e str oy e d an d n ot the o th e rs But th e re ex ist n o goo d .

gr o u n ds for s u pp o si n g th at th e re r e ally e xist m o re m e m or i e s

th an on e .

3 1 1 By th e fa c u lty o f j u dg m e n t w e c o mp are the s e n s a

y
.

ti o n s d e riv e d fr o m al l s our c e s wi th e a ch oth e r stud the ir ,

re l ati o n s an d dr a w from th e m ce rt a i n con cl u si o n s or o pi n i on s ;

an d it i s this fa c u lty which e sp e ci a lly ch a r a cte riz e s m an fro m

a l l th a t liv e s . fl
By r e e cti o n he st u di e s his own fac u lti e s ,

a n d wh e n it is s oun d m e a s u r e s th e m a ccur a t e ly with o th e rs

, , .

3 1 2 The i m a g i n a ti o n is a faculty which pl ays an i m

.

o rt an t p a rt 11 1 the ph e n o m e n a o f the hu m an i n te ll i g e n ce it
p ,

i s c o n n e cte d with the p o w e r w e h a v e o f cr e a tin g sig n s to

1 e r e s e n t o u r id e a s
p .

3 1 3 F m al l y the w i l l with o u t which o u r o th e r fa culti e s

.
, ,

w e i e giv e n to n o purp o s e ; th e w i l l by which w e s e e k pl e a

y
s u re an d s afe t an d a v o id p ai n an d d an ge r With this
,
o
,

.
,

h o w e v e r th e re 1 s j o i n e d a t e n d e n cy to i n d u cti on a n d s u pe r
, , ,

a dd e d a s it w e r e th e s e n ti m en t o f j ustic e of the be autifu l

, , ,

o f pity ; i n a w o rd al l the m or a l s en tim e n ts so p e c u li a rly

,
‘
h u m an an d wh i ch th ou gh gen e ral m e n po ss e s s i n s u ch v a ri e d
, , ,

d e gr ee s .

3 1 4 Th e s e fac u lti e s h av e stron g a ffi n iti e s with o th e rs

.
,

which m ay b e n a m e d afi e cti v e s u ch a s p a re n t al an d fil i al ,
’
a fi e cti o n fo r o u r fe l l o w -cr e atur e s & c ; a n d th e s e o n the oth e r , .
,

h an d h av e stro n g affi n i tie s with o u r n at u ra l i n sti n cts I n

,
.

m a n th e s e i n sti n cts a r e b u t littl e d e v e lo p e d co mp a r e d with

, ,

wh at w e fi n d i n o th e r a n im als i n wh o m th e y pla y a m ost ,

i m po rta n t pa rt
—
.

3 1 5 P r i n cip l e
. s of A c ti on s The v a ri o us faculti e s we
 or TH E I N T E LL I G E N C E AN D or I N S TI N C T . 1 53

h av e just en u m e ra te d ar e the d et e r m i n i n g c au s e o f m o st of
o u r a cti o n s .

3 1 6 Ce rt a i n a cti on s a s th o s e of the h e a rt an d i n te s
.
,

ti n e s c all e d p e rista ltic ar e a u to m a ti c th at is th e y ar e al to

, , , ,

ge th e r i n d ep e n d e n t o f o ur will Oth e r m o v e m e n ts a r e s em i
.

au to m a tic a s th e r e sp i r at o ry a n d th e fo r ce which d e te rmi n e s

, ,

th e s e s ee m s to re sid e i n the spin al m a rr ow

Th e e ff e cts o f h a bit an d o f th e ass o ci ati on o f ide as form an
i n te r e sti n g s u bj e ct of psych o l ogic al i n qu iry ; b u t for this w e
h a v e n o sp ace b u t m u st re m a i n c on t en t with m e re ly po in ti n g
,

o u t the an a l o gy b e tw e e n th e a cts r e s u ltin g fr o m th e s e a n d

t he o pe r ati o n s o f i n sti n ct
3 1 7 F a cu l ti e s of A n i m a l s —Co n tr ary to wh at might
.

h a ve b ee n e x p e cte d the stu dy of an im al i n stin ct is m o r e d i ffi

,

c u lt th an th a t of the h u m an u n d e rst an di n g ; w e h av e i n fa ct , ,

n o m e an s o f k n o wi n g ho w th e y thi n k an d fe e l ; w e ca n j u dge

o n ly by th e r e s u lts th a t is th e ir a cti o n s
, ,
.

3 1 8 A l l a n i m a ls fe e l ; b u t i n th e l o w e st it is n ot easy
.

to p e rce iv e th at the s e n s ati on s th e y e x p e ri e n c e l e a d to an y

act o f j u dg m e n t o r r e fl e cti o n : th ey m o v e to a v o id a n
o bst a cl e an d th a t i s a l l
, The fac u lti e s o f r e l a ti on s ee m
.

li m it e d to thi s i n the i n fu s o ri a an d i n z oophyte s Bu t a s w e .

a sce n d i n the sc al e a cts app e a r i n th e hist o ry o f an i m al s s o

, ,

co mpl e x an d s o appr opri a te as to fo rc e u s to admit a n a d ,

m ir abl e i n sti n ct to pr e sid e o v e r th e s e an d e v e n a d e gr e e o f ,

i n t ellig en c e re s em bli n g h o w e v e r dist an tly o u r o w n The

, , .

n at u r a l histo ry o f t he b e a v e r th e b e e a n d th e an t ar e si n g u
, , ,

l ar l y i n str u ctiv e 0 11 th i s p o i n t ; whilst th e i n t e llig e n c e o f the

d og the e l e ph a n t a n d the ape h a s at all ti m e s attracte d the
, , ,

n o tic e o f m an .

1
3 9 I n.s ti n c ts
f
o A n i m a l s — T h e ch a r a cte r which e sp
. e

ci al l y disti n g uish e s i n sti n ct fr o m r e a s on is th a t i n sti n cti v e , ,

ac ti o n s ar e n o t th e r e s u lt o f e x p e ri e n c e o r o f pr e v i o u sly a cquir e d

k n o wl edge thro ugh the s e n s e s whilst th o s e of re as o n can b e , .

r e adily tr ace d to th at s ou rc e I n m an the r e a s on t ak e s .

,

a l m o st wh o lly th e pl a c e o f i n sti n ct ; i n a n i m a ls it is th e r e

v e rs e .A s o n e o f the si m pl e st e x a mpl e s o f i n sti n ct w e m ay ,

cite the c a s e o f d u ckli n gs h atch e d an d br ou ght u p by a he n .

I n spite o f e v e ry cflo rt m a de by the s u ppo s e d p ar e n t th e ,

d u ckli n g at o n c e s e e ks the w ate r an d b o ldly plu n ge s i n t o a ,

m e di u m of which it has 11 0 ex pe ri e n c e an d i n to which its ,

ad o pte d p a r e n t d a r e n o t fo ll o w .

A s e x ampl e s o f i n stin ctiv e a cts of e xtr em e compl ic ati on we ,

1 54 ZOOLO GY .

m ay cite the l a bours of the b e e No w be e s r eq u ire n e ith e r

.

m od e ls n or i n str ucti o n n o r e x pe ri e n ce th ey ar e s e lf-ta ught

, , ,

a n d fro m g e n e r a ti on to g e n e r a ti o n th e y l a bo ur i n the s am e

w ay ; but th e y c o n ti n u e als o to l a bo u r (a n d this is why we

”
sa
y
“
bli n d i n sti n ct ) wh e n th e ir l a bo urs ca n b e o f n o av a il .

S uch l a bo u rs c an n ot b e a scrib e d to an y acts o f i n te llige n ce ,

but r e s e mbl e r ath e r th o s e which l e ad the i n fan t to the brea st

o f its p a r e n t .

S o v a ri e d ar e th e i n sti n cts o f an im als th at w e c o uld on ly ,

v e n ture i n a bri e f m an u al su ch a s this to spe ak o f a fe w

— th e s e w e sh all s e l ect fro m a m on gst the m o re r e m a rk a ble .

3 20 Th e prin cip a l i n sti n ctiv e a cti on s m ay b e a rr an g e d

.

i n thr e e cl ass e s a cco rdi n g as th ey r e fe r to the pre s e r v ati on of

,

the sp e ci e s to th at o f th e i n divid u a l or to its r e l ati on s with

, ,

o th e r a n im a ls .

32 1 Of th e i n sti n cts b e stow e d on a n im als by n ature

.
,

n o n e is m o r e r e m a rk abl e th an th a t i n citi n g th e m to liv e e x

e lusiv e ly on c e rta i n subst an c e s So m e o f th e simpl e st an i

.

m als ar e with o u t i n sti n ct a n d sw a ll o w wh ate v e r c om e s n ea r

,

th e m : such is the ca s e w ith v a ri ou s z oophyte s ; but it is

quite oth e r wis e with m o st which re fus e o bsti n ate ly al l so rts
,

o f fo od b u t on e S om e liv e e x cl u siv e ly o n a n i m a l food oth e rs

.
,

o n v e g e ta bl e oth e rs on ly o n ce rt ai n pl a n ts o r the l e a v e s an d ,
'
fruit of but on e pl an t sh o wi n g an i n d ifler e n ce for al l o th e rs ;
,

Fi g 9 7
. .
—A n t li o n
- .

an d wh at is m ost r e m ark abl e is th at at a ce rt a i n sta ge of

,

th e ir growth th ey will a ban d on this ki n d o f foo d fo r an o th e r ,

with the u s e o f which th e y w e re p re vi ou sly wh olly un ac

u a i n te d Th us c e rt a i n i n s e cts ca rn iv o r o u s i n the l a rv a
q .
,

sta te be co m e phytivo ro u s wh en pe rfe ct ; an d fro gs which

, ,

wh e n ta dpo l e s ar e v e ge ta ri an s be c om e ca rn i v o ro us as fro gs
, .
 OF TH E I N T E LL I G E NC E AND OF I N S TI NC T . 1 55

3 22 With the in sti n ct n atur e o f c o ur s e give s the ab i lity

.
,

to gra tify it .

Thus the l arva of the an t-lion ( Fig a s m a ll i n s e ct r e .

s e m bli n g an e ph em e ra preys o n a n ts an d oth e r in s e cts o f

, ,

which it s u cks the j u ice s ; b u t b e i n g sl o w of fo ot it i s ,

fo rce d to spr e a d tra ps fo r the c apt u r e o f its pr e y It digs i n .

the s a n d a s m all pit i n the fo rm o f a fu n n e l ( Fig , i n th e .

botto m of which it c o n c e als its e lf w a tchi n g the m om en t ,

wh e n its pre y m ay fa ll u n aw a r e s i n t o it S h o u ld the fal l n ot .

b e e ffe ctu al it st u n s its victim by thr owi n g gra i n s o f s an d

,

a t it by m e an s o f its m a n dibl e s
, Its m o de o f pro ce du re i n .

diggi n g the pitfa ll is e qual ly c u ri o us Af t e r h a vi n g e x ami n e d .

the gro u n d it tr a ce s a cir cl e ; pl a ci n g its e lf withi n this circl e

, ,

it co mm en ce s diggi n g thro win g o u t the s a n d fro m th e ,

e x c a v ati on a s it is b e i n g fo r m e d ; this is d on e by m e an s o f

th e h e a d Th u s h e c o n ti n u e s turn in g hi m s e lf r o u n d withi n
.

the circl e trac e d u n til h e r e t u r n s to th e p o i n t fr o m which h e

,

st arte d wh e r e ch an gi n g sid e s he r e p e ats his l ab ou r u n til the

, , ,

pitfall b e c om pl e te Sh o u ld h e m e et with a ston e d i fli cu l t to

.

m o v e h e l e a v e s i t for a whil e to r e turn to it wh e n th e r e st o f

, ,

his w o rk has b e e n a cc om plish e d ; his wh ol e efforts ar e n ow

dir e ct e d to r e m ov e the st on e b u t sh o uld th e s e fail h e ab an , , ,

d on s the e n tire e n t e rpris e p ro c ee din g els e wh e r e to bre a k up,

fre sh grou n d La stly he r e p airs c a r e fully an y d am age do n e

.
,

to the w alls of th e pitfa ll by a ccid e n t .

Fi g 98
. .
—La rva .

F i g 99
. .
—P i tfall o f the A n t-li o n .

Ce rt ai n spide rs a s is w ell k n o w n spr ead n ets still m o r e

, ,

cur i ous to catch fli e s an d s m all i n s e cts The disp o siti on o f

,
.

the thr e ad o f the w e b i n s o m e is with o u t r e gul a rity ; i n

o th e rs f
a s i n th e we b o t
,
h e E pe ir D a e m afi it pr e s en ts the
a i d “

Aran e a D i ad e ma Lin , .
1 56 ZOOLOGY .

utm o st e l e gan ce o f a rran ge m en t Som e e n cl o s e th eir victim

.
,

i n ad diti on with thr e ads o f the we b s o a s to afford th e m tim e

, ,

to pi e rc e it with th e ir v e n o m o u s cl a ws .

F i g 1 00
. .
—C o m m o n S qu i rre l .

The A rch e r of th e G
ge s a fi s h livi n g on in s e cts spi rt s
an , ,

w at e r on th o s e he s ee s on aqu atic h e rbs an d is s aid s e ldom ,

to m iss his pr ey e v e n at the distan c e o f s e v e r a l fee t

, .

Fi n ally to i n st i n ct must b e a scribe d m o st o f the wil e s prae

,

t i s e d by qu adr u p e ds durin g th e ch a s e o f th e i r pre y .

323 To th e s am e cl a ss o f i n sti n cts m u st be r e fe rr e d the

.

cumul a tiv e or st o re -fo rmi n g h abits of ce rta i n an im als Th e .

com m on squ irr e l fu r n ish e s us with an e x am ple of this pr o

e n sit to l a up a sto r e o f pr o visi o n s a g ai n st a s ca rcity to
p y y ,

b e dr ead ed or e x p e cte d i n wi n t e r ; b u t the pr o p e n sity e x ists

wh e r e n o ch an ge of s e as on i n dic at e s the re as on a bl e n e ss o f
s u ch an e v e n t The y ou n g co m m e n c e l ay i n g u p st o re s o f
.

pro vision du rin g su m m e r i n h oll ows o f tre e s which th ey ,

r e a di l fin d i n wi n t e r e v e n th o u gh co n ce al e d with s n o w
, .

The a am s p i ca a S ibe ri an r od e n t n o t o n l y l ays u

g y , ,
p a
sto r e fo r the win t e r but h e tu rn s hi s gr as s i n to hay e x actl
as o u r fa rm e rs d o
,

it be fo re he sto re s it
, Un d e r e a c .
,

h
m agazi n e o f hay pr e pa re d i n fin e w eath e r wi th the g re ate st
,

care an d fore sight he digs a pa ss ag e to hi s burro w that

, ,
 or TH E I N T E LL I G E N C E AN D or I N S TI NC T . 1 57

he m ay v isit e a ch i n tu m u n de r S h e lt er an d u n d e r gro u n d
, ,

pr o te cte d fr o m a ccid e n ts an d sh e lt e re d from th e i n cl e m en c y

o f th e w e ath e r The b e e o f which w e sh a ll pr e s e n tly sp e ak
.
, ,

l a bo urs i n thi s dir e cti on l ayi n g up a m pl e sto r e o f pro visi on s

,

fo r wi n t e r .

3 24 A m on gst th e pr e s e rv a tiv e i n sti n cts as th e y m ay

.
,

b e c all e d is the ar t o f c o n str u cti n g dw e lli n gs witho ut e ith e r

,

m o d e l or i n str u cti on The silkw o r m spi n s a coco on i n which

.
,

it re m a in s a s a l arv a u n til r e ady to b e c o m e a b u tt e rfly The

,
.

r abbit fo rm s its w a rre n an d the b e a v e r its w e ll -k n o w n h abi

,

tati on . Th e h a m pste r ( Fig a s m a ll r o d e n t a n a l o g o u s

.

t o the r a t m e t with i n th e pl a i n s fr o m A ls a c e to S ib e ri a an d
, , ,

which is s o i nj u ri o u s to a gric u lt u r e c o n str u cts a dw e lli n g ,

with tw o iss u e s or e x its the o n e obliq u e by which it thr ows ,

.H m p st r
F i g 1 01 .
— The a e .

o u t th e l o o s e e a rth pr o d u ce d by its e x c a v a ti o n s ; the o th e

;
p e rp en dic u l ar is the w ay by which it en te rs an d l ea v e s its
,

dw e lli n g Th e s e g all e ri e s l e ad to a c e rt ai n n um b e r o f cir

.

cu l ar e x ca v a ti on s c o m m u n ic a ti n g with e a ch o th e r by h o ri
z on t al p a ss a g e s ; o n e o f th e s e c e lls fu r n ish e d with dri e d gr a ss
, ,

is the dw e lli n g of the h a m pste r ; the o th e rs ar e i n t e n d ed to

s e rv e a s m a ga zi n e s o f pro visi on s which it c o ll e cts i n co u si ,

d e r ab l e qu a n titi e s .

So m e spid e rs ( m yg al es) c o n str u ct w o rks lik e th o s e o f the

h a m pst e r b u t m o re c o m plic at e d ; fo r th e y n ot o n ly c on str u ct
,

a v a st a n d c o m m o di o u s dw e ll i n g b u t k n o w h o w to sh u t it i n
,

by m e an s o f a c o v e ri n g o r d oo rw ay fu r n ish ed with a hi n ge , .

On t he s id e Opp o sit e to th e hi n ge a r e a n u m b e r o f s m a ll
o p e n i n gs i n to which th e a n i m al i n tr o d u ci n g its cl a ws h o lds
, , ,

the c o v e ri n g s e cu r e wh e n an e n e m y a tt e m pts to o p e n it The .

e x t e ri o r o f t he d o o rw a y o f this d e n a s it m ay b e c a ll e d is l e ft , ,

r ou gh lik e th e n e ighb ou ri n g s o il s o as to e l u d e o bs e r vati o n ;

, ,

t he pit fo r m i n g th e d e n i s d u g i n a rgill a c e o u s e a rth a n d ,

1 58 ZOO LO GY .

li n e d i n te ri o rl y with '
ki n d
tre m e ly co n siste n t m o rtar
a of e x ,

an d a lid o r c o ve ri n g i s
w o rk e d with a lte r n ati n g l ay
e r s o f mi r y e a rth a n d thr ea ds

r e un ite d i n to a tissu e m ad e .
,

to fit e xactly an d to o pe n
onl y o utw ar ds The h in ge .

supp or ti n g this co v e ri n g is
fo rm e d by a co n ti n u ati on of
th e fil am e n to us l ay e rs pr o
cee di n
g fr o m a po in t of its
con to ur u po n the w all s of the
t u b e situ at e d b e n e a th it ,

fo rmi n g th e re a pa d o r h oo d ,

p e rfo rmi n g the cfii ce o f a

F i g l ea — N st f th e M yga l
. e . o m an tl e tre e e. -
.

A m on g i n s e cts a ls o m ay
b e o bs e r v e d m an y r e m a rk abl e i n stan ce s of s i n gul a r i n stin cts
i n the c on structi o n o f dw el lin gs The l a rv a of a s m a ll n oc
.

tu r n al b u tte rfly the to r ,

'

i m m v i r i d i s si m a is o n e o f ,

th e s e ; it l iv e s on the o ak ,

rol li n g u p its l eav e s an d

c o n n e cti n g the m to ge th e r
with thre ad s Oth e rs as .
,

th e tei g n e d e s d r ap e , a
sm all grey an d s i lv e ry
pa pill on o r m oth , whi ch ,
wh e n i n the l a r v a stat e ,
pidly breaks u p w oo ll e n
ra

stu ff s fo rmi n g ga ll e ri e s in ,

Fi g 1 03 — N st o f th T o r tri x
. . e the thickn e ss o f the we b
e .

o r cl oth With th e h a ir s .

o r w o ol thus d e t ach e d it fo rms l on g t u b e s as a dw e lli n g ;

a n d wh a t is si n g u l a r is th a t wh e n thi s be co m e s too sm a l l to
.
, ,

c on ta i n it it bre a ks it open an d a dds to its l e n gth

,
.

H yb e r n ati n g a n im als s h o w si n g u l a r i n stin cts t e n di n g to ,

th e ir pr e se rv ati on th e y pr ep a re a win te r dw e lli n g an d shut ,

it i n as if con sci o u s o r a w a re th at th ey w o u ld n o t require to

,

l e a v e it fo r a l on g p e rio d ; a ls o to pro te ct th e m fro m the acc e ss

o f c o ld a n d e n e mi e s This is the cas e with the m ar m o t
.

d i n th e str ee t by Sa v oy ard bo ys .

3 2 5 A third cl as s o f in sti n ctiv e faculti e s which lik e

. , ,

the pre ce d i n g h a v e a r e fe r en c e to th e pre s e rv a ti on o f the

,
 or TH E I N T E LL I G E N C E A ND or I N S TI N CT . 1 59

i n dividual b u t which at o the r tim e s see m co mbi n e d with th e

,

faculty o f se curin g to the yo un g co n diti on s fa v o u ra ble to th e ir

e xi s te n ce Is e xhibite d by th o s e an im a ls whi ch un d e rta k e di stan t
,

j o urn eys : so m e ti m e s e v e n to ch an ge th e ir cl imate pe ri odi call y ;

occ as i o n a lly th e y m e r e ly l e a v e th e dist rict wh e n th e h a ve y
e x h a u ste d the r o vi si o n s it fu rn ish e s to th e m ; so m e ti m es it
p
i s th e co l d o f wi n te r wh i ch u rg e s th e m to w a rds the so u th o r ,

the h e a ts o f summ e r which d riv e th e m to th e n or th But .

thes e j o u rn e ys ar e always u n de rta k e n be fo re any atm o sph er ic

c han ge appr e ci abl e by us has h appe n ed to w ar n th e m o f a
n ece ssity fo r such a cha n g e ; or i n oth e r w o rd s th e i r i n sti n ct , ,

le ads th e m to pe rce iv e the co m in g e v e n t an d di rects th e m at ,

o n ce to t he o bj e ct s o u ght the r e gi o n th e y ai m a t wi th o ut
, ,

the l e a st h es ita ti on o r e rro r Th ey u n it e i n b an ds an d thus

.
,

pro ee d on th e i r j o ur n e y
c
.

The a pe s o f the Ne w W o rld ch an ge th e i r h a bita t i rr e gul ar ly ;

th e y e x h aus t the re so urce s of a dist r ict an d proce e d in sea rch ,

o f a n o th e r with l o u d cri e s ca rryin g th e ir y o un g o n th e i r b a cks

, .

The l e mmi n gs also u n d e rta k e distan t j o ur n eys see m i n gly ,

i n an i r r e gul a r m an n e r an d fo r re a s on s whi ch m an can n o t

,

di sco ve r Th e y i n h a bit the sho re s o f t he Icy Se a an d de sc e n d

.
,

o ccas i o n a lly fro m the m o u n t a in s i n i n n u m e r a b l e ban ds Th e s e .

m i grati o n s fo rtun a te ly fo r th e i n ha bit an ts o f S w e d e n an d

,

N orway h appe n o nl y a bo u t on ce i n te n y ea rs ; for the l em

,

m i n gs tra v e l li n g In straight li n e s an d th u s cro ssi n g riv e rs , , ,

m
rocks an d m ou n ta i n s d e stro y a ll v e ge ta ti o n e v e n to th e
, , ,

r oo ts an d gra i n s N othi n g dive rts th e m fro th e ir co urs e

.

but s m oo th w all s which th e y ca n n o t clin g to

, .

I n ge n e ra l s u ch j o urn eys ar e pe ri odic A sm a ll r od e n t .

,

r ese m b l i n g the l e m m in g an n u a lly l e a v e s Kam tsch atk a fo r th e

,

w e st ; th e y m arch i n st ra igh t li n e s a n d ar e so n u m e ro us th a t , ,

whe n th ey re ach the ban ks o f the Octr ol s k an d o f th e J o u

do m a afte r h a vi n g trav e rs e d 2 5 de gree s o f l o n git u de a sin gl e
, ,

co l u mn wi l l o cc u py two ho u r s i n d e fil in g I n Octo be r .

the y re tu rn to Ka mtscha tk a an d th e ir r e t urn is a j ou r ,

de fl te fo r the i nh a bita n ts fo r the n umbe r o f the ca rn iv o r a

,

which fo ll o w th e m is so gre at a s to fu r n ish a n abu n da n ce o f

v a lu a ble fur s A t the Ca pe o f oo d H Ope an d i n No rth
. G
A m e rica ar e a ls o m e t with i n sp rin g ti m e an d a utu m n v as t, ,

h e rds o f an te l o pe s an d dee r migr ati n g to gre a t di s ta n ces fl ,

‘

But it i s chi e fly i n th e cl a s Birds th at the m o re r e m ar k a bl e

s

in stan ce s o f thi s migrat o ry h a bit ar e fo un d A g re a t n umbe r .

The se m i g r ti o n s of t h e An t l pe So u the r Af ri ca ppea re d to m e t

a e o in n a o
b e chi e fly re gul a t d by th e co di ti
e o f t he p
n ture —R K on as . . .
1 60 ZOOLOGY .

of th e s e an im als pa ss an d re p ass fro m E u rop e to A frica s o

r e gul a rly th a t o n e m ay a l m o st n a m e the d ay o f th e ir pr o babl e
a rriv a l The sw a ll o w c o m e s i n spri n g a n d d e p arts i n a u t u m n
. .

A t this s e as o n th e y u n ite i n troo ps a n d m ay b e s ee n co l ,

l e cte d on s o m e pro m i n e n ce o f the M e dite rra n e an sh o re s ,

w a tchi n g as it w e r e the fa v ou r a bl e m om e n t fo r the co m

, ,

m e n ce m e n t o f th e ir j o u rn e y Th ey pro cee d s o m e ti m e s a s fa r
.

as S e n e g a l The qu a il a ls o s e e ks i n th e m ild e r re gi on s o f
.

A fric a a n d A si a M in o r a wi n t e r r e sid e n c e ; a n d m an y n o rth e r n

birds m igra te an n u ally t o w a rds the S o u th to p a ss the rigo ,

r o us s e as on i n m ilde r clim at e s r e t u rn i n g t o w a rds the p o lar,

r e gi on s with e a rly spri n g The s a m e i n sti n ct e x ists i n fish e s ;

.

th e s a l m on h e rri n g t u n n y &c o ffe r e x am pl e s s u ffici e n tly

, , , .
,

w e ll k n o w n .

3 2 6 No l e ss curi o u s a r e th e in sti n cts which l e a d i n s e cts

.

an d o th e r a n i m a ls t o pr o vid e fo r th e pr e s e rv a ti o n o f the

y ou n g Th e te di ous pro ce ss o f i n c u bati on o r h atchi n g the

.

e ggs ; th e c a r e b e sto w e d by t he p a r e n t o n the y o u n g s o s oon

a s th ey a pp e a r ; th e s e l e cti o n o f the l oca l e th e c on structi on

o f th e n e st ; t h e ki n d o f e d u c a ti o n which s o m e giv e th e ir

y ou n g ; the fo re th o u ght which pr o vid e s fo r the y o un g food i n ,

ab u n d an c e t h e m o m e n t th e y r e quir e it add e d to the l o v e o f ,

off pri n g s o str o n gly sh o w n i n m a n y a n i m a ls m ust a lw ays

s
,

e x cit e i n e v e ry r e flecti n g m i n d th e u t m o st ad m ir a ti o n of t he
bo u n dl e ss p o w e r an d k n o wl e dge an d wisd om o f the gr e at
A u th o r o f n atur e Th e s e i n st i n cts .

e x te n d to w o m a n h e rs e lf a n d d e v e l o p ,

i n h e r at on ce a l l the fo n dn e ss of a
p a re n t an d the s a ga city o f w om an
h oo d .

3 2 7 A s m an y i n s e cts n e v e r s e e .

th e ir y ou n g th e s e w on de rfu l a cts ,

a ris e o nl y fr o m i n sti n ct : m an y pl a c e

by the side o f the l a rv a foo d ,

a d a pt e d for its n o urish m e n t n o t s u ch ,

a s th e y th e m s e lv e s u s e Th e n e cro .

ph o re ( Fig o fte n m e t with i n .

F i g l M —Ne
. .
p h t he
cr 0 fi e
or e ld.
s buri
‘ e s t he ca rc as e of a ,

m o l e o r so m e o th e r a n im a l n e a r the
pl a c e wh e r e it d e po sits its e ggs th at the y o un g wh e n th ey ,

a pp e a r m ay h a v e a n a b u n d an t s u pply o f pro visi o n s Th ey .

liv e o n putrid m e at lik e the p a re n t b u t the po mpile s i n s e cts ,

Th e S e x to n -b e e tl e .
 OF TH E I N T E LL IG E NC E AN D O F I N S TI N C T .

al li e d w asp live wh en adu lt on v e geta bl e food

to th e , , ,

as l a r v e o
a n an im a l s u bst a n c e s Th e y thu s pr o vid e fo r.the
yo u n g a foo d th ey d o n ot th e m s e lv e s u se ; they pl ace n ea r
th e n e st the bo dy o f a spide r o r of s o m e c ate rp i l l a r, W hJ Cl l
'

the y h av e pi e rc e d with th e ir stin g The xyl o cop e s ( F Ig 1 05) .

.

h a v e simil a r h abits an d h o ll ow ou t i n timb e r a s er i e s o f

,

c el ls s e rvin g at on c e as n e sts an d sto re h ous e s for th e ir l arv a

,

1 05 .
- X yl o cope ( C arp e t er Be e )
n . Fi g 1 06
. .
—N es t of th e Xylo cop e .

§ 3 28 T h e adult .bird s e ldo m pr o vid e s any n e st or

dwe lli n g for its e lf ; it is for its fe e bl e an d t en d e r y oun g th at
it l abo u rs with s u ch skill an d p e rse ve ran ce i n the con str ucti on
o f a dw ellin g for th e m wh e n th ey m o st r e qu i re it Th e s e .

n e sts w h ich v a ry with t he spe ci e s ar e ye t as it w e r e ide n tic al

, ,

a s r e ga r d s an y spe ci e s a n d ar e un ifo rmly con stru cte d i n the

,

w ay be st b e fitti n g the y o ung of th at S p e ci e s Th ey v ary i n .

the ir p os iti on i n fo r m s an d co mp o siti o n but m o st ha v e

, , ,

a h e misph e ric for m the e xt e ri o r fo rm e d o f stal ks an d gr ass

,

an d h e rbs the in te ri o r of s o ft down y substan ce s as m o ss

, ,

( Fig . but at ti m e s th e y ar e m o r e c o m pl e x A w e ll .

kn o wn in stan c e is th at o f the b ay a of In di a a bir d of the ,

n at u r e o f o u r b ull fi n ch ; the n e st it for ms r e s e mbl e s a b ottl e ,

an d is susp e n d e d to the bran ch of a tr e e s o tha t n e ith e r ap e s , ,

s e rp e n ts n o r e v e n squirr e ls can r e ach it ; the e n tran c e to th e

,

n e st m o reo v e r l oo ks dow n w ards so th a t th e bir d can on ly

, , ,

e n t e r fro m b e l o w an d flyi n g It has two ch a mb ers on e for

, .
,

t he m al e th e oth e r for th e fe m al e
, A n oth e r n e st e qu al ly .

curi ous is th at o f the Sylvia suto ri a which c on v ert s the c otton ,

M
1 62 ZOOLO G Y .

of the co tto n -tre e i n to thread s an d with th e s e s e ws to g e th er

,

the l e av e s s o as to fo rm a n e st .

E v e n s om e fi sh e s c on struct a ki n d o f coa r se n e st i n which ,

th ey d e p osit th e ir o va ; but it is am on gst i n s e cts th at the

con str uctiv e po w e r is the m o st r e m ark abl e ; an d to thi s w e

sh al l r e t ur n i n d e scribi n g the n e sts o f b ee s an d w a sps an d ,

we sh a ll th e r e fo re c o n cl u d e thi s b ri e f sk e tch by a si ng l e
ex a mpl e ta k e n fro m the cl a ss of s ol itary in s e cts .

The Xyl o cop e vi o lac e a an in s ect comm on e n ough i n F r an ce

, ,

i s al l i ed to the family of b e e s This an i m a l ( Fig 1 05)

. .

o l
h l ws o o u t i n the timb e r of the h e dge ro ws o f fr it t ree s
- u -
, ,

an d of vi n e -p o l e s o v a l h o l e s which at firs t a dv an ce o b l ique ly

, , ,

th en c u rv e d ow n w ard s an d d e sce n d v e rti ca lly for a foo t o r

,

m o re : i n thus tun n el li n g the w oo d th e x yl oco pe tak e s care ,

to p re s e rv e a n d c o ll e ct to ge th e r the d é b r i s with which it ,

a fte rw ards c on structs p artiti on s thus fo rmi n g ce lls for

,

l od gi n g the l arvae an d th eir foo d ; i n e ach ce l l is d e po sit e d

an e g d q tity f v g t bl f dd r f d f r th e
g, an a u an o e e a e o e as oo o

y o un g 80 s oo n a s it m ay b e h atch ed .

F i g 1 07
. .
—N e st o f th e Go ldfi n ch .

329 By i n st in ct an i m als l e ad a s olit a ry li fe o r live i n

. ,

gro u ps ; an d th e s e gro ups u n ite for mutual d e fe n c e E ach .

 or TH E I N T E LL I G E N C E AN D or I N S TI N CT . 1 63

spe ci e s ha its o wn h abits an d its o w n re l atio n s with oth e r

s

a n im als with which it con s o rts or av o ids o r pursu e s

,
Th e s e .

Fi g 1 08
. .
—N e st o f th e B a ys . F i g 1 09 —Ne s t o f th e
. .

r S yl vi a Su to i a.

a ss oci ati o n s a r e s o m e ti m e s p e rm an e n t at o th e rs on ly te m
,

o r ar y T h e hyaan a an d w olf u n it e i n gr o ups on ly wh e n

p .

pre ss e d by h u n ge r S w all o ws al s o ass e m bl e for the purp o s e

.

o f tr a v e lli n g S til.l m o r e r e m a rk a bl e is t h e s o -ca ll ed pig eo n o f

A m e ric a . Th ey coll e ct i n a l m o st cou n tl es s milli on s The .

ce l e brat e d A m e rica n o r nith ol og ist Wils o n calc u l ate d at

, ,

a s i n gl e ban d which he s a w i n I n di an a ; an d
A u d u bo n r e l a te s th at on e au t u m n d ay he l e ft hi s h o u s e at
H e n d e rs o n o n the ban ks o f t he Ohi o an d whilst tr a v e rsin g
, ,

t h e u n c u ltiv at e d l a i n s n e a r H a r s de n b u r g h he sa w th e s e wild
,

pig e o n s i n co u si cra bl e n u m b e rs , fly i n g fr om n orth -w e st to

s o u t h-e ast ; as he j o u rn ey e d o n to Lo uisvill e the fl ock o f birds
be cam e m ore an d mo r e n um ero us u n til the light o f midday ,

w a s o bsc u r e d a s i n a n e cl i p s e ; the dr o ppi n gs fe ll lik e s n o w ;

be fo re sun s et he a rriv e d at Lou i s vi l l e a dis ta n ce of fi fty-fi v e
,

M 2
1 64 OOLOGY
Z .

mil e s but the flight o f the migrato ry pig eon s still w en t o n ;

,

this ph e n om e n on co n ti n u ed for three d ays ; the droppi n gs

fro m the birds for m ed a disti n ct l aye r on the s o il ; fo re sts
w e re strippe d o f th e ir l ea v e s an d s o m e ti m e s d e str oy e d an d
, ,

the trac e s o f th e ir pa ss a ge will r e m a in for y ea rs .

Fish e s an d i n s e cts ar e als o gre gari ous the h e rri n g for ,

e x a m l s an d l ocust ; th e fo r m er ass e mblin g i n v as t sh oa ls

, ,

a n d t e l a tte r i n s u ch n umb e rs as to d e v a st a te a co un t ry .

3 30 The P sitt a cus i n fu catu s i s de sc ribe d by Le va il l an t

.

as as s e m bli n g i n n u m b e rs t o w a rds e v en i n g to ba th e an d s po r t

i n s om e limpid str ea m r e tur n i n g to the w ood s s o s oon as the

,

e v e n i n g p as t i m e is fi n ish e d It is this i n s tin ct o f s o ciability

.

which brin gs toge th e r th e w a rren r a bbit an d the prairi e

dog o f A m e ric a a sm all rod en t with h abi ts r esem blin g
, ,

gen e rally th i s cl ass o f a n im als But it i s chi e fly i n the

.

be av e r th e w a sp b ee an d an t that this s o ci abl e i n sti n ct

, , , ,

shows its e lf i n its utm o st d e v el o pm en t ; th at is i n stin ct ,

dire ctin g al l to w a rds s om e co mm on l abo ur .

3 3 1 The Can adi an b eav e r is o f al l an im als th e m o st

.

r e m a rk abl e for its s oci ability an d i n sti n ctiv e i n dustry D u .

ri n g summ e r it l e ads a s olit a ry life i n bu r ro ws dug by the

ban ks of s om e l ak e or riv e r ; but wh e n win te r appro ach e s it
, ,

L i l l i -
50

F i g 1 1 0 —Th e
. . B e ave r .

quits its burr ow to ass e mbl e wi th its fe ll ows to co n s truct i n

c o mm on with th e m its wi n te r dwe l l i n g I n a spo t re m a rk .

a bl e fo r its s olitud e a gro up o f tw o o r thre e hu n d r e d a ss e m bl e

, ,
 D E TH E I N T E LL I G E N C E AN D OF I N S T I NC T .

an d displ ay al l th e ir a rchit e ctu ral in dustry H e r e th ey s e l e ct .

a stre am o f s u ffici e n t de pth as n o t to fr ee ze thr ou gh o ut

duri n g the win te r They b e gin b y fo rmi n g with bran che s o f
.

tree s i n te rl a ce d the in te rv als b e in g fill e d u p with sto n e s an d

, ,

m ud a slo pi n g dyk e w ith the co n v e xity to w a rds the strea m

, ,

this dyk e the y c risp e n tire ly w ith a thick an d s oli d co v e ri n g .

The dyk e is ge n e rally e l e v e n o r tw e lv e fe e t a t th e b as e It is .

st re n gthe n ed an n ually by n e w w o rks an d u ltim ate ly be co m e s ,

co v e r e d with a thick v e ge ta ti on Thu s is pr o vi ded a poo l o f .

st agn an t w ate rs or at l ea st w ate rs but littl e di s tu rb e d i n

, ,

p r ox i m ity with th eir dw e lli n gs .

Wh e n the dyke is fi n ish e d or wh en the w ate r s ar e s m ooth, ,

such a prelimi n ary w o rk is n ot re qu i re d The be a v e rs .

s e p arate i n to a ce rt ai n n um be r o f fam ili e s an d co mm e n c e ,

con stru cti n g th e i r huts or r e p airi n g th o se al re ady b u ilt

,
.

Th e se ca bin s ar e ra is e d a gai n st the dyk e or on the e dge

o f th e w a te rs a n d a r e o f an o v a l fo rm ; th e y a r e co n str u cte d
,

i n the s am e w ay as th e d k e itse lf of br an ch e s o f tr e e s
stron gly ce m e n te d to ge the r y a ki n d o f puddl e w ork b F or
,

.
,

this p u rp o se th ey u se the ea rth d u g fro m un de r th e w all

o r the b an ks a n d w o rk it wi th th e i r fee t ; it d oe s n o t app e a r
,

th at the t ail is e m ploy e d for this purpo s e The bran ch e s .

o f the tr e e s n o m atte r wh at b e the ir siz e ar e r e ad i ly cut

, ,

thro ugh with th e ir sh a rp r od en t te eth ; an d wh en a l a rge r

tr un k is r equire d so as to i n te rce pt the stream th e y w o rk , ,

i n g i n gr o ups di vid e it so tha t it sh a ll fa ll i n the m o st

,

fa v ou r a bl e m an n e r to b e floa te d to its d e sti n e d r e stin g -pla c e .

Th e ir c abin s h a v e two floo rs on e un de r w ate r th e oth e r ab o v e ;

, ,

th e e n tr an ce an d e x it a r e by the ch am b e r which i s un d e r
w at e r Fi n a lly al l th e s e w o rks ar e ca rri e d on at n ight an d
.
, ,

with ex tre m e r apidity Wh e n th e pro x i m ity o f m an h i n de rs

.

the b e av e r fro m un itin g i n n u m be rs s u ffici en t to ca rry on th o s e

w o rks re qu irin g the a ss oci ati on of m a n y th e y n o l on ge r ,

b u ild hu ts ; but the i n sti n ct o f c on st r u cti on re m ai n s e v e n i n

captivity as has be en s e e n i n b e a v e rs co n fin e d i n the ard en
, G
o f P l an ts , i n P a ris as sho wn by th e i r co ll e ctin g bits of w oo d
,

for a w o rk which w as n ot to b e c a rri ed thr ough .

P e rfect so ci e tie s lik e the on e j us t d e scribe d ar e r ar e amon gst

, ,

birds yet we h a v e i n the L ead er s oci a a kin d o f sp arro w of

th e Ca of G
oo d H o pe a specim e n o f th e s o ci a bl e i n sti n ct
,
,

These irds co n struct the ir n es ts u n d e r a r oo f-w ork co mm on

to th e who l e col o n y ( Fig .

The n es ts of w as ps sur pri s e us b y the re gul arity an d per

1 66 ZOOLOGY .

fecti on of th e ir co n stru ctio n W as ps d e ta ch by m ean s o f th e ir

.
,

m an dibl e s p a rce ls o f o l d w ood which they co n v e rt i n to a ki n d

, ,

of p ast e re s e mblin g p as te bo ard w ith which th e y co ns tr uct

,

r o ws o f h e x ag o n al c e lls ; th e s e r o ws a r e pl ace d p a r all e l to

e a ch o th e r an d at ce rta i n
, distan ce s s u ppo rte d by pi l la rs ,

which s e rv e a ls o to suspe n d th e m ; fin ally the wh ol e i s pl ace d ,

s om e tim e s i n the a i r at oth e rs i n the h o ll o w o f a tr ee o r

, ,

e v e n u n d e rgr o u n d a cc o rdi n g to th e spe ci e s e x p o s e d o r e u

, ,

clos e d i n a co mm o n c o v e r i n g ( Fig .

K g 11 1
. .
—N st e of th e R e pu bl i ca n .

3 3 2 Com mun ity of l a b ou r is the grea t

. i n the
histo ry of the b e e ; b u t the bee , i n its r e l ati on s to the w o rk
In
g b e e an d th e qu ee n b ee , sh ow s o th e r in st i n cts n o t l es s t e
m a rkabl e
G
.

The d o m e stic b ee s o ri gi n ally fr o m r ee c e but sin ce spr e ad

, ,

all o v e r t he w o rld liv e i n co l on i e s co mpo s e d o f te n to thirty

,

tho u s an d n e utra l or w o rki n g be e s o f from s i x to e ight hun,

dred m a l e s ca l l ed d ron e s an d o f a sin gl e fe m al e which s ee ms

, ,

to re ign as q u e e n . Th ey e sta blish th e ir dw e l li n gs i n the

t r un k of s o m e an ci en t tree or i n the hiv e which m an pr ep are s
,
 OF TH E I N T E LL I G E N C E A ND OF I N S TI N C T . 1 67

th e m ; an d to the w
fo r o rki n g b ee s b e l o n g the l ab o urs to
which the s o ci ety ow es i ts ex iste n ce Of th e s e s om e ar e the
.
,

Fi g 1 1 2
. .
—
V rti c l S e cti
e a o n of th e W a sp s N e st
’
.

wax -g ath e r e rs , which g o abro ad to c o ll e ct th e food an d the

m at e ri al s for the co n structi on o f th e comb ; to oth e rs , ca ll e d
n u rs e s , is a s sign e d th e ta sk o f w a tch i n g o v e r the y ou n g .

The w orkin g b e e for c o ll ecti n g the w ax e n t e rs a flow e r , the

sta m e n s o f which ar e l oade d w i th p oll e n This d u st attach e s
.

its e lf to the bru sh lik e h airs co v e ri n g the b ody of the b e e ,

wh e n , by r u bb i n its e lf with th e br u sh e s with which the

g
y
ta rsi ar e fu r n i she ( Fig 1 1 3 ) the i n s e ct coll e cts it i n to litt l e
.

p a rc el s , which it P pl ac e s on sm all p al ett e s , h oll ow e d o u t on

the surfac e o f i ts hi n d li m bs ( Fig . By th e ai d o f
m an dibl e s the w o rkin g b e e s als o d et ach fr o m the surfac e of
1 68 zo o no c r .

pl an ts a r es i n ous m att e r ca ll e d p r op o l i s an d with it th ey ,

al s o ch a rge th e i r littl e b ask e ts Thus loa de d the b ee s r e t ur n

.

to d e po sit i n th e i n t e ri o r of the hiv e th e m at e ri al s th e y ha v e

co l l e cte d to set ou t ag ai n i n qu e st o f m o r e The l abo ur in
, .

the i n te ri o r o f the hiv e is m o r e c om pl ex Th ey b e gi n by .

cl o sin g with the prop ol is e v e ry fiss ur e i n the h abit ati on l e a v ,

i n g but on e open m g of n o gre a t dim en si on s

, Th ey n e xt pr o .

oe cd to the fo rm a ti o n o f the co mb i n te n d e d to l odge the y o un g ,

an d to s e rv e a s sto r e -ce lls for the pr o visi on s o f the co mm u

ni t
y . T h e c omb i s m a d e of w ax fo u n d i n v ar i o us pl an ts
, ,

but which is a ls o s e cret e d b the be e s th e ms e lv e s i n organ s

situ ate d un d e r the abdomi n ri n gs Th e s e co mbs or ro ws
'
.
, ,

ar e co mp o s e d of two l ay e rs o f h e x ag on a l c e lls with a pyr a ,

midal bas e a nd suspe n d e d p e rp en dicul a rly by on e of th e ir

,

sid e s E mpty sp ac e s ar e l e ft b etw e e n th em to pe rmit of the

.
,

b e e s reachin g e v e ry p art The c e lls ar e arran ge d h oriz on tally

.
,

an d ar e o pe n at o n e o f th e ir e x tre miti e s th ey ar e all of

n e a rly the s am e dim e n si on s but s om e fe w ar e ca ll e d r oy al
, ,

b ei n m u ch l arg e r th an the oth e rs alm o st cyli n drica l an d

are d
, ,

e sti n e d to c on ta in th e fe m a l e l a rv ae .

Be e s e n clo s e with a co v e ri n g of w ax the c e lls co n ta in i n g the

h on ey an d th ey t ak e m e an s to stren gth en the co mbs wh en
,

an
y a ccid e n t th r e ate n s th e ir s
‘

a fe ty T h e m a l.e s d o n ot sh a r e
i n th e s e l ab ours an d wh en th ey ar e n o l on ge r of an y u s e to
,

the c om m u n ity th e w o rki n g b e e s sti n g th e m to d e ath

,
This .

ca rn age ta k e s pl a ce be tw ee n J u n e an d A u gu st an d it e xten ds ,

e v e n to the l ar v ae an d n ymph ae of the m al e s .

fi g 1 13
. .
—Wo rki n g Bee . F i g H it
.

Le g
—Hi d r
of
n e
th e B e e
F oo
.
t an d

The fe m al e d oe s n o w o rk ; s he is alw ays p ampe r ed an d

a tt e n d e d to with th e u tm os t ca re by th e r e st o f the hiv e .
 or TH E I N T E LL I GE N C E AN D or I N S TI NC T . 1 69

Fro m the ti m e sh e be g in s to l ay e ggs s he be co m e s for the ,

who l e co l on y an obj ect of th e ut m o s t r e spe ct an d she per ,

mits n o riv a l i n the hive S h ould on e acciden ta lly appe a r .

,

a m o rta l co m b at e n s u e s which te rm i n ate s fa ta lly for on e the

, ,

o th e r r e m ai n i n g s ov e r e ign o f th e hiv e S o l on g as s h e is .

shut up i n he r h abitati on s he l ays n o e ggs ; but sh o u ld fi n e

w e ath e r app ea r s he l e av e s th e c e ll an d the hiv e a fe w d ays
,

a fte r he r b i rth a n d a sce n ds i n th e ai r ou t o f sight with th e

,

m al e s Bu t she s oon re turn s to the hiv e an d c o m m e n ce s

.
,

l ayi n g e ggs fo rty -six h o ur s afte rw ards Th e s e e ggs she d e .

p o sits i n ce l ls a lrea dy pre pa re d for th e i r u se D u ri n g the .

first su m m e r th e s e e ggs ar e n ot n um e rou s an d th e y b eco me ,

m e re ly w o rki n g bee s D urin g win t e r s he c e as e s to l ay e ggs

.
,

b u t so s oo n as sprin g -tim e r e tu rn s he r fe c u n dity b e c o m e s

e x tr e m e a n d i n thr e e w ee ks sh e l ays m o r e th an tw e lv e th o u
,

s an d e ggs To w a rds the e l e v en th m on th of her ex isten c e she

.

be gi n s to l ay e ggs which pr o du ce the b ou r d on s or m al e s , ,

al on g with oth e rs which be l o n g to th e w o rki n g cl as s ; th o s e

o f the fe m al e c om e a littl e l a te r I n thr e e o r fo ur d ays a fte r

.

the l ayin g the e ggs ar e fu lly h atch ed an d th e r e co m e s fo rth

, ,

a littl e l arv a of a whi tish co l o u r w hich h avi n g n o fee t is , , ,

quite h elpl ess ; b u t the w o rki n g bee s pro vide amply for it ,

an d fu rn ish it with a s o rt o f b ou i l l i e of which the qua liti e s ,

v ar y with the ag e an d sex o f the i n d ividu al for which it i s

i n t e n d e d ; an d at th e mo m e n t o f the tran sfo rm ati on of the
l arv a i n to a n ym ph th e y sh u t it i n t o its ce ll cl o si n g it i n
, ,

with a co v e ri n g o f w ax Fiv e d ays afte r the bi rth of the .

l ar v a o f a w o rki n g b e e its n u rs e s e n cl o s e it thus i n i ts c e l l

, .

It n o w spi n s arou n d its body a w eb of s i lk an d at the en d o f ,

thre e d ays ch an ge s i n to a n ym ph Fin ally afte r h a vi n g .

,

r e m ai n e d u n de r this fo rm du r i n g s e ven d ays an d a h alf it ,

u n d e rgoe s its l ast m e ta m o rpho sis The m a le s do n ot atta in .

h
t e ir pe r fe ct sta te be f o r e th e tw e n ty -
fi r s t day fr om the bi rth
o f the l arv a w hi l s t the fe m a l e s un d e rgo th e ir l ast m e ta m or
,
‘

h s e s on th e thirte e n th d a By v a ryi n g the foo d giv e n to

p o y .

the l a rv ae the w o rkin g b ee s or n u rs e s ca n ch an ge th e m fr om

, , ,

w o rki n g be e s or n e u tra ls i n to fe m al e s or qu e e n s Sh oul d the .

qu e en b ee b e l o st the wo rki n g be e s imm e di at e ly s et to w o rk

,

a n d br e a k d ow n s e v e r a l o rdin a ry c e l ls to co n v e rt th e m in to a

roy al ce ll The l a rv a o f on e of th e s e ce lls is n ow fe d s o as to

.

be co m e a qu ee n b e e Wh en a yo un g qu e e n b ee has fi n ish ed
.

its m e tam o rpho sis an d gn aw e d thro u gh th e c o v e ri n g of the

,

ce ll a great agit ati on m ay be o bs e rv ed i n the hi v e On on e

,
.
1 70 Z OOLOG Y .

side m ay b e s e e n w orki n g be e s which striv e as it w e r e to re ta i n

, , ,

h er I n t he roy y al c e ll by shutti n g u
p a ll a cc e ss to it ; on the oth e r

h an d m ay he s ee n th e ol d qu e e n b e e appi oachi n g to e n de av our

to d e stroy he r i n which atte m pt s he 1 8 o bstructe d by h osts o f
,

w o rki n g be e s which e n de a v o u r to o bstr u ct her pro gress but

, ,

m ak e n o attack o n h e r A t l ast as if i n a pa ssi o n s he qu its

.
, ,

th e hiv e a n d with h e r th e gr e at e r p a rt o f the w o rki n g bee s

,

an d m al e s o v e r wh o m s h e pr e sid e d The you n g b ee s too .

,

fee bl e to l e a v e r e m a i n with t he y ou n g q u e en b e e which n ow

, ,

be co m e s the s ov e re ign of a n e w col on y occ u pyi n g the s e at o f ,

the o ri g i n al o n e Th e hiv e which h as l e ft with the ol d q u een

.

rem ai n to geth e r an d for m a n e w s oci e ty which re co m m e n ci n g

, , ,

ag a i n a l l th e l a bo urs w e h a v e j us t d e scribe d fu rn ish e s afte r , ,

a c e rta i n ti m e a s e c on d sw a rm
, wh o se e migra ti o n i s d e te r
,

mi n ed by the s am e ca us e s as th o s e which ga ve ris e to the

first A hiv e giv e s o ff s e v e ra l sw arms duri n g a s e as on b u t
.
,

th e l a st ar e al w ays fe ebl e The co l on y s o m e tim e s br e aks u p

.

on the d e ath o f t he qu e e n b e e the a tta cks o f en e mi e s o r the , ,

w e ak n e ss of the sw arm ; but the b ee s th u s di spe ns e d s ee k

sh e lt e r i n othe r hiv e s wh e r e th e y a r e uni fo rm ly d e str oy e d by
,

th e pro p ri e to rs o f the hiv e fo r n o stran ge b e e i s ad m itte d i n to

,

a hiv e i n which it w a s n o t b o rn So m e ti m e s a ls o a wh ol e
.
, ,

co l on y a tta cks an o th e r a n d r o bs it o f its sto r e s o f pro visi on s

, .

333 This pill a gi n g i n sti n ct o n the p ar t of b ee s re s e m bl es

.

wh at we fi n d t a k e s pl ace i n s om e o th e r i n s e cts b u t which is ,

m an i fe ste d in a d i ff e re n t m an n e r A n im a ls o f a di ffe re n t .

spe ci e s ar e c aptur e d an d r e d u ce d to sl av e ry The n at u ra l .

his t o ry o f an ts giv e s us the e x ampl e .

Th e s e i n te r e sti n g i n s e cts li v e i n c ol on i e s c ompo s e d of m al e s , ,

fe m al e s an d l a bo ure rs Th e s e l atte r a r e ste ril e s o r n e utra ls

, .
,

th ey d o a l l th e n e c e ss a ry w o rk an d ar e pr o vide d with stro n g

,

m an dibl e s a l ar ge h e ad but a r e with o ut wi n gs Th u s th ey

, , .

m ay b e k n o w n f r om the oth e r an ts E ach spe ci e s h a i ts .

s

o w n m od e o f proce d u r e Som e b u i ld th e ir h ou s e s i n e a rth ;

.

oth e rs In w o od Th e fi rst dig I n the s o il a n u m be r o f g al

.

’
l e r i es di s po s e d II I floo rs
, Th e d e b r i s r e] ecte d form s a hillock
.
,

i n which the i n de fatig a bl e an ts co n str u ct o th e r dw e lli n gs al so ,

i n fl oo rs or sta g e s ; b u t s o m e tim e s with the e a rth thus thr o wn

ou t th e
,
y
co n st ruct g all e ri e s al on g bran ch e s o f tre e s The
,

an ts t ch e st a blish th e i r dw e l li n gs i n tree s att a ch th e m ,

s e lv e s to o n e go in g i n to d e ca an dga lre ady a tta ck e d by o th e r

in s e cts With th e ir m an di le s th ey vigo ro u sly a ss a il the
. b
timbe r for m i n g it in to g all e ri e s an d dwe ll i n gs a n d s u ppo rti n g
, ,
 or TH E I N T E LL I G E N C E A ND or I N S TI NC T . 1 71

th e s e ga ll e ri e s with co lumn s wh e re v e r th ey m ay b e r e quire d .

S h ou ld a n y a ccid e n t h a ppe n by th e fa lli n g o f th e s e b e ams ,

th e w o rki n g an ts h as te n to r e pa ir th e d a m a g e to dr ag th e i r ,

co m r ad e s fro m u nd e r the rui n s a n d to pl ac e th e m i n a s ec u re

,

q u a rte r The m a l e s an d fe m al e s t ak e n o p art i n th e s e l a bo u r s

. .

The fir st r e m a i n but a sho rt tim e i n the hill o ck an d pe rish ,

sh o rtly a fte r l e a vi n g The fe m al e s which h av e l e ft with the

.
,

m a le s a ft e r l o si n g th e i r wi n gs ar e brought b a ck to th e an t
, ,

hill ock by t he w o rki n g an ts pl ace d i n r e tir ed c e lls wh e re , ,

th ey r e m ai n pr i s o n e rs be in g al l the ti m e ca r e full y fed an d

,

atte n d e d to by t he l a bo u r e rs So s oo n a s th ey h a v e l a id an
.

e g g it is l a id h o ld o f a n d r e m o v e d to a s e p a r at e a p a rtm e n t o r
ce ll e ach to its o wn —th e e g g which is to giv e o rigi n to a
, ,

fe m al e to its own c e ll an d th at which i n tim e wil l pro duc e a

,

l a bo u re r to its p articul a r dw e lli n g -pl a c e The l a rv ae ar e

, .

att e n d e d a n d fe d with th e gr e at e st ca r e with th e i r a ppr o pri ate

fo od an d ca r ri e d o u t i n fi n e w eath e r to b ask i n the su n

, .

W hilst so e x po s e d th e y ar e d e fe n d e d fro m th e ir e n e mi e s an d ,

carri ed b ack i n the e v e n i n g to th e ir ce l ls which ar e k e pt i n ,

th e v e ry be st o rd e r A n ts l ay i n n o sto ck o f pr ovisi o n s b u t
.
,

s e e k day by day wh a t th ey r e qu ir e Whil st s o m e ar e oc en .

pi e d with the c a re o f th e b ui ldi n gs oth e rs proce e d i n qu e st of ,

foo d Th ey atta ck the p u cer o n s which on b e in g pre ss e d by

.
,

th e fe e t o f th e an t giv e ou t a dro p o f sw e e t l iquid which the

, ,

an t ca rri e s o ff Bu t s o m e ar e n ot co n te n t with this but c ar ry

.
,

with th e m the i n s e ct ( p u ce r on ) to th e hil lo ck an d r e ta in th e m ,

th e re as fa r m e rs do milch -co ws Two n e ighbo ur in g o r rival

, .

hi l l o cks h av e b e e n s e e n to fig ht for the po ss e ssi on o f th e se

u cer on s a n d th e c on qu e r o rs h a v e b e e n s ee n to car ry off th e i r
p ,

pris on e rs with the s am e ca r e th at th e y b e st o w on th e i r own

l a rv ae Fin ally th at which is m o st si n gu l a r i n the his to r y o f the
.
,

an t is still to b e t old
, Th e s e i n d u stri ou s labo ur e r s see m o cca
.

s i on al l y to g e t tir e d o f th e i r l ab o ur s as if th e y w i sh e d to e nj oy ,

a littl e r e po s e I n this ca s e th e y m ak e war on fee bl e r spe ci e s

.
,

to procure the l arv ae an d the n ymphs tran spo rt th e m to th e i r ,

hillock a n d cha rge the sl a v e s th ey h av e th us procured with

,

al l th e l a bo u rs o f th e co m mu n ity .

3 3 4 The i n sti n ct o f s oci e ty is i n s o m e an i m als un i te d

.

to an o th e r n a tur al te n d e n cy l e ss s tri kin g b u t p e rh aps of

, ,

m o re impo rta n ce to m an ; w e allud e to the dispo siti on to

o b e di e n ce i n a wh o l e fl ock to o be y a chi e f an d which s ee ms ,

c on n e cte d with the in sti n ct of imita ti on This i ns ti n ct is .

re m ar k abl e i n the h o rs e an d i n ape s .

1 72 ZOOLOGY .

§ 3 3 5 F a cu l ti e s
.
f
o Me Un k
c r s ta n d i n
g i n A n i m a l s .

I n stin ct n o d oubt is the d e te r mi n i n g ca use of m ost of the

, ,

acti on s o f a n im als pro pe rly s o c alle d ; but s om e o f th em

,

s ee m to po ss e ss a ce rta in a m ou n t o f m e m ory j u d g m e n t an d , ,

e v e n the fa cul ty o f e sta blishi n g ce rt ai n r ea so n in gs but littl e

fac ul ty o f m em ory is o bvi ou sly po ss e ss ed by m an y

an im als : th e h o rs e the d og the e l e ph an t r e m e mb e r ki n d
, , ,

n e ss e s
, an d ar e n ot fo rge tfu l o f ill -tr e a tm en t E v e n fish e s
.

see m to h av e this faculty for e e ls h av e b een taught to re co g

,

n is e th e v oic e of th e i r k ee pe r .

3 3 6 It is e v en impo ssibl e to d en y r easo n i n g po w e rs to

.

s om e an im als Thus the dog co n fin ed i n a w oo d e n cage wi ll

.
,

co n ti n u e to attack the b ars e vi de n tly hOpi n g to d e stroy

,

th e m ; b ut h e sp e e dily ce a s e s
to att a ck th e m if m a d e o f ir on .

Wh en the d o g s ee s his m as ter

ta k e his h at h e pre p ar e s him
,

s e lf fo r the j ourn ey e vide n tly ,

an ticipa ti n g wh a t will or m ay , ,

h appe n ; n or can w e ascri b e to

an y oth e r fa c u lty b u t th a t o f

r e as on th e c on d u ct of the w atch
d og which e v e r y n ight fr ee d
,

hims e lf o f his coll ar an d m ak ,

i n g for the fi e lds attack e d an d

sl aughte re d the sh e ep ; r e turn
i n g a ft e r the butch e ry he ,

w ash e d from his m ou th an d

thro at the pro ofs of his gu ilt ,

an d r e ach e d his h om e r e pl aci n g ,

th e co l l a r an d ly i n g d o w n on
,

the str a w r e p o si n g as if n o
,

thi n g had h a pp en ed .

A still high e r d e v e l o pm e n t of
thi s faculty appe ar s to e x ist i n
the o r an a n d chimp
y ou n g on e of e a ch o f th e s e
sp eci e s ( Fig 1 1 5) a tta ch ed
.

F i g 1 1 5 —C hi m p an é
. .
z .it se lf to the k ee p e r an d as ,

s um ed on a v a ri e ty of o cca
i
s on s al l t h e h a bits o f a ch i ld It r e ach e
. d b m e
a y
n s o f a ch a i r
h
t e o l ck which s e cu r e d it i n its ca e
g ; o n thi s b e i n
g r e m o v e d
 or TH E I T E LL I G E N C E
N AN D OF I N S TI N C T . 1 73

by the kee pe r the chimp an z é pu t an oth e r ch a ir i n its pl ace

,
.

I n this acti o n w e s ee n ot o n ly the po w e r o f acquiri n g kn o w

l ed ge by e x pe ri e n ce b u t als o the ability to ge n e raliz e ,
.

3 3 7 I n this a ppro ach to h u m a n i n te ll ig en ce i n th e l ow e r

.

an im als the q u adr u m an a a n d c arn iv o r a ar e fo re m o st

, afte r
th e s e com e the p achyde rm ata as the e l e ph an t an d h o rs e ; ,

n e x t the r u m i n an ts ; l a st o f a l l the m a m m als the r od e n ts

, , ,

as the b e a v e r squ irrel &c The squ irre l can n ot b e tau ght
, , .

to r e c o g n is e its o wn m a ste r ; the ru m i n an t r e c o g n is e s i ts

m a ste r b u t a ch an ge o f cl oth e s is su ffici e n t to m ak e it m i s
,

t a k e hi m for a stran ge r Thus a bis on i n the ard en .

”
, ,
“
G ,

o b e y e d p e rfe ctly its m a s te r u n til h e h app e n e d to ch an ge his ,

cl oth e s wh e n it a tta cke d him i m p e t u ou sly ; on a ss u m i n g h i s

,

fo rme r dre ss the b i s on a gai n re co gn is ed him as its m aste r

, .

Two r a m s liv i n g to g e th e r i n h a r m on y will on be in g sh orn , , ,

a tt ack e ac h o th e r a s if th e y w e re pe rfe ct str an g e rs The .

s agacity o f the do g an d e l e phan t is w e ll kn o w n ; s o als o is

th at of the ape b u t this is c on fin e d as r e gards it to y ou th
, ,

fo r with ag e it pr o gre ss e s n o t but o fte n b e co m e s m o r o s e ,

an d s a v a g e .

33 8 So m e an im als po ss e ss th e po we r o f i n te r com m u
.

n i ca ti on by m e an s o f which th e y e x pr e ss wh at th e y fee l a n d
, ,

m ak e th e ir fee li n gs kn o wn to th e ir co m ra d e s Th u s ce rta in .
,

m amm als an d birds which liv e i n gro u ps so m eti m e s pl a c e a , ,

se n ti n e l which by pe c u li ar crie s w a rn s the troop o f the

,

a ppr oach o f d a n g e r : the m a r m o ts an d th e a mi n o d o this ;

g fl
sw all o ws s ee m als o to h a ve the p o w e r by a p e cu li a r cry o f , ,

co ll e cti n g to g e th e r for m u t u a l d e fe n ce a l l th e n e ighbo uri n g

sw all o ws m o re e spe ci ally whe n th e re is dan g e r to th e ir

,

y o u n g ; an d the o bs e rv ati o n s m ade on be e s by H u be r La ,

tre ill e an d oth e r n at u ralists l e a v e littl e d o ubt th at th e se

, ,

i n s e cts h a v e the p o w e r of i n t e rcom m u n ica ti on .

This is s ee m in gly n ot e ffe cte d by an y s o u n d but by touch ,

i n g e a ch oth e r with th e ir h e ads an d an te n n a an d on thi s ,

b e i n g d on e th ou s an ds will cro wd to the p o i n t o f d an ge r I n

, .

th e o bsti n a te w a rs which o n e co l on y o f an ts wil l so m e tim es

ca r ry o n a ga i n st an o th e r i n di vid u a l an ts h av e bee n s e e n thus
,

to giv e s u ch sign a ls as to ch an g e the r o u t e o f a wh o l e a rmy ;

a n d o bs e rv e rs w o rthy o f e v e ry cre dit a ss u r e us th at i n di ,

vid u al an ts h av e be e n s e e n to q u it the m a i n body a n d r e pai r ,

i n g to th e hil l ock r etur n with str on g r e i n forc e m e n ts

, .

No a ni m a l l o we r th an m an s e e m s t o m e to po ss e s s th e fac ul ty of g e ne
ra l i z a ti o n .
—R . K .
1 74 ZOOLOGY .

3 39 But if the fac u lti e s we h av e spo k en of expl ai n m o re

.

or e s s s atisfa cto rily the a cti o n s o f m a n a n d an i m a ls th e re ,

a r e o th e rs which i n th e e x isti n g sta te o f o u r k n o wl e dge

, ,

a dmit o f n o e xpl a n a ti on a n d which l e ad us to suppo s e tha t

,

such an i m als po ss e ss orga n s o f s en s e o f a ki n d un k no w n to

us N e ithe r i n sti n ct n o r i n t ellige n ce can e x pl a i n the cour s e
.

o f the sw all o w an d c a rri e r -pi g e on tran sp o rte d h u n dre ds of ,

m il e s fro m the i r l oca lity to w a rds which th ey fly wh e n l e t

, ,

l o o s e i n a li n e as straight a s if it l ay b e fo r e th e ir ey e s The
, .

d og a n d h o rs e s ee m to r e tra c e th e ir c ours e wh e n l o st , ,

by the o rdi n a ry s en s e s ; but this c an n o t b e the ca s e with the

ca rr i e r pige o n-
flyi n g i n a str ai ght li n e fro m B o rdeaux to
Br u ss e ls .

§ 340 R e l a.t i on s b e twe e n the I n te l l e ct a n d tl ze B r a i n .

W e kn ow n othin g of th e c au s e why ce rta i n in t e ll e ctu a l an d

i n sti n ctiv e facu ltie s a r e pre s e n t or abs en t i n c e r tai n an i m als ,
n o r o f the m e ch a n is m by m e an s of which th e s e faculti e s ar e e x e r

ci se d ; a l l w e k n o w i s , th at it is by m e an s of th e n e rv o us syste m

th at a l l the s e facu lties are e x e rcis ed Wh en the acti on o f the .

brai n is s u spe n d e d , w e l o s e the co n sci ou s n e ss of o u r e x iste n ce ,

a n d with it al l the in t e ll e ctu al faculti es ; the o rg ani c life th en

a l o n e r e m ai n s : thus the br ai n is pro v e d to b e the o rgan

”
o f a l l i n te ll e ct u a l ity a n d the ce n tr e of the life o f r e l a ti o n
“
, .

S i n ce n o thi n g is k n ow n a s to the n ature of th o ught , w e ar e

o f n e ce ssity c o mpe ll e d to r e fe r it to an i m m o rt a l pri n cipl e i n

m an c a ll e d th e s o ul ; i n o th e r a n im als , the vital pri n cipl e i n

,

th e m s e e ms to t ak e its pl ac e .

3 4 1 The br ai n be i n g admitt ed to b e the i n strum e n t by

.

which the i n te ll e ct u a l fa culti e s ar e e x e rcis e d , it is n atur a l

to s u ppo se th at its stru ctu re , o r a t l e a st its S tr u ctur a l ar
r a n ge m e n ts , will b e m odifi e d i n di ffe r e n t an i m als ; a n d this is

wh a t we fi n d t ak e s pl ac e
G
.

342 e n e r al l y spe a ki n g
. the po w e r o f an o rg an al l
, ,

thin gs be i n g equ al is i n th e dire ct rati o o f its b u lk a n d to

,

a c e r ta i n e xte n t this h o lds tru e , wh e n w e c o m p a r e the br a i n

o f m an with the qu adru m an a , c a rn i v o r a a n d r od e n ts, in

fish e s an i m als l ow i n the i n t ell e ctua l sca l e , th e brai n is co m
,

a r a ti v e l y v e ry s m al l a n d si m pl e
p .

This l ed to the id e a , th at the am o u n t of i n t ellige n c e i n

m a n a n d an i m als might b e m e as u r e d by the siz e o f the brai n ,

a n d th e fa ci a l an gl e , i n v e n t e d by Ca mp er , w a s u s e d wi th this

v ie w It is c c u l a te d to sh o w th e r e l a tiv e siz e o f th e cr a n i u m
.
! a l
as c o m p a r e d with the fa ce ; b u t C a m p e r did n o t e m pl oy it
with this vi e w — R K ] . . .
 or TH E I N T E LL I G E N C E AND or I N S TI C T N . 1 75

A h o riz on ta l li n e ( 0 d Fig 1 1 6) is r e pre s en t e d as p assi n g

, .

by the au dito ry c an al an d floo r of the n as al fo ss a ; a se con d

li n e 6 a is l e t fal l on the first
, ,

s o a s to i n te rs e ct it ; th e an gl e

fo rm e d at the po i n t wh e re th e s e
li n e s i n te rs e ct each oth e r will b e
fo u n d to m e a s u r e by its a pproa ch ,

to a right o r a n o bt u s e an gl e ;
the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the cran i um
an t e ri o rly as c o m p a r e d with th e
,

siz e an d pr otru si o n of the fac e .

The an gl e is c al l e d the f a ci a l
an gl e o f Ca m p e r .
F ig 1 1 6 . ,

I n th e an tiqu e busts an d i n ,

s om e li v i n g h e ads this an gl e a moun ts to a r i g l i t a ng l e

,

b u t i n m o st E u ro p ean cr an i a it d oe s n ot e x c ee d 80 ( Fig 1
°
, .

°
i n n e gr oe s a b o u t 7 0 ( Fig
, .

1 1 7 ) i n v a ri o u s ki n ds o f a pe
°
fro m 6 5 to 30 ( Fig °
in .

the l o w e r m am m als it b e co m e s
still m o re ac u te a s m ay b e ,

s e e n by r e fe rri n g to Fig 1 1 9 ; .

fin ally i n birds r e ptil e s an d

, , ,

fis h e s it b ec om e s still m o r e
,

ac u t e th an i n m a m m al s .

This c oi n cid en c e b e tw e en th e Fi g 1 17
in cl i n ation o f the fa ci al an gl e
. .

an d the i n t e ll e ct u a l fa c u lti e s did n ot e sc ap e the an ci e n t ,

sc u lpto rs ; an d th ey e v e n e x agge rat e d the an gl e i n s o m e

o f th e ir busts .

Fi g 1 1 8
.
—Cra n i u m
. of the Fi g 1 1 9
.
— Cra n i u m of th e VVIl d
M ac a q u e
.

.
B o ar .

But t n ot s a fe in sci en tific poi n t of vi e w to a tt ach

n Is , a ,

m u ch Im p o rt an c e to s u ch m eas ur e me n ts ,
fo r the pre s e n c e o f
1 76 ZOOLO G Y .

the fr on tal s i n us es so l arge i n m an y an im al s as i n the owl

, ,

an d e l e ph an t an d e v e n i n m an hims e lf m a l e ad to
y ve
e rr o rs i n r e sp e ct o f th a t which is r e a lly a i m e d a t —n am e y to
, ,

, ,

di sco v e r the ra ti o o f the a r e a of the c e re bra l cavity to th at of

the f a ce an d by i nf e r en ce th e r e l ativ e size o f th e b ra in or o f , ,

a l l the c e n tra l o rg an s S itu a te d within th e h e a d to the c ap a city

o f the c a viti e s fo r c o n t ai n i n g th e o rg an s of s e n s e —R K
,

. .

'
3 4 3 D ai ly o bs e rv ati on sh ows how v a ri o u sly the i n te l
.

l e ctu al fac u lti e s of i n dividu al s ar e m odi fie d : to so m e are

given a bril li an t imagin ati on ; to oth e rs gre at po w e rs of ,

1 1 9 bi a — . Rs e p ec ti ve D im e ns i o n s o f th e Crani um and F ace !

ca l cul ati on : with s o m e gen e raliz ati on is e asy ; with oth e rs , ,

di fficult or imp ossibl e The s e n s e s al s o ar e q u ite di stin ct i n .

th es e r e spects ; an d h e n c e i n all age s atte mpts h av e b e en , ,

Ve rti c l s e cti o of th e cr i um d p r aw l e ft s i d e s fro m

jth s e t si d m
a n an an u e , , ee n
wi thi n B si d e s sho wi n g the
. e to m i cal d 8 an a e 0 e e x en ve a n co

pl ex o sse o s s rf c s th s c t i o
u u is
a eal abl , e p hysi l gi c lly
e e t na bl es n e v u e on ,
o o a I e
t h st d e t t c m p r th
e u n o r f th c r b r l d c r b ll r c i ti e s wi th
o a e e a ea o e e e a an e e e a av

th e r a eao f th e f e o t l a st f th
ac ,p p r j w ; th r l a ti o th e re f re whi h
r a e o e u e a e e n o c
t he c ph lo h to th o rg s f s s e It di s pl ys ls t h p s i ti o o f
en e a n as e an o en . a a o e o n
t h e b r i t th face pha ry
a n o e d e rt b r l c l m lth gh th s l st ar e
n x , an v e a o u n, a ou e e a
e —d th e
,

n o t pr se t ie n th fi g n e ss o s p l t ;ur i f ri r m t s f th e
.
, o e u a a e e, n e o ea u o
no st ri ls m mi ddl m t s ; l p rti o f the pe rp d i c l r l am i
, e ea u f th, a o on en u a na o e
e thm i d ; p i t t th fr t l s i s s ; cri s t g l l k groo e s f th
o a o n s o e on a nu e c, a u I , v or e
br ch e s o f th m i ddl m i g l rt ry ; b p st ri o r cli i d p r ces se s ;
an e e en n ea a e , o e no o
I f r m en o l ; i gr
t, o a va e f th l ft l t r l s i s ; i p l d e r the
, oo v e or e e a e a nu a, s ac e n a

F
secti
ro m th M
f th f or am
on o
e l q
e m g um ; f
t my by
a n ua
t
gg0
i d proc e ss f th t m po r l b
eu
na
a n
o , R
, s

. 1 .
o e e a o ne .
 or TH E I N T E LL I G E N C E AN D TH E I N S TI NC T . 1 77

m a de to disco v er in the for m of the he a d physical ch aracte rs ,

by which the s e v ari ous m o difica tion s might be d e tect e d a n d

fo re to l d T his l ed to the th eo ry th at the br ai n is n ot e x a ctly
.
,

o n e o rg an b u t an a ss e m bl ag e o f m an y to e ach o f which w as
, ,

a ssign e d its o wn fun cti on s its o wn sh ar e i n th e ph e n o m e n a

,

o f th e i n te ll e ct u al a n d s o ci al lif e o f m an On this d octri n e

G
.

w as fo un d e d the c e l ebra te d p kr e no l og i ca l d o ctri n e o f a ll ,

w ho e n d e a v o ur e d by th e i n sp e cti on o f th e cra n iu m to d e cid e

, ,

o n h u m an ch a r acte r Ce rta in si n g ul ar facts a n d c o i n cide n c e s

.

a ppe a re d to fa v o ur this d o ctri n e of the l o c a liz ati o n o f th e

h u m an i n te ll e ctu a l fa c u lti e s b ut oth e rs e qually re m a rkabl e

,

ar e q u it e o ppo s e d to it .

With r e g ar d to the i n st i n ctiv e facul ti e s which ar e s o ,

r e m ark abl e i n s o m e o f the l o w e st an i m a ls n o r el ati on can b e ,

di sco ve r e d b e tw e en th es e facu lti e s an d the co n fo rm ati o n 0 1

th e ir n e rv ou s syst e ms c alc ul ate d i n an y w ay to e x pl ain the
,

ph en om e n a ; n o r is it po ssibl e to ad m it th at w e r e such ,

r e l ati o n s trace d to ce rtai n str u ctu re s i n v e rte bra l an i m als as ,

th e sw al l o w th e be a v e r & c ( whi ch has n o t b ee n d on e ) the

, , .
,

s ame w o u ld apply to th e in v e rte brat e ki n gd o m equ a lly if n o t , ,

m o r e si n gul arly pro vid e d with i n sti n ctiv e fa c u lti e s a n d i n ,

which the ce n tra l o rgan s of the n e r vo u s syste m the brain ,

an d sp i n al m a rr o w ar e r e pr e s e n te d by a ch a in o f n gli o n s
, g a .

The foll o wi n g o bs e r v atio n s ta k e n fro m my l l l a n ua l of

,

H u m a n A n a to my will e xpl ai n th o u gh v e ry bri e fly t o th e

, , ,

st u d e n t wh at h as b e e n don e s u bs e qu e n tly to the tim e o f

,

C a mpe r o n this di ffic u lt qu e stio n 1 h a v e n o t al lud e d to

.

the m e m o ir o f m y m o st disti n gu ish ed fri e n d Ti e d e m an w ho ,

e n d e a v o u r e d to de cide the s a m e q u e sti o n by fil li n g the

in t e r i o r o f the sk ull with fin e s an d an d co m p a r i n g the r e s u lts
,

d e riv e d fr o m the adm e asure m e n ts o f di ff e r e n t r a ce s of m e n

—R
.

. K .

“
This is a psych ol o gica l qu e sti on n ot as ye t d e cide d on .

A tt e m pts h a v e be e n m ad e i n v a ri o u s w ays to a rriv e a t

s o m e a pprox i m ati o n a s to th e m e r e fa cts i n d e pe n de n t o f ,

a l l th e o ry but e v e n th e s e h a v e n ot bee n v e r y succe ssfu l

, .

The fir st propo s a l w a s th e m e th o d o f Ca m p e r h e n c e c a ll e d ,
’
Ca m p e r s fac i al an gl e ; a m e re a rti s tic vi e w l e adi n g t o n o ,

i m p o rta n t r e s u lts N e x t fo ll o w e d th e v e rtica l v i e w o f

.

Bl u m e n b ach ; th en th e b a si al ; l a stly the v e rtic a l prop o s ed , ,

by Cuvi e r i n which the cran ium an d fa ce a r e di v id e d

,

v e rtic ally w ith a sa w i n to two e q u al p a rts Ge rdy has .

N
1 78 zoo LOG Y .

'
sh own th at Cam pe r s vi e ws h av e bee n wh ol ly mistak en by
n e ar ly al l subse que n t write r s Th e s e are physiol o gica l
.

u es ti o n s con n e cte d m or e with phil o so phic an d tran scen

de n ta l an ato my th an with the d e scriptiv e an atomy of adul t
,

m an the m ain o bj e ct of this

,

Fi g 1 1 9 b
. .
—P r ofi l e of N e gro , Eu rope an , an d O ran Ou tan .

Copi e d fro m th e M a n ua l of H u ma n A na to my, by D r Kn o x

. . Lo d o
n n

END OF PAR T I .
 O N TH E

CONFORMATION, CLA SSIFICATION, AND GEOGRA PHICA L

DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS .

CON S I D E RA TI ON OF TH E G E N E RAL PLAN F OLLO W E D BY

NA T UR E I N TH E OR GAN I ZA TI ON O F AN I MAL S .

3 44 . Th e bj e ct o f the pre s e n t s e cti on is to ex ami n e the

o

pl an agre e abl e to which e ach an i m a l is fo rm e d an d to o bs e rv e

,

h ow life is m odifi e d i n th e v a ri o us cl a ss e s o f th e s e b e i n gs .

N othi n g i s m or e v a ri e d th an the c on fo r m a ti o n o f
th e v a ri ou s an i m a ls which p e o pl e th e s u r fa c e of the e a rth ;
a n d th e r e e xi sts n o l e ss div e rsity i n th e v a ri ou s acts by which

life is m an ife ste d i n th e s e an im al m achin e s I n s om e the

.

fu n cti on s a r e fe w an d the Sph e re o f th e ir physi ol ogica l

,

activity v e ry r e stricte d ; i n o th e rs th e facu lti e s ar e e x tr e m e ly

v a ri e d a n d th e ir acti on s m u ltipli e d i n th e high e st d e gr ee ;
,

an d to e x pr e ss this di ffe r e n c e i n th e n atur e of an i m a ls it is ,

us u al to s ay th at s om e ar e m o re e l e va te d m o re p e rf e ct th an
, ,

o th e rs. I n this w ay an d i n this vi e w w e -s ay th a t a fish is

m o re e l e v ate d i n the an i m al s ca l e th an an oyst e r ; a d og
m o re th an a fish ; a m an m o re s o th a n the d og .

3 4 6 Te n d en cy to tire L oca l i z a ti o n of F u n cti o n s , a n d

s i o l og i ca l P l zen o m e n a —The pri n
.

to the D i vi s i o n of the P kg / .

ci pl e which n at u r e s e e m s to h a v e ad o pt e d i n the p e rfe cti n g

o f an i m a ls , i s o n e which h a s be e n fo u n d to e x e rcise th e m o st
b e n e fici al i n fl u e n ce o v e r h u m an pro gre ss ; it is , the d i vi s i on
l a b ou r Th u s wh e n w e co m a r e an i m al s with e ach oth e r
of
‘
.
, p ,

di ffe ri n g i n th e n u mb e r an d e x te n t o f th e ir fac u lti e s , w e sh al l

fi n d th at the p e rfe cti n g of th e s e b e i n gs c o in cid e s with a
l o c a liz ati on m o re an d m o r e m ark ed i n th eir fu n cti on s : wh en
t he s a m e in stru m e n t s e rv e s fo r th e pr od u cti on o f s ev e ral
ph en o m en a , the physi ol o gic a l r e s u lt is , a s it w e re gro ss a n d,

i m pe rfe ct ; an d an o rgan a lw ays pe rfo rms its p art be tt e r a s it

is m or e spe ci ali z e d No w the m od e o f acti on o f a n organ or
y
.

i n str u m en t , i n the s e n s e w e allud e to , d e e n ds alw a s on its

i n tim ate n at u r e , or its str u ct u r e , an d ot e r qu al i tl e s ; a nd
N 2
1 80 ZOOLOGY .

c on s e qu en tly the m o r e o rg an s th e r e are en d ow e d with

,

pe culi ar o r spe cific k in ds o f activity diffe ri n g fro m e ach ,

o th e r the m o r e n um e r o u s will b e th e n u m b e r o f dissim il a r

,

p a rts i n the an im al e c o n om y ; an d the co m p l ication m o re

o r l e ss gre at i n the acts an d fac u lti e s o f an i m als must
pr oc e e d p a r i p a ssu with the n atura l co mplica ti on of the ir
, ,

o rg an iz a ti o n .

3 4 7 Th u s i n th os e an im als i n W t l ] the faculti e s ar e

.

the m o st limite d an d i n which life e x hibits its e lf i n i ts ,

simpl e st fo rm the b od y pr e s e n ts e v e ryw h e re the s am e

,
.

str u ct u re Th e re is i n fa ct a s e e min g id en tity o f o rgan iz ation

.

th ro ugh out E ve ry p ar t o f the body p e rfo rms the s am e

.

fun cti on s as the n e ighbouri n g

p a rts If divid e d i n to seg .

m en ts e ach p a rt liv e s an d , ,

b e co m e s an in de p en d e n t an i
m al a s c om pl e t e as th at fr o m
which it was vi ol en tly s e p a
r at e d .

The fr e sh w at e r p olyp or
h dra is an an i m al of thi s y
km d By mutil ation it i s .

m ul tipl i e d in ste a d of be i n g
de stroy ed W e owe the dis .

co ve r y o f th e se c u ri o us fa cts

to Tr e m bl e y a S wiss n atu ,

r al i s t o f the l as t c e n tury .

The si m plicity of the o rga

n i z ati on o f th e s e a n im a ls ca n

o n ly b e d e m o n strat e d by the

micro sco pe u n d e r which the ,

F i g 1 20 — H ydra .
substa n ce o f th e ir bo dy ap
.
“

p ea rs t hrough o u t id e n tica l ;
it i s co mpo se d o f a ge l ati n ous -m as s e n cl o sin g fibril s an d ,

gl ob u l e s e x tre m e ly mi n ute No w iden tity o f str u ctu re w ould .

i m ply id e n tity o f fu n cti o n an d the ex p e rim en ts o f Tr e mbl ey ,

pro v e d the co rr e ctn e ss o f the in fe re n ce .

fig ur 1 20 s e e ra l ly s r es t d tt ach d t t r
I n e
p p e p r asv w o
e ar e en e a e o a
l t ls th c s st f gl l t t b 0 t f ts
i T f fila m
en i , a , e on i o a Si n e e a i n o us u e, en a one o i
ex t r mi ti s
e e f r i sh e d wi th
, an ts
u n d t t ac l by a c rc e o en ca e en u a,

sw
m e an s f wh i ch th y i tr d c i t th i r b di e s th f o d th y
o e n o u i eO e n o e o e o e u re
hi ch sp ri g
re . n
o f th s p p s b c rri e s o th s i d s f i t bo dy tw s m ll
fr m i t ly
e e o , ,
a n e e o s o a one n
o ,wi l l s
an b d t ch d I F i g 3 ( p 1 9 ) m y b s
oon e e ao e f th se
e . n . . a e een n o e
an i m l s m gni fi e d still m o re tha
a a t he b o e to h o w i t i n t e rna l co nf o r n a v ,
s s
m a ti o n .
 OR GAN I ZA TI ON OF AN I MAL S .

as w e asce n d i n the sca l e w e fi n d th at this

§ 3 48 But .
,

sim plicity of structure is co n fi n e d to a v e ry fe w sp e ci e s an d ,

th at the fun cti on s be c om e m o re an d m o re l o c aliz e d an d

spe ci al iz e d ; an d with this sp e ci aliz ati on m o r e an d m or e
, ,

v ar i e d an d pe rfe ct .

A first d e gre e i n this l o c aliz ati on o f physi ol o gi c al

ph e n o m e n a is fo un d i n the earth -w o rm ( l u m b r i cu s ter r es tr i s )
, ,

wh o s e b ody o ffe rs a s e ri e s o f s e gm en ts o f id en tic al p arts th at

is i n e ach s e gm e n t w e fi n d a p or ti on o f the a lim en t ary can al
, ,

n e r v o us syste m an d ci r c ul a ti on ;
, b u t th e s e s e gm en ts ar e
ide n tic al o r r ep e titi on s o f each oth e r pre s e n tin g n o speci a l
, ,

o rg an o n which life i n a p e c u li a r w a y d e pe n ds ; an d thus if ,

di v ide d i n to fi ve te n or tw e n ty s e gm e n ts each s e g m e n t will

, , ,

co n ti n u e to liv e an d be com e an i n d e p e n d e n t b ei n g .

Bu t for obvi o us r ea s o n s this can n ot b e don e with an

, ,

an im a l i n which th e o rgan s h a v e b e co m e so sp e ci al iz e d
th at on the in t e grity of s om e l o c aliz e d disti n ct s e gm e n t ,

n o t c om m o n to al l th e g e n e r al , vit a lity of the b e in g

d e pe n ds .

34 9 A l r e ady i n i n s e cts w e disti n guish a m o r e c on sid e r abl e

.

divisi on o f l abou r i n r e sp e ct o f th e o rgan s ; th e faculty of

pe rc e ivi n g ce rtai n s en s ation s an d of pr od u cin g v o lun t a ry
m o ti on s co m e s te b e con c en trat e d i n ce rtai n n e rv ou s gan gli on s
,

l odge d i n the h e ad ; this con cen trati on o f fu n cti on s goe s o n

i n cr e a si n g as w e a sc en d an d e m br ac e s n e arly th e wh o l e r an ge
,

o f th e an im a l e co n omy a sc e n di n g thr o u gh
, th e v a ri o u s
an i m als to m a n hi m s e lf No w it m u st b e o bvi ou s th at th e
.

d e stru cti on of on e o f th e s e sp e ci al i z e d o rg an s l ocat e d i n a ,

sin gle s e gm e n t o f the b ody an d all -i m po rtan t to life m u st

, ,

e n ta il th e d e str u cti on o f th e a n im a l .

3 50 Or g a n i c Tr a n sf or m a ti on s a n d Te n d e n cy to Un i
—
.

f or m i ty of C o mp os i ti o n Th e co mplic ati on i n stru ct u r e a s

w e a sc e n d i n th e sc a l e of b e i n g , t a k e s pl a ce i n s o m e i n st an c e s
by th e cre ati on of o rg an s co mpl e t e ly n e w , which ar e th u s
s u p e r add e d to th o s e a lr e ady e x isti n g i n the l o w e r an i m als ;
b u t m o r e fre q u e n tly the co m plic ati on is e ffe cte d i n an o th e r ,
an d , as it w o u ld s e e m , a m u ch m o r e e c on o mic , w ay Thus , .

i n a gre a t n umb e r o f i n st a n c e s , the l o c a liz ati on of the fun c

ti on s is det e r m i n e d by a simpl e m o dific ati o n i n the dispo siti on
o f p a rts alr e a dy e x isti n g i n the l o w e r a n i m a ls ,
—a m odificati on
by wh ich th e s e m ate ri als ar e ad apt e d to th e sp e ci al p u rpo s e or
u s e , an d n ot to a g e n e r a l on e I n th e M ol u cc a crabs ( Li m u l ae
.
,

Fig . th e limbs of the c eph a lic an d th o ra cic po rti on s o f the

1 82 ZOOLOGY .

body imm e di a te ly su rr o u n d the m outh an d a r e s o co n stru cted ,

a s to fo rm i n st r um e n ts o f l o co m o ti o n i n st r u m e n ts o f pr e ,

he n s i on by th e ir free e x tre miti e s a n d o f j a w s by th e i r b a se ;

,

but as m ight b e an ticipa t e d this v e ry c u m ul ati o n of fun c

, ,

ti on s r en d e rs th e m l e ss a ppro p ri at e for the advan tag eo u s

pe rfo rm an ce o f an y sp e ci al fu n cti o n B ut i n an im als o f the .

cl ass with faculti e s m o r e p e r fe ct th e s e d i fferen t fun c ,

1 21 .
—Li m l s * ( M ol c Cr b
u u . u ca a .
)
ti on s ar e n o lon ge r p e rfo rm e d by on e an d the s am e o rgan or
i n str u m e n t ; e a ch fi m cti o n b e l on gs to a di sti n ct o rgan an d ,

e t th e s e o rg an s a r e still th e s a m e li m bs o r m e mbe rs of
y ,

which s o m e a r e e x clusiv e ly d e sti n e d to m astica ti on o the rs to ,

pre h e n si on an d o th e rs to l o co m o ti on I n the craw -fis h ( ee re

, .

viss e ) or l o bste r for e x am pl e ( Fig

, , the limbs sur .

ro u n di n g the m outh ar e e x clusiv e ly a rran ge d fo r m a sticatio n ;

Th e a ni ma is l r p re s e
e s e e n fro m b e l o w —b th e m o u th p fee t
n te d as , , ,

w h o s e b a s e p e r fo rm s t h e o ffi c e o f j a ws a a bd omi n al a pp e n d a g e s c a rryi n g
,

b ran c h e s ; q ca u d al style t
, .
 OR G AN I ZA TI ON or AN I MAL S . 1 83

ano the r p ai r u n fi tte d for such a fu n cti on h e re be co m e the

, ,

spe ci al o rgan s o f pr e h e n sio n ; a thi rd s e ri e s o f m e m b e rs or

l i mbs 1 s d e vo te d to l o co m otion on ly an d of th es e s o m e ar e, ,

us e d on ly i n swi m min g o th e rs i n w alki n g on the firm

, .

grou n d .

This te n d e n cy on the p art o f n atur e to appr op ri ate the

s am e p art o f the an im a l e co n o my to di ffe re n t fun ction s ,

a cc o rdi n g to the w an ts o f th e an i m a l r a th e r th an to cr e at e ,

fo r e ach sp e ci e s p arts e n tir e ly n e w r e v eals its e lf a ls o wh e n

,

w e c om pa r e with each o th e r sp e ci e s d e st i n e d to l iv e di ffe r e n tly

,
.

A lr e a dy I n th e v e rt e br ata w e ha v e s ee n ho w ou t of th e s am e ,

e l e m e n ts n a t u r e c on str u cts a limb o r a r m an i n strum e n t of

, ,

pre hen sion o r on e o f m e re l o co m oti on an d s u ppo rt a fi n o r ,

wi n g 200 , S uch ad apt ati on s ar e n o l e ss c u ri ous i n

i n s e cts to which w e sh all re tur n ; w e l imit o ur s e lv e s h e re to
,

th e r e m a rk th a t an a to m ists giv e the n a m e of a n a l og ue s o r

, ,

a n a l o ou s p a rts to th e o rg a n s wh ich h ow e v e r v a ri e d m a
g , , y b e
th eir u s e s in th e e co n om y ar e yet obvi ou sly compo s e d o f the
,

s am e an ato m ic al e l em e n ts .

3 51 It is i n ge n e r a l by m e an s of such tr an sfo rm ati on s

.

th at n atu re v ari e s mo st the structu re o f an im al s She s ee ms .

to h a v e bee n d e sirous o f pr o ducin g the gr e at e st v a ri ety po s

sibl e with the s m all e st e l e m en t a ry m e an s e sse n ti al ly d i f
fe r e n t ; a n d to h a v e h ad r ecou rse to th e c re ati on o f p a rts
e n tir e ly n e w o n ly a fte r h a vi n g e x h a u st e d the c om bi n a ti o n s to
,

which arts alr e ad y e x istin g i n oth e r o rgan isms c ou ld l e n d

th e ms el ve s This disp o siti on is co n n ecte d with an oth e r te n
d e n ey —n am e ly th e te n d e n cy to u n if or m i ty of the or g a n i c
.

, ,

co mp os i ti o n It w ou ld b e absurd to a ss e rt th at al l b e i n gs
.

ar e fo r m e d u p on on e pl an a n d c on str u cte d ou t of th e s a m e
,

m ate ri als ; b u t if w e e x am i n e the str u ctur e o f on e of the

m o re c om pl e x o rg an isms w e sh all fi n d th at the l ow e r ar e
,

ch ar acte riz e d by a m o dific ati on o f th e l a rge r fea ture s of the

fo rm e r by an o missi on o f s om e p arts or by the e x iste n ce of
, ,

o rg an s of which th e fo rm e r h a v e b een d e priv e

d A fro g fo r .
,

ex a mpl e ,
di ff e rs gre atly fr o m m an an d ye t i n its ge n e ral
,

o utli n e m ay e as i ly b e tr ac e d the in dica ti on s of th e pl an

upon which m an has b e e n c on structe d Wh e n the e n tir e .

an im a l kin gd o m I s c on te m ) l at ed it be co m e s impossibl e to
e rc e i v e this un i ty o f pl an an do f organ iz ati on
,

p but b r e strict ,

i n g th e fi e ld of vie w it be co m e s e vid e n t th at n otwi t stan din g

, ,

the imm e n s e n u mb e r o f a n i m als al l h a v e b ee n c on s tr u ct e d

,

u pon a few p r i m i ti v e typ es No w it i s by the con sid erat i on

.
,
 1 84 zo o no e r .

of th e s e p rimitiv e type s t hat th e l ea di n g divi si on s of the

an im al ki n d o m ar e e sta bl ish ed .

3 52 i l u m w a s th e an ci en t ad age
a tu r a n o n
.
f a c t aa t ,

its tru th is e x e mplifi ed by the histo ry of the an im a l ki n gdom .

F i g 1 22. .
—Cra w-fi sh o r L o bst e r .
‘
1 23 .
—M asti c t ry A pp r tus
a o a a .

The ch an ge fro m on e fo rm o f o rgani z ati on to an oth e r is n e v er

sudd e n but on th e c on tra ry ta k e s pl ac e gr ad ually an d as it
, , , ,

w e re by sh ad e s of di ffe r en ce .

Fi g 1 22 Th e l o bste o r
. . r cr
e w -fi sh , s e e n fro m b e l o w a , a n t e n n ae o f t he—
r r c r
fi st p a i ; b , a n t e nn a o f the se o n d p a i ; c, th e e y e s ; d , t h e au di to y r
rc r r cc
t u b e le ; e , m an di bl e fe e t , e x te n a l ; f , th o a i fee t o f the fi st a i ; g , r p r
r c r
th o aci fe e t o f t he fifth p ai ; h , false a bd o mi n al fe e t i , a u d al fi n j , an u s c .

r c c
F i g 1 23 Th e s i x p ai s o f li m bs wh i h o m pose th e m a sti a to y a p a a t u s
. . c r p r
o f t h e l o bste or r cr
e w-fi s h ; a , m a n d i bl e s ; r
b , c, fi s t an d s eco n d p ai r s of
ja w s ; d , a,f , th e th e e p ai s ro f a u x irli a y ja w s or foo tr-m an di bl e s .
 OR G AN I Z A TI ON or AN I MAL S . 1 85

It w e re ea sy to giv e m an y ill ustra ti on s of this fact : two

dist i n ct pl an s o f o rgan izati on ar e obvi o us i n the liz ar d an d
-
'

the ca rp ; th e y di ffe r i n th e ge n e r al c on fo rm ati on o f th e b ody ,

th e ir ki n d of life th e ir m od e of respirati on an d cir c u l ati on ;

,

but the s al am an d e rs the ax ol otls ( Fig

, the l e pid o sir e n s
.

Fi g 1 24
. .
—Th e Ax o lo tl .

( Fig . an d s o m e oth e r an im als pr e s e n t us wi th m od e s

,

o f o r g an iz a ti o n i n te r m e di a te to th e s e two ty e s an d e st a blish
p ,

t r an siti o n s s o gr ad u a l fr o m on e to the oth e r a s to m ak e it ,

di fficu lt to d et e r m i n e wh e th e r the an im a l i n que sti on b e a

b atra chi an or a fish Th e s e tr an sition s fro m on e an im al to
.

F i g 1 25
. .
—Th e Le pi do si r en .

an o th e r ar e n ot limit e d to the c o m p a ri n g o f two disti n ct

a dult an i m a ls ; th ey m ay b e o bs e rv e d i n c o m p a r i n g the s a m e

a n i m a l at di ffe r e n t sta g e s o f i ts gro wth o r d e v e l o pm e n t .

Fro gs for ex ampl e presen t at bi rth n ea rly al l the characte

, ,
1 86 ZOO LOGY .

i i
r st cs o f a fish a cquiri n g on ly as th ey gro w up th o se of the
, , ,

re pt i l e ( Figs 1 2 6 to .

No w th e s e tr a n s i to r stat e s o f th e s a m e i n dividu al p re se n t
fre q u e n tly a r e m ar kab e re s e mbl an ce to the pe rm an e n t con di
tio n o f o th e r 8 e ci e s ; an d h e n c e it r e sul ts th at the s tudy of
th e s e z ool o gic a tr an siti o n s con d u cts us n ot o n ly to a kn ow
l e dge o f a s o rt o f p a ren t a ge o r r e l ati on shi p be tw een an i m als
with fo rm s o ft e n e x tre m e ly u n lik e but pr e s e n ts u s with a ,

h iI S O hi c i n te r e st o f a high e r o rd e r for it se e m s to giv e us

p O p ,

s om e id e a s o f th e co u rs e fo llo w ed by the Cre ato r o f al l thi n gs

i n th e fo rm ati on o f th e so v a ri e d pr oducts of the an im al
ki n d om .

3 53 this t en d e n cy to fill up all lin ks i n the

. O ut of

an im a l ki n gd o m th e r e a ris e s th e n o ti on of a s e ri e s o r ch a i n
,

of an im a l life e a ch fo rm g radu ati n g as it w e re i n to th a t

,

F i g 1 26
. . F i g 1 27
. .

Fi g 1 2 8
. .

F i g 1 2 6 t o 1 30 —
. . M t
e am o rph o s e s o f th e
prece di n g an d th at to fo ll o w Som e ti m e s h o w e v e r th e li n k
.
, ,

seem s br o k e n an d th e re is an i n te rr u pti on b e tw ee n tw o typ e s

, ,

as i f a p a rt o f th e ch ai n w e r e l o st or n ot fill e d i n Birds for .

,

ex a m pl e s ee m is ol a t e d ; b u t g e n e r al ly th e d e fici e n t l i n k o r
, , ,

hi a tu s m ay b e fou n d i n the fo ssil r e m ai n s with which th e

un —
gl o be bo ds re m a in s o f an im al s sp e cie s an d ge n e r a which
a , ,

h a v e n o w c e a s e d to e x ist .

S o m e n at u r a li sts h a v e th ought th at the s e ri e s o r li n e has

a lw ays b e e n o n e u n i n te rru pt e d s e ri e s i n the s a m e di rec
ti on fro m th e m o n ad u p to m an : th ey h a v e atte mpt e d to
,

e sta blish a z o ol o gic al sc a l e with th e s e vi e ws ; but thi s e ffo rt

h as fa il e d for th e s e ri e s of an im als is n ot si n gl e A n im als

, .

a ppe a r r ath e r to fo rm a gr e at n umbe r o f s e ri e s which s ee m ,

s om e tim e s to proc ee d i n p ara ll e l lin e s s o m e tim e s to div e rge an d ,

 O R GAN I Z ATI ON OF AN I MA L S . 1 87

ris e to diffe ren t e l e vati on s It is e v en i m po ssibl e to arra n ge

.

th em In a si n gl e lin e acc ordi n g to the r e lativ e d e gre e s of com

pli cati on an d of pe rfe cti on i n trod u ce d by n atur e in to th e i r
str u ct u re for th e s e p erf e cti on s h av e r e fe r e n ce s o m e tim e s to
,

on e o rg an s om e ti m e s to an o th e r ; an d a spe ci e s which in ,

r e sp e ct o f th e fun cti o n s o f n u triti on fo r e x a mpl e m ight b e ,

much sup e ri o r to an oth e r m ay ye t b e gre atly i n fe ri o r to th a t

,

sp e ci e s i n the o rg an s o f l o co m oti on A s w e asc en d it I S tru e .

, ,

i n the an i m a l sc al e fr om th e m on ad to m an w e r e m a rk n o
, , ,

do u bt a pro gre ssiv e c o m plicatio n ; an d it is ea sy to s e e th at the

,

m oll u sks ar e s u p e ri o r to the Z oo phyte s fish e s to the m o ll u sks , ,

r eptil e s to fish e s an d bir ds to r e ptil e s : a b o v e al l c o m e m am

,

m a ls . Bu t a cl o s e r o bs e rv ati on sh ows th at this gr a d ati on

e x ists on ly b e tw e e n th e a ni m als which m a b e c o n sid e r e d as
y
the typ e s o f e ach o f th e s e gr ou ps ; an d i t o ft e n h a pp e n s th at
c e rta i n sp e ci e s of an i n fe ri o r grou p po ss e ss a struct u r e an d
fac u lti e s m o r e p e rfe ct th an the l o w e st sp e ci e s of a grou p of ,

which the chi e f re pr e s e n t ativ e s p o ss e ss an o rg an i z ati on m uch

m o r e c om pl e x th an th a t of al l the fo r m e r Th u s th e r e ar e fish e s .
,

as c e rta i n l a m pr e ys fo r e x a m pl e which ar e i n m an y r e sp e cts

,

m u ch i n fe ri o r to m ollusks such as the s e pi a b ut th e s e i n

, ,

s om e m e asure ar e e x ce pti on s an d wh e n w e tr ace with a bo ld

o utli n e the gr an d pict u r e o f n atur e it is a ll o w a bl e to n e gl e ct,

th e s e as w e o v e rl oo k or n e gl e ct to obs e rv e the l e ss e r i n
,

e qu aliti e s o f the s oil wh e n w e d e sir e to p e rc e iv e at O n c e the

ge n e ra l co n figu rati o n o f a ch a i n of m o u n t ai n s M o r e s e ri ous .

o bsta cl e s a ris e to th e li n e a r a rr an g e m e n t o f an i m als fro m ,

th e div e rsity o f r o u t e s fo ll o w e d by n at u r e i n h e r a sc e n d in g
m arch an d fro m he r t e n d en cy to p e rfe ct gradu ally e ach of
,

the typ e s s h e h a s pro d u c e d Th u s i n s e cts can n e ith e r b e

.

pl ac e d be fo re n or afte r the m oll u sks with ou t vi o l ati n g s ome

o f the m o st e vi d e n t z oo l o gic a l r e l ati o n s an d i f w e r e a lly ,

d e sire to e xpre ss by a figu re the re l ati on ship of an i m als it ,

c an n ot b e to a sca l e or l add e r to which the an im a l ki n gd o m

is to b e c o m p are d but to a rive r which w e ak at its s o urc e
, , , ,

i n cre a s e s littl e by littl e as it approa ch e s the s e a r olli n g n ot ,

al l its w at e rs i n the s a m e b e d but di vidi n g o fte n i n to br an ch e s

,

m or e o r l e ss n u m e ro us which s o m e tim e s re un iti n g a ft e r a

, ,

l on ge r or sh o rte r cour s e s om etim e s r e m a i n i n g fro m th at

,

tim e fo rw a rd distin ct or which at oth e r tim e s ar e l o st i n the

,

s an ds an d di s appe ar for e v e r or surgin g up on c e m o re r e

, , ,

a pp e a r a t s o m e di st an c e to co n ti n u e th ei r r o u te to w ar ds the
,

comm on go al .
1 88 Z OOLO GY .

3 541 Na tu r a l Afi u i ti es a n d A n a l og i e s of S tr u c tu r e
. .

T is te n de n c Of n atu re to o bs e rv e on e gen e ra l pl an i n the

con s tructi on 0 he r w o rks , l e a ds to an oth e r so rt o f re l ati on ’

ship which n a tu ralists h av e c all e d n a tu r a l afi m ti es Th e se .

a ffi n iti e s ar e alw ays th e str on g e r th at th ey b e a r on o rg a n s o f

s e con d ary physi o l ogi ca l imp o rt an c e , an d n e ce ssit ate l e ss ch an ge

F i g 1 30 a
. .
—Th e H u m an V e rte b ra —th e Typ e o f all Sk e l e to n s .

i n the
gen e ral pl an of the o rgan iz a
ti on Thus it is obvi ou s th at th e
.

li on cat an d tige r hav e stron g n atu

, ,

r al affi ni ti e s ; b e tw e en the li o n an d

the dog th e r e stil l e xist n a tur a l ath

n i ti e s th ough o b v i o u s l l e s s m ar k e d
, y
but b e tw ee n the li on an d the sh ar k
th ey ar e ex tre m e ly fee ble e x c eptin g ,

i n s o far as th ey b oth b e l on g to the

v e rt e br at a ; fi n ally be tw e e n a fish ,

an d an oyste r th e r e a r e n on e i n as ,

m u ch as th e s e tw o be i n gs ar e fo rm ed
on pl a n s e ss e n ti ally disti n ct .

3 55 B etw ee n n a tu r a l afi f ni t
.
y
an d a n a l ogy th e r e i s this e ss e n ti a l

u i ti e s a r e b as e d
disti n cti on a
fi ,

on the id e n tity m o r e o r l e ss co m ,

Fi 1 30 b —Th Id l V e rt e
e
p l e te eao f t h e type ; a n a l og i e s o n a
g
.
.
, ,

g: Efizfil g fgzggg
‘ b s
r e s e mbl an c e i n th e d e t a ils Th us
’

o t l l S t r c t ure s
a u t he
.
b at ( Fig a m a m m al .
,

pte r od actyl e a r e ti l e an d the

fish h a v e n o z o ol o gic ap afii n i ty pr o
, ,

d actyl opte r a a , ,

pe rly s o call ed e xc e ptin g th at th e y ar e v ei t e b rate an im al s ;

,
 OR GAN I ZA TI ON or AN I MAL S . 1 89

but th e y h av e r e m ark abl e a n a l og i es be in g al l o rgan iz e d ,

for flight by h a vi n g e xp an si on s of the in te gum en ts e x

,
,

te n ded o n fin ge rs prol on e d for this pu rpo s e I n d eed i n g .

,

con t e mpl ati n g an d com par m g with each oth e r diffe re n t zoo l o
’
g i cal gr o u ps it w ou ld s ee m ,
as if n a t ur e s t e n d en cy was

to c a us e each type to p a ss thro u g h a s e ri e s of an al o go us

m odi fica ti on s Thus a m on at i n s e cts spide rs a n d cru sta ce a
pl n o f th e o rgan iz ati o n m odi fi e d
.
, ,

w e o bs e rv e the ge n e r a l p
i n the s am e w ay accor d i n g a s the an im al is i n t en d ed to liv e
,

n s ol i d foo d o r as a ar as i te by sucki n g the j uic e s o f an o th e r

fim g o
p ,

e
—
.

3 56 Or g a n i c H a r mo n i e a
. I n the midst of the in n u
m e r ab l e v a ri e ty i n fo rm a n d str u cture which th e an im al w o rld
pr e s e n ts , m ay b e obs e r v e d a c e rta in ge n e ral h ar m on y w hi ch
s ee m s to r e g u l a te al l the p art s o f this v as t cre ati o n an d this
pri n cipl e o f cc-o rdi n ation is al l the m or e r e m ark a bl e if we
r e st rict o u r o bs e rv ati o n to th e e n t i r e o f the structur e s co m

po si n g a si n gl e an i m al B e tw e e n e v e r y pa rt th e r e r e ign s the
.

st rict e st m u tu al d e pe n d en ce , so as to fo rbid all ide a of ch an ce

i n its c on stru cti on ; a l l ar e i n the stri cte st a cco rd S o m e of .

th e s e h arm on i e s ar e so o bvi o us an d st riki n g th at the n atu

r al i st m a , fr o m th e obs e rv ati on o f a si n gl e o rgan —a too th
y
for ex ampl e , d e d u c e n e a rly th e wh o l e n atu ra l hist o ry o f the
an i m al Fr o m the subj o i n e d fi g ur e ( F 1 0 1 3 1 )
.

m ay r e adily b e i nf e rr e d th at th e an i m a l h ad
a. ske l e to n a c e re bro spin a l axis n e rv e s
,
-
, ,

&c ; i n sh ort th at it w a s a hot-bl oo de d

.
,

m am m al an d th at it liv ed on fle sh
, In .

fa ct fro m this si n gl e o rgan m ay b e ded u ce d

,

n e a rly th e wh ol e struct u r e of this ca rn i

v o r ou s m a m m a l a p r i o r i o r with o ut h a v
, ,

i n g e v e r s e e n it P r oce e di n g o n th e s e
.

pri n cipl e s o f o rgan ic h a rm on i e s the tru e ,

F
iii bi big rgzti gi
i
i r l a
n ature o f th e fo ssil o rg an ic w o rld w a s first
i

' '
v i
di sco v e red by Cu vi e r ; b e it wa s who fir st th e L i o n.

a ppli e d th e s e l a ws to fo ssils an d by th e s e ,

m e an s e ffe ct e d the r e sto rati o n o f an o rgan ic w o rld l on g si n ce

e xti n ct .

3 57 I n s tudyi n g this l a w o f o rgan ic h a rm on y w e

.
,

s oon disc ov e r a n o th e r tl ze s u b o r d zn a ti o n of cka r a cter s I t

, .

be c om e s e vid e n t th at a l l p arts o f the a n i m a l e con o m y h a v e

n o t the s a m e impo rta n c e th at ce r tai n ci g an s m ay u n d e rgo
,
1 90 ZOOLOGY .

i m portan t m odific ation s w ith o ut a ffe cti ng oth e rs whi lst the re ,

a r e o th e rs which wh e n m od ifi e d stro n gly affe ct th e ch a ra cte r

, ,

o f the r e st T h e se m ay b e ca ll e d d om i n a ti n g o rg an s By
. . .

th es e o rga n s th e an ato m ist an d m s o m e m e asur e the n atu ral ist

, ,

must b e r egul ate d i n his d e te rm in ati on s By the fi xi ty o r .

m o bility o f an o rgan he de te rmi n e s its i mpo rtan ce In the

e con om y .

3 58 Th e re ar e oth e r pri n cipl e s r e gul ati n g the gre at

.

w or o f cre ation o n w h ich w an t o f sp ac e fo rbids u s to dw e ll

, .

The te n de n cy for e xa mpl e to r ep e ti ti on which l e ads to th e

, , ,

for m ati on of ho m o l og ou s p arts ; the pri n cipl e o f con n ex i on of

or g a n s r e gul a tin g t he pla ce occupi e d by e ach a t e n d e n cy to ,

an o rg ani c ba la n c e m en t e q u ipo is e o r co mp en s a ti on wh e n the

, , ,

de ve l opm e n t o f an o rga n acts as it w e re i nj u ri o usly upo n

o th e rs ,
as if the a m oun t o f vita l fo rc e w e r e r e strict e d a n d

li mite d Al l th e s e subj e cts m e rit con sid e ra ti on but sp a c e is

.
,

w an ti n g to do th e m j u stic e Su ffi ci en t has be en s ai d to sh o w
.

that n at u re proceeds alw ays by rul e a n d m e asure ; an d th at

the ani m al ki n gd o m so fa r fr o m be i n g a c on fu s e d ass e mbla g e
,

of i ll -a s s o rte d b e i n gs u n fo lds its e lf to th e e y e s o f the o bs e r v e r

,

as a v as t pict ur e wh e r e all h ar m o n i z e s an d is link e d to g e th e r ;

,

fi n ally th at the z oo l o gic a l l aws ar e a s si m pl e as th ey ar e

,

e n e r al fi“
g
ZOOLOG I CAL CLA S S I F I CA TI ON S .

3 59 Obj e ct a nd N a tu r e of Z o o l og i ca l Cl a ss ifi ca ti o n s
—M
. .

t r lly gr o ups th e v a ri ous o bj e cts a r o un d him an d

an n a u a ,

he giv e s to th e s e groups a di ff e ren t n a m e This t en d e n cy to .

cl assifica ti on 1 s on e of the m o st r e m a rk abl e of o u r fa cul ti es ,

an d p o w e rful l y a ids I n fa cilit atin g th e o p e r a ti o n s of the mi n d ;

by its m e an s we ris e from the i n divid ua l to th e ge n e ral an d th u s ,

fo rm ge n e raliz ati on s an d a bstract id e as It I s s ee n i n i n fan cy .

,

fo r the child g i v e s i n sti n ctiv e ly the s a m e n am e to a l l m e n

th at he gi v e s to his p ar e n t ye t he d oe s n ot c o n fo u n d the i n di
,

v i d u al s ; a n d i n a w o rd it m ay b e s a id th a t this te n d e n cy to

cl assify e x te n
, ,

ds throu gh out the wh o l e r an ge of o ur in te l

l e ctua li ty .

This c ssity to r e u n it e i n o ur mi n ds sim i l a r o bj e cts an d

ne e ,

to giv e to e a ch o f th e grou ps th u s fo r m e d an id e al r e pr o
s e n ta ti v e is i n fact th e ba sis of al l cl assifi c ati on a n d its
, ,

Se e on ith s s b c t
u je a wo rk I h
ave p u ibl sh d u n d r t h t i tl e f I
e ,
e e o n t r o d uc

ti o n a l a Z
ool o i e G
g n é ér
a l e , or , C sd r t
o n i e a i o ns o n th T d ci e s f e en en o N a t u re
C st t t
i n th e o n i u i o n o f th e ni m aA inl K gd
om .
 Z OO L O G I A CL C L As s I F I CA r I O N s . 1 91

c ssity is i n
ne e dir ect r ati o of the n umbe r of obj e ct s
th e
o bs e rv e d
. An a bstr act typ e must re pr es en t e v e ry gr ou p .

Thus w e spe ak of m an i n g e n e r al th e h or s e th e o ak m e an
'

, , ,

i n g n o m an i n p arti cu l ar n o h o rs e n o oak ; an d to thi s

, ,

id eal r epr e s en ta tiv e w e giv e the na m e of m a n hor se oa k

G , .
,

B u t w e d o n ot sto p h e r e e n e r ali zi n g still high e r w e r e

.
,

pr e s en t by th e w o rd b i r d a v ast grou p of livin g b e i n gs ; a n d

the te rms an i m al o r pl an t e mb r a c e a still high e r r an ge o f
ge n e raliz ati on a n d thus fro m the r em ote st an tiqu ity m en
, ,

h ave divi de d al l n atur a l bodi e s i n to thr ee ki n gdo ms n am e ly , ,

m i n e rals v e geta bl e s an d an im als ; h a v e sp ok e n i n a ge n e r a l

, ,

w ay o f fish e s r e ptil e s & c ; an d h av e giv e n to ea ch spe ci e s a

, , .

r O e r n am e
p p .

3 60 A s sci e n ce gr e w i n its di m en si on s , th e l an gu ag e of
.

n atur a lists o f n e c e ssity b e c a m e m o r e pr e cis e ; for with o ut a

p re cise de fini ti on th e r e c o u ld b e n o sci e n c e To write the .

n a tur a l histo ry of an i m al s , it b e c a m e n e c e ss a ry n o t o n ly to

fo rm a great c ata l ogu e , in whi ch e ach be i n g sho uld b e d e sign at e d

by its pro pe r n am e , b u t also to i n di ca te for e ach o f th e m th e
ch aract e rs by w hi ch th ey co u ld b e re co gn is ed an d disti n gui sh e d
from al l oth e rs No w it w as ev iden t th at , fr om the c on for m a
.

ti on al on e o f th e s e be in g s co ul d s u ch ch a ract er s b e dr awn ,

th o s e al on e be i n g c on stan t Bu t th e r e is n o an i m a l which
.

ca n b e r e c o gn i s e d by a si n gl e ch a r a cte r , b u t by a r e u n i o n

o f s e v e r al —a r e u n i o n n ot to b e fo u n d i n a n y o th e r But the .

n um be r of an im als b e i n g imm e n s e , th e d e fi n i t i on s o o n d e

ge n e rate d in to a de sc ripti on o f the an i m als , to which n o

m e m o ry w as e qu al ; a n d if w e po ss e ss n ot th e m e an s of
a rr ivi n g at this e n d by an e a si e r r o u t e , th e st u dy o f n atur al

histo ry w ou ld for e v e r r e m ai n i n its i n fan cy By e stablishi n g .

a m o n g an i m als d ivisi on s an d succe ssiv e subdiv i s i on s , whi ch

th e mse lv e s ar e n am e d an d ch ar acte riz e d , a gr e at p art of thi s

di fficult is ov e rco m e With the as sistan c e of a s m all n um
h
.

b er o f c a racte rs an d n am e s w e s o circ u m sc r ibe the fi e ld o f

,

co m p a ris on , th at to disti n guish th e obj e ct b e fo re u s w e h a v e

o n ly to o bs e rv e its di ffe r e n c e s fr o m th o s e m o st a ll i e d to it .

A n d this i n fa ct , is wh a t n atu r alists h a v e d on e

, Th ey .

h av e divid e d the an im a l ki n gdo m i n t o a c e rtai n n u m be r o f

gro ups o f the first de gr e e , e ach ch ar acte riz e d by c e rtai n pecu
l i a r i t i e s o f struct ur e Th e y n e x t divid e e a ch of th e se gro ups ;
a n d ch ar act e riz e the s e c o n d ar y gr o u ps th u s fo r m e d i n th e

s am e m an n e r . Th e s e s e con d a ry groups ar e i n th e ir t u rn
di vided , an d the s e cti on s multipli e d as r e q u i r e d , u n til at l a st
 1 92 ZOOLOGY .

no thi n g is l e ft i n the s am e grou p but the differ e n t in di vidua ls

o f the s a m e sp e ci es .

C l assific atio n the n is a s o rt o f ca ta l og ue r a i s on né i n

, , ,

which al l be i n gs ar e a rr an ge d a cco rdin g to a ce rta i n o rd er ,

a n d r e u n it e d in to gr ou ps r ec o gn is abl e by de te r mi n ate cha

,

r acte r s which i n th e ir t u r n ar e r e u n ite d i n to o th er gro ups o f

,

a sti l l m o r e e l e v a te d pl a c e .

3 6 1 The pr actic a l u tility o f such cl assifica ti on s is ea sily

.

s ee n by comp arin g it with the addre ss of a l e tte r So it i s .

with the n atura list w ho by his zoo l o gi ca l cl as sifi cation s

, , ,

a rriv e s spee dily to the gr ou ps to which th e an i m a l b e l on gs .

If for e x ampl e he w as d e sirous to de fin e a ha r e with out

, , ,

r e s o rtin g to s u ch m e an s he w o uld b e fo r ce d to co m p a re his

d e scription to th at o f m o re th an on e h un dred tho usa n d dif

fe r e n t an i m a ls But if he s ays th at th e h a re i s a v er te b r a te
.

an im a l o f th e cl a ss m a m m a l s of th e o rd e r r o d en ts o f th e
, ,

g e n us l ep u s b y the first he e x clude s al l i n v er te br ate s fr o m

,
-

his co m paris on ; by th e s e co n d h e e x cludes al l r e ptil es fish e s , , ,

a n d bir d s ; by the thir d h e disti n gu i sh es th e h are fro m n i n e

,

t en ths of th e s e m amm als ; an d h avi n g thus a rriv e d at the

n us to which it b e l on gs a v e ry fe w di stin guishi n g cha
g e ,

r acte r s i n a dditi on w i l l e n a bl e him to ch a r acte ri z e the spe ci e s

fo r ce r ta i n ty
3 6 2 A r tifi ci a l a n d Na tu r a l Cl a s s ifi ca ti on s —Zoo l o
.

. .

gic a cl assificati on s ar e o f two kin ds a r t ifi ci a l an d n a tu r a l , .

I n the artifici al cl a ss i ficati on of an im a ls the d ivisi o n s ,

ar e b as e d o n m odi fic ati on s wh ich c e rta in p ar ts o f the

bo di e s pr e s en t an d which ar e ch o s en a rbitr aril y ; i n the
,

n atur a l cl assifica ti o n on the c o n tra ry , th e wh o l e o f the or ,

an i z ati on o f e ach be in g i s ta k e n i n to c o n sid e r a ti on an d th e n

g ,

a rr an g e d a cco rdi n gly .

a rtifici a l syste m i s g e n er a lly o f ea sy a li

§ 3 6 3 A n
p
h
.

c atio n but it o fte n giv e s us n o impo rt an t i n fo r m ati on ut

,

the n a m e o f the o bj e ct S u ppo s e w e tak e th e n umbe r

.

o f th e limbs as a b a s e fo r cl a ssific ati on w e sh ould pl a ce i n ,

the divisi o n q u ad rup eds th e ox the fro g the li za rd &c , , , , .

,

th u s vi o l e n tly s e p a rati n g an i m als fro m th e ir n atur al a fii n i ti e s ,

an d gro u pi n g to ge th e r th o s e which h a v e n o n e .

36 4 B y the n a tu r a l m e tho d th e di vision s an d s u bd i

,
,

visio n s o f th e a n i m al ki n gd o m ar e fo un d e d o n the wh o l e of
the ch ar a cte rs fu rn ish e d by e a ch an im al ar ran g e d ac co rdi n g ,

to th e ir d e gre e o f r e spe cti v e i m po rta n c e ; thus i n kn o win g ,

the pl ace which th e a n im al o cc u pi e s we als o k n o w the re ,

 ZOOLO GI CAL CLA SS I F I CA TI ON S . 1 93

m ar k abl e trai ts of its o rgan iz ati on an d the m an n e r i n which

,

its prin cipal fu n cti on s ar e e x e rcis e d .

3 6 5 The rul e s to b e obs e rv e d i n a rr ivi n g at a n atur al

.

cl assifica ti on of the an im al ki n gdom ar e of e x tr em e simplicity ,

but ofte n the r e is much difficu lty i n the applic ati on Th ey .

m ay b e r ed u ce d to two for the o bj ect o f the z oo l o gist i n

, ,

e st a blishin g such a cl a ssifi c ati on is ,

l s t To a rran ge an im a ls i n to n atur a l s e ri e s a cco rdi n g to

the d e gr e e of r e sp e ctiv e affi n i ti es —th at is to say to dist ribute
.
,

, ,

th e m i n s u ch a m an n e r th at the dist an ce fro m or pr ox i ,

mity to a spe ci e s is the m ea sur e of the r e s e mbl an ce o r

, ,

di ss e mbl an c e .

2n d To divid e an d subdivi d e this s e ri e s a cco rdin g to the

p ri n cipl e of s u b o rdi n ati on o f ch ar acte r s —
.
,

th at is to s ay by , ,

r e as on of th e impo rt an ce o f th e d iff e r en ce s which th e s e

an im als pr e s e n t b e tw e e n th e m .

3 6 6 To b e s atisfie d for e x am pl e o f the affin ity which

.
, ,

e x ists be tw ee n th e cat an d the tige r it is n ot n e c e ss ary to,

study the an at om y of th e s e an im als for th e ex te rn al fo rms ,

‘

tran s l ate as it w e re the ch a ract e r of the i n te r n al Bu t i n a

, , .

great n umbe r of i n st an ce s the e x am in ati on of the i n te rn al

F i g l 34 . .
—Cy010p s .

1 96 .
—Larvae o f th e C ycl o p s .

struct ure be co m e s n e c ess a ry i n o rd er to a v oid imp o rtan t

,

e rr o rs Thus for a l on g tim e the r e l ati on s which e xist

.
, ,

be tw e en the l er n e aa para sitica l an i m als with st ran g e forms

,

0
1 94 ZOOLO G Y .

( Fig . 1 32 ) which liv

, e on fi s h e s an d th e sm a ll e r c r ust
,
acea of fr e sh

w a te rs kn o wn to z oo lo gi sts by the n am e of cycl ope s ( Fig

,
.

w e r e n ot u n d er stood ; be caus e i n th e ir adult state th e s e tw o

a im al s d o n ot re s e m bl e e ach o th e r
n — but sin ce n at u ralists hav e
,

studi e d th e ir d e v e l opm en t th ey h a v e be co m e con vin ce d of th eir

r e l ati o n ship for wh en o un th ey d i ffe r so littl e fro m each oth er
,

th at it w ou ld he ofte n i fii cu t to disti n guish th em ( Figs 1 3 3 an d .

Fi n al ] to ful fi l the first of the two con diti on s po in te d

o u t a bo v e it , b
e co m e s n e c e ss a ry to ov e rc o m e o th e r di fficulti es

d e pe n di n g on the m u ltipl icity of the r el ati on s of e ach an im a l

with th o s e s u rrou n din g it an d of the div e rsity o f the tr an siti on s
,

by which n atu r e pa ss e s from on e type to an oth e r By r e as on of .

th e s e circumst an ce s it i s al so imp o ssibl e to arran ge an im als i n

,

a si n gl e l in e ar s e ri e s with o ut vi ol ati n g at e v e ry i n sta n t th e ir

,

r e sp e ctiv e affin iti e s an d we ar e oblig e d to disp e rs e th e m in to

,

s e ve r al p ar all e l li n e s or li n e s bran chi n g ou t from e ach oth er

,
.

3 6 7 Th e s e c on d co n diti on i n the e sta bl ishm en t of a

n at u r al cl a ssifi ca ti o n is an e x act r e la ti on b etw een the suc
,

ce s s i v e divisi on s o f th e an im a l ki n gd o m an d the impo rtan ce ,

o f th e m o difica ti on o f stru ctu r e s e rvi n g as the b asis to th es e

s e cti on s .

The ch ar acte rs which distin gu ish an im als fro m e ach o th er

ar e far fr o m havin g th e s am e v al u e : s om e ar e of s e e mi n gly

li ttl e or n o fi i ysi ol og i cal impo rt an ce see i n g th at th e ir v ari a ,

ti on s do not dra w afte r th e m di ffe re n ce s i n the r e st of th e ir

e c on om y ; oth e rs n e v e r v ary wi th ou t co i n cidi n g with pr o
foun d modifica ti o n s i n the wh ol e of th e ir organ iza ti on ; h e n ce
th ey ar e ca ll ed dom i n at i n g si n ce th ey s e e m i n s om e m eas ure
,

to r e gul ate th e s e m odifica ti on s It is e vid e n t th e n th at divi .

, ,

si on s of an i n fe ri or r an k can al on e b e b as e d on subo rdi n ate

ch aracte rs whil e th o s e o f a high e r ran k ought to b e foun ded
,

o n th o s e ca ll e d d o m i n a ti n g To arriv e th e n at a n atur al
.
, ,

cl ass i ficati on of an im als it is abo v e al l n e cess ary to kn o w the

,

structur e fu n ction s an d m od e o f d e v e l o p m e n t of th e s e be i n gs ;
, ,

n e xt to i n qui r e i n to the d o mi n ati n g ch a ra cte rs o f the o rgan i

,

zati on o f e a ch This w e a r riv e at s om e ti m e s by physi ol o gical

.

co n sid e ra tion s at oth e r ti m es by an ato my on ly F i xi ty is a n

, .

i n de x of an o rgan ic d o mi n ati on whilst the ch a r acte rs whi ch ,

v ar fro m on e s m all gro u p to a n o th e r ar e ge n e rally b u t of ,

litt e i n te re st The n a ture an d the d e g r ee o f d e v el o pm en t of

.

th e fac u lti e s o f which t he o r a n thus m od ifi ed is the in s tru

m en t e n a bl e s u s als o to j u gge to a ce rtai n poi n t o f the
,

, , ,

z oo l o gica l v alue o f a m odific a ti o n o f str u ct u re But i n oth e r .

 ZOOLO GI CAL C LA sS I F I CA r I O N s
'
. 1 95

c as e s the d e t e rmi n ati on of d omi n atin g ch ar acte r s pre sen ts

,

co n side ra ble di ffi cu lti e s an d an al ogy is n ot alw ays a s afe

,

guid e for th e i m po rtan ce of an o rga n m ay v ary co n side r ably

,

i n p assi n g fro m on e a n im al to an o th e r an d a p a rt whic h ,

do mi n ate s i n s o m e s ort the wh ol e e con o my i n s om e sp e c i e s ,

m ay i n o th e rs b e fo u n d fa ll en fro m i ts r an k an d r e duc ed ,

to p l a y a s e c o n d a ry p art .

3 6 8 Zool o gists ar e far fr o m k n owin g th e an ato my an d

.

physi ol ogy o f al l an im als ; n e ith er ar e th ey agr eed on the

r e l ative impo rtan ce of a great n u mb e r o f m o dific ation s of
structure which an im als pre s e n t It is e vid en t th en th at i n
.
, ,

the e x isti n g sta te o f sci en ce th e r e ca n b e n o n atur al cl as si fi ca

ti on ; h en ce als o the v ar i e ty of m eth ods adopte d by di ff e ren t
au th ors a n d the m odific a ti on s th e s e m e th o ds d a ily u n d e rg o
, .

But this m ode o f cla ssifi cati on m u st o f n e ce ssity beco m e m o re

p e rfe ct a s ou r kn owl e dge e x te n ds an d its i n stabili ty far , ,

from be i n g a d e fe ct is the n e ce ss a ry c on s e qu e n c e o f its

,

pe rfe ctibili ty .

3 6 9 The i n tro ducti on of n a tur a l m eth o ds o f cl assi fi ca

.

ti o n of livin g b e i n gs is on e of the gr e ate st s e rvic e s r en de re d

,

to n at u r a l hist o ry ; it h as ch an g e d t he a sp e ct o f the sci en c e ,

an d giv e n a po w e rfu l i n te r e st to th at p a rt of b ot an y an d
z ool ogy which h e re t ofo re w a s the m o st ar id .

The distin g u ish e d m en to wh o m w e o we this i n n o v ati on

b e g an with pl an ts which b e fore th e ir ti m e w e r e a rran ge d
,

a rbitr a rily by th e n u mb e r o f th e ir st am e n s an d pistils or ,

afte r s o m e o th e r ch a r a cte r ch o s e n with o ut r e g a rd to th e ir

an al ogi e s T ow ards the middl e o f the l a s t a e a Fren ch
.
g
,

bot an ist Be rn ard d e J us s i e u c on ce iv e d the h appy id e a of

, ,

d i stribu tin g th e m i n gr o ups acco rdi n g to the wh ol e of th e ir

o rg an iza ti on ; an d his n e ph e w A n to in e -Lau r e n t d e J u ssi e u
, ,

appli ed this id e a to th e e n tire of the v e g e t abl e ki n gdom an d ,

a ss u mi n g as a b asis o f his cl a ssific ati on th e cons id e r ati on o f

the d om in atin g ch a ra cte rs (s e e cre a te d the n atur a l

m e thod at pre s e n t ad opte d by al l n at u r alists .

§ 3 7 0 M ode o.
f D i v i s i on f
o the A n i m a l K i n d om
g .

The an im al ki n gdo m is co m p os e d on ly of in dividu als ; but

’

a m on g th e s e th e r e i s a c e rta i n n u mb e r which h a v e a n

e xtr e m e r e s e mbl an ce to ea ch o th e r an d which ar e r epr od u ce d

,

with the s am e e ss en ti al ch aracte rs ; th e s e r e un i on s o f i n di

v i d ua l s fo rm e d afte r the s a m e typ e con stitut e wh a t n atur a lists
,

ca ll sp e ci e s Thus m an d ogs h o rs e s form for the z oo l o gist

.
, , ,

s o m an y distin ct s e ci e s
p .
1 96 ZOOLO G Y .

'
Som e tim e s the spe ci e s di fi e r s c on side rably fi om all oth e r s ;
but i n ge n e ra l th e re e x ists a n u mbe r m ore or l e ss cons id er abl e
which str on g] r es e mbl e e ach other an d which ar e on ly ,
'

di sti n guish e d y di ffe re n ce s o f littl e impo rta n ce ; s u ch a s the

h o rse an d the as s the d og an d the w olf F or n atu ral
,
.

cl a ssificati on s th e se cl o s ely al li e d sp e ci e s ar e re u ni te d in to
,

gro ups c a ll e d g e n er a an d to th e ir spe cific n am e a gen e ric

,

n am e is a ls o ad d e d co mm on to th e m al l ; thus w e s ay th e
,

ey l iz a rd the spo tte d li z ard the o ce ll at e d & c to d e sign ate

gifi e r en t spe c i e s of the gen us lizar d an d bro wn bear white

, , , .
,
‘

, ,

be ar &c for the di ffe ren t an i m als of the ge n u s be ar

G
.
, .
,

e n e ra w hich r e se mbl e each oth e r ar e gro upe d to ge th e r by

the n am e o f tr i b e or n a tu r a l f a m i l y
, .

If w e afte rw ar ds con side r the st ructure of an im als 111 a

m ore ge n e ral w ay we can n ot fail to reco gn ise i n s e v er al
,

fa mil i e s the sa m e domin ati n g ch aracte rs thus givin g to th em

Ii i
, ,

i n spite o f th ei r di ffe r en ce s a c e rta in co mm on ch ar a cte r , .

this w ay the n aturalist fo rm s divisi on s o f a m o re e l e v at ed

r an k which he ca lls or d er s an d re u n ite s i n tu rn th e se
, ,

o rd e rs in to groups still m o re n um er ou s cal l e d cl asses

g
.
,

But the cla ss e s th e ms e lv e s admit of be i n divided by the

s am e pr i n cipl es in to em br a n chem en ts o r prim ary divisi ons of ,

the an im al kin gd om .

3 7 1 Thus the an im al kin gdom i s di vide d in to p ri m ary

divi si on s th e se divisi on s i n to cl a s se s the cl as s e s in to o rd er s
, , ,

the or d e rs i n to fam 1 11 e s th e fa mil i e s i n to ge n er a an d th e gen e ra

, ,

in to sp eci e s ; s om etim es w e ar e e v en oblige d to multiply the s e

s ecti on s but the p r in cipl es ar e alw ays the s am e ; the di ffe r
,

en ce s which e x ist b awee n two cl as s e s ought to b e m o re

impo rtan t th an th ose e xistin g be tw een two famil i e s as the ,

ch aracte rs of famili e s ou ght to h av e a gr ea te r v al ue th an the

ch aracte rs o f the g e n e ra o u t of which th e s e famili e s ar e co m ~
po s ed Thus it is th e m o r e impo rta n t di ffe ren c e s whi ch
.

s e r v e for the e sta bli s hme n t of the p rim ar y divi si on th o se o f ,

l e ss i mpo rtan c e which c on stit u te the basis for th e subdi vision

of th es e i n to cl as s e s an d s o o n un til w e ar riv e at spe ci e s o r
, ,

gro u ps for m ed as we h a v e al re ad sa id b the as se mbl age of

al l the i n di vi d i ial s cl o s e ly r ese m b h
, ,

n
g ea c o th e r an d which
,

h ,

m ay un i te to pe r pe tu ate th e ir r ace .

It is e v iden t the n in o rd e r to c l a ss any an i m a l i n the p ri

,

m ary divisi on the cl ass o rd e r fam ily ge n u s an d spe ci e s to

, , , , ,

which it be l on gs must fir st be d e te rmi n ed an d th at by this ,

d e te rmi n ati on al on e we o bta i n pre ci s e id eas re s pe ct i n g all

 PR I MARY D I V I S I ON S AN D CLA S SE S . 1 97

which its o rgan iz ati on offe rs Of m o st impo rtan ce sin ce it is ,

i n fact th e s e v e ry p e cu li ariti e s which s e rv e to ch ar acte riz e

th e s e s u cce ssiv e divisi on s Now w e re p e at the fu n cti on s an d
.
, ,

m an n e rs of an an im al ar e alw ays d e pe n de n t on the m od e of

con fo r m ati on of its o rgan s or at l ea st i n h ar m on y wi t h its
,

str uctur e an d th at con s e qu e n tly w e m ay d e du ce fr om thi s

,

k n owl e dge al l th e m o st imp o rta n t p oi n ts i n the histo ry o f th e

sp e ci e s s u bmitte d to our in v e stigati on s .

Su ch ar e the b a s e s on which r e st the z oo l ogical cl as sifi

ca ti on s c all e d n atur al Le t us n o w s e e wh at h av e b een the
.

r e sults of th e a ppli cati on o f th e s e pri n cipl e s to th e m e th odica l

di stribu ti on o f a n im als an d l et us study the pri n cip al gr oups

,

fo rm e d by th e s e be i n gs .

R A S RS OF D I V I S I ON O F TH E AN I MAL K I N G DOM I N T O
TH E
PR I MARY D I V I S I ON S ( R M R R A N C H R M E NTS ) A ND CLA S S E S .

3 7 2 P r i m a r y D i v i si on s —F o ur g en e r a l pl an s of s tru c
. .

ture m o di fie d i n a th ous an d w ays s e e m to h av e s e rv e d as

, ,

u ide s fo r the cr e ati on o f the an i m al kin gdo m Th e s e fou r

g .

p ri n cipal fo rms m ay b e u n d e rsto o d by a re fe r en c e to fo ur

w el l -k n own an im al s —the d og th e cr aw -fi sh or l obste r the
, ,

s nai l the ast eri a or s ea -st ar ( Fig

, .

I n o rde r th at th e z oo l ogic al cl a ssifica ti on b e a fa ithfu l

r e pr e s en ta ti on of the m o r e o r l e ss i m po rt an t m o d ific ati on s

i n trod u ce d in to th e structu re of an im als it wa s n e ce ss a ry to ,

di strib u te th e s e be i n gs i n to fo ur pr i n cip a l grou ps or divisi on s ;

an d this i s i n fa ct wh at Cu vi e r did
, , .

The an i m a l kin gdo m is di vided in to v er te b r a te an i m a l s ,

ar ti cu l a te d o r a n n u l a te d a n i m a l s , mo l l us cs , an d z o op hy te s .

37 3 . Th e
fun da m en ta l diffe r en ce s distin gu ishin g th e s e
four p rim ary divisi on s de p e n d chi e fl o n the m od e of ar ran ge

o f th e n e rv o us syste m It is e as to u n de rstan d the im

T
m en t of the d iffe re n t p arts o f the b ody an d on th e co n forma ti on

po rtan ce of th e s e tw o d om i n an t cy
.

aracte r s : to fe e l an d to

m ov e i s th e e spe ci a l ch a racte r of an i m al life an d th e s e two ,

fun ct i on s be l on g to th e n e rv ou s syst e m It might r eadily .

,

th e n b e an ti ci pafed th at the m ode of con form ati on o f thi s

,

syste m w ould e x e rt a p o w e rful in flu en ce o v er th e n at ure of

a n im al s an d w o uld fu rn ish ch ar acte rs o f prim ary imp ortan ce
,

i n cl assific ati on .

The ge n e r al dispo siti on or m od e of r e un i on of the di ff e r en t

p arts of the body e x e rcis e s an equ all y imp o rt an t i n fluen ce as ,
 1 98 ZOOLO G Y .

1 36 .
—A st e ri a , or Se a St ar .

gr t o r ga ni c a
ea
cla ss m amm ls —b b ccal c ty f rmi g th
p ar a tus es i n t h e
ta ry t b a —th e i t i s a t the p o ste ri o r e x tre mi ty
a z u a vi
e n t ran c e o f t
o n e
eal im en u e x
i ’ th e i te sti e ; f th k e f o
; t t ra h ea ; p l un gs ; t h h art
hdl o n (b ra in & c ) m Sp i nal mar ro w
n n i
?, v t . c , c, e e
, .
, .
 PR I MARY D I V I S I ON S AND CLA S S E S . 1 99

m o difyi n g the localizati on of the fun cti o n s an d the divisi o n

o f th e physi o l o gica l re s u lt .

A lth ou gh it is ea sy fo r the z ool ogist to di sti n guish th e

fo ur gr oups just m e n tion e d an d to r e fe r to on e or the oth e r
,

o f th e m an an i m al u n d e r e x a mi n ati o n et th e re ar e s o m e
,
'
be i n gs which s ee m co n n ecte d with t wo ifi er e n t typ e s like ,

bo rde r l an ds wh o s e r ights of po ss e ssi on h av e n ot yet b ee n

d eter mi n ed
.

F i g 1 38
. .
—S k l t
e e on o f th e O st ri ch .

It s o m etim e s als o h app en s th at it is di fli cu l t to d e fin e rigo

r o u sl y th e s e fo ur grou ps ; b u t to giv e an e x a t id e a it will
c

, ,

b e su ffici e n t to in di c ate the m o r e p r omin e n t ch ar acte rs pecu

li a r to e ach type an d to r e m ark th at th e re un i on of al l th e s e
, ,

ch aracte rs is n ot al ways to b e m e t with s om e ti m e s o n e an d

'
,

s o m e tim e s an o th er b e in g cflace d as we d e sce n d to the

l imits of the divisi on .
 200 ZOO LO G Y .

3 74 . The i m a ls re s e mbl e m an i n the m ore

v er te b r a te a n

impo rta n t po in ts of th e ir structur e ; alm o st al l the p arts o f th ei r

bodi e s ar e 1 n pai rs , an d dispo s ed symm e t rica lly on the two sid e s
o f a m e di an l on itudi n a l pl a n e ; th e ir n e r v o us syste m is highly
g
d e v e l ope d , an d is co mpo s ed of n e rv e s an d ga n glion s , an d o f a
brai n an d spin al m a rro w To th ese w e m ay add , th at the
.

pri n cip al m uscle s ar e atta ch e d to an i n te rn a l sk e l e to n

( Fig . co mpo se d o f s e p ar ate pi e ce s , con n e ct e d to geth e r ,

an d d isp o s e d s o as to pr o te ct th e m o r e i mpo rtan t o rgans , an d

to fo rm the p a ssiv e i n s trum e n ts o f l oc o m o ti on th at the m o re

i m po rt an t p art of this sk el e to n fo rms a sh e ath for the brain
a n d spin a l m a rr ow , an d r e sults h om th e r e un i on o f an n ul a r
'

por ti on s , call ed v e rte brae ; th at the apparat u s for the cir

e f s

fi g .

cul ati on is v er y co mpl e te an d th at ,

the h ea rt offe rs at l e as t two disti n ct

r e s e rv o i r s ; th at the bl oo d is r e d th a t

th e limbs ar e a lm o st alw ays fou r i n

n um b e r a n d n e v e r m o r e fi n al l that
, y ,

Fi g 1 3 9
. .
—N e rvo u s S yst em of th e re e x ist disti n ct o rgan s l o dge d i n
( cam b ‘m
525223
“ Of th e
the h e ad for s i g ht he ar i n g s m el l an d , , ,

taste W e h av e i n stan c e d m an an d
.

the d og a s sp e cim en s of this ty pe b u t we m ay also i n cl u d e

,

the bird , th e r e ptil e , an d th e fish

—I
.

3 7 5 A n n u l a te d A n i m a l s ,
. or E n tom ozoa r i a . n the
s e co n d pri m ary divisi on of the m al ki n gd o m we fi n d a an i

ge n e ral m od e o f con fo rm ati on q u ite di ffe re n t fro m th e pr e

ce di n g The body i s still sy m m e trica l an d bin ary as i n the
.
,

v e rte br a te an im als b u t it is co mpo s ed o f a s e ri e s of part s

,

Id l se cti o of th b od y o f lo bst r o cre w fi sh —th sto m ach un d e r

ea n e a e r - e, e ,

nea th whi ch m y b e s een th gull t d the m o th i i t sti n ; f the li e r ;

a e e an u n e e v

t d b f re d b o e t h
,
3, th h rt ; ceph li c r s
e ea c, a gli s si t
ne vou on ua e e o an a v e
g ll t ; g tho raci c an d a bdo mi n ga gli o n s i t a te d b lo w th e ali m t ary
u e , n s u e en
 PR IM A RY D V I I S I ON S AND CLA S S E S .

which r ep e at e ach oth e r s o th at it m ay b e divid ed i n to a

,

con side ra bl e n u m b e r o f s e gm e n ts ho m ol o gou s a n d m o r e or

, ,

l e ss lik e e a ch oth e r ( Fig . The n e r v ou s syste m is m o

d e r ate l y d e v e l op e d an d is c om po s e d of a d o ubl e s eri e s of sm all
,

m edull a ry ce n tre s call e d g an glion s re un it e d i n a l on gitudi n a l

, ,

ch ai n s o as to o cc u py th e gre ate r pa rt of the l en gth of the

,

body ( Fig .

Th e s m al l m ass fo rm e d by th e first g an gli on s of this co n

n ecte d ch a i n is l o dg e d i n th e h ea d a n d for this r e as on has ,

b e e n c om p are d to the bra in o f the v e rt e br at a ; but we fi n d

n o thi n g r e s e mbli n g t he spi n al m a rr o w fo r the r e st of th e ,

chai n o f gan gli on s is sit u a te d on the v e n tr a l s u rfa ce of the

body u n d e r the dige stiv e tub e ( Fig an d th e n e r v o u s
.

co rds u n itin g th e m to the g an gli on s of the h e ad s u rr oun d th e

gull e t lik e a coll a r Al l the m uscl e s ar e att ach e d to the ski n
.
,

an d th e re is n o i n t e r n a l sk e l e ton ; b u t th e i n te g u m e n ts by ,

th e ir h ardn e ss fo rm a s o rt of e xt e r n a l sk e l e t on b e i ng ar
, ,

Fi g 1 4l
. .
— Scolo p e n d ra .

r an ge d in ri n gs m o r e or l e ss m o v e abl e on e ach oth e r Thus .

,

th e an n u l a te d or articu l ate d ch ar a ct e r o f th e s e an im a ls m ay
b e s e en e xte r n a lly ; th e li m bs i n g en e r al ar e v e ry n um er ous ;
, ,

the o rg an s o f the s e n s e s l e ss n u m e r ou s an d l e ss pe rfe ct th an

i n th e v e rte br ate ; the bl oo d i s a lm o st a lw ays whit e an d the ,

cir cul ati on v e ry i n co mpl e t e ; fin ally a n umb e r of o th e r pe cu

,

l i ar i ti e s are fo u n d i n th e str u ctu re o f th e s e an im als to which ,

w e sh al l afte r wards r eturn — the sc o l o en d r a or c en tip e d e

Fig h l bst e r or cr a w -fi sh r ah in s e cts & c ar e
( . t e o c s , , , .
,

sp ecim en s of this pri m a ry division o f the an im al ki n gdo m .

3 7 6 M ol l u scou s A n i ma l s — The m o lluscs h a v e li k e

. .
,

the pre c e din g the prin cip al o rgan s i n p air s an d sym m e

, ,

t rice l ; but the bo dy has a te n d e n cy to a ss u m e a spiral or

cur v e d form so th at the m ou th an d an us in ste ad of occu
, ,

i n g the two e xtr e miti e s o f the trun k o f the an im al ar e

py ,

m or e or l e s s c on tig u ous The n e rv ous syste m is compo s e d

.

e ss en ti a lly of g an gli on s as i n the an n ul at a ; an d h e r e al s o a

,
202 ZOOLOGY .

p o rt ion of this syste m o ccupi e s the d o rsal a spe ct an d an o th e r ,

po rti on the v en t ral a spe ct o f the dige stiv e tu be ; but th e se

,

gan glio n s d o n ot for m a l on g m e di an ch ain as i n the p re ,

c e di n g divisi on .

Th ey hav e n o sk el e to n i n te rn ally
or e x te rn ally ; th e ir b ody is s o ft ,

an d th e ir sk i n c on stit u te s a fl e x ibl e

an d co n tra ctil e e n v e l o e or
p
is o fte n co v e re d wi th h orn y or
calca reo us pl ates c all ed sh ells ( Fig ,
.

an d this is so m e tim e s d e

vel O ed i n its in te ri o r I n this

p .

prim ary divi s i on the organ s o f the

s en se s ar e al m o st alw ays v e ry i n co m
pl e te ; th e r e s ee ms to b e n o sp ecia l
o rg an ism for sm e ll an d i n a gr e a t ,

n umbe r th e ey e s ar e w an t i n g ; th ey

h av e h ar dly e v e r limbs for l oco

o a m oti on ; an d fin ally the bloo d is ,

F i g 1 42
.
}
white as i n m ost o f the an n e li d e s
, ,

but the circ u l ati on is o fte n much m ore co mpl e te

7 Z oop hy tes —Fi n all y i n the fo u rth an d l as t prim a ry
.

. .
,

d 1 v 1 8 1 on the di ff e re n t p arts o f th e bo dy i n pl ac e of be i n g
, ,

grouped sym m et rically with re fe re n ce to a m edi an pl an e ,

t en d rath e r to a rr an g e th e m s e lv es a roun d a c en tral po i n t or

l 43 .
—Li m n aau s o f S t a gna n t W a te rs .

Id e al s ecti o n o f the b o d o f a ce p h alo o d o u a m o llu s c —t arms o r te n

z ,
.

t acul a s urro u n di ng th e h e b th e m o u t
, ,i t he al i m e n t a ry can al a the ,

a n us ; f,
th e li v er ; 0 a n d g ,
n e rvo u s g an gl i o s ; p b ra n chi ae ; s th e h ea rt ;
n , ,

a r e pro d u c ti ve a p p ara tu s ;
,
0 i n k b ag o r v es i cle ; y t h e e yes
, , .
 PR IM ARY D IVI S I ON S A ND CLA S S E S . 203

v e rtic al li n e so as to affe ct a radi a te d dispositi on m o re o r

,
‘

l e ss comple t e With r e ga rd to a n e rv ous syste m n o tr ac e is

.
,

ge n e r ally to b e obs e rv e d an d wh e re it ex ists it is re duce d to , ,

a r u dim en t a ry state ; the o rgan s o f th e s en s e s a r e als o

a lm o st co mpl e te ly w an ti n g ; fi n a lly al l th e p a rts of the eco ,

n om y b e c o m e o f an e xtr e m e si m plicity F or a l on g tim e .

th ey w e r e mistak e n for v e ge ta bl e s an d h en c e th e i r n am e o f ,

z oophyt e or an im a l pl a n ts a n d th ey h av e b ee n c all e d radi at e d ,

an im a ls by r e a s on o f th e o bvi ous r a di at e d disp o siti on of th e ir

,

o rg an s The p olyps of which we h a v e al r eady S p ok e n

.
,

e d pi
F i g 1 44 . .
—A n a t o m y o f th e Col i m aco n , or S n ai l* .

the a cti n i ae or s e a an e m on e s ( Fig . an d

t ste ri a s e a star
( Fig sp e cim e n s of this
‘

e a or . ar e

d i v i s i on d '

378 . S u bd i vi s i on s
f the P r i m a r y D i v i s i on i n to o

p i th e foo t ; t t e t acl h a lf c o tr c t d ; d a s o rt o f di ap hra gm s p

, ,
n e, n a e , e a
r tin g th e re sp i r to ry c i ty from the o th r vi sce ra ; p orti o of th
a a av e e, n e
sto m ach ; f th e li r ; th e o ry i i te stin e s ;
ve re c t m ;
0, a us
va n r u a, n

th h r t —th e
, , ,

c, e ea e i ca di m h
, b e e ope e d ; p p lm o n a ry art e ry
r r u as n n a , u ,

r am i f i g o th w a
y n n f th e p ul m o
e c i ty p ; M ao r t a ;
o g l an d s e cre ti g
na av , , v, , n
th e sc si ty ;
vi o i t e cre t o ry c
c e, a op e i g s r th ex s an n n nea an u .

f Som e lo g i sts a dm i t fif th p ri m ry di vi s i
zo o o f th ani m al ki gd o m
a a on e n ,
c m p ri si n g sp g s d ch rac te ri e d by th abs e ce o f al l r ar fo rm
o on e , an a z e n e .

B t i t s e e m s t o u s th t thi s cl ss i fi c ti o o ght n o t to b ad o p t
u a a f o r th s e
a n u e e e
str g an i m ls ( m p h a r i p re s e t wh e youn g th s m e ch aract e rs as
p o lyp s o n ly th r rg ni c d e f
an e a a or oz o / a n n e a

th e
,
ei op m e t 8
o rr st d at a tr si to ry st te a d
a

b e co m e d e f rm d as th e y gro w o ld r Thu s by e pi g i n vi ew th e i r
o e

m o e o f d e v e lo pm n t th e y m ay b e re fe rre d to t h e c lass zo o p hyt e s

e ,
ve n 1

e
a

.
e e
k e
an
n

.
a , n
204 ZOOLO G Y .

Cl a s se s .
—Th im als thu s ar ran ge d u n de r a prim ary divisi o n
e an

re s e mbl e e a ch o th e r su ffi ci en tly to adm it o f th at a rran ge m e n t ,

but th e y di ffe r i n m an y i m
p o rt an t c i rcumstan ce s an d h e n ce ,

th e ir subdivision i n to cl as se s .

§ 3 7 9 Thus a m o n gst v e rt e .
,

bra te an im als s om e ar e bo rn aliv e , ,

a n d ar e pro vid e d wi th m amm ae

fo r the n o u rish m e n t o f th e i r
y o un g ; o th e rs spri n g from an
eg g i n which th ey fi n d all the ,

n ut ri m e n t n e c e ss ary for th e ir co n

sti t uti on an d h e n c e ar e with o ut ,

o rg an s of l act a ti on ; s o m e r e spir e
F i g Fi fi —Ac ti ni a
i n the ai r oth e rs i n th e w ate r ;
. .

i n s o m e the circul ati on is c ompl e te i n o th e rs in co mpl e te ; ,

s om e h av e the bloo d hot i n oth e rs it is cal l e d co ld co m, ,

p ar ative ly ; fin ally s om e ar e for m e d to ri se in to the ai r

, ,

o th e rs t o liv e on th e gr ou n d an d o th e rs to swim i n the ,

depths of th e w ate rs The di ff e re n ce s ar e of a high physi o

.

l o gica l i m po rtan ce a n d co in cide so as to ch a racte riz e i n thi s

, ,

divisi on fi v e s e co n d ary type s ; an d h en ce to cl ass v e rte br ate ,

an im als acc o rdi n g to the pri n ci l e s o f the n at ur al m eth od

th ey m u st b e divided in to fi v e cl a ss e s — n am e ly m a mm a l s
,

, ,

b i r d s r ep ti l es b a tr a cb i a an d fi s hes
, , ,

380 I n the p r im a ry .

divisi on o f th e e n to m ozo
a ri a or an n ul a te d a n im als , ,

w e o bs e rv e m odifi ca ti on s o f
structure n o l e ss r e m ark
a bl e So m e ti m e s as i h the .
,

tal i tr u s th e re e x ist ar ti cu ,

l ate d limbs se r vi n g as l e v er s
i n th e appar atus of l oco
m o ti on ; an d the ceph alic
po rti on of the gan glion a ry
n e rv ous syst e m acqu ires
F i g 1 46 —Tal i tru s
. .
co n sid e rabl e impo rtan ce
.
.

So m e tim e s on the c on tr ary , ,

the l ee ch th e r e ar e , ar ticul a te d limbs the n e rv ous ,

In th e ea k
rly e di ti on s o f thi s wor th e e rte b ra t w r di i d d i to fo ur
,

cl ass s fo ll wi g C i r s rr ge m t ; th e b at rachi a f goo d re as o s ha e

e , o n uv e
’
a an en
v a e
or
e v e n
n v
s m ce be e s p ara t ed from th r p ti li a
n e e e .
 PR I MARY D I V I S I ON S A ND CLA S S E S .

gan gli on s ar e b u t littl e d e v e l op ed an d pre s en t a rem ark abl e

,

u n ifo rm ity i n str u ctur e an d fu n cti on s W e m ay th u s su b .

divide this pri m a ry divisi on i n to two s e con d ary gr ou ps

n a m e ly th e ar tic u l ate d an i m als pro p e rly s o c all e d an d th e
, , ,

v er me s or w o r m s ; b u t this cl a ssific a ti on is n ot su ffici en t to

r epr e s en t al l the gr eat di ffe ren ce s i n the n at u re of th e s e

b ei n gs.

F i g 1 47
.
—I ul u s .

I n fa ct , am on gst th e a rtic u l ate d an im als , pr op e rly s o c al l e d ,

w e fi n d in s e cts ( Figs 1 4 8 an d 1 4 9 ) which r e c e iv e the a i r i n t o
.

al l p arts of the e c on o m y by m ean s o f tr a ch e a , which h av e th e

bo dy s u bdivid e d i n t o th r e e dissimil ar p arts—the h ead , the
th orax , an d the abd om en , w hi ch h av e a lw ays th re e p airs of

F i g 1 48
. . A gri o
-
n . F i g 1 49
. .
—B6thyl u s .

fe e t an d which ar e al m o st alw ays pr ovid e d with wi n gs : the

,

myri apod a ( Fig . which r e s e m bl e i n s e cts by th e ir m o de

o f r e spir ati o n a n d which h a v e a ls o a disti n ct h e ad but h av e
, ,

n ot th e tr u n k divid e d i n t o th o r ax an d a bd om e n ; which h a v e

fr om tw en ty -four to si x ty p airs o f fee t an d e v en m o r e b u t , ,

which n e v e r h a v e wi n gs : the Spid e rs ( Fig which h av e .

n ot the h e ad disti n ct fr o m th e th o ra x which h av e alw a S

on ly fo u r p a irs o f li m bs or fe e t an d which r e spir e the ai r li k
,

, e
al l th e pr e c e di n g b u t which h a v e n o tr ach ea
, an d r e c e iv e the ,
206 ZOOLOGY .

Fi g l 50
. .
- Th e lp h u s a .

fluid i n to pul m ona ry pouch es the crustac e a ( Fig which .

h av e on the con trary an aqu atic an d bran chi al re sp i rati on

, , ,

Fi g . 161 .
—Th e D o m e st i c S p i d r e .
 PR I MARY D I V I S I ON S AND CLA SS E S . 207

an dwhich h av e a lways fro m fi v e to s e v en p a irs of li mbs

ad a pt e d fo r

Fi g 1 52
. .
— Th e L ch
ee .

The divisi on of v e rm e s or w o rms o ught to compris e a ls o

s e v e ral v e ry disti n ct typ e s Th e re is fi rs t the am i el i de s
.

F i g 1 53. .
—N e re i s .

wh o s e gan gli on ar y syste m is qu ite disti n ct throu gh

o ut its who le l e n gth with r e d bl ood ge n e r ally circu l a ti n g i n
,

Fi g 1 54
. . R
— o ti fe ra .

a ve ry com pl e x v ascul ar syste m i n which the re spira ti on alm o st

,

al w a ys t k
a e s pl a ce i n a w e ll -d v e l pe d br an chi a l app rat u s
e o a ,

Fi g 1 55 . .
—A s cari s
‘

k
It has b e e n n own fo r s om e y e a rs th a t th e ci r r hi pi d e s w hi ch had b e e n
fo rm e d i n t o a pa rti cu la r cla ss o u ght to b e re st o re d to th e cla ss cru stace a
,
,

.
208 zoo r os r .

an d in which the m o v e m e n ts ar e pe rfo rm e d i n g e n eral by

m ea n s of m ov ea bl e b ri stl e s ( Fig with th e se al so w e
.

a rran ge the r o tife r a micro sco pic an im als which s ee m to

, ,

h av e n o spe ci al o rgan s for the cir c u l ati on an d which h av e n o

,

bran chia b u t which ha v e i n ge n e ral vibr atil e o rgan s v e ry

,

S i n gul a r i n th e i r a rran ge m e n t ( Fig Fi n a ll y it Is

.
,

F m
t um'

N e rvo u s syste m o f the a plys i a a te ro po d o us m o l l u sc —c ce re b ro i d

z

ga n gl i o n s ; g tho raci c n g l i o ns o r an «
, ,

e so ha ge a l ; e n e rv o u s c o ll ar s ur
ro u n di n g the gu ll e t l fi bi a l g an gl i o n s ; v vi sce ral ga ngli on
p
, , ,

, , .
 PR I MARY D I V I S I ON S A ND CLA S S E S . 209

a ls o to this pri m ary divisi on that we must r e fe r the tu r

b e ll ari a wh o s e body is with ou t li mbs an d wh o se n e rv ou s
, ,

syste m is co mpo s e d e ss e n ti a lly of two l ate ra l c o rds spri n gi n g

The i n te sti n a l w o rms o r
.

from two c e pha lic gan gli on s .

,

h e l m i n thi a b e l on g a lso to this divisi on ; th e ir structure i s

,

v e r y simpl e ; th e y pre s e n t o n ly v e stige s o f a n e rv ou s sys

te m an d ye t ar e i n tim a te ly a lli e d to th e an n e lid e s which
, ,

o fte n s ee m to b e i n s o m e m e a sur e th e d e r ad e d r e pr e s e n ta tiv e s

g
o f the s am e z oo l o gic a l

F i g 1 57
. .
—So ci al A sci d i a xl '

To
pl ac e the cl a ssific ati on of an n ul a te d an im als i n h arm o n y
with the d iff e ren c e s which w e h a v e p oi n te d ou t i n the n at u r e
o f th e s e b e i n gs th e y m u st b e di v id e d i n to e ight disti n ct
,

. . C
F i g 59 - o q u i ll e
de Pa l u di n e , o r

F i g 1 58
. .
—P rc l
o e ai n e ( Cyp r a a ) . Sh e ll o f th e P a
H
l u di n a ( e li x ) .

N a t ur ali s ts ar e n o t ag re e d i n re s p ect o f the class i fica ti o n o f the e n to zo a ,

o r i n t e sti n a l w o rm s C u vi e r arran ge d th e m a m o n gst t h e ra di a ta o r z o o byt e s ;
b u t th e y m o r e res e m bl e t he a n n e li d e s i n t he co f o rm a t o n o f th e i r b o di e s
.

n i
—
.

t A s ci d i a o f th e g e n u s P or op ho r a b m o u th e st o m ac h ; i
, i n t e st i n e
, ,

a anu s
, t co m m o n sta lk
, Th e a rr o ws i n d i ca t e the d i re c ti o n o f th e c urre n t
.

o f w a t e r s e rv i n g fo r re s pi ra t i o n .
 21 0 zo o no s r .

cl ass e s m e s o f which w e h a v e al rea dy po i n te d o ut i n

, th e na

the r ece di n c o n sid e r ati o n s

g
.

3 8 1 T e pri m ar y d ivisi on of the m ol lusco us an im als

.

p re sen ts o rgan i c m odi fica tion s n ece ssita tin g a S imil ar su bdi vi
Sh e ll M tl e Te n ta ul a M o th Ner es M uscl es
. an . c . u . v . .

F OOL
A t e ri o r
n

Li e r v .

I n t e s ti n e . H e a rt

S t o ma ch .

B ra nchi a .

M u scl e .

M n tl e
a .

R sp r t ry T b s
e i a o u e

—An a to m y o f a n Aceph al o u s M ollu s c ( l a

.

F i g 1 60
. . M ac tr e M tr
ac a ) .

si o n I n the m o lluscs pro pe rly s o ca ll ed th e re is a n e rv o us

.
, ,

syste m c om po se d o f tw o o r m o re p ai rs o f n e rv o us gan gli on s

, ,

r e un i te d by m e dull a ry c o rds ( Fig an d r e pr o ducti o n i s

.
 PR I MARY D I V I S I ON S AN D CLA SS E S . 21 1

ac oc mpli sh e d on ly by m ean s o f e ggs I n oth e rs which I

'
.
,

s hall call m o l l us coi des the n e rv ou s syste m red u ced to a ru di

, ,

m e n t ar y sta te s e ems to con sist of on ly a si n l e gan gli o n an d

i n m o st ca s e s the m u ltiplic ati on o f i n divi d
, ,

u al s ta k e s pl ac e
by the d e v e lo pm en t o f gran ul ati on s ( bou r g e on s ) as w e ll a s
by o vip ar ou s ge n e r ati on ; it h appe n s th e re fo re frequ en tly
that i n d ivid u als sp ri n gin g fr o m each o th e r r e m ai n u n ite d
to ge the r co n stitutin g an im at e d m as se s phyto id i n fa ct
, , ,

( Fig .

''

Th e m ol l u s co i de s ar e subdivid e d in to tw o cl a ss e s acco rdi n g ,

as th e y h a v e the r es pir ato ry app a r a tu s e n cl o s e d i n th e m o u th ,

or fo rm e d by a co r on a or circl e o f l on g l abi al te n ta c u l a .

The fir st ar e call e d tu n i ci e r s ( Fig 1 57 ) the s e con d fo rms a.

cl ass of b r y ozo a i r e s ; tu n i ca ta bry ozo a r i a .

The m ol l u s ca pr o pe rly s o ca ll e d di ff e r am on gst th e ms e lv e s

, ,

by ch a r acte rs who se i m po r ta n c e is still v e ry co n sid e r a bl e

,
.

Thus i n s o m e the ce ph alic gan glion s ar e v e ry dist an t fro m

,

the a bdom in a l ; th e re is n o disti n ct h e ad n or tr a ce o f th e ,

spe ci al o rgan s of the s e n s e s ; the o rgan s o f m o v e m e n t ar e e x

tr e m el y imp e rfe ct an d the bo dy i s
,

w r appe d u p by cu tan eo us fo lds pr o ,

te cte d e x te ri o rly by a biv a lv e sh e ll

( Fi g. M u scl e s oyste rs &c , , .
,

pre s en t this m od e o f o rgan iz ati on .

Oth e r m oll u sc a as the s n a il lim n é e s

, ,

( Fig . an d the po rce l a in e ( Fig .

h a ve a di stin ct h ea d : th e i r
n e r v o us ga n gli o n s ar e ge n e ral ly cl o s e

to each o th e r an d gro u pe d a r ou n d
,

th e g ul l e t ; th e y h a v e e y e s ; th e
l o w e r s u rfa c e of the body is occu
pi e d by a fl e shy o rgan s e rvi n g for ,

l oc om otion ; fi n ally the back is ge n e

1 6 1 —H y d e ( H y l es )
,

ra lly pro te c te d by a sh e ll an d this , . a .

i s n e v e r biv alve b ut re pre se n ts

,

alm o st a lw ays a co n e turn e d i n to a spir a l ( Fig o t he rs .

h a v e a di stin ct h e a d l i ke the pre ce din g a n d on e ach sid e ,

o f the n e ck a ki n d o f m e m br an o us wi n g which s e r v e s as ,

an o ar ( Fi g .

Fi n ally th e r e ar e s om e which h av e th e h e ad fu rn ishe d

,

with l on g co n tra ctile an d pre h e n sil e appe n d ag e s pe rfor mi n g ,

the fu n cti o n s of fee t an d a r ms ( Fig .

Th e se h av e the n e rvo u s syste m m or e de v e l ope d th an i n

P 2
21 2 ZOOLOGY .

o th e r an im als o f the s am e prim a ry divisi o n an d which g en e ,

o

rally h a v e the body suppo rt e d by a s o rt o f i n te ri o r sh e ll .

S uch ar e the v ari o us m od e s o f c on fo rm ati on se r vi n g as a

basis of the divisi o n o f the m o llusca p op e rly so c al l e d in to ,
r
,

four clas s e s ca ll ed a cep ha l a g a s ter op od a p ter op od a an d

, , , ,

ce ha l o o d a
p p T he o yste
. r m ay r e pr e s e n t th e typ e of the fi r st ,

th at is o f the ace ph a l a ; the s n a il th at o f the gas te r o pod a

,

the hyal e a ( F ig 1 6 1 ) th at o f the pte ro po da ; an d the s e pia

.

( Fig 1 6 2) th e gr oup o f t he ce ph alo po d a

. .

F i g 1 62
. .
—Th e C o mm o n Se i a p .

Fi n al ly the fo urth an d l a st prim ary di v isi on o f

382 .
,

the an im a l ki n gd o m the z oo phy te s co mpris e s a lso v e ry

, ,

v a ri e d an im a ls a n d is divid e d i n to s e v e ra l cl as se s
, I n on e o f .

the s e groups c all ed the class e chi n od e rm ata the body is

, ,

fo rm e d to cree p on the S a n d o r ro cks a t the bo tto m o f the

s ea , a n d fo r this pur po s e th e s u rface i s p ro vid e d with a

n um be r o f sm all pr e h e n sil e a pp e n d ag e s ; th e i n te gum e n ts

a ls o ar e o f co n sid e ra bl e c o n sist e n ce a n d e v e n so m e tim e s o f a ,

sto n h ar dn es s .

T e se a sta r s the h ol othuria ( Fig , an d the se a .

u rchin s ar e type s o f this cl a ss

, .

I n th e s e co n d gro up fo rm e d by the aca l e ph a the body is

, , ,
 R
P I MARY D I V I S I ON S AN D CLA S S E S . 21 3

on the co n tr a ry , ti re ly ge l atin o us an d fo rm e d on ly for

en ,

sw i m m i n g The . m e d u sa ( Fig which fl o at i n the s e a

.

an d ar e fr e qu e n tly S tr a n d e d o n th e s an dy sh o r e s o f th e c o a st ,

ar e e x ampl e s o f this cl a ss o f Z oo phyte s .

F i g 1 63
. .
—H ol o thu ri a .

In hi r d cl a ss th a t o f c o r alli n e s o r po lyps pr op e rly so

a
t , ,

c all e d ( F i g . th e r e e x ists n o l o n ge r an y o rg an o f l ocom o

1 64 —
Fig . . Th e C o r l P lyp
a o .
Fi g 1 65
. .
—R hi z o stom a .

ti on : the de stin y o f the an im al i s to liv e fixe d to the s o il an d ,

its m outh is surr ou n de d with m o v e abl e tube rcl e s ( F ig .

by m e an s of which it gath e rs i n th e s u rr o un di n g w a te rs the

o rpuscl e s n e c e ss ar y to its n ut riti on ; i n g en er a l a po r ti on of
c ,
214 Z OOLO GY .

the i n te gum en ts be co m e s oss i fi ed s o as to for m for it a ki n d

,

o f ca lca reo us o r h o rn y dw e ll i n g ( Fig 1 6 7 ) an d i n m o st c a ses

.

a l so the y o u n g s ri n g fro m gra n ul ati on s a ri s i n g on the sur face

p
o f th e bo di e s o f th e ir pare n ts an d as th e y d o n ot be co m e d e
,

tached con stitute an im ate d m asse s o f v a ri ed fo rms re s e mbli n g

,

a br a n chi ng pl an t l oad e d with fl o w e r s .

,

The act i n i a o r se a-an e m on e s ( Fig 1 45) be l on g to th i s .

cl ass ; so als o doe s the co r al po lyp ( Figs 1 64 the .

,

o phi l l is ( Fig.

S po n ge s ( spon g i ar i a ) offe r a fou rth type ; th e se ar e s i n

gul ar an im als which wh en y o un g h av e an o v oid for m
, , ,

swim fr ee ly by m ean s of the vib ratil e cili a with whi cl i

,

1 67 . P 01
- of the G e nu s
C aryOp

1 66 —
. St
a l k of th e C o r al . Fi g 1 68
. .
—Th e Sp o n g e .

th e ir bodi e s ar e p ro vided an d r e s e mbl e at this stag e o f th e i r

,

g r o wth th e l a r v a o f th e aca l e
p ha a n d o f th e p o lyp s ; but th e
y
soo n b e co m e fix ed ( Fi g .an d th e n l o s e n o t on ly th e i r
 PR I MAR Y D I V I S I ON S AN D CLA S S E S . 21 5

s en sibility an d l ower o f m oti on but b ecom e s o de grad e d as

to r e s e mbl e n oth
,

i n g i n th e an im al ki n gd o m .

Fi n al ly m o st n atur a lists als o a rran ge i n th e divisi on

,

z oo phyte s a fifth gro up c o mp o s e d of an i n fin it e n umbe r of

, ,

b e in gs ex tre m e ly sm al l ( Fig which liv e i n sta gn an t

w ate rs an d ar e call e d i nf u sor i a a n i m a l cu l a Th ey mo v e by
, .

, .

m ean s of the ir v ibr atil e cili a an d stron gly r e s e mbl e i n ,

g en e ral the l ar v a o f sp on g e s (spon g i ar i a ) of p olyps an d of , ,

the aca l eph a ; but th e y d o n ot ch an ge a s th e y gro w u p an d ,

th ey ar e re m ark abl e for th e ir fi s si par ou s r e pro d u cti on an d ,

for the co n sid e rabl e n umbe r o f sto m achs h o ll o w e d o u t i n th e

i n te ri o r of th e ir bo di e s for th e re cepti on of food Th e se .

b e in gs u n til v e ry l at e ly w e re c o n fo un de d with the systol id es ,

u n d e r the co mm on n a m e o f m i cr os co i c a n i m a l cu l e s or i n
p
f u s or i a an d i n or de r to di stin gui sh th e m th ey w e re o fte n
,

ca ll ed p o l yg a s tr i c i nfl sor i a The pl a ce th ey o ught to .

o ccupy i n o ur z oo l o gi ca l cl assific a ti on s h as n ot a s e t be en
y
w e ll d e te rmin ed .

F i g 1 69
. .
—In fu so ri a .
"r

S uch ar e the
m o r e pr o mi n e n t ch a r acte rs o f the p r i n ci pa l
o r a n ic type s o f th e an i m a l ki n gd o m Th e S k e tch j ust giv en
w iI
.

l su ffic e to giv e th e r e a de r a g en e ra l ide a o f th e m o di

fi cati on s i n tr o duce d by n atur e in to the str u ctur e o f an im ate d
be in gs ; but to li mit ou r vi e w to this w ould l ead to ex tre m ely
imp er fe ct id e a s of the tru e n atur e o f zool o It be co m e s
n e ce ss ar y
th e re fo re to ex ami n e m ore ca r e f y e ach of the
, , .

r e a t di visi o n s c o rr e sp on di n g to th e s e fun d am e n t al di ff er
g
e n ce s .The subj o in e d t abul ar V i e w r e pr e s e n ti n g a syn optic ,

t abl e will assist the r e ad e r i n co m pris i n g at a gl an ce the

,

b asis o f the cla ss i fica tion ad opte d i n this w o rk .

Vari o s p o lygastri c i fus o ri s e e n d r the m i cro scope —I m o ads

u n a, un e n
I I trach li a s ; I I I e h l i r p re se t d t th e m o m t wh r jecti g
,

,
e a na , nc e s, e n e a en en e n
t h e r si d e o f th e fo o d ; I V p ar m e i ; V k o l p o d ; V I t rach e l i a f as ci o l a t a
e u , a c a , , ,
m rc hi g o n m i c OSCOp i c V ge t abl e s
a n r e .
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 I D EA S

ON TH E ORGANI Z ATION OF AN I MA LS BE LONGIN G

TO TH E DIF F E R ENT CL AS SE S OF
TH E ANI M AL K INGD OM .

D IVI SI O N F I R ST .

V E R TE B R A T E A NI M A L S .

3 83 . The
v t br t er e im als ) so n a m e d by r e as on o f
a e an ?

the pr e s e n ce o f a v e rte br al co l u m n fo rmi n g the e ss e n ti al p a rt

o f th e sk e l e ton ar e o f a l l an im als th e m o st pe rfe ct ; an d as
, ,

wa s to b e e x p e cte d th o s e als o , 3 4 6 ) i n wh o m th e o r gan s

ar e the m o st n um e r o us a n d th e m o st c o mpl e x .

Th ey po ss e ss an i n te rn al sk e l e ton by whi ch m ea n s ( P)
,

the att ai n a siz e n e v e r r e ach e d by the ar ticul a ta m o l lusca , ,

an Zoophyt e s ; an d to this sk e l e to n m ay b e as cribe d n o ,

d oubt i n p art at l e ast the vigo ur an d pr e c i sion of th e ir

, ,

m o v e m en ts .

-
This i n te rn al sk el e to n to which th e r e is n othi n g an al ogo us
,

i n the o th er eat s e cti on s o f the an im al kin gd o m is ge n e r ally ,

co mpo s e d of on e s an d i s a rr an ge d n e arly as i n m an n e v e r
,

the l e s s as i n the sk a te the sk e l e to n r e m ai n s ca rti la gi n o us

, , ,

an d th e r e ar e fish e s i n which it is all b u t m e mbran o us We .

h av e al r e ady studi e d the ske l e t on c ar e fully 259 to

The part which is n e v e r abs e n t is th e v e rt e br a co lum n an d
cr an i u m ; o th e r p arts m ay b e an d o ft e n ar e d e fici e n t : the ri b s
, ,

ar e w an tin i n fr o gs ; th e st e rn um i n s e rpe n ts &c But it

g , .

is e spe ci all y i n the li mbs th at v ari e ti e s o f fo r m ati on a r e

obs e rv a bl e ; th e s e a r e so m e tim e s wh o ll a bs e n t a s i n the

co lube r or co mm on s n a k e ; s om e tim e s til ey a r e m e re ly dimi

,

In thi s sk e t ch o f th e g e n e ral typ e o f th e v e rte b ra ta we ha v e t ak e n n o

,

acco un t o f th e a mp hio m w h o s e o r ga ni z a ti on i s e x tre m e ly l o w i n t h e s cal e ;

,

f o r i n thi s ecce n t ri c b ei n g ( w hi c h i n i ts ch a rac te r a ppro ac h e s fish e s ) m o st ,

o f t h e cha ra c te rs
p e cu li ar to thi s gre a t s ec ti o n o r di vm o n o f th e ani m a l ki n g
d om ar e wan ti n g .
 VE R TE B RA TE AN I MA S L . 2 21

n i s he d in umbe r an d i n aqu atic an i m als this is o bs e rv ed

n ,

chi e fly i n r e spe ct o f th e po ste ri o r limbs whilst i n l an d an im al s ,

it is the o ppo site A s r e gards the m o difica ti on s the l i mbs

.

u n d e rgo the r e ade r is re fe rr e d to § 289 to 29 5 i n w h ich

, ,

s e cti on s th e s e m atte rs ar e fu lly tr e at e d of The ca ud al por .

ti on of th e body be i n g e spe ci ally of u se in swimmi n g is m ore ,

fully d e v e l o pe d i n fish e s th an i n oth e r an im als ; i m po rtan t i n

t h e acti o n o f flight it pr e s e n ts a struct u r e su ffi cie n tly con
,

sta n t ; wh i lst i n t e rr e st ri al an i m als it l o s e s m u ch of its i m

po rt an c e an d is n ot u n fre qu en tly wh olly abs en t
, .

I n an im als l o w i n the sca l e o f the v e rte brat a it fr e qu e n tly ,

h ap pe n s th at the v a ri ous ge rms or disti n ct n u cl e i o f which

the bo n e s ar e o rigi n ally for m e d d o n ot co a l e sc e but r e m a in in g
, ,

disti n ct c aus e it to appe ar as if the sk e l e to n an d e spe ci ally

, ,

th e cr an i u m w e r e fo r m e d on a m o r e co m pl e x pl an th an i n
,

the high e r o rd e r o f m a mm als This h o w e v e r is n ot the

.

c as e s i n c e th e y ar e all fo rm e d on o n e pl an the di ffe ren ce

, , ,

which is on ly s ee min g n ot r e a l d e p en din g on the n on

, ,

un i o n o f th e s e p a r at e g e rms or n u cl e i c o m p o si n g th e b on e s

i n e v e ry yo u n g an im al It is i n fish e s a n d r e ptil e s th at w e
.

fi n d this m o st to pr e v a il an d h e n c e th e di ffic u lty of r e d u ci n g

,

the s e p a r at e pi e c e s to th e ir an a l o gu e s i n th e high e r an im als ,

a n d e sp e ci ally i n m an .

38 4 It is the n e rv ou s syst e m an d e spe ci al ly its c e n t r al

y
.
,

p o rti o n which is m o st highly de v e l o pe d i n m am m a ls ; th e

,

su rp as s pro b ably fo r thi s r eas on i n s e n sibility an d i n tel l i

, ,

ge n ce a l l o th e r an i m als .

T h e c e r e br o -
spin al axis h as i n al l the s am e gen e ral fo rm
an d r e l ati o n s as i n m an Situ at e d on th e d o rs a l a sp e ct o f the
.

bo dy an d a bo v e the dig e sti v e tube prot e ct e d by the cran iu m

, ,

an d v e rt e br a l c o l u m n it co n sists u n iformly o f a b r a i n co m
, ,

p o s e d o f two h e m isph e re s two optic l o b e s a c e re b e llum an d

, , ,

a spin al m a rr o w ; th e s e struct u r e s s e e m to be c o m e sm all e r

a n d m o re si m pl e a s w e d e sc e n d fr om m an to fis h e s Th e .

n e rv e s o f r e l a ti on a r e g e n e r a lly a rr an g e d a s i n m a n ; a risin g

o r c o n n e ct e d c e n tr a ll y with th e c e r e br o -spi n a l a xi s fr o m a

d ou bl e roo t on the po st e ri o r o f which is a gan gli on th ey

, ,

fo rm the n e rv e s of s en s a ti on an d m otion with c on sci o us n e ss , .

The n e rv e s o f the v i sc e r a ar e on the o th e r h an d co n n e ct ed

, ,

with the sy m p ath etic or g an gli on a ry syst e m b u t th i s syste m ,

e sta bli s h e s r e l a ti on s with the c e re br o -spi n a l axis by m e an s o f

n u m e ro u s fil a m e n ts of c o m m u n ica ti on with the n e rv e s of
s e n s at i on and m ot i o n .
 222 Z L
OO O GY .

Fina lly the organ s o f s e n s e are a lw ays fi v e i n n umb e r and

, ,

the i r a rran ge m e n t is much as i n m an .

3 85 The dig e stiv e a pp ar a tu s pr e se n ts but fe w i m

.

portan t di ffe re n ce s i n this re at divisi on of the an i ma l ki n g

do m ; the o rifice s o f the d ige stiv e tu b e ar e alw ays r e m ote
fi o m ea ch o th e r ; the j a ws m o v e v e rti c ally or i n the axis o f
'

th e bo dy an d n ot l at e r ally as i n the ann ul ata ; th e in t e st i n e

, ,

is s ecure d i n the a bd o m e n by a m e se n t e r y an d the

ch l e the pr o duct o f dig e sti on is a bso rbe d by pe culi a r v es

s eli which con v ey it i n to the v e in s an d thus in to the m ass

, ,

, ,

o f bl oo d .

T e r i n gl o bul e s an d r e dd e r
§ 3 8 6 h e bl oo d
. much rich ,

th an i n oth e r an im al s re ach e s the h ea rt by the v e in s It

, .

e n te r s an a uricl e th e n p asse s in to a v e n tricl e an d by i ts

, ,

m ean s is wh ol ly or i n p art tran smitte d to the o rgan s o f

r e spi r ati on th e lun gs ,I n g en e ra l the bl oo d r e tu rn s to the
.
,

h e art b e fo re its tr an s m issi on to o th e r pa r ts of the b ody ; bu t .

so m e tim e s it pr oc e e ds dir e ctly to th e s e an d its cir cul ato ry

‘
,

m ov e m en t is d e te rmin e d i n s om e ca s e s by an a uricl e an d
v en t ricle onl y ; i n oth e rs by two a ur icl e s a ssiste d by on e
,

v en t ricl e ; an d i n oth e rs by a h ea rt compo s ed of two au ricl e s

,

an d tw o v en tricl e s 1 07 1 08 The r e spir ati on i n this

, ,

cl a ss o f an im als ta k e s pl a ce i n a c avity o f the body in te rn ally ,

but it is n ot a lw ays d e r i a n as i n m an be in g pe rfo rm e d s o m e

, ,

tim e s by l u n gs s om e time s by gil l s , .

Of the s e cre tin g o rg an s fo un d in m an th e re ar e two which ,

ar e a lw ays pr e s e n t i n th e cl a ss v e rt e br at a : t h e s e ar e the liv e r

an d k id n eys Th e pr e s en ce o f a p an cr ea s an d spl e en is also

.

v ery un i fo rm .

3 8 7 Na t ure th u s s e e ms to h av e foll o w ed on e pl an i n the

.

co n structi on o f the v e rte brat a ye t th ey di ffe r much fro m e ac h

o th e r ,an d h e n c e the n e ce ssity fo r subdi vidi n g this

,

re a t g
p rim ar y di visi on i n to fi v e cl as s e s : n a m e ly m amm als ; b i rds ; ,

re ptil e s ; b atr achi a ; fish e s .

OF TH E C L A S S M A M M A L I A .

3 88 This cl ass is c om po s e d o f m an an d of al l the a n i

. ,

m als which m o st n ea rly r e se m bl e him i n the m o st impo rtan t

po i n ts o f th e ir o rga n iz a ti on By th e ir pro x imity an d utili ty
.

to m an th e i r high e r in te lli ge n ce an d o rg an i za ti o n th ey n a tu
, ,

rally p l ace th e ms e lv e s at the h e ad of al l tha t liv e s .

 or TH E cu s s MAM MA LA
I . 223

F or th e m ost p a rt a mamm al may re adil y b e disti n g uish e d

,

fro m e ve ry oth e r ani mal by its e x te r n al ch ar act e rs e v en b

the u n edu ca te d ; but n o t alw ays for to th i s d ay suc y
,

pe rson s mista ke a po rpo ise or a wh al e for a fish th an whi ch ,

the r e cann ot b e a grea te r e rr o r i n po in t of fa ct .

Fi g 1 7 0 —
. . P rp oi s e
o , or Com m o n D o lp hi n .

'
§3 89 D eve l op me n t q
.
f th e F u n cti on o
f L a cta ti o n - Th a t
.

which pe rh aps is the m o st re mark abl e i n the histo ry of the

m a mm als is th e ir m od e o f l act ati on , by which is m e an t th e
m od e of n o u rishm en t of the y ou n g Th e y ar e vi vip ar ou s .
,

an d th e y o u n g fro m bi rth de p e n d imm edi a te ly on th e

n o u rishm e n t th e y r e c e iv e fr o m the m oth e r ; u n lik e th e
o v ip a r a, which ar e at birth al l but wh oll y i n d e pe n d en t of
th e ir p ar e n t i n r e sp e ct at l ea st of n ou rishm en t
, .

The mil k i n ten d e d for th e n o ur ishm e n t of the y ou n g is

fo rm e d of w ate r h oldin g i n s o l u ti on , s u gar o f milk , ca s e i n ,
s om e s a lts with a li ttl e fr ee l actic acid , h oldi n g i n su s pen
,

sion gl obul e s o f b u tte r Its qu al iti e s v a ry i n di ffe r e n t

.

m als , an d m ay b e m od ified b y the foo d o f the m oth e r By .

e v a po r ati on it l ea v e s fr o m te n to tw e lv e s ol id p ar t s of on e

hun dr e d .

The s e c re ti n g gl an ds o f this a lim e n ta ry fluid a r e the

m amm ae of whi ch i n the m a le th e re e xi st on ly the rudi
, , ,

m en ts Th ey ar e pe cul i a r to the cl as s m a mm als an d h e n c e

.
,

th e ir n am e Th e ir n u mbe r is i n r e l a ti on to th at of the y ou n g
. .

I n ap e s the e l e ph an t go at h a r e th e r e ar e two ; i n the co w

, , , , ,

h o rs e s d oe th e r e ar e fou r i n th e cat e ight ; i n th e pig an d

, , ,

r a bbit te n ; i n the r at te n o r tw e lv e ; i n the a gou ti tw e lv e to

, , ,

fo u rte e n Th e y v ary als o in th e ir po siti on : i n the a pe s an d

.

b a ts th ey ar e pl ace d on the ch e st as i n w om an ; i n m o st ,

c a r n iv or a they ar e situat e d on the a bd om e n a s w ell as on the

,

th o rax ; an d i n the m a r e co w e we &c th ey a r e pl a c e d , , , .

,

still fu rth e r b ack clo s e to the articul a ti on s o f the b i n de r

,

e x tr e miti e s .
2 24 zoo r o e x .

In so m e the y o u n g are bo rn with the e ye s o pe n , an d ar e

re ad at o n ce to s ee k the ir n o urishm e n t ; b u t a gre at n umbe r
ar e ge m with the e ye s cl o s ed , an d i n a st ate o f
g re at fee bl e
n e ss , s o th a t the can scar ce ly m o v e ; an d s o m e b e i n g bo rn as
it w e re b e fo re t e i r te r m , co uld n ot liv e , w e re th ey n ot to
attach th e ms e lv e s to th e tit o f the m o t-h e r , to which th e y

u ch a n im a ls g ene ra ll y ,
p
r e m ai n as i t w e r e sus e n d e d T o s .

thus imp e r fe ctly de v e l o pe d at birth , the i n te g um e n ts

o f the l ow e r p art o f the be l ly fo rm a po uch i n fron t
of the m a mm m, i n which th e y o u n g a r e l od ged for a
tim e . This structure ch a r a cte riz e s th e Op ossums th e

Fi g 1 7 1
. .
—The O p o ss um .

Ne w Wo rld , an d the
k a n ga roo an d o th e r m ars u pi al a n im a ls
o f A ustra li a The y o u n g pl ac e d i n this po uch by the m o the r
.
, ,

a tt ach th e ms e lv e s each to a n ippl e a n d r e m a i n sus e n de d

, p
the re un til su fli ci e n tfy stro n g to l e av e t he po u ch to which , ,

h ow e v e r th ey r e tu rn a s to a pl ace o f s a fe ty u n til suffi cie n tly

, ,

gro w n to act fo r th e ms e lv e s .
 OF TH E CL A S S MAM M A L I A .

3 90 I n teg u me n ts —In a c e rtai n n umb e r o f m am m als the

ski n is n ak e d—th at is it is n ot s e cur e d from h a rm by an y
. .

—
,

prote cti g o rgan

n s but i n the gre at e r n umbe r w e fin d ha i r s
,

an d s o c o n st a n t is this fact th at M d e Bl a in vill e pr o po s e d to

, .

n a m e th e m p i l g f er e s i n co n tr adisti n cti on to p e n n if e r e s an d
e r es —th at is birds an d fish e s
,
’ '
s qu a mm g f , .

The h ai rs a r e fo rm e d by s m all s e cr e ti n g o rg an s l o dge d i n

the ski n o r im m e d i ate ly b e n e ath it
, E a ch h air is fo rm ed i n
.

a s m a ll o v o id p ouch wi th white r e sisti n g w alls

,
c om m u n i ,

ca ti n g e xte r n ally by a sm all o p e n i n g ; this p o uch is t er m e d

Fi g 1 72
. .
—Th e P o rcu p i n e .

the cap su l e .
in t er i o r of thi s ca vity is li n ed by a m em
Th e
br an e s o m e ti m e s re ddish s o m e ti m e s div e rs e ly co l o ure d an d
, , ,

co n sid e r e d to b e a con ti n u ati on o f the r e te m u cosu m o f the

ski n ; an d at the l ow e r p ar t of this ca ps u l e is a c on ic al p apill a
o r b ou r g e on which r e c e iv e s the n e rv e s a n d b l oo d v e s s el s an d
,
,

which fo rms th e h a ir The s u bst an c e fo r m i n g the h a i r has

.

the gr e a te st an a l o gy to dr i e d muc u s Un d e r the micr o sc op e

.

the h airs s ee m to b e fo rm e d o f sm all co n e s or c o rn e ts j oi n t e d i n t o,

e a ch o th e r ; b u t ge n e r ally th ey r e s e mbl e a simpl e h o rn y tub e ,

Q
226 Z OO O G Y L .

fi ll ed with a pulpy m atte r Th ey v a ry i n form be i n g i n m os t .

,

a n im als cyli n drica l a n d l a rg e r at th e ir b a s e th a n a t th e ir su m

,

m i t ; i n o th e rs m o re or l e ss flatt e n e d or l am e ll ate d lik e sprigs ,

of grass ; s o m e tim e s th e i r surface is sm oo th s o m e tim e s ,

rough e n e d with a spe riti e s o r h a vi n g a m on ilifo rm a spe ct ; ,

fi n ally th ey d i fle r i n fo rm an d e l asticity n ot on ly i n diffe ren t

, ,

a n im a ls b u t e v e n in di ff e r e n t
, a rts o f the s am e an im a l .

Fro m th e s e cir cu m sta n c e s t e n am e s giv en the h airs di ffer , ,

be i n g ca ll ed ba rbs or qu ills or b ristl e s or simply h air Woo l

, , , .

is a s o rt of h air v e ry lon g an d tortu ous ; fur is a still fi n e r

,

fo rm o f h air c on c e al e d b e n e ath a co v e rin g o f o rdi n a ry h a ir .

The co l ou r o f th e h a ir which v a ri e s s o much m ay ye t b e , ,

r e fe rre d to m o d ificati ons of white bl ack bro w n -red an d , , ,

e ll o wish it s e e ms t o d e p e n d o n the pre se n ce o f a co l o u r e d

y ;
fat s o l ubl e i n b oili n g spirits o f wi n e ; wh e n this is ex tra cte d
,

by the acti on o f the a bo v e s olv e n t the h air b e c om e s o f a ,

greyish ye ll o w c olo ur In whit e h air a whi te -c o l our e d o i l

.

is foun d an d i n r e d h air o il of a re ddish co l o ur ; i n bl ack

, ,

h air a bl ackish oil s om e wh at bl u e fro m the pre s e n c e o f sul

, ,

h ur e t o f ir o i n ’
“ S o m e ti m e s the h a ir s h a v e the s a m e co l o ur
p
thr o u gh o ut th e ir wh ol e l e n gth s om etim e s th ey ar e d ar k e r at
th e ir ba s e th an t o w a rds th e ir sum m its an d s o m e tim e s th ey ,

pre s e n t a s e ri e s of white an d c ol oure d ri n gs Mo re o v e r th e ir .

,

co lo u r v a ri e s m u ch i n di ffe re n t p arts o f the bo dy an d the ,

gen e ral dispo siti on o f the s e tin ts co n stitute s wh at is n o m i n all

c all e d the r o b e ( p e l a g e ) en e r all y the co l o ur s ar e muc
. G
d ark e r to w ards the b ack an d wh en th e re ar e spo ts th e s e ar e , ,

al m o st a lw ays disp o s e d sy m m e tric a lly o n th e sid e s — th a t is ,

s o l o n g as d o m e stic ati o n d oe s n o t e x e rcis e its i n flu e n c e fo r ,

th e n t he col o ur in g of the rob e pre s en ts ofte n the gre a te st

irre gul a rity .

The ro be is en er al l y the s am e i n b o th s e x e s an d ge n e ra lly ,

v a ri e s but litt e at diffe re n t ag e s Yet i n so m e the y ou n g .

,

h a v e spo ts an d a v a ri e ty of sh ad e s which di s appe a r i n the ,

ad u lt an d it n o t u nfr e q u e n tly h a ppe n s th a t the c o l o ur o f th e

,

m amm al ch an e s with the s e as on s

G
. .

e n e r ally t e h a irs fal l a n n u a lly i n spri n g tim e o r i n ,

a utu m n to b e r e pl ace d by o th e rs
,
This ki n d of m o u lti n g .

o ccas i on al ly o cc u rs i n d e p e n d e n t o f a n y gr e at ch a n ge i n th e

Th r ts ls
e e e x rs i di ff r t k i ds f h i r l b whi ch m y r ad i ly
a o n e en n o a , su ur, a e
c m b i e wi th l d to f rm c l r d s l ph r ts t i i thi s w y th t t h
o n ea o o ou e u u e . e n a a e
h r m y b dy d by t h e o f l d c m bs
ai a e e e us by th p pl i c ti
ea f s l ts
en o , or e a a on o a
o f l e d m rc ry & c
a ,
e th e s l p h r t whi ch i l h
u , .
,
ufo rm d b i g f thi s
u e s en e e n o
co l r ou .
 or TH E C LA s s M AM MA L I A . 2 27

col ou r or ch a r a ct e r of the h air ; i n oth e r an im a ls it i s di ffe r e n t .

The c om m on squ irr el for e x am pl e ( Fig

, wh o s e r o b e is o f .

a d e e p r e d i n s u m m e r b e c o m e s o f a fi n e gr e yish -blue ti n t i n
,

wi n t e r It is at this s e a s on th at the h a ir o f m amm als b e

.

F i g 1 73
. .
—Th e P g li
an o n .

c o m e s m u ch thick e r h av i n g u n d e rn e ath the fur i n m u ch l ar g e r

,

qu an tity Clim at e a ls o pl ays its p art i n m o difyi n g the fur

.

or h a iry c o v e ri n g o f the ski n ; h e n c e w e s ee k i n co ld clim at e s

chi e fly fo r the skin s o f an i m als s u pplyi n g th e v alu abl e furs of

co m m e rc e : S ib e ri a an d N orth A m e ric a ar e the tru e fu r c ou n
tri e s .

Wh e n the h airs gro w ex tre m e ly cl o s e to geth e r th ey s e e m ,

to b e c o m e m a tte d an d to fo r m th o s e h o r n y pl at e s c o v e ri n g
,

th e b o di e s o f s o m e m a m m a ls a s th e p an g o li n s ( F i g 1 7 3 ) an d
, .

th e c u ir a ss o f th e a rm a dillo A n a to mists a ls o c on sid e r n ails

.

a n d b o r n a s h a vi n g the s am e o rigi n .

T ze S ice l e to n — Th e g e n e r a l fo r m o f th e b o dy is
§ 3 9 1 /
. .
,

d et e rm i n e d by the sk e l e t on b u t this m u st n o t b e e x t en d ed
,

to th e o u tli n e i n e v e ry i n st an c e ; the h u m p o f the c am e l an d ,

;

th e d o rs al fi n s o f wh al e s ar e n ot supp o rt e d i n t e rn ally by an y
,

p o rti o n o f the sk e l e ton ( Fig 1 7 The sk e l e to n pre s en ts

.

a lw a ys th e gr e at e st an al o gy with th e h u m a n which w e h a v e ,

a lr e ady st u di e d 2 6 9 & c ) The di ffe r e n c e s m ay b e r e duc ed

, .
,

1 s t To th e abs e n c e of th e a bd o mi n al li m bs i n th e fi s h -sh ap e d
.

m am m als c a ll e d c e t ac e a ( Fig 2 md I n the dimi n u ti on

. .

o f th e n u m b e r o f th e fi n g e rs an d t oe s a n d th e a bs e n c e o f c o ll a r
,

b o n e s i n th o s e i n wh o m the li m bs s e rv e m e r e ly a s i n strum e n ts
o f pr o gr e ssi on a n d s u pp o rt 3 r d To s o m e v a ri eti e s i n the
. .

n u m b e r o f th e v e rt e br ae e sp e ci a lly o f the c aud a l

, 4 th I n . .

e qu a liti e s i n th e r e l ativ e siz e o f v a ri o u s b on e s .

3 92 Co nf o r m a ti o n of tb c H e a d — I n the fo rm o f th e
.

Q 2
 Z OO L O G Y .

o ss eous h ead the size o f the c ran i al c apacity c ompare d wi th

, ,

the a r e a o f the fa ce i s s u ppo se d to b e i n the r a ti o o f the i n

,

te l l i g e n ce with ce rt ai n e x c e pti o n s ; a s w e r e c e d e fr o m m an
, ,

the fa c e b e c o m e s co mp a r ativ e ly l a rg e r a n d the ce re br a l c a vity ,

s m all e r pr o p o rti on ally to the fac e ; th e o rbits a r e dir e cted

,

m o r e o utw a rds a n d c e a s e to b e disti n ct fr o m th e t e m p o r a l

,

fo ss ae ; an d the occipita l c on dyl e s which i n m an ar e f ou n d a t ,

the ba s e o f the cran i u m a n d which fo r m the pl an e by which

,

the h e a d re sts o n th e v e rte br al co l u m n r e c ed e m o r e an d m o r e , ,

u n til th e y c om e to b e pl ac e d a l m o st on a li n e with t he ax is o f

the bo dy . The s a m e h a p pen s with the j a ws S till w e fi n d .

,

a lw ays t h e s a m e bon e s th e s a m e fo r m o f a rtic u l a ti on o f the

,

l o w e r jaw ; b e tw e e n its c on dyl e s an d the t e mpo r a l b o n e th e re

i s n o i n t e r m ed i at e b o n e as i n birds r e ptil e s b atr achi a a n d
, , , ,

fish e s .

Fi g 1 74
. .
—S k e l e t o n of th e C am e l .
( See pa ge
3 9 3 V a ri o u s m a mm als a r e pr o v id ed with h o rn s Th e s e
. .

a r e s o m e ti m e s m e r e a pp e n d a g e s o f t he ski n , a n d s e e m to b e
fo r m e d o f t he h a ir m att e d t o g e th e r ; this is the c a s e a s
 or TH E C LA s s MAM MA L I A . 2 29

r e ga rds the h or n o r ho rn s o f the rhi n o c e ro s ; b u t g e n e rally it

is oth e rwis e a n d it is a prol o n g ati o n o f the fr o n ta l b o n e s
, ,

which fo r m s t he ax is of th e s e h orn s A l l m a m m als provid e d

.

with s u ch h o rn s ar e rumi n an ts So m e ti m e s the o ss e o u s pr o

.

tu b e r an ce r e m a i n s c o v e r e d with the c om m on i n te gum e n t a n d ,

c on ti n u e s s o ; this h app en s i n the giraffe ( Fig I n som e . ,

the ski n which c o v e rs th e o ss e ou s c o r e o r a x is dis a pp e ar s ,

a n d l e a v e s the b o n e e x po s e d ; which a fte r b e i n g s o for a ti m e

, ,

fa lls o r is thro w n off to b e r e pl a c e d an n u ally by an o th e r

,

gro wth : such a r e ca lle d an tl e rs an d a r e fo un d on ly i n the

,

de e r ki n d ( F i g . fi n ally i n oth e rs the o ss e ous ax is is

,

n e v e r sh e d but co n ti n u e s to gr o w d ur i n g t he life o f the an i m a l

, ,

c o v e re d with a ki n d o f sh e ath c omp o s e d of an e l a stic s u b

st an ce e spe ci ally c a ll e d hor n which gro ws by l ay e rs an d i
, , ,

an al o g o u s to n ai l a n d h a ir The te r m ho l l o w hor ns is gi v e n
.
,

to h orn s th u s co v e r e d with a h o r n y sh e ath fo r m e d s e e m i n gly ,

o f a ggl o m e r at e d h a irs an d fo u n d i n di ffe r e n t spe ci e s o f the

,

F i g 1 75
. .
— Rh i n oce ro s o f I n di a .

goat ( Fig . o x sh e e p an d an te l ope

, , It o ught furth e r to
.

b e r e m a rk e d th at i n al l th e s e an i m als with th e e xce pti on of

, ,

th e an t e l op e th e o ss e o us a x i s o f the h or n is h oll o w e d o u t i n to
,

ce lls co mmun icati n g with the fr on ta l si n u s e s an d thu ,

ce i v i n g i n to th e ir in t e ri o r th e e xte r n al ai r .

The m od e of fo rm ati on o f the h or n s c all e d a ntl e rs is a s

fo ll o ws —A t a c e rtai n ag e th e re appe a rs a gr owth of b on e on
,
23 0 Z OOLOGY .

the fron ta l bo n e r e s e mblin g wh at m e dica l m e n ca ll an e x o s

,

to s i s o r the c a llus o f fr act u r e d bo n e s

,
The s e pro tube ran ces . ,

which ar e v e ry co mp act gr o w rapidl y an d c ar ry the i n te g u , ,

m e n ts with th e m ; th e y ar e a ls o v e ry v as c u l a r A fte r a .

Fi g 1 76
. .
- H ad
e of th e Go a t . Fig 1 77 . .
—H e a d o f th e E lan d .

tim e a s e ri e s o f o ss e ou s tube rcl e s b e gi n to fo rm a rou n d

,

the b as e of th e o ss eo u s h o rn which i n cr e a si n g o blit e r a te s th e , ,

b l ood v e s sel s thus cuttin g o ff th e s u pply o f bl o od to the

,

i n t e gum e n ts c o v e r in g the an tl e rs Th e in t e gu m e n ts drop .

o ff con s e qu e n tly an d di sa ppe a r l e a vin g the an tl e r its e lf e x

, ,

po s ed An d n o w th e an tl e r itse lf di e s as it w e r e n e cr os e d
.
, ,

an d e n ds by be in g d e ta ch e d fr o m the cr an i u m I n tw e n ty .

four h ou rs afte r thi s a thin pe ll i cl e c ov e rs the su rf ace from

,

which the an tl e r had bee n d e t a ch ed an d soo n a n e w pr o ,

l on g ati on be gi n s to gro w i n the pl ace of th e o n e which h as

b e e n sh e d . G
e n e r a lly th e n e w an tl e r i s gr e at e r th an th at to
,

which it succe e ds a n d its bran ch e s ar e l a rge r an d m o re n u

,

m e r o u s ; b u t it i s o f n o l on ge r d u r ati on th a n the fi rst an d it ,

un d e r g oe s th e s am e ch an g e s .

With on e e x ce pt-i on the re i n -dee r an tl e rs gro w o n ly i n the

, ,

m al e The ph en om en on has obvi ou s symp a thie s with the

.

o rg a n s o f r e pr od u cti o n fo r th e y pe rsist fo r m o r e th an a y ea r
,

i n th o s e an im a ls i n which th e ru t doe s n ot co m e to a c ri sis

an d is li m it e d It i s pe r i odic an d occ u rs i n the spri n g
.
, .

3 9 4 The e x te n si on o f the n o s e i n th e e l e ph an t i n to a
.

fl e x ibl e an d d e x te rous pro bo scis is a m odi ficati o n o f the or g an

w e ll d e s e rvi n g n otic e The pro bo scis o f the e l e ph an t is i n
.
,

fact an e x te n si on o f the n o stril s fo rmi n g a d o ubl e tu be an d

, , ,

fitted to pe rfo r m the o ffic e o f a h an d an d a n os e By it w a te r .

an d food ar e c on v e ye d to the m o uth an d a i r to the l u n gs ; ,

 OF TH E CLASS MAM MA L I A .

a fi b r e -te n din o u s m e m br an e li n e s it thro u gh ou t , an d to this

an d to the fo r e h e ad an d i n te gu m e n ts ar e a tt a ch e d th o u s a n ds

of s m al l muscl e s , s o a rr a n g e d as to e l on g at e an d sh o rt e n th e
i n strum e n t i n e v e ry co n ce iv abl e m an n e r A ca rtil a gin o us
.
,

an d e l a stic v a lv u l e e x ists sup e ri o rly , s o a s to c u t o ff, a t th e

will of the an i m al , all c o mm u n ic ation betw e e n th e pr ob o scis
an d th e tr u e n o st r ils s u p e ri o rly ; fi n e r -
lik e a pp e n d a g e te r
a g
m i n ate s this r e m a rk ab l e i n strum en t i n fe ri o rly Th e e n o r .

F ig 1 78 .
—E l e p h an t o f I n d i a .
 23 2 ZOO LO G Y

m ous w e ight o f the h ead r e n d e rs a pro bo scis n ec e ss a ry to the

e xist e n c e o f the an im al with o ut which it c o uld n e ith e r fee d
,

n o r dri n k .

F i g 1 79
. .
—H e ad o f th e T a pi r . F i g 1 80 —Th e
. . D sm
e an .

The l ph an ts ar e the on ly an im als whi ch h a ve a pro bo scis

e e ,

but th e r e ar e o th e rs i n which the n a s al o rgan s ar e p ro l on ged

i n t o s o m e thi n g an al ogo us Such are the tapirs ( Fig . .

The d e s m a n s ( Fig sm all in s e ctiv o rous an im als a lli e d

.
,

to the m u s a r a i g n e s b u t ad apt ed for swim m i n g with e a s e

, ,

a n d s e a rchi n g fo r th e ir foo d a t the bo tto m o f bu rr o ws dug i n

b each e s pre s e n t a sim il a r e l on g ati on o f the n o strils
, .

39 5 T h e Tr.u n k — The v e rte b ra l c olu m n pr e s e n ts but

slight m odifica ti on s i n the v e rte brata an d th e s e ar e chi e fly
'
,

con fin e d to a d i fi e r e n ce i n the n umbe r o f the v e rte brae .

A ga in this di ffe re n ce is chi e fly r e m a rk abl e i n the ca ud al or

,

coccyge al p art o f the co lum n ; i n s om e as i n b ats of the ,

ge n u s r ou s se tte th e re e x ist n o c occygea l v e rte brae wh ate v e r ;

,

i n oth e r m am m als th ey n umbe r for ty fifty a n d e v e n six ty ; -

a n d i n th e s e w e als o fi n d this di sti n cti on —th a t the v e rte b ra l

, , ,

ca n al for l odgi n g the S pi n al m ar ro w an d a po rti o n o f its

n e rv e s stil l e x ists i n s om e o f th e s e bo n e s whilst i n the te r m i
, ,

n ati n g on e s it is wh o ll abs e n t In m o st m amm a ls the ca ud al .

p a rt o f the c o l u m n is u t littl e u s e d fo r l oco m oti on : i n the

k an ga roo j e rbo a &c it b e c om e s with th e hi n d e r limbs a so rt
, ,
.
, , ,

o f tripod fr o m which the an i m a l sp rin gs with gr ea t fo rce

,

( Fig . m an y A m e rica n a pe s u s e the t ail as a pre h en sil e

o r gan o f e a t po w e r as a fifth h a n d i n fa ct by which th e y

s
, ,

d e x mr ou cl i n g m br an ch e s of t ree s ( Fi g fi n ally i n the .

,

ce t a c ea it beco me s e n o rm ous an d s e rv e s a s th e ir g rea t ,

m o vi n g a g e n t i n swi mm i n g It is b e n e ath the bo di e s of

.

th e s e c au d a l v e rte brae th at w e fi n d the b on e s sh ap e d lik e

t he l e tte r V which s ee m to s e rv e as ribs to stre n gth en the
,

fle x or muscl e s o f the ta il ( Fig The l en g th of the n e ck

.

v ari e s als o i n m am m als a lth ough the n um be r o f c e rvical

,
 OF TH E cu s s MAMMAL I A . 2 33

v e rte b rae is with fe w e x c e pti on s the s am e i n al l

,
The ,
.

e x c e pti o n s a r e the a i which ha s n in e a n d th e l a m an ti n which

, , ,
'
ha s s i x The g i r afle an d wh a l e o pp o s e d as th ey a r e i n
. ,

ect o f l en gth o f n e ck h a v e pr e cis e ly th e s a m e n u m b e r o f

p ,

ce r vic a l v e rt e br ae .

e c o n fo rm atio n o f th e th o r a x o r ch e st v a ri e s
§ 3 9 6 J T h
littl e ; the n u m be r o f ribs is ge n e rally fro m tw e lv e to fo u rte e n
p airs ; i n the ho rs e h o w e v e r th e re a r e e ighte en a n d i n the
, , ,

e l e ph an t tw e n ty p airs
,
The st e rn um which i n ge n e r a l.
,

i s flat an d s m o oth is r ais e d i n to a cr e st i n the b ats a s, ,

if to acco mm o d a te the greatly i n cre a s e d d e pre ss o r m uscl e s

o f the wi n gs th u s ad apti n g the an i m al fo r flight an
, ,

a rr an g e m e n t w e fi n d ca rri e d to its high e st e x t e n t i n birds .

I n a l l this cl a ss a m u scul a r di aphra gm s e p a r a te s the ca vity o f

,

the ch e st fro m the abd o m e n

—
.

§ 3 9 7 L i m b s . I n a l l m a m m als with .th e e x c e pti on o f ,

F ig 1 81 .
-
Sk e l e t o n of a C t ac
e eou s A n i m a l ( th e
the c e t ac ea th e r e a r e fo u r li m bs ; two th o racic an d two abdo
, ,

mi n al o r p e lvic I n the c et a c e a th e re ar e o n ly tw o the

.
,

th o racic Th ey ar e u n i fo rm ly com po s e d of a b a sil a r po rtio n o r

.

b a s e foll ow e d by thre e pri n cip al s e g m e n ts or p o rti o n s r e spec

,

ti v e l y th u s : the ar m an d thi g h the fo re -a r m an d l e g th e h an d

, , ,

an d foot .The b as il a r p orti on of the an te ri o r o r p e cto r a l e x tr e

m ity is th e sh o u ld e r bl ad e or bo n e c all e d sc a p u l a wh o s e , ,

fo rm v a r i e s m u ch a cc o rdi n g to the ch a ra ct e r o f th e m o v e m e n ts
o f th e an im a l I n an i m a ls which u s e th e ir p e cto r a l e x tr e m i
.

ti e s a s i n stru m e n ts o f preh e n si o n as w e ll as suppo rt the ,

sc apul ae ar e s e c u r e d i n th e ir pl ac e by two b o n e s which r e st on

the st e r n um ; th e s e ar e th e c o ll a r bon e s ( Fig but i n .

s u ch an im als as the h ors e usi n g its an t e ri o r l i mbs wh o lly for ,

I r gr t th t m y fri e d h s p l c d th i s figu re h e r f i p i t f f c t
e e a n a a e e, or n o n o a
th e D ug n g i
o o t a c e t a ce o s
s n im l s I pro d lo g g —R K u an a , a ve n a o . . .
23 4 ZOOLO G Y .

pr o gre ssi o n an d n ot pre h e n si on the co ll ar bo n e s ar e e ith e r

,

alto g e th e r w an ti n g o r re d u c e d to m e r e v e stig e s So m e v e ry
.

si n gula r an d an om al o us an i m als als o m am m als n o d o ubt

, , ,

di ffe r wid e ly i n m an y re sp e cts fro m the o rdin a ry o rgan i

zati o n an d i n n on e m o r e th an wh a t c on c e rn s th e struct u r e o f
,

the sh o u ld e r ; w e a ll u d e to the o rn ith o rhy n chus p a rad oxus

an d e chidn a s e to s a o f Ne w H o ll a n d
, I n th e s e the sk e l e ton
.

o f th e sh o u ld e r m o r e r e se mbl es wh at w e fi n d i n li za rds a n d

i n birds th an i n m a m m als .

Th e arr an ge m e n t of th e bo n e s o f the sh o u ld e r i n th e se
sin gul ar an im als will b e be st u n d e rstoo d by a r e fe re n c e to
Fig 1 8 2 i n which d po in ts to two bo n e s on e ach side (of
.
,

which on e i s n ot r epr e s e n t e d h e re ) c o rre spon din g to the

us u al c o ll ar b on e s o f m am m a ls ; a po in ts to the sca p u l a ;
h to the c a vity for the a rtic u l a ti on o f th e h e ad of th e hu
m e r us ; o the prol on gati on o f the sc a pula to the ste rn um ,

a n a l o g ou s t o th e cor a co i d cl a vicl e o f birds ; co an o ss eo us

pi e ce the an al o g ue o f which has n o t b e e n d ete r mi n e d ; 3 an d 0

,

po i n t to the ribs The m e an i n g o f thi s co m pl e x ity o f the

.

sh ou lde r i n thi s cl ass o f an i m a ls h as n e v e r ye t be e n ex

pl ai n e d .

Th e fu n cti on s o f th e b as il ar p o rti on o f th e sk e l e to n o f th e
a bd o mi n a l o r hi n d e r li m bs v a ri e s l e ss th an d o e s th at o f the
,

pe cto r al I n the ce tac e a al so i n the d u go n g an d l am an ti n

.
, ,

Fi g 1 8 2
. . F i g 1 83
. .

the pe lvis is r e d u ce d to a m e re frag me n t ; i n o th e r m a m m a ls ,

the bo nes o f the h a un ch e s ( i ) a rticul a te i n a n i m m o va ble

 or TH E cu s s MAMMAL I A . 23 5

m an n e r with th e s a crum (s a ) an d r e un iti n g i n fe ri o rly fo rm

, ,

a girdl e or pe lvis th u s surr o un di n g th e l o w e r p o rti o n o f the

,

t r u n k The fo rm an d dim en si on s of this girdl e v a ry much

.
‘

F i g 1 84
. .
—Th e Ch am o i s .

an d , crate ms
/

p ari b u s , the
r ct po siti on on the l ow e r li m bs is
e e

e a si e r a s the p e lvis is l a rge r I t m u s t a ls o b e r e m ar k e d th a t

.
,

i n the op os s u m s an d o th e r m a rs u pi a l an i m a ls the muscl e s o f ,

the abd o m e n a sistin g i n the fo r m ati o n o f the p ouch of th e s e

s

F i g 1 85
. . Th e M o le .
23 6 ZOOLOGY .

anim als ar e a tta ch ed to t wo p e culia r bon e s articul a t e d to

, the
an t e ri o r p a rts o f the p e l v is a n d c all e d by an at o mists, the
’
m arsupi al b on e s l ( Fig 1 83 m ) ‘
. .

H um r s o f t h e
e u A te ri o r L i m b
n a nd H d
an .

Mol e .

In th e ar m ani n al l m a m m als th e r e is b u t on e
d thigh
b on e th e h u m e r u s an d the fe m ur ; i n the fo re -a r m an d l e g ,
two bo n e s —the r adi u s an d ul n a i n the fo r e -ar m , the tibi a a n d
,

p e ron e or fib u l a i n the l eg I n bats th e r e is a r o tu l a i n the

G
.

a r m a s w e ll a s i n th e l e g e n e r a lly th e s e l e g an d ar m b on e s
.
,

ar e sh o rt an d str on g o r l on g a n d sl e n d e r , a cc o rdi n g to the

,

h abits of the an i m al The m o l e an d ch am o is m ay s e rve as

.

th e e x a mpl e s o f thi s m o difica ti o n : str e n gth ch a r a cte riz e s the

a cti on s o f the m o l e an d swi ft n e ss
, th o s e o f the ch a m o is .

Wh e n the h an d n o l on ge r s e rv e s fo r pre h en si on , b u t m e re ly
for supp o rt the r adi u s l o s e s its po w e r o f r otati on o n th e
,

u ln a ,
a n d e n ds by u n iti n g with it s o i n tim at e ly as to b e n o

l on ge r disti n g u ish e d fr o m it I n the s olidun g ul ous an im als

.
,

the s a m e h app e n s with the fib u l a a n d tibi a .

The fo ot a n d h an d v a ry i n m a mm als , a cc o rdi n g a s th ey

ar e us e d fo r pr e h e n si o n , swimmi n g , flight , o r w a lki n on

gro u n d m o r e o r l e ss firm Th e s e circ u mst an c e s h av e ee n

.

al r ea dy a llude d to Th e fi n g e rs o r to e s a r e n e v e r m o r e th a n
.

fi ve an d th eir n u m b e r dimi n ish e s ac co rdi n g as the e x tre mity

,

is m o re e x cl u siv e ly u s e d fo r si m pl e pro gr e ssi on

Or g a n s of the S e ne ca — The p e r fe cti on o f the
.

3 98 .

fin ge rs an d t oe s a s i n str u m e n ts o f to uch s e e ms to d e pe n d o n
th e fi n e n e ss o f t he i n te gu m e n ts th e fo rm o f th e n a il a n d the
, ,

fl e x ibility o f the i n stru m e n t I n this r e sp e ct m an sta n ds pr e

.

e mi n e n t i n a cc o rd an c e n o d o u b t with his high e r i n te llige n c e

, , ,

( Fig .

Th s e b e s
e on
p r e s e t w
a re h e th e r t hne po u c h b e th e re o r n o t —B K . . .
 OF TH E cr a ss MAMMAL I A . 23 7

3 99 The o rgan s of the oth e r s e n s e s ar e als o an al o g ou s

.

i n al l the m a mm als to th o s e of m an I n th o s e r e m a rk abl e for

the fi n en e ss o f th e ir pow e rs o f sm e ll , —the do g , fo r e x am pl e
.

- h
t e n as a l fo ss ae an d fr on t al sin us e s ar e much e n l a rg e d , an d
th e turbi n at e d bo n e s o f the n o strils ar e gre atly d e v el op ed ,

th u s e x t en di n g the s u rfa c e of the pituit ary m e mbran e , on

whi ch th e n e rv e s o f sm e ll ar e distribute d .

4 00 I n n o ctur n al an im als , the e y e s ar e ge n e r ally l a rg e r

.

th an i n the diur n al ; an d i n the fo rm er the p u pil o f the e ye ,

wh en c on t r actin g , a ssum e s the fo rm of a fiss u r e , l osin g i ts
circu l ar ch ar a cte r I n m ol e s , wh os e r e sid en c e is u n d e rgro u n d
.
,

the ey e s b e co m e e x tr e m ely sm all , an d s e e m i n s om e to b e

m e r e v e stig e s o r r u di m e n t a ry o rgan s ; i n th e aq u a tic m a m
m als the l e n s is , for an obvi ou s r e as on , sph e ric al I n m an y
, .

m am m a ls th e re e x ists a co lo u red p art of th e ch o roid tu n ic o f the

e ye , ca ll e d tap e tu m , th e us e s o f which ar e u n k n o w n fi ‘
g
M an y
h a v e a thi rd ey e lid pl aced v e rtic ally at the i n n e r an gl e of the
h o riz o n t al ey e lids Fi n ally the dire cti on of th e ey e s v ari e s
.
,

m u ch i n m a n th ey ar e di re ct e d fo rw a rds b u t a s w e d e sc e n d ,

i n the sc al e , th e dir e cti on b e c o m e s m o r e an d m o r e l ate r al ,

an d the a n im a l can n o l o n g e r se e dir e ctly be fo r e him : th e

sph e re o f visi on fo r e ach eye m u st th e r e fo r e b e di stin ct .

401 The o rgan s o f h e a ri n g offe r s om e m o dific ati on s i n

.

r e l ati on to the h abit s o f the an im a l I n a qu atic m am m al s .

th e e x t e rn a l e a r is s m all , o r rudi m en t a ry , o r a bs e n t ; i n the

h e rbiv o ra it a ss u m e s th e form o f an e ar -tr u mp e t , b e co min g
m o r e an d m o re d e t ach e d fr o m th e h e a d , an d fitt e d th e r e by to
p e rform the fu n cti on s o f an ac oustic t u b e I n th e n oct u r n al .
,

t he m e m b r a n a ty mp a n i o ccu pi e s m o r e sp ac e , a n d is n e a r e r
the s u rfac e
402 N e r v ou s Sys te m —A s r e ga rds th e n e rv ou s syst e m
.

.
,

i n m a m m al s it di ffe rs o n ly i n r e sp e ct o f th e m o r e or l e ss
d e v e l op m e n t o f its v a ri o us p art s I n al l , th e en c e ph al ic p a rt
.

is v er y co n sid e rabl e wh e th e r vi e w e d pro po rti o n ally as re gards

,

th e n e rv e s or the b u lk o f the b ody o f th e an i m al ; but al l the

o rg a n s co m p o si n g it d o n o t co n trib u t e to this d e v e l o p m en t

th u s the c e re bra l h e misph e re s a r e v e ry l a rge whilst the

, ,

o ptic th a l a mi m ay b e v e ry s m all o r e v e n r u di m e n t a ry ; the,

r e v e rs e o f wh at h appe n s i n bird s r e ptil e s a n d fish e s The , , .

c e r e be llu m is a ls o g e n e r ally l a rg e i n m amm als a n d is co m ,

p o se d o f a m e di an po rti o n ( p r ocess u s v er mif or m i s s up e r i or ) ,

Th g l i
e f th e y s i
ar n o th d rk d e p
e e n ds o t he p re s e c o f th i s
e a en n n e
t p / m; it c o
a e u s ri e s i d i fl
o ur va t i m ls
n R K
‘

e re n an a .
- . .
23 8 ZOOLOGY .

of two h e misph e r e s , an d o f a
c ommissur e su rro u n di n g the m e ,

d ul l a spi n alis s u pe ri o rly the a n n u l a r p r o tu b er a n ce Mo re

, .

o v e r m a n y di ffe r e n ce s e x is t a m o n g m amm als i n r e spe ct o f

,

th e s e o rg an s a s w e ll a s r e g a rds the de pr es sio n s an d circum

,

v o luti on s o n the su rfac e o f the brai n A s w e d e sce n d fr o m .

m an to a pe s fro m the s e to the c ar n iv o ra a n d fro m the car

, ,

n i vo r a t o r o d e n ts the br ai n ge n e r al ly b e co m e s s m all e r an d
,

sm all e r a n d s m oo th e r The face als o is d e v e lo pe d i n an

, .

i n v e rs e r a ti o to th at o f the bra i n an d th e m e a s u re of the ,

i n te ll e ctu a l facu lti e s m ay b e gu e ss e d at by o bs e r vi n g th i s

i n crea sin g siz e of th e face as co m pa re d with th e brai n .

I n the m a rs u pi ali a an d m on o tre m e s th e bra i n s e e ms still ,

fu rth e r d e gr ad e d by the abs e n c e of o r at l e ast the r u di m e n ,

tary st at e o f the corp u s ca l l os u m which i n all o th e r m am

, ,

m al s u n ite s the h e misph e r e s of the br a in to e ach o the r

—
.

F c i f N i i T h fu cti s f utri
‘

403 u n . t o ns o u t r t o n e n o n o n .

ti on re s e mbl e e a ch o th e r thr ou gh o ut n e arly the wh ol e o f the

cl as s ; th e dig e stiv e tub e is the o rg a n whi ch sh o ws the m o st
re m ark abl e v a ri e ty i n its a rr an ge m e n ts .

Ne a rly all h a v e tee th which v a ry i n n u mb e r an d

for m i n acco rd an ce with th e ki n d o f food th ey li v e o n But
, .

t he y m ay b e r e pl ac e d by wh al e b on e a s i n c e rta i n of the ,

ce t a ce a ( Figs 1 3 a n d . o r by a h o rn y bill a s i n th e orn i ,

thor hyn chu s p a r a d ox us ; h e n ce th e n am e .

404 The sto m a ch is usu al ly si m pl e as i n m an ( Fig 24 )

.
, .

a n d th e a pe ( Fig b u t a s i n r u mi n an ts the o rg an m ay
.
, ,

b e s u bdivid e d i n to a n u mbe r o f co mp art m e n ts fr o m the fi rst ,

o f which the fo od a fte r r e m ai n i n g a ce rta i n ti m e th e re r e

, ,

turn s to the m on th by th e gu ll e t to b e r e m astic ate d (r umi ,

n a ti on ) an d th e n c e tr a n smitte d i n t o th e fo ll o wi n g c o m p a rt
,

m e n ts wi th ou t ag ain p a si n g i n to the firs t

,
s .

Th e se stom achs i n rumin a n ts a re fo ur in n umb e r The .

fi rs t which is the l ar ge st is c all e d the p aun ch ( Fig 1 8 7 )

, , .

its surface is fu rn ish e d with p apill ae an d a n e pide rm ic cov e r

i n g ( Fig . it fills a l a rge p a rt of the l e ft sid e of the
’
a bd o m i n a l c av ity The s e c on d sto m ach c all e d the ki n g s
.
,

h o o d i s sm al l an d l oo ks lik e a n a ppe n d age o f the p a u n ch

, , .

Bu t it di ff e rs i n te r n ally ( Fig be i n g co m po s ed o f a
.

n u m b e r o f fo lds d i spo s e d s o as to fo rm po lygo n a l c e l ls or

ce ll u l e s l i k e h o n ey co m b The third sto m ach n ot s o s m all as
,
.
,

t he s e c o n d is c a ll e d m a n i pl u s fr o m the n u m be r o f l on g i tu
, ,

di n a l folds s e e n i n its i n te ri o r ; fi n al ly th e fo u rth is ca ll e d the ,

r e n n e t ; its pro pe rty o f c u rdlin g m il k r e n d e rs it r e m a rk a bl e .

The first s e c o n d a n d th i rd sto m a chs c o m m u n ic at e dir e ctly

, ,
 or TH E cu s s MAMMAL I A . 23 9

with the gull e t which i n d e e d s ee ms to Op e n e q u ally i n t o th e

,

first an d s e co n d A fte r b e i n g r um i n at e d the fo od d e sc e n ds

.
,

fro m the gull e t i n t o the third sto m ach by m e a n s of a s e m i

G ulle t

(E s o ph a g e a n
G ro o e v .

M a n i pl u s .

D d uo en um .

Pyl r s o u . Th e R e n ne t . 2u d S to m ach P aun ch

. .

F i g 1 87 . .
— Sto m ac h of th e Sh e e p.

c an al which n o do ubt b e com e s c om pl e te at th e tim e th u s

, ,

dir e cti n g the fo o d i n on e c ou rs e on ly div e rti n g it from the ,

p a u n ch a n d s e c o n d st om ach ; fr o m t he m an i pl u s it p a ss e s ,

i n t o the r e n n e t or fo u rth st om ach i n which c av i ty dige sti on ,

is fi n a lly compl e t e d .

G u ll e t .

(E s o ph a g e al G ro o ve .

M a ni pl u s , or Th i rd
S to m a ch

R en ne
S
t
t o m ac
,
or Fh .
ou rth

D d uo e num .

Pyl r s
o u . Se c d St
on oma ch . P aun ch .

0
F i g 1 88 . .
—I n t e ri o r o f S to m a ch o f th e S h e e p .

The a ct by which the foo d p a ss e s wh e n first sw a ll o w e d

i n to t he p a un ch a n d th e n c e to the s e co n d sto m ach but which ,
 24 0 zo o no cr .

on be i n g ru m i n ate d o r re m a stic ated d e sc en ds on ly to the

third by m ean s o f the e s o ph age a l c an al is n ot an act o f i n t e l ,

l i g en ce but on e pur e ly i n stin ct i v e an d p e rh aps e v e n m e ch a

, ,

ni cal , d u e to th e a n ato m ic a l dispo siti on o f the structure s .

F ood o f the siz e it is wh e n first sw a ll o w e d o pe n s m e ch an ical ly ,

the s e m i -c a n a l b y which the gu ll e t c o mmu n ic a te s with th e fir st

,

a n d s e c on d sto m achs ; b u t fl u ids a n d the r e m astica t e d foo d be in

much fin e r d o n ot e ffe ct this an d thus p ass o n by the can

, ,

i n to the m an i pl u s or thir d sto m ach R u m i n ati on is gen e ral ly .

as cri be d to th e s e co n d st om ach but it app e a rs m o r e pr o b a bly ,

d u e to a c om bi n ed acti o n o f th e fi rst an d s ec on d which by , ,

co n tr a cti n g fo rce s th e b o lus ag ai n i nto the gull e t by which

, ,

it r e m o u n ts to the m o uth .

The p au n ch I S o f v e ry gr ea t siz e i n the a d u lt an im al ;

the y ou n g whilst livi n g o n the m ilk o f the m oth e r it i s
, o ,

sm all e r th an the r en n e t thu s sh owi n g (P) the i n fl ue n c e the

foo d e x e rcis e s i n e n l ar g i ii g the c a p acity of the o rg an
,

405 The c ap ac i ty a n d l en gth o f t he i n te stin e s ar e m u ch

.

l e ss m the c a rn iv o r a th an i n the h e rbiv o r a b e i n g i n m an y o f ,

the f0 1 m e r o n ly thr e e o r fo u r ti m e s th e l e n gth of the b o dy

whil st 1 n th e sh ee p for e x a mpl e it is n e arly e ight t i m e s th at
l e n gth . G ,

en e r a lly it t e rm i n a t e s by a disti n ct o pe n i n g ; 1
,

t he o r n ith o rhy n ch u s h ow e v e r the an u s o pe n s i n t o a cl oaca

, , ,

o r c a v i ty i n which t e r m i n at e a ls o the uri n a ry o rg an s r e se m

, ,

bli n g birds i n this r e sp e ct The s aliv a ry gl an ds the liv e r .

, ,

p a n cre a s pe rito n e um an d its appe n d ag e s r e s e mbl e the s a m e

, , ,

or g a n s 1 n m an .

406 Th e m o r e e s s en ti al diffe re n c e s e x ist i n the appa ra tu s

.

o f r e spir a ti on an d circul a ti o n ; th e h e a rt h as alw ays t wo a u ricl e s

a n d tw o v e n tricl e s 9 2 Figs 3 0 th e l u n gs a r e alw ay s

, .
,

c om po s ed o f ce ll ul e s which do n ot all o w the ai r to e sc ape i n to

,

th e oth e r o rgan s o f the bo dy as i n birds The bl oo d i s rich, .

i n o rga iz e d m att e rs a n d the fo rm of the gl ob u l e s c i rcul ar

n ,

81 , F i g .

407 . W e ha v e a lread y sh ow n th at th e m a m m a ls di ff e r
wid e ly fro m e ach oth e r i n r e sp e ct of i n te llige n ce
a n d t he v a ri o u s i n sti n cts be sto w e d on th e m b y n a tur e to

s u ppl the d e fici e n cy of a high e r i n te ll ige n c e h a v e be e n

al rea a l l u d d to It th e cl a ss which m o st i n t e r e sts m a n
y e 1 s . ,

i n cludi n g withi n i t as it d oe s so m an y o f ou r d o m e stic an i

, ,

m als ; the h o rs e o x sh e e p &c S o co mpl e te i n d e e d h av e

, , , .
, ,

be e n the e ffe cts o f d om e sticity o v e r s om e o f th e s e r a ce s o f

an i m a ls th a t t he pr i m iti v e ra ce s e e m s alto ge th e r to h a v e
,

dis a ppe a re d The m or a l as w e l l a s the physica l ch a r acter s of

.
 or TH E CLA S S MAMMAL I A . 24 1

the d o m esticate d r ac e s ar e thus aff e cte d an d a lte r e d The .

d og for e x ampl e s o v ari e d by do m e stic ati on m ay yet h a v e

, , ,

sp run g from a sin gl e r ac e n e ithe r a w ol f n or a jackal l but a , ,

’
dog anal og ou s to the c omm on sh e ph e rd s d og or w o lf-dog as , ,

it is s om e tim e s c al l e d .

The po w e r by which this c ompl e t e subj u gati on of a r a c e o f

an im als is e ffe cte d s ee ms to b e the i n spiri n g th e m with con
,

fi d en ce by ki n d acts an d un ifo rmly go o d tr e atm e n t

, We .

m ust sh o w th e m th at the s u pply of foo d d e p e n ds o n us ; an d

i f to th at we ad d food of a ch oice ch aract e r a rtifici al w an ts ,

ar e thus cr e at e d w hich the an i m al fe e ls m an a l on e can

,

gr atify H e n ce his a tt ach m en t to hi m ; * fin al ly s o m e ar e

.
,

e xtr e m e ly fo n d of be i n g n o tic e d an d m ad e m u ch o f .

Con fide n c e an d dep en d en c e o n m an b e i n g o n c e e st ablish e d ,

fe ar m ay afte rw ards b e s up e radd e d ; but this must b e d on e

with gre at ca u ti on l e st it e x cite t e rr o r a n d di sgust , .

But al l m am m als do n ot thus r e a d i ly l ay a sid e th e i r s a v ag e

d isp ositi on b e i n g e ith e r l e ss con fi di n g or l e ss s en sibl e to a cts
,

o f ki n dn e ss or it m ay b e th a t th e ir i n te ll e ct is l o w e r ; b u t
,

b e thi s as it m ay it is e vid en t th at an y an im al to b e co m e
, ,

co m pl e te ly d om e stic ate d m u st b e disp o s e d to it by th e ,

i n sti n ct o f s o ci abili ty No s olit ary m am m a l e v e r b e c om e s .

co m pl et e ly dom e stica te d h o w e v e r r e ad ily he m ay b e tam e d d ,

'

S o ci a bility is an e ss en ti a l o f c ompl et e d om e sticity m an b e ,

co m i n g as it w e r e the h e a d of th e tr oup e
, , A dispo siti on to .

d om e sticity m ay b e c on s id e r e d as th e e x tr e m e de v e l opm e n t
o f th e i n sti n ct o f s oci ab i li t i
y
4 08 L et u s n o w con sid e r th e m o r a l an d physica l i n flu
.

e n ce s which d o m e sticity e x e rcis e s o v e r th e d o m e stic r a c e s o f

a n i m als ; h ow i n fa ct it pr o du c e s n e w v a ri e ti e s
, , .

The physi ol ogic a l l aw of h e r e dit a ry r e s e mbl an c e s h o lds

tru e i n al l an i m a ls m an i n cl u d e d ; th e y ou n g r e s embl e th e ir
,

p a re n ts i n co nfo rm ati on physica l an d m en t a l qu alitie s an d , ,

e v e n i n r e spe ct of dis e as e its e lf But all th e in divid u als of a .

r ac e do n ot po ss e ss i n the s am e d e gre e the s a m e qu ali t i e s ,

m o ral an d physic al ; an d h e n ce aris e s th e p o ssibility o f givin g

to c e rt a in qu aliti e s a high e r a n d m o r e c on st an t d e v e l o p m e n t .

With i n ce rta i n limits th e n m a n m ay m odify r ac e s by r e g u , , ,

l ati n g th e succe ssi on of ge n e rati on s s e l e cti n g a type o r ,

It i ch i fly b m s f s g r d th r d li c ci es th t h rs s an d d r
s e y e an o u a an o e e a a o e ee
ar e t aught th s t r rd ry t ri cks e hi bi t e d i th ci rc s
o e ex ao i na x n e u .

1 Th c t m y s m
'
e a c p ti to t hi s i e w b t i f t th e t i s
a ee an e x e r on v , u n ac ca neve
m l l e t l d om s t c t d
T
co e e i a e
—
.

I h e t o ry o f d mee st i c t i o i o o f e tor m e d ffi c 1 ty R K a n s ne x e 1 u . . .

R
24 2 zo o r o c x .

st an d ard for the n e w v ari e ty he i s d e sir ous By of cr at

e i n fi“
g
e n d e a v o urin g thus to d e v el o p fr o m g e n e r ati on to g e n er ati on

a c e rt a i n physic a l or m e n t al qu a lity w e r e n de r such qu aliti e s ,

h e re dit ary at l e ast fo r a tim e , .

E v e n i n ou r o wn tim e s guid e d by i n te r e st m en h av e thu s , ,

fo rm e d n ew v ari e ti e s of sh e e p ox e n an d h o rs e s To Bak e , , .

w e ll fo r e x ampl e we o we the v ar i ety of sh ee p call e d Ne w

, ,

L e ice s te r r e m a rk a bl e for th e i r fatte n i n g qu aliti e s

, The fo r e .

qua rte rs o f the l a rge Wu rte mburg v ari e ty o f sh e e p as a ,

v alu abl e s o rt for the m a rk e t b u tch e r w e igh fro m 52 to ,

55 pe r 1 00 of th e wh o l e w e ight ; i n the Ne w L e ice ste r

o r D ishl e y br e e d th e w e ight a m o u n ts to 7 0 or e v e n 7 5 , It .

m ust b e k n ow n to al l ho w the qu al ity of the w oo l is imp ro v e d

by c r o ssi n g with the m e rin o s of Spai n sf
Fi n a lly the v ar i o us br e e ds of h o rs e s prov e th e s e facts
,

r e sp e cti n g the i n flu en c e of m an ov e r the d o m e stic rac e s

o f a n i m als Our a gr icult u ra l b re e ds o f h o rs e s o we i n p a rt
.

th e i r statur e th e ir fo rm s an d qu aliti e s to the rac e fro m

, , ,

which th ey h a v e spr un g ; but th e circum st an ce s i n which

th ey ar e pl a c e d wh e n y o u n g ex e rt an i n flu e n c e o v er th e m n o
l e ss gr e at The y ou n g r e s e m bl e s the m oth e r m o re th an the
.

fath e r i n r e sp e ct of th e siz e an d h e ight ; whilst it re s e mbl e s

th e fath e r m o r e a s r e ga rds th e fe e t sp e e d c o u r ag e &c , , , .

It is e ss en ti al th e r e fo r e in bre e di n g to s e l e ct th o s e i n di , ,

v i d u al s on ly w hich p o ss e ss th e r e q u isite qu a l iti e s r ej ecti n g ,

th e ir Oppo site s ; or i n oth e r w ords to br e e d fro m th o s e h avi n g , ,

o pp o sit e q u a liti e s i n ti m e the n e w fo rms b e co m e h e r e di t ary

a n d g e n e ra l To atte n ti on to th e s e m atte rs the A r a b h ors e s
.
,

o w e th e ir gr an d qu al i ti e s The n obl e br e e d th e y c al l kochl an i .

Th bl o dh o ds t r spl te d i t o A m u i by the Sp i rds em p lo y e d

e o un an an n ca an a ,

a t first t p rs o ly m o d d r f r i sh
u ue r m rk bl ins t c o f th
n en an ee ,
u n a e a a e an e e
p w r o f tr sm i tti g c rt i
o e wly cr t d m
an t l q l i ti s h r di tari ly
n e a n ne - ea e en a ua e , e e .

I d i ff r t p rts f A m ri c
n e en s th c t r l t bl l d f S t F e th se
a o e a, a on e en a a e - an o an a- , e
a n i m ls h a pre s r d th i r i l i tm t
a ve d phys i c l q l i ti e s ; b u t
e ve e or
'

na ns e s an a ua
a m o gst t h e p r h b t t
n f t b ks f th M d li th y h b eco m e
oo in a 1 an s o e an o e a e ne e ave
d rad cd p rtly by m t re w i th th r d gs p rtly by sc rci ty f foo d a
d i th s d g r t r
e , a a ix u o e o , a a o ,

an n i f th bl dh e d w i st i c t h
ene a e be e a ce o e oo oun a ne n n as n
d l p d Th ch s i w hi ch th y h
e ve o e . b l g m p l y d i th t o f the
e a e n e ave ee n on e o e s a
w hi t m l d P
e- i Th sk il l
u zz e f th d g c s i sts i
e cca r m o d e r ti g i t
. e o e o on n a n s
c rg
ou a rd r e or a t t tt k y i di d l o i th t r
ou , r h e rd o f
so a s n o o a ac an n n na e oo o

p i
e ccar s ,b t t k p th wh l i u ch k N w i t h bo ee s r e d th a t e o e n ee . o as ee n 0 e v
th s d gs t th s th
e e o ry first occ si th y h t th p c i wh reas
ac u on e ve a on e un e ee ar , e
an y st r d g th r w s hi m s lf
an e th m t c o d i d o ur d io an e on e a on e, an s ev e n
i st
n t w t
an b i ts st r gth
, a e ve r e en .

a
1 It w m 1 7 7 6 th t th s p ri te d t f fi
tt m p t d first th i tr d ct i
e e
as

f t h m ri
c s D ni l T d ai e
t r c
D b e t o the c ll b or t r f B fi th t i d t he s cce ss f the en t r
au n n, o
e
a
n
a

d it is t o

a eu
u
e

o
on
u e
o
u
n

'
on ,
n

e
en

a
e
s
o
no
ue
nan
i n o F
e

u
,

an
a
e , an
e

o
ru n

e
,

pr s 1 e .
 OF TH E cu ss MAMMAL I A . 24 3

has its purity s e cur e d by auth en tic l e gal att e st ati on s d u ri n g ,

a s e ri e s of four ag e s an d the k n o wn g e n e al o g y o f s e v e r a l
,

o f th e s e fi n e an i m a ls e xte n ds to two th ous a n d y e a rs The .

E n gli sh r a ce -h o rs e o w e s its qu aliti e s to a mixtur e o f the A r ab

st alli on with the i n di g en ou s m are s of En gl an d ; h en c e its sta
tur e an d a sto n ishi n g r apidity The abun d an ce an d qu ality .

o f t h e foo d th e n at u r e o f th e cli m at e the d a ily c ar e s b e st ow e d

, ,

o n th e h o rs e i n fl u e n c e the r ac e m uch m o r e th an is g e n e r a lly

,

supp o s e d : as a proo f of this w e m ay n otic e the rapidity with ,

which th e fi n e st E n glish h o rs e s d e ge n e ra te i n c e rta i n l o c ali

ti e s as i n the st u ds o f Ke ps ch an o n th e b o rd e rs of Mo ravi a
, .

But the s am e fact m ay b e obs e rv e d n eare r h o m e If tw o .

co lts o f th e s a m e br e ed o f Lo rrai n e for e x a m pl e b e pl ace d

, , ,

o n e i n Fl an d e rs the oth e r i n N o rm an dy in ste a d of r et a i n in g ,

th e ir r e s e m bl an ce to e ach oth e r th ey wi ll at fi v e y ears r e s e m ,

b l e h o rs e s o f di ffe r e n t bree ds : the on e wil l gr o w u p a co ac h

h o rs e li ght a n d el e gan t ; the oth e r an e n o rm o u s an im a l
, ,

h ar dl y a bl e to trot but e qu a l to the dr au ght of th e h e a vi e st

,

l o ad s .Wh e r e n o u rish m en t a bo u n ds th e re the siz e an d ,

w e ight o f the hors e in creas e ; oppo site circ u m stan c e s ar e

a tte n d e d with oth e r r e sul ts F ed on stron g hu m id p a st u r e s .
,

t he h o rs e b e co m e s h e av y an d his fo rm an d h a ir c oar s e ; o n ,

light s o i ls an d e spe ci ally if gra in b e a dd e d to his o rdi n ary

,

food his fo r m b e c om e s light an d e l e gan t : fin al ly the c ar e fu l

, ,

gr oo m i n g b e sto w ed on the En glish h ors e c on tribu t e s to

i m pro v e his fo rm an d e spe ci ally th e fi n e n e ss of his l i m
,

Th u s it h appe n s as i n the d og th at v a ri e ti e s m ay b e s o
, ,

m u ltipli e d a s to m a k e it app ea r th a t th e y m u st h a v e spru n g

fro m m o re th an on e spe ci e s : n e v er th e l e ss al l th e s e m odifi ca ,

ti o n s h a v e th e ir limits beyon d which n atur e will n ot o r ,

ca n n ot g o : th ey n e v e r d e stroy the distin ctiv e ch aracte rs of

z ool ogica l pe s ci e s fi “

409 Cl a s s ifi ca ti on of til e M a m m a l i a — Th e r e e xist

. .
,

a s w e h a v e s e e n c on sid e r a bl e di ff e r e n c e s a m on gst the m a m

,

m ali a a n d th e s e m o difica ti o n s o f str u cture s e r v e a s the

,

b a sis for the divisi on o f the cl ass i n to gr ou ps of an i n fe ri o r

r a n k c all e d or d e r s Mo st o f th e s e gro ups ar e so disti n ct a s
, .

to ad m it o f n o d o u bt i n r e sp e ct o f th e ir li m its ; th e y c on sti
tute i n fact n at u ral div i si on s ; b ut i n o th e rs the li n e o f
, ,

d e m a rca tion is by n o m e an s s o distin ct Thus a m amm a l .

E xp e i m e n rts m ad e i n thi s co un t ry h av e l e d t o e n ti re ly di ff e r e n t re s u lts .

Th e a ri o u s b re ed s o f h o rs e s ca ttle an d sh e e p r e m ai n u n a lt e re d o n wh a t e v r
v e
—
, , ,

p a st u r e s th e y m a
y b e f e d R K . .
24 4 zoo r o o r .

m ay h av e p oi n ts o f re s e mbl an ce s o cl o s e to two gro ups as to

ren d e r it alm o st in di ff e re n t to which it b e re fe rre d To .

so m e n at u r alists d iffe r e n c e s a ppe a r imp o rtan t which ar e dis

,

r e ar d e d by o th e rs a n d h e n c e a w an t o f agr ee m e n t on th e
,

s u j ce t o f cl a ssifi ca ti on has a lw ays pr e v a il e d .

The m e th od foll o w e d h e r e is n e a rly th at pro p o s e d by

Cuvi e r . It r e sts m ai n ly on the di ffe re n ce s m amm als sho w
i n r e sp e ct of th e ir ex tr e miti e s an d t e eth di ffe r en ce s whi ch
,

a lw ays imply a cr o wd o f o th e rs i n stru ctur es h abits an d

, ,

e v e n in te ll ig e n ce .

4 1 0 Kee pi n g i n vi e w th e en s em b l e of th e s e ch a r acte rs
.
,

th e cl a ss m amm ali a m ay b e divid e d i n t o two groups th e

,
-

m o n od e lp hi c an d d i d e lp hi c .

The m on od e lphic or m on od elphi an ar e the m o r e n um e r ous ,

an d ar e d istin guish ed chi e fly by th e ir m o d e o f de v e l o pm e n t .

A t birth th e y ar e alr eady pro vid e d with al l th e ir o rg an s , an d

b e fo re bi rth th e y d e riv e th e ir n ou rishm en t from the m oth e r
by m e an s o f a p l a cen ta Th e ir br ai n is m or e pe r fect th an
.

the did e lphi an , b the pr e s e n ce o f a co rp u s c al l o s u m u n it i n g

th e tw o c e r e br al e m i s phe r e s Fin ally , the w alls o f
the abd om en h a v e n o o ss e o us supp o rts att ach e d to the m a rgi n s
o f th e p e lvi s , a s w e fi n d i n th e s e c on d gr e a t cl a ss o f m am

m als The m amm a ls thus o rgan iz e d h a v e be e n subdivide d

i n t o two gr oups ,—n am el y , or d i n a r y m a m m a l s an d p i s cif or m
.

'

m a mm a l s .

4 1 1 The o rdi n ary m am m als ar e o r g an iz e d p ri n cip al ly

.

to l i v e on s ol id gro u n d ; the ski n is pr o vid e d with h a irs .

Th e s e an im als ar e fu rth e r s u bdivid ed i n to te n o rd e rs : t he

bim an a , qu adrum an a , ch e iropt e r a , i n s e ctiv ora, rod e n t i a , e d e n
t at a , c ar n iv o ra , am phibi a , p achyde rm ata , a n d r u mi n an ti a .

Th e first e ight o f th e s e o rde rs h a v e fl e x ibl e fi n g e rs a n d to e s ,

with n ails co v e ri n g on ly the d ors al asp e ct of the toe or
fi n ge r , an d com par ativ ely sm a ll ; h e n c e the y h av e be e n cal l e d
on n i cn l a ta ; t he l as t tw o , — n am e ly , th e p achyd e r m a t a an d
g
r u m i n an tia , h av e th e e x tr e mity o f the fi n ge r an d to e e u ti r e l v
e n cl o s e d i n a h oo f ; th e y ar e th u s c a ll e d o ng u l a ta .

4 1 2 The o rd e r b i m au a i n cl u de s on ly m a n i n h i m al on e
.

the a rms ar e d e st i n e d fo r pre h en si on , the li m bs fo r progr e ssi on

an d s u ppo rt i n th e e r e ct attit u d e . Thus , th e n atural po siti on
o n th e s o il is u n m ist ak e a bly v e rtic a l The t ee th a r e o f thr ee
.

ki n ds an d h a v e th e ir e dg e s o n th e s am e pl a n e ; th e y ar e

frugi v o ro us ; fi n al ly , the br a i n is m o re p e rfe ct , m o re highly

d e ve l o pe d , th a n i n a n y oth e r an im al .
 OF TH E CLA S S MAMMAL I A .

Th ough m an r epr e s en ts but a si n gl e sp e ci e s , ye t i n hi s

v a r i e ti e s h e off e rs m an y r e m a rk a bl e diffe r e n c e s , e spe ci a lly as

to co l o ur , fe atur e s , an d pr o po rti o n s ; o f th e s e v ar i e ti e s , the

m o re re m a rk abl e ar e the white or Caucasi an , the y e ll o w or
Mon gol i an , the bl ack or E thi opi an .

The Ca uc asi an v ari e ty o f m an o ccupi e s al l E ur op e an d

G
W e ste rn As i a as far as th e an ge s , like wis e No rth e r n A frica .

To it b e l on g the m ore highl y civiliz e d n ati on s Th e r e gi on of

.

the Cauc as u s has bee n supp os e d to h a v e b e e n th e cr adl e o f the

r ace , h en ce its n am e A fair skin , e l e v ate d fo r e h e ad , sm al l
.

ch e e k -b on e s , h ai r v aryi n g i n c olou r , but alw ays sm ooth to ,

g eth e r with high in te ll ectu al qu aliti e s , ch ar acte riz e the r a ce .

The Mon go li an v a ri ety di ffe rs i n m an y re spe cts fr o m the

Cauca si an . The br o w is l o w an d squ ar e , th e eye s sm a ll an d
o bliqu e ; ch e e k -b on e s pro mi n e n t , n o s e flat, littl e o r n o be ar d ,

h a ir bl ack an d sm oo th , co lour y e ll o w Th e ir l an gu ag e is
.

m on o syl l abic Th e ir o rigi n al c ou n try is Cen tra l A si a , e x

.

t en din g to an d in cl u di n g Chi n a an d the Chin e s e , th e e arli e st ,

s e e min gly , o f civ i liz e d m e n S ib e ri a an d M on g oli a , the
.

Crim ea , Thi b e t, J a pan , th e Al eou ti an Isl e s , an d e v en th e

F i g 1 89
. .
—c s R
Ca u a i an ace .
24 6 ZOO LOGY .

w e ste rn sh ore s of N o rth ern A m e ric a ar e al l ccupi e d by th is

‘

, o
r ac e of m e n .

—M g l ac Fi g 1 90
. . on o R e .

S o m e n atur alists vi e w th e M al ays as a disti n ct of

m en ; b u t m o st v i e w th e m as a mixtu r e of two race s .

L astly the d e gr ad e d r ac e s k n o wn as Laps Sam oi de s E s

, , ,

qu i m o s &c s e e m to b e re l at e d to the Mon go l r ac e

, .
, A thi rd .

distin ct v ari e ty o f m an kin d is the E thi opic c on fin e d to ,

A fric a, s outh of Mou n t A tl as s ee mi n gly co mpo s e d o f ,

s e v e ra l disti n ct r a ce s o f m e n such as the N e gro Bo sj e sm an

, , ,

H o tte n to t Mo z a mbiqu e 8150 It is ch aracte riz ed by th e dark

, , .

co l our o f the ski n fr iz zly h air l o w an d c o mpre ss e d fo re h ead

, , ,

pr oj ect-i n g ja ws l arg e lips an d muzzl e -shap e d m o uth with

, , ,

o th e r
pecuh ar i ti e s which n e e d n ot b e m e n ti on e d h e re
, The .

primitiv e po pul ati on o f A ustr ali a an d of the n um e rous isl es

o f th e o ce an ic A r chi pe l ag o h a v e b ee n vi e w e d by s o m e n atu
,

r al i sts a s co n stituti n g a distin ct v a ri e ty ; the Al fo ur on s ar e

yet but li ttl e k n o wn .

Fi n a lly the i n di ge n ous i n h abitan ts of A m e ric a h av e be e n

,

v i e w e d by m an y n atu ra lists as a d isti n ct r a c e o f m e n Th ey .

ar e c oppe r co l ou r ed h a v e l on g bl ack str aight h a ir an d but

, , , ,
 MAMMAL I A
’

or TH E C LA s s .

littl e beard But s om e of th e m h a v e stron g an al ogi e s with

.

the M on g o li an r a c e of A si a whilst o th e r s appr o a ch s om e

,

wh at the for m of E urop e an s The n o s e is as prom i n en t as i n

.

the E u rop ean an d th e i r e y e s a r e l a rg e an d o pe n

, .

.
—
Fi g 1 90 a f The
th e
R
Y oun g Me mn on r e pr e senti n th e Cop ti c ace ( from
ce l e b rate d b u st i n th e B ri ti sh gd use um)
,

.
24 8 zo o r o cx .

The te rm Cauca s ian was d e vise d by Bl u m en ba ch to char ac~

te ri ze a ce rtai n n umbe r of the high e r race s o f m an but he ,

did n ot atta ch an y th eory to it ; that has b ee n d on e

w rite rs H i s arran ge m en t of the race s of m en was g eogr a
.

la
—M on g o l ( rom
F i g 1 90 6
.

’
k .

C r s Tra ve l s ) .
F 1 90 c —B o sje sm an or
e ll o w Af ri can ace R ,

F i g 1 90 d - os esman
B layi n g ’
. .
j p on
th e Go urah ( fr om Bur ch el l s Sou th
)
 or TH E CLAS S MAMMAL I A . 24 9

ph i cal ; th ough it has ce rta in facts fav ou rabl e to it the

an d al ,

vi e w is n ow v ery gen e rally aban don e d .

E ach rac e s e e m s to h a v e a civiliz ati on p e cul i ar to its e lf ;

thus the an ci en t Gree k s e e mi n gly n ow e x ti n ct c arr i e d the
, ,

a rts lite r ature an d e v e n sci en c e or at l e a st phil o s ophy to a

, , , ,

Fi g 1 90 e
. .
—Th e A bo ri gin al N ti
a ve o f A us t ral i a from P e ron
, .

po in t th ey h av e n e v er re ach e d si n c e th e ir e p och ; the Co tic

r ace h e ld its own fo rm of civiliz ati on a s e xhibit e d i n t ei r
a rchite ctur e ; s o also the P e rsi an an d Mon o l
,

g
The W e ste rn .

E urope an r a ce s ar e chi e fly de fici en t i n im agi n ati on an d g eni us .

Th e N e gr o rac e h as n e v e r in v en t e d an yt hin
Of al l the rac e s of m an the m o st re m ar abl e i s the Saabs
, ,
 Z OOLO G Y .

or el o
y l wr ape of
Afr ica : it i n clud es the H otten tot and Bos '

j an properly so ca ll ed ; but t ra v ell er s affi rm tha t the Aus

e sm ,

F i g 1 90f
.
.
—The S k ul l of th e T asm ani an .

tr al i a n Tasm an i an stan ds l o we st i n the scal eof hum an ity

or
.

H o we v e r this m ay b e ce rtai n it i s th at m o st of th e col oured

,

;F i g 1 90 g
. .
—C fi a re
’
C rani um .

ra ce s of man be co m e rapidl y e xti n ct i n pre sen ce of the

or E ur o pe an r a e s
c : an d w e r e it n ot for cl im a te it is pr o ,
,

ba ble tha t many of the race s of m an wo uld h av e been l ong

 o n TH E cr a s s MAMMAL I A . 251
'

ag o e xti n ct or n ear ly so but n ature s ee ms to

, oppo se the
tran sfe r of a race fro m the co n ti n e n t on which it fi r st ap
pe ar e d to an oth e r Thus the En glish m a k e n o
.
pro gre ss i n
r e ality i n I n di a an d from n o rth e rn A frica al l the
, immigran t

Fig . 1 90 h —C afi r e
.
’
. S k ll u .

r ace s of P h oen ici an , Gree k , R om an , V an dal , &c h a v e di sap

p e ar e d . The Sp an ish bl oo d wil l e r e l on g b eco m e e xtin ct i n
A m e rica .

F i g 1 90 i
. .
—Th e Che ro k ee H e ad .

The an ato mica l st ructu r e of the race s of m an diffe rs co n

si derab l y, s o th at th e r e i s n o t the sli ght e st di fficulty i n di s :

S ee R a ce: Qf M e n : a F r ag men t . By D r Kn ox
. . L o n do n : R h
e ns a w.
252 zo o no c x .

ti n g u i shi n g
th e ir v ari ous cran i a al tho u h po pul a r w rite rs
fon d of d e n yin g this fact ; th e y ar e misled by the applicati on s
,

w hich n atural ly e xist am on gst the r ac e s of m an as am on gst

all oth e r a n im als ; th e s e a ffi li ati on s sh o w th a t th e r a ce s o f
m an n o w on the gl ob e for m on e fa m ily —R K
”
. . .

4 1 3 The o rd e r o f the qu ad r um an a is co mp o s e d o f tho se

.

a n i m al s which h av e the gre a t to e s o co n stru cte d as to p e rfor m

th e fu n cti on s o f a thumb an d which u s e th e fo ur limbs as

,

w e ll for pre h en si on a s for l oco m oti on L ik e the bim an a th ey .

,

ar e fr u iv o r ous a n d th e ir te eth ar e simil a r to o ur s I n this

g , .

g ro up a r e ar r an g e d the a p e s ( Figs 93 the o ustiti .

,

( Fig . an d the m akis ( Fig .

The ap e s ar e an im al s o f sm al l or m ode r a te s tatu r e the ,

muz zl e m od erate ly pro min en t the n eck sh ort the body , ,

Fi g 1 91. .
—E thi opi an Rc
a e .

sl e n de r an d the ext remiti e s thin an d l on g The ar e cov e red

,

y
.

wi th l on g an d silk h ai r cl o s ely se t ; n ev e rth e e ss th e ir r e

:

, ,

s e mbl an ce to m an 18 s om e ti m e s e xtre m e an d the re ar e s om e ,

w hich wh e n y oun g h av e the faci a l l i n e n ot m ore o bliqu e

, ,

th an i n the n e g r o ; but with ag e i n s o m e the face pro ,

je c t s b,e c o m i n
g a muzzl e r e s e mb l i n,g th a t o f t h e d o g ( Fi g .

Th e ge stur e s an d tr icks o f th e s e an im als h av e o fte n a

r es e mbla n ce to ou r o wn With the aid of a stick
some g
.

] ol d th e m s e lv e s u right an d e v e n w a lk as w e d o but

n e v e r ste ad y n or as sur e di n th e i r ste p s o th a t i n the v e rtica l

, .
,

po sition th ey a lw ays see m con st ra in e d an d ill at ea se On .

 OF TH E CLA SS MAMMAL I A . 253

th e th e r h an d i n the fo re st th e y displ ay the utm o st a gi lity

o , ,

an d this s e e ms i n d e e d to b e th e ir n at u r a l l o c ality To a rms of .

grea t l en gth a n d fe e t o rgan iz e d a s han ds with an opp o sin g

, ,

th u mb i n s om e w e fi n d i n a dditi on a l on g pre h e n sil e

,

t a il s o th at th e ir activity a m on gst t ree s b e c o m e s alm o st

,

i n credibl e .

F i g 1 92
. . F
Whi t e ro n t e d M a
- k
i s , wi th i ts Y o un g .

A p e s i n h a bit ly w a r m c o un tri e s ; a si n gl e sp e ci e s dw e ll s
on

o n t he r o ck of G
ibralt ar ; the ap e s of the Ne w W o rld ar e al l
disti n ct fr o m th o s e o f the Ol d .

T e o rd e r of c a r n iv o r a is c o m po s e d o f o rdi n ary
§ 4 1 4 h.

on g u i cul ate d m a mm als ; th e fo r m o f th e ir d e n titi on is com

2 54 Z OOLO G Y .

pl e te , but th ey h av e n o op sin g thumb A cco rdi n g to the .

m o de of li fe of the s e an i m a 5 th eir i n te sti n al c an a l is sh o rt

,

th e i r j aws an d th e ir muscl e s stron g i n o rd e r to s e iz e an d ,

d e v our th e i r prey ; th e ir h ea d from this cir cu m sta n c e s ee ms

l a rge The jaws ar e sh o rt thus favo urin g the ir stre n gth
.
, ,

a n d th e fo rm o f the t e mp or o m axi l l a ry a rtic u l ati on pr o v e s

th at the tee th ar e m ad e for t e a ri n g an d c u tti n g but n ot fo r ,

g rin d i n g or m asticati n g : The can i n e te eth a r e l a rge l on g

.

, ,

an d v e ry p o w e rful the i n cisiv e s s i x i n n u m b e r i n e a ch j aw

, , ,

sm all ; the m ol a r s om etim e s en t i re ly ad apt ed for c u tti n g i n

, ,

o th e rs sur m o un te d with r o un de d tube rcl e s pre se n ti n g n o ,

c o n ic al po in ts ar ran ge d as i n th e i n s e cti vo ra On e o f the s e

, .

m ol ar tee th is usu ally much l on ge r an d m o re cutti n g th a n

the o th e rs an d has th e r e fo r e b e e n c al l ed the ca r n iv o r o us
,

m o l ar to o th ; be hi n d th e s e ( on e a ch sid e ) ar e on e o r t w o
m ol ar s al m o st flat an d b e tw e e n the c arn iv o ro u s m o l ar an d
, ,

the can i n e a v a ri a bl e n u m b e r o f fa ls e m o l a rs The foo d of .

the an i m al wh e th e r e x cl u siv e ly c a rn iv o rou s or m i x e d with

,

o th e r m a tt e rs m ay b e j udg e d o f by th e v a ryi n g pr op o rti on s o f

,

th e s e cutti n g or t u be rcu l at e d p arts o f th e m ol ar te e th .

A n i m al s of this o rd e r h a v e ge n e r al ly th e to e s a rm e d with
cl aws ad apte d to h old an d to te ar th e ir prey ; u su al ly als o
th e y h av e n o co ll ar bon e s This ki n d o f o rg an iz a ti on i s m e t
.

with i n the ge n e ra cat hy aen a viv e rr a m arti n ott e r d o g

, , , , , ,

b adge1 b ea r
, ,

F i g 1 93
. .

Th e ge n u s ca t ( Fig . which m ay b e vi e w e d as t he
type of th e car n 1 v o r a , co mpri s e s n o t on ly t he co m m on ca t , but
 or TH E cr a s s MAM MAL I A . 255

al o
s the tige r lio n p an th e r lyn x &c th e ir j a ws ar e sh or t
, , , , ,

an d ar e a cte d on by muscl e s o f e x trao rdi n a ry str en gth ; th e ir

re tr actil e n a il s con ce al e d b e tw ee n the to e s i n a st at e o f r e po s e

,

by m ean s o f e l astic ligam e n ts ar e n e v e r bl un te d Th e ir to e s

, .

ar e fi v e l n n u m b e r on th e an te ri o r limbs an d fo ur on th o s e ,

b ehin d Th ei r h e arin g i s e xce e di n gly fi n e an d th e b e st d e v e

.
,

l o pe d of al l th e ir s e n s e s Th e y s e e w el l by day an d n ight
g ,
.

but th ey ar e n ot fars i hte d ; i n s om e the pupil i s e l on g ate d

v e rtica l ly 1 11 oth e rs it 1 8 rou n d Th ey m a k e gre at u se o f th e
, .

org an of s m el l ; th e y c ons u lt it b e fo r e e ati n g a n d o fte n wh e n ,

an yt hi n g disturbs th e m Th e ir to n g u e is c ov e r e d with h orn y

.

F i g 1 94 — Th e
. . P th r
an e .

an d v e ry r ough p oi n ts Th e ir c oa t is i n g e n e r al s o ft an d fi n e
.
,

a n d th e s u rface o f th e b o dy v e ry s e n sibl e to th e to u ch ; th e ir

m ou sta ch e s e sp e ci ally s ee m to b e i n stru m e n ts o f gre at s e n si

b i li ty
. Th ou gh o f pi o di g i o u s vigo u r th e y ge n e rally do n ot
a tt ack a n im al s Op e n ly b u t e m pl oy c u n n i n g a n d a rtific e
,

y
.

Th e y n e v e r push the ir pr e to flight b u t w atchi n g by the

m a rgi n s of riv e rs an d p ools i n co v e rt th ey spri n g a t on c e o n,

th e i 1 victim .

A t the h e a d o f this g e n us st an ds the li on m e a s u ri n g fr e ,

qu en tly tw e lve fee t i n l e n gth or o v er s i x fe e t to the s etti n g

,
 256 ZOOLOGY .

on o f the t a il ; ab o ut thre e fe et i n h e ight an d cha racte r ize d by ,

the squ ar e h e ad the tuft o f h ai r t e rm i n ati n g the ta il an d i n

, ,

the m al e by the m an e which flo ws fr o m the h e ad an d n e ck

The li on is th e m o st po w e rful of the ca rn iv o ra with a s i n l e
bl o w o f hi s for e paw he can bre ak the back o f a h o rse an a ,

stro ke o f the t ai l will strik e do w n th e stron ge st m an F or .

m e rly spr e ad o ve r the t hr ee gre at di vi si o n s of the Ol d World ,

he see ms n ow limite d to A fri ca an d As i a .

The an im a l which s o m e c all th e A m e ri can li on be l on gs to a ,

d i ff e r e n t spe ci e s ; it is ca ll e d co u guar an d is pe c u li ar to the ,

Ne w Wo rld .

The r oy a l or E a st e r n tige r is an an im a l m o re d an g e r o us
th an the li on which it n early e qu als i n stre n gth but ex ce e ds
,

i n fe ro city . The h air i n th e tige r is sh ort an d sm oo th an d ,

y el l owi sh ab o v e with bl ack tr an sv e r s e ban ds or strip e s ; it

,

i n h abits I n di a wh e re it doe s m u ch d amag e

, .

The j a gu a r n ot much l e ss th an th e E aste rn tig e r an d

, ,

alm o st as dan g e r o us is a n ativ e of A m e ric a a n d is fo un d o n ly

, ,

the r e It in h a bits the gr e at fore sts

. Fu rr i e rs c al l it the .

gr e at p an th e r for it is sp ott e d like th at an im al ; the ro be or

,

fu r b e in g y e ll o w with fo ur r o ws o f d a rk spo ts l i k e ey e s
,

r an g ed al on g the fl an ks with white an d bl ack strip e s be n e ath

, .

The p an th e r ( Fig s o r e m a rk a bl e fo r the be au ty o f its

.

fur or r o b e is fo un d al l o v e r A fr ic a an d A si a to g eth e r w ith

, ,

the l e op a rd which it much re s e mbl e s ; t he fur is y e ll o w with

, ,

n um e r o u s d ar k spo ts .

Th e ly n x als o or cat is disti n g u ish e d by a pe n ci l or t uft o f

, , ,

h air s surm oun tin g the e x t e rn a l e ars ; the c oat or fur is r ed

c ol o u red s otte d with a re ddish brow n It is i n dige n ou s to
t e mpe rate E
.
,

u r o pe but it h a s n e a rly dis a pp e a r e d fr o m pcpu

,

l ous c ou n tri e s ; it is still fo u n d am o n g s t the Pyre n e an

m oun ta i n s i n the kin gdo m o f N apl e s an d i n A fri c a It
, , .

as c e n ds tr e e s ; an d h a vin g e x c e ll e n t sight d o e s m uch mis

, ,

chi e f by d e str oyi n g h ar e s an d d e e r The an ci e n ts a scribe d to .

it a p ow e r o f visi on equ a l to the s ee i n g thr ough a sto n e w a ll

h e n ce th e phras e ly n x -ey ed , .

The co mm on ca t co m e s o rigi n ally fro m the fo r e st In a .

wild st at e it is o f a bro w n c o l o ur s om e wh a t gr e yish with , ,

d e e p e r col o u r e d tra n sv e rs e w av e s The t a il is an n ul at e d with

.

d a rk rin gs the i n n e r sid e o f the thighs a n d fe e t y e ll o wi sh , .

Th e hy ae n a is disti n gu ish e d fro m th e ge n u s ca t by the

n u mbe r o f t oe s which is fo u r fo r a l l th e limbs a s w e ll as by
, ,

the e n o r m o u s stre n gth o f the t e e th a n d ja w s a n d by the cl a ws ,

 or TH E .
CLA S S m u r mu rs . 2 57

or na ils which ar e n ot re tra ctile du ri ng w al ki n g The ta i l

, .

is sho rt an d pen d an t a n d u n d e rn e ath the a n u s is a po u ch

,

which s ecr e te s a disa gre e ably -sm e lli n g visco us m a tte r Th eir .

ga it i s od d a n d the y ,

ca rry th e ir hi n d qu arte rs

m uch lo w e r th an the fo r e .

The y a r e n o ct u r n a l an i
m a ls p r eyi n g o n wha t
,

e v e r th e y ca n v e n t u r e to

a tt ac k ; co w ard ly ; th e y
di si n te r the d e ad an d d e ,

spi se n o ki n d o f food .

The y r e so rt to ca v er n s d u
ri n g th e day ti m e Th e ir
-
.

re p u ta ti on fo r fe ro city is
n o t bo r n e o u t by th e fa ct F i g 1 95 —Th e H y m a
. . . n .

The co m m o n hy aen a b e
l on ged o rigi n a lly to A si atic Turk e y Syr i a a n d to s om e , ,

c ou n tri e s o f A frica .

The c a r n iv o r a c all e d puto ri u s or po l e c at m uste l a o r co mm on ,

m a rt e n otte r o r l u tra an d so m e othe rs ar e r e m a rk abl e fo r

, , ,

the l e n gth o f th e ir bo di e s an d sh o rt n e ss o f th e ir limbs Th ey .

a r e al l s m a ll b u t e x tr e m e ly s an gui n a ry
, .

The g en u s puto ri u s co m p r ise s th e c om m on po l e c a t th e ,

fe rre t m a rte n the e r m i n e a n d s e v e r al o th e r“ spe ci e s which

, , , ,

al l h a v e the h e a d r o u n d e d the fur brilli an t an d s o ft th e

.
, ,

t a il l o n g an d an a l gl a n ds which s e cr ete a fmti d m atte r

,
.

F i g 1 96
. .
—Th e B e l e tte .

The m a rten s di ffe r b u t littl e fro m the po l e c ats an d a r e ,

e q u a lly s o u ght a ft e r fo r th e ir f ur Th e p ol e c at which d o e s .

,

s u ch d a m a ge t o the po u ltry b e l o n gs to th i s ge n us , .

The o tte r (l utra ) h as the h e ad d e pre ss ed an d the fe e t p a lm at e d .

Ott e rs a r e a qu a tic n o ct u r n a l a n i m a ls i n h a biti n g th e m a rgi n s ,

o f riv e rs a n d l a k e s an d s u bsisti n g m o stly 0 11 fish e s

, .

s
 258 ZOO LOGY .

The ge n u s dog co m ri se s the d og pro pe rly so called the , ,

wo l f an d the fox Al th e se an im a ls a r e ch a ra cte rize d by a

, .

pe culi a r d e n titi on great stre n gth an d agility s e n s e o f h e ari n g

, ,

a n d sm e ll a cute cl a ws ad a pte d for di g i n g a n d th e y sh o w a

, g ,

p a rti ality ( s om e at l e ast ) for p u trid fle sh a s foo d Th e ir s i g ht .

is e xc e l l e n t.

The d o m e stic d og is disti n guish e d fro m the o th e r s pe ci e s b

th e c u rv ed t ai l This an i m a l is bo rn with the ey e lids clo se d
.
:
an d th e y o pe n on ly a fte r te n or tw e l v e d ays ; t he fe m a l e has s i x

o r se v e n at a bi rth an d s o m e tim e s e v e n tw e lv e
, The dur a .

tio n of li fe is fro m twe lve to fo urtee n y ears th ey h av e bee n

k n o w n h o we v e r to liv e to tw e n ty an d the ir ag e i s d e te r mi n e d
, , ,

by th e ir tee th which i n th e y ou n g a r e whi te p o i n t ed

, , ,

an d cutti n g but i n the a ge d blu n te d da rk co l ou red an d

, , ,

irre g u la r .

F i g 1 97
.
—Th e O tt e r .

The dog is the m o st c o mpl e te co n qu e st which m an has

m ad e i n r e spe ct o f an y an im a l Th e e n tir e spe ci e s h as b e
.

c o m e d om e sticate d so th at the primitiv e c on diti on is l o st

, .

The wild do gs fo un d i n s o m e c ou n t ri e s are m e r e ly d o m e stic

dogs which b e in g a ban don e d h a v e r u n w ild an d re co v e re d
, , ,

s om e of th e ir primitiv e s a v a ge h a bits So m e n atur a lists .

ar e disp o s e d to thi n k th a t o rigi n ally th e r e m ay h a v e be e n

s e v e ra l spe ci e s o f the d o g a n d othe rs im a gi n e the w o lf o r

,

j ack a l to b e the o rigi n o f the d om e stic d o g b u t wh e n a ban

d ou e d o n de s e rt isl e s the do g n e v e r a ssum e s th e ch a racte r o f
,

e ith e r o f th e s e a n i m a ls The d o gs o f p e opl e b u t li ttl e civilize d

.

h a v e the e a rs e r e ct an d h e n c e it h as be e n s u ppo s e d th a t the

,
’
sh e ph e rd s d og o r chi e n -l o up is the o rigi n o f the d o m e s t ic do g
, ,

o f a l l v a ri e ti e s .

The co mm o n w o lf is r e adily disti n guish ed fr o m the d og by

 or TH E cu s s MAMMAL I A . 259

the ta il which i n th e w o lf is str a ight

,
The w o lf ha s much
.

the a i r o f th e cur d o g ( m ati n ) ; b u t, u n lik e th at an i m al , the

w o l f l e ads a r athe r s o lita ry life i n the gre at fo re sts , re u n iti n g
i n tr0 0 ps onl y wh en pre ss e d wi th hun ge r The w ol f is a gil e ,
.

a dr o it , stro n g , a n d w e ll a d a pt e d fo r t h e p u rsuit , a tt a ck , a n d

c on q u e st o f his prey ; n e v e rth e l e ss b e is n atur ally sl o w an d

c o w a rdly , u n l e ss pr e ss ed by hu n ge r ; he th en att acks the
’
d om e stic a n i m a ls un d e r m an s pro te cti on w om en an d ch i ldren ,
an d m an hi m s e lf, d o n ot th e n e sc ape his fe r ocity

The Ch a c al , the Lo u p do r é , i n h a biti n g th e w a rm c o u n

tri e s o f A si a an d A fri ca , m o re r e s em bl e i n th e ir h a bits the
dom e stic dog th an the w o lf : th ey m ay b e t am e d .

F i g 1 98
. .
—Th e F ox .

The fo x diffe rs fro m the d om e stic d o g by th e fo rm an d

gre at e r l e n gth of th e ta il w hich is t u ft e d ; by the v e rtic a l
,

fo r m o f the p u pil duri n g the d ay-ti m e an d by the gre ate r ,

c ompa rati v e siz e of the h ead Th e y ar e n o ct u r n al dig b ur

.
,

rows u n d e r gro u n d h a v e a fmti d od our an d att ack o n ly sm all

, ,

a n i m als
. S p e ci e s o f the fox ar e to b e fo u n d i n a l l p a rts o f
th e w o rld . Th os e o f co ld co un t ri e s giv e a fu r which is m u ch
s ou ght a fte r .

A l l th e ca rn iv o r a o f whi ch w e h a v e sp o k e n a s w e ll a s m an y ,

o th e rs — g tt
the e n e e an d civ e t f r
o e x a
, mpl e — w al k on the ball o f
th e t o e s th e ta rs u s b e i n g r ais e d
,
H e n c e the n am e o f digiti
.

gra d e s ; an d to this th ey o w e th e ir u pright w a lk an d r apidity .

B e a rs an d b adge rs i n w alki n g pl ac e the e n tire s o l e o f th e

, ,
260 ZOOLOG Y .

foo t o n the grou n d ; h en c e th e y ar e c al l e d p l a n l i r a d e s .

Th e ir m o v e m e n ts ar e sl o w an d th ey l e ad a n octu rn al i fe
g , .

Be ars ar e l a r e h ea vy an im als thick an d sh or t The ta il

, , .

i s sh ort the h m b s thick b u t th ey ar e an im als o f gr e at

,

stre n gth an d sag a city The fo rm o f th e i r e xtre miti e s e n a bl e s

.

th e m to climb tre e s v e ry r e a dily a n d to sit e re ct on th e ir ,

hi n d qu art e rs S o m e swim w e ll a q uality th e y p e rh aps o we

.
,

to the fa t w ith which th e ir b odi e s a b o u n d Of al l th e c a m i .

v o ra th ey a r e th o s e l east re stricte d to an an im a l die t i n fact ;

,

th ey ar e om n iv o ro us fo r which i n d e e d th e ch ar acte r o f th e ir
,

t e e th a lm o st al l t u be rcul a te d e vid en tly ad apts th e m ; s u ch

, ,

t e e th be in g m o re fitte d to bruis e r oots an d grai n s th an to te a r ,

t h e fl e sh o f an im a ls V e ge ta bl e fo od i s th e ir r e g ul a r di e t
.
,

a n d th e y pr e fe r h on e y o f which th e y r o b th e be e s b e i n g w e ll
, ,

prot e cte d fro m th e ir sti n gs by the rough n e ss of th e i r hid e s .

The gr e a t e r n u m b e r o f the b e a rs liv e i n the fo r e sts b u t on e ,

spe ci e s fre qu e n ts the sh o re s of the P ol ar S e a s Th e fo rm e r .

li v e i n ca v e rn s o r b urr o ws dug by th e m s e lv e s th e ir stron g ,

cl aws e n abli n g th e m to do th i s I n e x tr e m e ly c old w e ath e r .

th ey p ass the ti m e i n a pro fo u n d l e th a rgy .

4 1 5 The o rd e r c a ll e d a m phibi a is fo r m e d o f tw o g e n e r a
.
,

the s e a l an d w alrus
. I n th e s e a n i m a ls a ls o ca rn iv o r o us the
.
, ,

fe e t ar e n ot ad a pt e d for w alki n g but fo r swi m m i n g : th ey pas s ,

the gr eat e r p a rt o f th e ir liv e s i n th e w at e r .

!If m y m e m o ry s e rv e my este e m e d fri e n d D e Bl a i n vill e

, , ,

pl a c e d i n a disti n ct cl a ss c e rtai n an im als t r uly a m phibi o u s as ,

t he sir en pr o te us a x o l o tl & c
, , Se als o tte rs & c a r e n o t
, .
, , .
,

strictly a m phibi ou s .

F i g 1 99
. .
—Th e S e al .

§ 416 . rd The
e r o f ch e iro pte r a is cl o s e ly u n it e d to th e
o

q ua d r u m a n a b u t h a v e the p e ct o r a l e x tre m i ti e s o rg a n i z e d
,

fl i ght by m e a n s o f a l a rge fo ld o f i n te gu m e n t e x t e n di n g fro m

, ,
 or TH E cr a s s MAMMAL I A . 26 1

thefl an k an d t ail to the e x tr e mity o f the fi n g e rs ( F i g 2 00 .

,

The br a i n a ls o is much l e ss d e v e l o p e d th a n i n th e pr e c e di n g

F i g 200
. .
—C h a u ve So u i s O
- r re i ll rd a .

gro u ps Th e d e n t a l syst e m i s still c o m p o s e d o f i n cisi v e s

.
,

c an in e an d m o l a r t e e th Of the cl a ss s o m e ar e fr u giv o r ous

, .
, ,

with m ol a rs r e s e m bli n g
th e qu a dr u m an a o th e rs
i n s e ctivo ro us an d i n ,

th e s e th e t e e th ar e
fo rm e d a s i n the fo ll ow
i n g cl a ss The b a ts a r e
.

th e pri n cip a l r e pr e s e n
tati ve s o f t he gr ou p .

§ 417 . The i n s ecti

v ora do n ot di ffe r fro m
the o th e r o n g u i cul ate d

m a mm als , c ti n i n
this th at th ep mi l ar
ex e

,
F g 201 O
l
ggtdd g
wal k g o th 1 . . r
l
r

l l
i n n e

te eth ar e evide n tly co n

str u cte d for th e cr u shi n g o f i n s e cts on w hich th e y liv e Th e y , .

ar e i n fa ct r o u gh with c o n ic a l ,

p o i n ts ( Fig which ad a pts

.

th e m for this p u rp o s e Th e ir .

br ai n r a th e r r e s e m bl e s th at of
th e ch e iro pte r a i n h a v i n g n o
co n v o l u ti on s th an wh a t we fi n d
,

i n th e bi m an a qu adr u m a n a , ,

ca rn iv or a an d amphibi a The
,
.

gr e ate r n u m b e r m ak e u s e o f
—
.

bu rr ows an d hyb ern ate W e F i S h re w M s

g
g Zi .
ou e
,
g ) u sar a l ne
cite a s e x am pl e s of th e
'

grou p th e m ol e ( Fig
,
the h edge h o g th e d e sm an
.
,

( Fig . an d th e shr e w mous e o r mus ar aig n e ( Fig , .

26 2 ZOOLOGY .

The h e dg e h o g has the b ody co v e re d with epi n e s or quill s

i n ste ad o f h air an d the ski n o f th e back is p rovid e d with a
,

l arge o v a l m u scl e s o th a t the an i m al can ro ll its e lf i n to a ba ll

, ,

thu s pre s e n ti n g n othi n g b u t spi n e s fo r the e n e my to a tta ck .

Th ey liv e i n the w oo ds a n d l i e co n c e a l e d dur i n g th e d ay b e

,

tw e e n the roo ts o f o l d tre e s Th ey ar e co mm on i n Fr an c e

. .

F i g 203 . .
—Th e H e dg e h o g .

Th e shre w m o us e is a sm al l a n i m d at first sight re s e mbli n g ,

a m ou se . Th e b o dy is c o v e r e d with h ai r s an d on e a ch .

fl an k is a sm all ban d of sti ff h airs b e tw ee n which 1 8 s e cr e t e d ,

a n d e x u d e s an o d o r o us hu m o ur Th ey bur ro w u n d e r grou n d
.
,

a n d liv e on i n s e cts a n d w o r ms It is a opul ar e rro r to ao

h
.

c u s e th e m of givi n g ris e to a dis e a s e i n o rs e s a n d m u l e s by

th e ir bite .

Mo l e s ar e a n im a ls e ss en ti a ll y subte rr an e an an d burro win g .

Th e bo dy i s thick a n d sh o rt ; th e ir m uzzl e is e l on g at e d an d ,

t e rm in ate d by a m o v e abl e s n ou t ad apte d to b u r ro w ; an d th e i r

,

a n t e ri o r limbs th o u gh sh o rt a r e e x tr e m e ly stro n g an d br o ad
, , ,

tur n e d o utw ards a n d t e rmi n at e d by stron g cla ws adm i r ably

,

a d a pte d to dig ( Fig By m e an s o f th e s e in str u m e n ts

.
,

m ol e s dig wi t h gr e a t rapidity an d a d m ira bl e i n sti n ct l on g

, ,

ga ll e ri e s u n de r gro u n d i n which th ey dwe l l M o le hil ls ar e

, .

fo rm e d o f the pr oduct o f th e s e e xca v ation s Th e y s e ld o m .

q uit th e ir e x c av atio n s an d liv e on i n s e cts an d w o rm s D e

, .

s t i n e d to liv e i n pr o fo u n d d a rk n e ss the ir ey e s a r e sca r c e ly ,

p e rc e ptibl e an d th e re is a spe ci e s o f the m o l e which is com

,

p l e te l y bli nd T
.h e m o l e ha s t we n ty -two te e th i n e ach
j aw ,

o r fo rty -fo ur i n a l l The c o mm o n m o l e o f the fi e lds o f a

.
,
 or TH E cu s s MAMMAL I A . 26 3

fi n e bl ac k col o ur , is c o mm on throu gh out th e fe rtil e c o un tri e s

o f E ur o pe .

4 1 8 Th e o rd e r r od en ti a c om pris e s th e o rdi n a ry o n g n i
.

cu l a te d m a m m als w hich h a v e n o c a n i n e t ee th , b u t h a v e str o n g

chis e l -s hape d tee th i n fron t , o r i n cisiv e s an d m o l a r te e th be hi n d , .

F i g 204 . .
—Th e C o m m o n C am p a gn o l .

This arr an ge m en t of the te e th ( Fig 205) a d apt s th e m fo r .

gn awi n g v e ry h ard ve g e t able s u bst an ce s a s the b ar k a n d ,

r oots o f tre e s an d th e s e i n fa ct
,

fo rm th e ir pri n cipa l n ou rishm e n t .

The bra i n o f r od e n ts r e s e mbl e s

gr e atly th at o f th e i n s e ctiv o ra ,

an d th eir i n t e lligen c e is v e ry
co n fi n e d ; n e v e rth e l e ss s o m e ar e ,

gifte d wi th e x tr ao rdi n a ry i n sti n cts .

S qu irr e ls ( Fig . m a rmots ,

r ats h am st e rs ( Fig
, the .

c amp ag n ol ( Fi g
pin e ( Fig
-

.
th e p o r cu
.

an d s e v e r a l o th e r
F i g 205 — H a d o f o de t . . e a R n .

an i m als si m il a rly o rg an iz e d b e l o n g to th e o rd e r r o d e n ti a
, , .

R od e n ts of the ge n u s r at a r e ch a racte riz e d by s o m e pe cu

l i a ri ti e s i n th e disp o siti on o f the te e th an d by th e ir l o n g ,

an d sc aly t a il The y ar e s m all an i m als an d liv e e sp e cial ly

.
,

on fru its an d r o ots b u t pre ss e d by hu n ge r th e y ta ke to

, , ,

a n im al foo d an d will e v e n a tt ack an d d e v o u r e ach o th e r

, .

Three sp e ci es ha v e b e co m e c o mm on i n o u r ho u s e s th e d om e sti c
r a t th e s u rm u l ot an d th e m ou s e
, , .

The r at w as n ot k n o w n to the an ci e n ts an d s e e ms to h a v e ,

be e n i mpo rte d i n to the Ol d Wo rld fro m A m e ric a Th e e p och .

o f its in tro d u cti on is un k n o w n b u t it e xi ste d i n gr e at n u m

,

b e rs wh e r e the s u rm u l ot n ow ab ou n ds This l atte r s ee m s to .

ha v e alm ost e xtirp ate d the c omm on r at It is n ow v er y r ar e .

264 zo o r o o x .

i n Par is , an d isfo u n d chi e fly i n b ar n s wh e re it liv e s on

to b e ,

grai n s an d v e g e ta bl e s o f al l s o rts it fi n ds th e re ; but it has

a d ecid e d ta ste fo r a n im a l foo d a n d it pursu e s y o un g an im a ls
,
.

I n c o un try -h o u se s it is a d e stru ctiv e pl agu e by the d a m age ,

it d oe s to l i n e n h a rn e ss l ard an d i n sh o rt to e v e r ythin g
, , , , ,

e at a bl e which fa lls i n its way .

The sur m u l o t is the l a rge st o f th e r a ts ; it i s o f a r e ddish

bro w n col our I n troduce d in to E u ro pe i n the e ight ee n th
.

ce n tur y it has multipli e d e x cee din gly Brou ght fr o m I n dia

, .

to E n gl an d by se a it spr ea d in to F ran ce an d th e n ce i n to
, ,

E u ro pe A m e ric a a n d al l the co l o n i e s
, , I n the n e ighbo u r .

h oo d o f Paris th ey a bo u n d i n the c o mm on s e w e rs an d di g ,

burr ows j ust suffici e n t to h old the an im al .

The m o us e is th e sm a ll e st of the spe ci e s of r ats which

i n fe st our h ous e s ; it w as k n ow n to the an ci e n ts It fo rm s .

g all e ri e s for its e lf i n the ti m b e rs of h o us e s i n whi ch it liv e s ,

an d fee ds on wh at e v e r an i m a l or v e g e ta bl e s u bst an c e it m ee ts

with but pre fe rs su e t l a rd an d gen e r ally fatty b odi e s

, , ,
.

Wh en in h a bitin g the w oods i n a wi ld state it liv e s on ,

a c o rn s r oo ts a n d fruits
, , .

fi g 206 . .
—Th e Le ro t .

The l er ots ar e ag i m a l s w i th s o ft h air , t ail

ree a bl e littl e an ,

v e lv e ty an d e v en tuft e d a liv e ly l ook an d live i n tree s ; th e y

, ,

fee d on fruits L ik e m arm ots th e y hyb e rn ate rollin g th e m

.
, ,

se lv e s u p lik e a b a ll They m ay b e k n o wn by the n umb e r of

.

th e ir m o l ar te e th which ar e four on e ith e r side a n d i n e ach jaw

, .

The j e rboa s ( Fig 2 07 ) ar e sm all rod en ts r e m a rk a bl e for

.
,

the d e v e l o pm e n t of th e ir hi n d e r limbs an d this e n a bl e s th e m ,

to l ea p with g
The squi r re l ( Fig . 1 00) i s al o a
s rod en t , and is k n o w n by
 or TH E cu s s MAMMAL I A . 2 65

the l e n gth o f the ta il fu rn ish e d with h airs lik e a l a rge quill

,

or fe a th e r . Th e y liv e am on gst tr e e s o n fruits an d n uts an d ,

are re m a rk abl e fo r th e ir agility Th e re ar e m an y sp e ci e s.

i n th e Ol d a n d Ne w W o rlds I n Fr an c e th e co m m on sq u irr e l
.

a b o u n ds , an d r e t a i n s thr o ugh o ut th e y e a r th e c o l o u r fo r
which it is k n o w n ; b u t i n the N or th it b e co m e s d u ri n g ,

wi n te r o f a fi n e ashy -bl u e c o lo ur a n d th e fu r is m uch

, ,

s o ught afte r I n this st at e the fur c a ll e d p e ti t g r i s

. .

K g 207. .
—Th e Jerb oa .

Th e b e a v e r is d i sti n g u i sh e d fr o m al l o th e r ro d e n ts by its
l arge t ail fl atte n e d h o riz on t al ly ; it is o f an o v al fo rm an d
, ,

c ov e re d with sc al e s Th e b e a v e r is o f a goo d siz e aqu atic i n

.
,

its h abits ; th e ir fe e t an d t a il a i d th e m i n swi m mi n g an d ,

with th e ir p o w e rfu l cu tti n g t ee th th e y e a sily cu t d o wn a l l

s o rts o f tr ee s Th ey li v e on ba rk an d o th e r h ar d v e ge tabl e
.

s u bst an c e s .

The Can a di an b e a v e r is o f al l q u adrup e ds th a t which

, ,

e xhibits m o st i n d ustry i n the c on structi o n o f its d wel li n g ,

at which it w o rks i n s o ci e ty i n the m o st s o lit a ry p a rts o f

,

No rth A m e ric a 33 1 p , .

The n e ighb o u r hoo d o f m an s ee m s to pr e v e n t th e be av e r

fro m w o rki n g i n s o ci e ty as w e fi n d th at the be a v e rs of the
,

R hi n e ar e s olit a ry an d n e v e r c o n str u ct h a bit ati on s l ike th o s e

,

o f Can ad a a lth o ugh th e y s ee m to b e l on g to the sa m e spe ci e s

, .
26 6 ZOO LOGY .

The b ea v e r was fo rm e rly i n dige n ous to m an y Eu r opean

c o u n tri e s a n d e v en to Brit ai n
, .

§ 4 1 9 T
. h e o rd e r o f e d e n tat a s e e ms to fill up the lin k

b e tw e e n the o n g u i cul ata an d the on g ul ata for the n ails acquire ,

a gr eat d e v e l op m e n t an d c o v e r a l a rg e po rti on o f the e x tr e

,

F i g 208. .
—H e ad o f th e Armadi ll o .

m ity of the fin g e rs an d t oe s ; b u t th at which ch a racte ri ze s

th e m is th e a bs en c e o f t e e th i n the fr o n t o f th e m o uth
( Fig .

The d e n titi on i s co mp o s e d o f ca n i n e an d m o l ar te e th on ly ,

an d e v e n th e s e a r e a ls o s om e ti m e s a bs en t ( Fig th e .

e d en ta ta liv e i n fa ct o n s o ft i n s ects or l e a v e s e a sy to g ath e r

, , , .

A s e x am pl e s o f thi s gr oup w e cit e the a rm adi ll o s ( Fig

, .

th e an g ol i n s ( Fig . an d th e an t -e at e rs .

4 20 The o rd e r o f p achyd e rm ata b e l on gs to th e divi si on

.

o f m a mm al s h a vi n g h oo fs an d is c o mp o s e d o f a l l th e o n
,

u l ata i n whi ch th e sto m ach i s fo rm ed i n the usu a l w a y a n d

g ,

n o t i n te n d e d for ru m i n a ti on Th e y ar e r e m a rk a bl e for the

.

thickn e ss o f th e ir ski n s ; th e y ar e al l m o re or l e ss h e rbi

v o r o u s ; an d th e ir br a i n s h a v e c o n v o luti on s a s i n th e c a rn i ,

F i g 209
. .
—Th e Ar m a di llo C a b a ss o u .

v o ra . So m e h av e
ar e fo r this r e as on c a ll e d
the no es pro l on gdi
pro bo scis an d e n o t a ,

p r o b o s ci d 1 an s e l e h an ts ( 1 78)
h a v e this fe atur e Oth e rs a r e r e co gn is e d by t e fee t te r
.

m i n ati n g i n a si n gl e to e c o v e r e d w ith a h oo f ; the h o rs e as s

, , ,

an d z e bra o ffe r this ch ara cte r an d h e n ce th e n am e o f so lipe d e

, , .
 or TH E cu s s MAMMAL I A . 26 7

Fi n ally the o rdi n a ry p achyd e rm ata h a v e the fe e t t e rmi n at e d

,

by fin ge rs o r toe s v ar yi n g fro m two to four the wild b oa r

, ,

the t a pir ( Fig the rhi n o ce ro s ( Fig

. th e hipp o .

po ta m us ( Fig b e l on g to this cl ass o r gro up

. .

F i g 21 0 — Th e Z e
. . b ra .

The gen u s l ph an t ( Fig

e e th e l a rg e st o f all l an d
.

a n i m a ls i s o f a m ild a n d g e n tl e n at ur e an d h en c e the e as e
, ,

with which it m ay b e do m e stic a te d The gr ea t siz e of .

t he h e a d a n d w e ight o f th e tusks n e c e ssitat e a pr o b o scis to

e n abl e th e a n i m a l to fe e d ( p ag e By m e an s o f this
si n g u l ar i n stru m en t th e e l e ph an t u pr oo ts tre e s u n ti e s th e ,

k n ots o f a c o rd picks a l ook o r u s e s a pe n Th e ir sight is

, , .

t o l e ra bly goo d th e i r h e a ri n g fi n e an d th e ir s en s e o f s m e ll
, ,

a c u te
. Th e ir c au ti on is e x tre m e an d th e ir i n te llige n c e r e
,

m a rk a bl e Th e y r e m e m be r in j u ri e s a n d ar e n ot fo rge tfu l o f
.
,

fa vou rs Th o u gh o f h e a vy g ai t th e ir spe e d is co n side ra bl e

.
, ,

o wi n g to th e l e n th o f th e ir p ace A lth o ugh the e l e ph an t i s

the m o st po w e r fu l o f qu a dr u p e ds h e is n at u r a lly n e ith e r
.

cru e l n or fo r m id abl e Co u r a ge ou s i n d e fe n c e h e s e ld o m
.
,

a tta cks . By n at u r e he is gr e g a ri o us livi n g i n troops v a ry , ,

i n g fr o m fi fty to on e h u n dre d an d is s e ldo m s e e n s o lit ary The

, .

o ld e st l e a ds th e tr oo p a n d th e n e x t i n a e brin gs up the r e a r
g
,

T ak e n wh e n y oun g th ey a r e r eadil trai n e d to ca r r y en o r

’
, y .

m o u s w e ight s ; 2000 p ou n ds w e ight i s th e l oa d o f the ad u lt ,

a n d th e y will pe rfo r m with thi s a m ar ch o f fift e e n or tw e n ty

l e ague s Th ey swim w e ll an d li v e to n e arly two hu n dre d y ears

.
,

Two sp e ci e s o f e l eph an ts h a v e b e e n d e scrib e d — l

.

the , ,
26 8 ZOOLOG Y .

A si atic ; an d 2 the A fric an

, first is k n ow n by its . Th e
e l on g a te d h e a d c on c av e for eh e ad a n d c ompa rativ e ly s m al l
, ,

e a rs ; fo ur n a ils o n th e hi n d e r t o e s ; the m o l a r te e th a ls o
pre s e n t p a rall e l ridge s n e a rly e qu idistan t The t u sks o fte n
, .

re m ain sh o r t 2 The A fric an spe ci e s r em a rk a bl e fo r the

. .
,

siz e o f the tusks d e v el o pm e n t of the e xt e rn al e a rs thr ee

, ,

l oo s e n ails on the hi n d e r to e s sh o rte r h e ad a n d c o n v e x , ,

fo re h ead The s u rfac e of the m o l a r t ee th wh en i n u s e pr e

.

s en ts rh ombo id al fi g ur e s by which it m ay b e a t o n c e dis ti n

,

g u i sh e d fr o m th e I n di an sp e ci e s Th e fe m a l e has t u sks .

n e ar ly as l a rg e a s th e m a l e It i s a m o re a ctiv e an d fe r o ci ous
.

a n im a l th a n the A si a tic a n d is fo u n d fr o m S e n e g a l to the

G
Ca p e o f oo d H e p e .
,

Ivo ry prop e rly s o c all e d is furn ish e d by the t u sks o t

, ,

the e l e ph an t r e ce n t an d e x ti n ct
, Wh e n cu t an d p olish e d .
,

i
t m ay b e r e co g n is e d by its n um e r o us l o z e n g e fo rm e d curv e d -

m es .

Th e hipp op ot am i h a v e an e n o rm ou s b o dy with v e ry sh ort ,

limbs fou r e qu a l to e s to e ach fo o t (the e l e ph an t h as fi v e ) ;

,

t ail o f m od e rat e l en gth n o strils di l at e d ski n a l m o st h a ir l e ss

, , .

Th ey li v e on v e get a bl e s an d th e ir h abit at is th e riv e rs o f

,

F i g 21 1
. .
—The H i pp o po tam u s .

Ce n tra l A Th e ir col ou r i s a bro wn ish bl a ck an d th ey

fr i cafi“
,

a tta i n a n e n o rm ous w e ight Thre e o r fo ur m ay b e s e e n i n a

.

li n e i n the riv e r n e ar s o m e c at a ra ct or stream d a rti n g a t the

, ,

fish e s which the r apidity o f the c ur re n t bri n gs n e ar the m .

Th e y swi m w e ll an d r apidly an d can r e m ai n a l on g ti m e , .

u n de r w a te r D u ri n g the n ight th ey q u it the riv e rs an d

.
,

fee d on th e h e rb age of the b an ks or m ak e th e ir w ay to th e ,

S th e r a d N r th r as we ll —R K
ou n n o e n . . .
 or TH E cu ss MAMMAL I A . 269

fi e lds o f rice o r mill et which th ey ra pi dly co n sum e Th e ir , .

m arch is s o i m mtuou s th at th e y o ve rthro w e v e ry obsta cle ,

e sp e ci a lly wh e n a l a rm e d Th e ir ch ar acte r i s fe ro ci ous

. .

The pig ha s al s o fo ur toe s on al l the fee t but two ar e ,

l a rge a n d tw o sh o rte r Th e in cisiv e te e th v a ry i n n umb e r an d

.
,

the t u sks pro t r ud e fro m the m ou th c u rli n g u pw a rds The , .

m u zzl e t e rmi n at e s i n a tr u n c at e d sn o u t ada pte d for diggin g ,

up roo ts o n which th e y liv e i n troo ps i n the fore sts ; b u t

, , ,

th e y sh o w n o r e p u gn an c e to an im al foo d .

‘
The rhin o c e r o s ( Fig 1 7 6 ) is a v e ry l a rg e a n i m al with
.
,

sh o rt thick bo dy an d sho rt limbs r e m a rk abl e fo r th e gr e at ,

thick n e ss o f its hid e an d fo r the h o rn o r h o r n s it c arr i e s

,

o n th e n o s e Th e h o r n s ar e s o lid c o m p o s e d o f m a tt e d
.
,

h ai rs an d s u ppo rte d on stro ng n as al bon e s a rche d an d thick ;

, ,

b u t th e s e h o rn s h a v e n o o ss eo u s co r e a n d th e y m o v e with the ,

i n t e gu m e n ts It i n h abits the h o tt e st p a rts o f A si a a n d

.

A fric a an d is ge n e r a lly fou n d i n the e l e ph an t c o un tri e s

, .

It is fe ro ci o u s an d u n t am e a ble an d i s fo n d o f w all o win g in ,

m i r y pl a ce s lik e th e pig * .
,

The g e n u s h o rs e c o m prisi n g th e h o rs e pr o pe rly so c all e d

, , ,

t he as s z e br a a n d s e v e r a l o th e r sp e ci e s is ch a r acte riz e d by
, , ,

t he c on fo r m a ti o n o f the fe e t si n gl e to e d a n d c o v e r e d with a , ,

h o o f ; by s i x i n cisiv e s i n e ith e r jaw h o l lo w e d wh e n y o u n g , ,

which ho ll o w dis appe a rs with a g e ; by s i x m o l ars on e ithe r

sid e o f e ach ja w an d by a sp a c e be tw e en the s m a ll ca n i n e
,

t e e th fo u n d i n the m a l e an d th e m o l a rs which r e ce iv e s the ,

bi t . Th e s e c an in e te e th ar e s m all an d pe c u l i a r to the m al e , .

The e y e s o f the h o rs e ar e pr om i n e n t his h e a ri n g good u pp e r , ,

lip s o l arge a s to b e u s e d a s an i n str u m e n t of pre h e n si on ;

n o str i l s n o t m u ch di l a te d ; th e b o dy is c o v e r e d a ll o v e r with

h air an d th e n e ck p ro vid e d with a m an e Th e ta il i s o f

,
.

m o d e r a te l e n gth but ha s l o n g h airs e sp eci a lly i n the d o m e s

, ,

tic h o rs e Th ou g h strictly h e rbiv o ro u s th e ir sto m ach is

.
,

si m pl e an d o f m o de ra te s i z e H is m od e o f l ife in a do m e stic
,
.

st at e is s o w e ll k n o wn as to re q u i re n o d e scripti on .

The h o rs e pr o pe rly s o c a ll e d is disti n g u ish e d fr o m the

, ,

o th e r sp e ci e s by t he u n ifo r m c o l o ur o f t he c o a t ; by the t a il ,

fu r n ish e d with h a irs fro m its basis ; b y hi s h e ight a n d m o re

e l e g a n t fo r m H e e x ists n o wh e re n o w i n a wild sta te fo r the
.
,

s o c a ll e d
- wild h o rs e s o f A m e ri ca a r e m e r e ly the d o m e stic
Th d bl h r d rh
e ou c ro s i
e- li
o net A fri c d w
ino k w t
e s cu ar o a, an as no n o
th R m s tt r l l tr s t i t w r h d w rld ry
’

e o an a e t t th
a ac e o d it e e os o e crv r ze o , an s ve
ex i st c d
en bt d by t r l ists i t w re d i sc r d b t f w y rs g
e ou e na u a : as o ve e u a e ea
th r A fr ca —R K
a o
by S p m arr i S an , n ou e n i . .
 270 ZOO LOGY .

h o rs e a ban don ed b m an ; a n d alth ou gh th e ir i n troducti o n

i n to the Ne w W or (1 1 s o f n o e a rli e r a d ate th an three hun
dr ed ye ars th ey ar e s a id to b e fo u n d m tr00 ps m uste ri n g te n
,

th ou san d .

The h o rs e liv e s to a b o u t th ir ty y ea rs ; he ou ght n ot to b e

e mpl oy e d fo r s addl e or dr au ght b e fo r e four o r fi ve t en a ge d .

he l o s e s m o st of his v a lua bl e q u aliti e s ; an d h e n c e the i mpo r

ta n c e att a ch e d to th e age H e i s ca ll e d a ge d wh e n th e littl e
.

c a viti e s fo un d 1 n the m ci si v e s h av e di s appe a re d b trit u rati o n

this h appe n s at e ight y ea rs ; a fte r th at he 1 8 s ai to h av e l o st
the m a rk .

The a s s is r e c o gn i s e d by its h e ight tu fte d t a il d a rk , ,

cro ss on the sh oul de rs an d l on g e ars More t empe rat e a n d

,

p ati e n t th an the h ors e h e is n ot s o str on g but stil l v e ry

, ,

us e fu l as a b e a st o f b u rth e n Com p a rativ e ly he is bo th

.

str on ge r an d m o re h a rdy H e is ch o ice i n th e w a te r he

. .

—Th B i s
Fi g 2 1 2 . . e on .

d ri n ks b u t m n othi n g e ls e an d he sl e e ps l e ss th an the h o rs e
, , .

H is stu pid an d o bsti n at e n a tur e s e e ms m ai n ly d u e to the b ad

tre atm en t he r e ce i v e s ; i n the dur ati on o f li fe the a ss 1 e
s e mbl e s the h o rs e .

4 21 The o rd e r r u mi n an ts i s disti n guish e d fro m al l th e

.

pre ce di n g gr oups b th e ir co mpl e x sto m achs Th e s e an im al s

a r e es se n ti a lly h ery
.

1 v o r o u s ; th e y h a v e n o i n cisiv e s i n th e

uppe r jaw ; i n th e m the foot is divid e d o r cl o v e n a n d it is ,

am on gs t this spe ci e s e sp eci ally th a t th e fo r e h e a d i s a rm e d wi th

,

h o rn s The ox sh e ep ( Fig
.
, goa t an d stag ( Fig
.
,
'
.

chi e fly 1 e pr e s e n t the cl a ss ; b u t the a n te l op e g i r afi e ( Fig , .

c a m e l l a m a &c ai e i ii cl u de d m the gr o u p
, , .
, .
 or TH E CLA S S MAMMAL I A . 27 1

The ge n us ox di ffe rs fro m oth e r rumi n an ts by the fo rm of

the bo dy a n d the dire cti on o f the h o rn s .

The pri n cip a l sp e ci e s ar e the co m m on o x ; th e a u r o chs ,

o rigi n ally bo t h E uro pe an ; the b u tfa l o the y a ck p e c u li ar to , ,

A si a ; the bis on an d th e musk o x p e c u li a r to N o rthe r n A m e ,

r 1 ea .

The co m m on ox wh e n y ou n g is ca ll e d a c alf the m al e a

, , ,

bull the fe m a l e a co w ; its fo re h e a d is flat l on ge r th an

, ,

bro ad ; th e h o r n s ar e r ou n d e d an d proj e ct from th e e x tre miti e s

,

o f the pr o mi n e n t li n e s e p a r a ti n g th e fr on ta l fro m the o ccipita l

b on e Th e re e x ists sca rc e ly an a n im al s o us e ful to m an a s the

.

o x : o n this w e n e e d n o t d we ll The fl e sh is e x c e ll e n t ; h e.

can b e m a de to l a b ou r lik e a h o rs e ; the b o n e s skin h o r n s , , ,

h air al l a r e o f u s e The fat is fi n e an d de lica te an d the

, .
,

blo o d is us e d as a fe rtiliz e r a n d a ls o i n the m an u fa ct u re o f

,

P r u ssi an bl u e it is i n u s e m o r e o v e r a s a r e fi n e r o f s u g a r a n d
fish o i l The i n te sti n a l m e mbran e is e m ploy e d i n the a rts o f
.

th e g o ld -b e a te r an d to c o v e r ai r bal l oo n s Fr o m th e m ilk o f the .

co w w e o bt ai n b u tt e r ch ee s e an d cre a m ; with the sto m a ch

, ,

ca ll e d re nn e t we curdl e milk The o x i s n o w fo u n d i n e ve ry

p art o f the w o rld but n o d o ubt it b e l on ged o rigi n ally to
,

E uro p e a n d A si a .

The a u r ochs i s th e l arge st o f E u r op ean qu adrup e ds It is .

disti n guis h e d fro m the d o m e stic ox by its c on v e x fo r e h e a d ,

broad e r th an l o n g ; by the p oi n t o f atta ch m e n t of the h o rn s ,

l o w e r th an the o ccipital cre st ; by a ki n d o f w oo lly h a ir c o ve r

i n g the h e a d an d n e ck o f th e m a l e ; by a sh o rt b e a rd u n d e r
the thr oat ; an d fi n ally by h a vi n g an a dditi o n a l p a ir o f ribs
, , .

It is n ot the o r i gi n of o u r do m e stic ca ttl e F o r m e rly a b ou n d .

i n g al l o v e r E u ro p e the r ac e is n e ar ly e x ti n ct b e in g c on fi n e d
, ,

to th e m a rshy fo r e sts o f L ithu an i a o f the K r apack s an d the , ,

Ca u c a s u s .

The b u ffa l o o f I n di a n o rigi n b u t n o w n a tur a liz e d i n Ita ly

an d G , ,

r ee ce has th e h o rn s m a rk e d a n t e rio rly by a l on git u di n a l

,
.

cre st The b u ffalo is l e ss docil e th an the o x b u t h e is

.
,

str o n ge r a n d e a sie r s u pp o rte d H e swims w e ll ( as do e s the .

o x ) a n d lik e s to w a ll o w i n m u ddy w a te rs ; an d h e wil l div e

,

te n or tw e lv e fe e t tea ri n g up wit h his h o r n s a qu atic pl a n ts

, ,

which he e ats whilst swi m m i n g .

’
The y ack a ls o c all e d the buffal o with a h o rs e s t a il the
, ,

gr u n tin g co w o f T ar t a ry is a s m a l l spe ci e s o rigi n al ly fr om

,

Thi be t It ha s a l o n g m an e a n d a t a i l with l on g h a irs l ik e

.
,

the h ors e It is with this t a il th at the stan d ards ar e m ade

.
2 72 zo o no e r .

which with the T urks s e rv e to disti n guish the supe ri o r

, ,

o ffi ce rs .

The m u sk o x is an i n h a bit a n t of the m o r e n o rth e rn p arts

o f N o rth A m e ric a It climbs o v e r rocks lik e a goat Its
. .

od o ur is p e culi a r ; h e n c e t he n a m e ; an d its h o rn s a r e u n it e d i n

th e middl e o f the fo re h e ad .

The A m e ric an bis on str on gly

r e s e m bl e s the a u r ochs but has the ,

li m bs sh o rte r a n d di ffe rs i n s om e ,

o th e r r e sp e cts as i n h a vi n g t he ,

h a ir l o n ge r .

The ge n u s sh e e p (o vis ) di ffe r s

but littl e from the goa t Th e ir .

h o r n s a r e disp o s ed to b e c om e spi ra l
th ey h a v e n o b eard an d h av e the ,

fo r e h e ad co n v e x .

F g 2 1 3 —M sk o
i . . u
A wild spe ci e s c all e d a rgali with
x . ,

v e ry l a rge h or n s s ee ms to b e the ,

o rigi n a l o f th e d o m e stic sh e e p Th ey ar e fo un d i n gre at

.

n u mb e rs i n K a mtsch atk a ; i n a l l the l o fty m o u n ta i n o u s r e

gi o n s o f A si a ; i n the high e r r an ge s of th o s e of B a rba ry

C o rsica a n d ,
G
r ee ce It gro ws to a l a rg e siz e an d is v e ry
.
,
,

a g il e.
If,

The m ou flon ( Fig 2 1 4 ) fou n d i n E u ro p e an d A fr ic a d iffe rs

.
, ,

fro m the a rga li i n this th at i t n e v e r att a i n s th e s am e siz e

, .

The fe m a l e r a re ly ha s h o rn s a n d wh e n pr e s e n t th e y a r e s m a l l
, .

V a ri e ti e s o f the m o uflon e x ist Som e ar e white o th e rs m o re .

,

o r l e ss bl ack Th e y liv e i n troo ps

. .

The d o m e stic sh e e p wh e n y o un g i s ca ll e d a l am b ; the

fe m a l e is c a ll e d an e we the m al e a r am ; it is too w e l l k n ow n to ,

r e qu ire an y z o o l o gic a l d e scripti on The v a ri e ty ca ll e d m e ri n o .

,

re m a rk a bl e fo r the fi n e n e ss o f its fl e e c e a n d a t on e tim e ,

li m it e d to Sp a i n ha s b e e n e xte n siv e ly i n tro d u c ed i n to Fra n ce

an d G ,
,

e rm an y bo th as a p u r e br e e d an d as cr o ss e d with o th e rs .

Fiv e h u n dre d th o u s a n d o f the p u r e bre ed e x ist i n Fran c e .

The clip t a k e s pl a ce i n the m on th o f M ay .

The go a t r e s e m bl e s the s h e e p a s r e g a rds th e h or n s ; b u t

it di ffe rs i n the dire cti o n th e y t ak e Its ch a n fr e i n o r .
,

fa c e a n d h e a d is c o n c a v e a n d it ha s a b e a rd
, , A l l th e .

sp e ci e s o f this g e n u s be l o n g to E u ro p e an d A si a ; th e y li v e i n
s m a ll troo ps a m o n gst the ro cks an d displ ay a st on ishi n g ,

a gili ty .

The re g ag r e or wild g o a t s ee mi n gly the o rigi n o f a l l the

, ,
 or TH E CLA S S MAMMAL I A . 273

d o me sti c spe ci e s l iv e s i n troops i n the m ou n ta i n s o f Pe rsi a

, ,

an d p e r h aps e v en a m on gst the A lps .

The bo uqu e ti n is an o th e r wild sp eci e s i n h abiti n g the sum

mits of the l ofty m ou n tain s of the

F i g 21 4
. .
—Th e M o u flo n .

The d om e stic goat pr e fe rs rocky grou n d a s a h abit at : its

milk is l e ss apt to curdl e i n the sto m a ch th an th at of the co w ,

F i g 21 5
. .
—Th e S t a g .

and is thus e ste e m e d to b e of e a si e r dige sti on It is a fe ar l e ss .

an im al ,d re a di n g n e ith e r h e at n or c old st orms n or rai n , .

T
27 4 zoo no e r .

Dee r rum i n an ts ch a r acte riz e d distin ctly by th e sh ed

ar e
—
,

di n g of th e i r an tl e rs The spe ci s be a o u.n d s u ch a s the ,

c o mm on or fal l ow -d e e r the r e d -d ee r the r oe buck th e ch e v

, , ,

r e ui l the re in -d ee r &c Th ey al l i n h abit the fore sts an d

, , .
,

ar e r e m ar k abl e for th e i r spe e d an d for the e l e g an c e o f th e ir

fo rms The an tl e rs gen e r al ly pe culi ar to the m al e ar e cas t

.
, ,

i n 8 rin g
fi e an te lope s re se mble d eer i n m an y r e spe cts but are
.

rea dily disti n g uish e d from th e m by h avi n g p e rsiste n t h orns ,

lik e goats an d sh e e p The ch am oi s b e l on gs to this gro up

. .

The gi raffe is distin gu ish e d fro m al l oth e r r u mi n an ts by

the fo rm o f th e body an d the n atu re o f its h orn s which ar e ,

F i g 21 6
. .
—Th e R ei D e er
n- .

c o n ic al o ss e o u s a n d alw ays c ov e re d with the in te gum en ts

, , .

It m ea s u r e s fro m fift e e n to s e v e n t e e n fe e t i n h e ight an d the ,

sin gl e spe ci e s as ye t k n ow n is p e culi ar to A fr i ca fi“

The c a m e l is r e m a rk abl e for th e e n o rm o u s m a ss of fat
fo un d on th e sh oul d e rs an d b a ck si n gl e or d o u bl e Of the ,

c am e l th e re ar e tw o spe ci e s— the B actri an with two humps

.

an d the A r a bi an o r dr o m e d a ry with o n e Th e ir fe e t ar e .

p e culi ar the two toe s b e i n g re u n i te d n e a rly to the po i n ts by

,

I n So u th e rn A fri ca i t is n eve r se e n to t he s ou th of th e G re a t Oran g e

Ewe n - R . K .
 OF TH E CLA S S MAMMAL I A .

a stron g s o l e admir ably fitt ed for tr a v e rsi n g s an dy d e s e rts

,
.

With ou t the c am e l m an c o uld with di fficulty h a v e trav e rs e d

,

th e d e s e rts o f A si a an d A fric a It
. ex c e e di n gly t e mp e r at e

as to the u s e ofw at e r a qu ality which has b ee n a scribe d to

,

the pecu li ar fo rm o f its stom achs ; i n two o f the s e l a rge ce ll s

,

T 2
276 ZOOLOGY .

e xist whi ch e ith e r s e rv e as res e rv oirs or which ha v e the

,

po w e r of s e creti n g w at e r I n A rabi a it is h e ld to b e the .

m o st v alu abl e o f an im als Of the l on g h ai r which it ca sts .

an n u ally the A r abs m a k e te n ts an d cl othi n g ; th e y u se th e

,

milk ; an d as a be ast of bur d e n an d of sudden flight it is

i n v a lu abl e .

Fin ally the l am a o f which th e r e ar e se ve ral sp e ci e s is

, , ,

pe culi a r to South A m e rica It r e s e mbl e s the c ame l in m an y .

re spe cts an d e spe ci ally i n th e str ucture of its stom ach ; but
,

it has 11 0 h u m p .

4 22 The fi sh -fo rm ed m a mm als co mpris e o nl y a sin gl e

—
.

o rd e r th at c a ll e d ce ta ce a Th ey ar e strictly a qu a tic an d .
,

r e s e mbl e fish s o m e wh at i n th eir fo rms I n th e s e the p e lvic .

limbs a re w an tin g an d the pe cto ra l ar e co n v e rte d i n to

,

swi m m i n g p aws or fi n s ; the ta i l is te rmi n ate d by a br o ad

h o ri z on t al flippe r co mp o s e d o f tw o fl ang e s The m ar s ouin s .

( Fig . th e d o lphi n s th e cach al o ts an d the b al a n ae or

, , ,

wh a le s pro pe rly s o call e d be l on g to this group , .

Th e wh al e s ar e en o rm ou s c e tac e an s wh o s e h e ad for ms ,

a b o u t a third of th e l e n g th o f the wh o l e b ody . I n th e m on th .

th e re ar e n o te eth but n u m e r ou s pl ate s of wh al e bo n e de pe n d

,

at the sid e s fr o m the m u c o us s u rfa ce o f the u ppe r jaw Th ey .

ar e s o a rr an g e d as to fo rm to w a rds th e m o uth a si e v e ,

c alcu l ate d to r e t ai n v e ry sm all an im als on which i n d ee d ,

th e s e hug e c et a ce an s l iv e The v o lum e of w ate r th ey ta k e i n to

.

the m outh is e x pe ll e d through the n o str i ls ; h en c e the n am e

of bl ow e rs an d bl o w -h ol e s giv e n to th e ir an t e ri o r o r s u pe ri o r

n o stril s fi“ Con tra ry to wh at m ight b e im agi ne d th e s e en o r ,

m ous ani m als liv e g en e r ally n ot on fish e s b u t on s m a ll m ol ,

lusc a cr usta cea z oo phyt e s an d ge n e ral ly the l o w e st m ari n e

, , ,

an i m a ls Th ey swi m rapidly an d a r e ti m id an d fe ar ful ;

.
,

h e n ce th ey ar e e asily d e stroy ed by the wh al e rs .

Th e r e are s e v e ral sp e ci e s o f wh a le bo n e wh al e s b u t th at ,

which is m o st s o u ght afte r by r eas on of the l e n g th o f wh al e

bo n e an d the abu n d an ce o f bl u bbe r it o s s e s se s is the ree n
,

G
l an d wh al e or wh al e o f co m m e rce ; tiir m er l y pe rh aps abun
,

d an t i n th e Eu ropean s e a s b u t n o w driv en by pe rs e cuti o n to

,

ta k e re fu g e i n the No rth e rn an d Pol a r Se a s It has n o dor s al .

The c ach al ot or spe rm wh al e has te eth on ly i n the low e r

It b e e n sho wn b Sco re sby m yse lf B e a l e
has a n d a n um be r of oth e r
o bs e rv e rs th a t t h e p re te n g
, , ,

e d j e t d e u i s m e re ly th e r from i ts l un gs
’
va
, a po u .

R . K .
 or TH E C LA S S MAMMAL I A . 27 7

jaw , an d n o
wh al e bo n e The e n orm ou s siz e an d si n gul ar for m
.

o f the h e ad o f th e ca ch a l o t is o wi n g to a v ast co ll e cti on of o i l ,

which wh en co ld b e c om e s fix e d an d for m s the s u bstan ce call e d

, , ,

sp e rma ce ti It is situate d i n c aviti e s occ u pyi n g th e upp e r

.

fi g 21 8. .
—Th Wh l e
e a .

p art o f the fac e an d h e ad The s e c avi ti es ar e s u pp orte d l ate

.

r ally by l arge ly d e v e l op e d upp e r ja w-b on e s which giv e to the ,

sk e l e to n o f the h ead a ve ry p e c u li ar app e aran ce .

The wh al e fis h i n g an i m porta n t br an ch o f co m m e rce an d

, ,

i n which th e bo ld e st s a il o rs a r e tr a i n e d w as at o n e ti m e i n ,

th e h an ds o f th e B asqu e s b u t n o w al m o st e x clusiv e ly b e l on gs
,

to th e E n g lish a n d A m e ric a n s Th e v e ss e ls pro c e e d e ith e r

.

n o rth o r s o uth Th e n o rth e rn fish e ry h as for its o bj e ct the

G
.

c aptur e o f the m ysti ce tu s or r ee n l an d wh al e I n th e sto rmy

, .

s eas o f th e No rth the wh al e r att ac ks the wh al e with the

,

h arpoon The blubb e r is fo u n d imm e di ate ly b en e ath the

.

i n te gum en ts an d i n de e d m ay b e con sid e re d as for m i n g a

,

or ti on o f th e m No fat e x ists i n the i n te ri o r o f the wh al e

b
.
,

ut th e b on e s e sp e ci all y th o s e of the h e ad a fford m u ch oil

, , .

Th e S o uth Se a Fish e ry h as for its o bj e ct the c aptur e of the

ca ch al ot or sp e rm wh al e an d is c ar ri ed on m o stly i n the
,

Pacific an d J ap an S eas The spe rm ace ti is th e obj e ct s ought

.

fo r .

The dolphi n s an d
m ar so u in s h av e the h e ad much
the
sm all e r tha n the true wh al e s an d th e y h av e tee th i n bo th ,

j aws ; th e y ar e e x tr e m e ly c arn iv orou s L astly th e re ar e .

,

ce ta ce a which ar e h e rbiv orous ; th e s e ar e the lam an ti n s an d

dugo n g .
27 8 ZOOLOGY .

4 23 . The
di visi o n o f the m amm alia call ed dide lphian ,

is ch aract e rize d by ph s i ol ogi cal disti n ction s of grea t i mpor

t an c e I n ge n e ral t e yo u n g ar e bo rn pre m atu re ly as it
.
, ,

w e re an d e x ce e di n gly i mpe rfe ct an d th ey s ee m w hil st in the

, , ,

w om b n ot to b e n ourish e d by a pl ace n ta as is the cas e wi th

, ,

all the m on od e l ph s The bra in is co mp ar ativ ely sm oo th

.
,

an d with ou t a co rpus c all o sum ; an d m a rsupi al bo n e s a ttach e d

to the p e lvis ( Fig giv e a pe culi ar ch aracte r to the

. .

sk e l e ton
This gr oup is c omp o s e d of two orde rs—the m a r sup i a l an d
.

m o n o tr e m e s .

4 24 The o rd e r m ar supi ali a i s chi e fly ch a ra cte riz ed by

.

th e pr e s e n c e of a s o rt of p ou ch , d e sti n e d to h o ld th e y o u n g
whil st att ach ed to the n ippl e , an d duri n g the e arly p eri od o f
th e i r gro wth A d e scripti on of this p ouch , with a drawin g
.

o f th e fo rm of th e m a rs u pi a l b on e s , w i l l b e fou n d i n Fig 1 7 1 . .

The foo d o f th e m a rs u pi ali a is v a ri ous , s om e b ei n g i n secti v o

r ous , o th e rs h e rbiv orous , oth e rs ca rn iv o ro us , whil st s om e
stron gly re s embl e the cl a ss rod en ts Th ey n e arly al l be lon g to .

Fi g 21 9
. .
—K an ga ro o .

A ustr a li a an d T as m an i a The s arigu e s ( Fig l 7 1 ) , the ph al

. .

ge rs , an d the k an garoo s ( Fig chi e fly r e pre s en t the group

. .

n ally , the o rd e r all e d

§ 4 2 5 Fi . c m o n o tr e m es s ee ms to

con n e ct the m a mm al with the o vip a ro us v e rte br a ta The .

i n te sti n e te i m in ate s, as i n birds , m a cl oac a, an d the r epro

 TH E cu ss mans . 27 9

du cti ve org an s p re s en t m an y an o m al i e s . Th e d en ta l syste m

13 rudim en ta ry an d i n s o m e a h o rn y
, c ov eri n g of the j aws

F i g 220 —Th e O
. . rni thorhyn chu s .

’
giv e s to th e m th e app e aran c e of a duck s bill . A s ye t o n ly
two ge n e r a o f this si n gul ar class is k n o w n ; th e o rn ith o
r h n chu s ( Fig an d th e e chidn a
y . .

TH E C L A S S BI RD S .

4 26 . Th ecl as s birds is on e of the be st d e fin ed an d most

di sti n ct wh e th e r vi e w e d w ith r e fe r en c e to the e xt e ri o r or
,

in te ri o r
. Birds ar e o viparous v erte br at e an im als with a ,

doubl e an d c ompl e te circu l ati on ; to which m ay b e a dd ed th at ,

the r e spi ration is a é ri en an d d oubl e ; which m ean s th at i n ste ad ,

of b e i n g c on fin e d to th e l u n gs as i n m a mm als th e ai r p e n e
, ,

trate s throughout the b ody an d e v en i n to the in te ri or of the

bo n e s ; th eir bl ood is h ot a s i n m amm al s F in ally th e y ar e
, .
,

co v e r e d with fe ath e rs an d th ei r pecto ra l e xtr e miti e s h av e the

,

fo rm an d ch aracte r of w in gs .
28 0 zo o r o e x .

Bir ds s e ldo m attai n a great siz e an d th e i r b od i e s ar e l i ht

, g
i n con se qu e n ce o f the p en etr ati on of th e a i r i n to th e ir i n te ri o r .

The do n ot v ary much i n th e ir i n t e rn al str ucture .

42 7 F ea th er s ar e an al og ous to h ai r but ar e m or e co m
. ,

l e x i n structur e A h orn y t u b e is fi r st obse r v e d pi er ce d at

p . ,

1 ts e xtr e m ity a st al k su r m o u n ti n g this t u be

,
Fi n all y b arbs .
, ,

grow in g fr o m the side s o f the stalk ; th e s e ar e fri n g ed wi th

b a rbul e s ; an d th e se again ar e s om etim e s frin ged with oth e rs
still sm all e r .

F i g 2 21
. .
—Ga l ea te d Ca sso wary .

The s e cr e tin g organ o f the fea th e r is ca ll e d the ca psule It .

w ould s ee m th at so l on g as the feath e r gro ws or is be in g ,

de v e l op ed the ca psul e in cre as e s i n l en gth an d th at i n pr o

, ,

po rt i on as its bas e e l on gate s the e x tr e mity di e s an d dri e s up

, ,

s o soo n as it h as fo rm e d the c o rr e spo n di n g po rti on o f this

appe n d ag e . E ach of th e s e sm all a par atuse s is c om po se d of a

cyli n d r ical sh e ath co v e re d i n te rn a l y by two tu n ics u n ited by
, ,

ob l iqu e se pta a n d o f a ce n tr al bulb

, The substan ce of the.

fe ath e r is fo rm e d on the su rfac e of the bulb an d to fo rm the ,

barbs it is m ou lde d as it w e re in to the space s which th e

, ,
 TH E cu s s B I R DS . 28 ]

sm all s e pta l e av e b e tw e en th e m I n the c orr e sp on di n g por .

ti o n o f the st alk the bulb is i n r e la ti on with its i n fe ri o r

,

s ur fac e an d die s ; b u t wh er e the st al k of the fe ath e r is

,

t u bu l ar th e l ami n a of h orn y m atte r which th e bulb pr o

,

duc e s tur n s e n ti re ly ro un d it an d en v e lop e s it c ompl etel , y .

N e v e rth e l e ss the b u lb as it fulfils th e s e fu n ction s sti l l

, , ,

dri e s up an d di e s an d th u s with e ri n g succ e ssiv e ly it fo r m s

,

a s e ri e s o f m e mbr a n o us c on e s se t i n to e ach oth e r which ,

fi l l the i n te ri o r of the tu b e an d ar e call e d the s ou l of the ,

f ther
e a .

The yo u n g feath e r is a t first e n cl o s e d withi n the sh e ath o f

the ca psul e w hich o fte n pr oj e cts s e v e r al i n ch e s b ey on d th e
.
,

i n te gu m e n ts an d is gr adu ally d e str oy e d The fe ath e r th en

, .

a pp e a rs un c o v e r e d an d its b arbs a t first r o ll e d up

, spr e a d ou t , ,

l a te r ally The ex tre mity o f the qu ill r e m a i n s e mb e dd e d i n

.

th e d e rmis but gen e r a lly m ay b e r e adily d e ta ch e d a nd at a

, ,

ce rtai n p e ri od falls to b e r e pl ac e d by a n e w feath e r This

, .

r en e w a l o f the fe ath e rs is c all e d m oul ti n g an d t ak e s pl ace ,

an n u ally s oo n afte r the s e as on fo r l ayi n g the e ggs ; but

,

s om e ti m e s it o ccu rs twice i n th e y e a r A t th at p e ri od the .

bird l o s e s its v oi ce an d is ill at e as e , .

The form o f th e s e i n t e gu m e n t a ry app e n d ag e s v ari e s m u ch

s o m e re s em ble the spi n e s o f th e po rcu pi n e I n the wi n g of .

the c a ss o w ary ar e fo u r or fi v e such ; i n oth e rs a s i n the e agl e ,

an d r a v e n the b arbs ar e sti ff an d pr o vid e d with b a rb u l e s

, , ,

which b e i n g i n t e rl ock e d with th o s e o f the adj oi n in g feath e r

, ,

pr e v e n ts the p ass age of the ai r thro u gh th e m I n oth ers as .

,

i n t he t a il an d wi n gs of the o strich th e b a rbs an d b arbul e s a r e ,

l on g s oft silky an d ap a rt Fi n ally i n oth e rs th ey re s embl e

, , , .
,

a ki n d o f d o wn an d this m ay b e s e e n i n c e rta i n st o rks which

, ,

a r e k n o w n by th e n am e of m a r a b ou ts Th e ir c ol ou rs v ary .

i n fin it e ly a n d oft en s u rp ass i n be au ty th e fi n e st fl o w e rs o r
,

pr e ci o u s sto n e s The pl u m a g e o f the m al e is gen e r ally m ore

.

brill i an t than th at o f th e fe m a l e an d it s e ldom h appe n s th at

th e y ou n g bir d pr e s e rv e s the s am e ch a r act e r o f plum age
thro u gh o ut li fe Th e y o fte n ch an ge for two or three y ear s
.
,

con s e cutiv e ly an d s om e ti m e s the ad u lt ha s a summ e r an d

,

wi n t e r plum age quite di sti n ct Fi n ally aqu atic birds h av e .

,

th e ir pl u m ag e b e sm e ar e d with an o ily fl u id r e n d e ri n g th e m ,

imp e n etr abl e to w a te r an d thus pre s e rvi n g the ski n u n der

,

n e ath .

4 28 The sk e l e ton is co m po s e d of n e arly the s am e el e

.

m e n ts as i n m amm als but the form an d disp o siti on of m an y ,

 28 2 z o o no o r .

of the
bon e s ar e di ff eren t an d cwter i s p us
, th e ir bon es
, ,

are much lighte r th an th o s e of m a mm als b e i n g m o r e or le ss ,

fil l e d with ai r .

The h e ad o f birds ( Fig 223 ) is gen e rally sm all ; i n the

.

y oun g bi rd the cran ium is co mpo s ed of the s am e n u m ber of .

bo n e s as i n m amm als but th ey u n it e v e ry e a rly to ge the r an d

, ,

the suture s dis app e ar The fac e is i n a gr eat m e asur e fo rm e d

.

S ac rum . S c ap u a l H um e r u s
. .

C r ic l
e v a

Co ccyx .
~

Cl i cl
av e ,

Ste rn r m .

P h al an g e .

T ars u s

F i g 222
. . S
- klt e e on of th e Go é l an d .

of the j aws which ar e much e l on gat e d an d b ei n g chi e fly em

, ,

l o e d by th e bird as in strum en ts o f pr e h e n s 1 on v ar y e x ce ed
p ,

i n g y i n th e ir ch a racte r acc o rdin g to the n atu re of the bi rd th e

, ,

foo d it l iv e s on an d the r ay it attacks The su pe ri o r m an

,
.

d ibl e is s o arti cul awd w i the cr an i u m as to a dm

O

i t o f m oti on m

th e c rani um i n de pe n d en t o f the l o w e r jaw whi ch n e v e r occu rs

, ,
 TH E cu ss . BI RD S . 283

i n m amm al s ; an d the i n fe ri or , i n ste a d of b ei n g a rticul ate d

di rectly with the cran i u m by m e an s o f con dyl e s , is con n ecte d
th e re with through the in te rm e dium of a di sti n ct b on e , c all ed
ty mp a n i c or a s qu a d r a tu m gen e r ally co n sid e r e d to b e a ,

po rti on of the te mpo ra l bon e (the o ss eo us m e atu s ) , an d r em ain

i n g distin ct thro u gh ou t l ife M o r eo v e r , e ach br an ch of the .

l ow e r jaw is com po s e d o f two s e gm en ts , an d it is by a fo ss ett e

th at it ar ticul at e s with th e tymp an ic b on e .

The m o de of articul ati on o f th e h e ad with th e v e rtebr al

co lumn ad m its of much m o r e e xt en d ed m ov em e n ts i n birds
th an i n m a mm als ; the ar ticu l ati on is form e d of a si n gl e con
dyl e , a s o rt of s e mi -sph e rical piv o t pl ac e d i n the m e si al li n e
o f the b o dy , an d r e c e iv e d i n t o a c o rr e sp on d i n g a rtic u l ar c a vity

i n the a t l a s .

O rb i t . I n t e r Orb i t e r Se p t um
- .

L ac hrym l B o n e a .

N o st ri l .
« Cr a n i um .

S up . M

Nas a l F o ssae J u g al B o n e
. . Inf e r M axi l
. .

F i g 2 23 . .
—H e d o f th a e Ea gle .

4 29 The n e ck i n bir ds is g e n e r a lly much l on ge r th an

.

i n m am m als The high e r th ey a r e e l e v at e d on th e ir li m bs ,

.

th e l o n ge r m u st th e n e ck b e co m e , th e j aws b e i n g the p ri n cip a l

o rg an s o f pr e h en si on ( Fig 22 2 ) i n the sw an , the n e ck e x
.

cee ds th e h e ight o f th e b o dy , th u s e n abli n g it to s e e k i ts

pre y at c on sid e r abl e d e pths whil e swi mmi n g Thus th e .

n u m b e r o f ce rvi c a l v e rte brae v a ri e s gr e atly , a cco r di n g to th e

spe ci e s ; fro m tw e lv e to fi ft e en is th e usu a l n u m b e r , b u t th e re

m ay b e fe w e r , an d occa si on al ly th e r e ar e a s m an y , or m o r e ,
th an tw en ty ; th ey ar e e x tr e m e ly m o v eabl e on e a ch oth e r ,
an d this th e y ow e to the fo rms of th e ir a rtic u l a r sur face s fi“
This arr an ge m en t is re m arkabl e i n w adin g birds , as i n sto rks ;
Th e s e arti cul ar s ur fa c e s ar e co n c av e o n o n e a s p e ct an d co n ve x o n the
o th e r ( b a ll a n d s o ck e t )
- - I n th e u p p e r p art o f t h e n e c k th e y pe rm i t o f fr e e
.

fl e x i o n fo rw a rds b u t a b o u t t h e m i ddl e o f th e n e ck th e y a dm i t o nl y o f

o nly o f fle xi o n fo rward s
,

fle xi o n b ack w ar ds ; w hi l st ag a i n t ow ar ds th e b as e of the n e c
.
, th e y admi t k ,
284 ZOOLOGY .

nu m e rous pro c e ss e s for the i n s e rti on o f muscl e s assist i n th e se

m otion s .

On the o th e r h an d i n al m o st al l birds the v er te brae o f the

,

b ack ar e n e arly fix e d or i m m o v a bl e a n d this n o d ou bt is to , , ,

e n a bl e the wi n gs to fi n d i n this p a rt o f the tru n k a p o i n t o f

suppo rt I n ge n e r a l th ey a r e co n s olid ate d or u n ite d i n to

.
,

on e but i n birds which d o n o t fly a s th e o str ich an d ca ss o w a ry

, ,

( Fig . th ey re m ai n disti n ct an d pre se rv e th eir m o bility , .

The l u mb a r an d s acr al v e rte br ae un ite i n t o on e ; the coccyge al

ar e s m a ll an d m o v e abl e th e l as t ge n e r ally l arge r th a n the
,

oth e rs an d is r ais e d in t o a cr e st
, It suppo rts the large fea .

the r s o f th e t a il ( Fig .

4 30 The r i b s o f bir ds sh o w s om e p e c u li a riti e s te n di n g

.

to giv e s o lidity to the ch e st o r th or a x Th e ca rtil a g e un iti n g .

the rib to th e ste r n u m is o s se ous i n th e bird an d each ri b ,

ha s a pro c e ss which ru n n i n g b a ckw ards o v e r th e oth e r ri b

, , ,

s o o v e rl aps th e m th at al l th e ribs s u ppo rt e ach o th e r .

But th e m o st r e m ark abl e p ar t o f the sk el e to n of the th o rax

is the ste rn u m ( Fig which givi n g att ach m en t to the
.
,

muscl e s us e d i n flight a ss u m e s an e x trao rdi n ar y d ev e l op

,

m e n t e n clo s i n g n ot o n ly the th orax b u t a l arge p art of the

, ,

a bdo m en In the ca ss o w ary an d o strich ( Fig 1 3 8 ) which do

. .

n ot fly th e ste rn u m ha s n o e x t e r n al cr e st an d th e win gs are

, ,

rudim e n t ary ; but this e x ists i n oth e r birds a n d is c all e d the ,

k ee l or b r e cl ze t ( b Fig by m ultiplyi n g the m usc u l ar

, .

a tt a chm e n ts fa v o u r a bly it giv e s m o r e fo rc e to the d e p r e sso r

,

muscl e s of the wi n gs .

4 3 1 The b o n e s o f the sh ould e r ar e i n like m ann e r

.

fa v o ur abl e for the acti on o f the wi n gs The sc apul a (o) is .

n a rr o w an d e l on g at e d an d pl aced i n the a xis of th e spi n e ; it

,

r e sts on th e ste rn um n ot on ly by the cl avicl e s c al l e d f o ur

che tte or m e rryth o ught (f ) b u t a ls o by the cl a vicl e s ca ll ed ,

co raco id s o te r m e d b ec au s e th e y s ee m to b e pr o l o n g

o f th e c o r a c o id pro c e ss i n m an The cl avicl e s ca l l e d fourch e tte

.

un ite gen e ral ly be l o w with e ach oth e r an d ar e atta ch e d to the ,

cr e st o f th e ste rn u m an d to ge th e r with the p o w e rfu l c o r a co id

, ,
’
cl a vicl e s o ffe r a stron g p o i n t d app u i for the win gs to act on ,

an d th e s e structur e s ar e prop o rti o n e d to th e p o w e r o f flight o f

the b i rd Thus i n s o m e of the te r r e stri al p ar oq u ets o f A u s

.
,

tr al i a th e s e b o n e s ar e r e duce d to an a lm o st rudi m e n ta ry sta te ;

,

i n th e ca ss ow a ry a n d A m e ri can o strich the fo u rch e tte is r e p t e

se n t e d by tw o s m al l sty l e ts ; i n th e A fric an ostrich an d
th e to u ca n th e y n e arly r ea ch th e ste rn um b u t d o n ot un ite ,
 TH E cr a ss BI R D S . 285

in fe ri o rly ; fin ally i n s om e o wls th ey ar e u n ite d i n fe ri orly by

,

cart i l ag e whilst i n the gre ate r n umbe r of birds th e ir bo n y

,

u n i on is co m pl e t e I n m a n y in stan ce s th ey for m a cr e st at
.

this po in t o f u n i on an d s ee k a dir ect su pp ort fro m the

,

ste r n u m .

The an te ri o r e x tr e miti e s o f birds ar e e mpl oye d on ly as

win gs ; th ey m ust n ot b e co n fo un d e d with th e s o -c all e d wi n gs
o f b ats which w e h a v e alr e a dy s e e n to b e o f an e n tir e ly dif
,

fer e n t n atu r e : th ey ar e for m ed o f sti ff feath e rs or qu ill s ,

which re qui re to be fix ed on ly at th e ir b as e an d the h an d i n ,

c on s e qu e n ce ce as e s to pre s e n t an y appe aran c e o f fin ge rs .

-‘ c

F i g 224
. .
—B on e s of th e S ho ul d e r an d S te rn um .
’

’ ’

§ 4 3 2 The . l arg e quill s of th e wi n gs ar e c a ll e d r am a es

g ,

an d it is m o r e on th e ir l e n g th an d str e n gth th an o n th e

e x te n t of th e b o n e s th a t th e p o w e r o f flight d e p en ds
, .

tim e the bird pre p a re s for flight h e r a is e s the ar m an d i ts

pl u m ag e u n fo lde d ; th e n h e e n fo l d it by e x t e n di n g th e am
s
,

a t th e s a m e ti m e su dden ly d e pressin g it : the ai r which

is str u ck for m s the p oi n t of s u ppo rt an d re sistan c e to a do wn
w ar d m ov e m e n t ; u po n it he ris e s l i ke a proj e ctil e an d the ,

im pulsi on o n c e giv e n to the bo dy is m a in t ai n e d an d dire cte d

by the s am e i n str u m en ts an d m o v e m e n ts : the bir d w o uld
s oon fall to the e arth by the fo rc e o f gr a vity but be fo r e the ,

spe e d acqu ir e d by the first e ffo rt i s e x h au ste d a s e c on d an d a ,

thir d t ake pl ac e co n ti n u i n g the livi n g pr oj e cti l e i n its co ur s e

, .

Whilst the bird is be in g thus sus pe n d e d i n th e ai r it ,

a, th este rn um ; e n o tch o f th e st e rn um ; co o ri gi n of
, , th e ete r n al ri bs
b cre st ; f fo u rc he tte ; c co ra co i d cl a vi cl e ; o s c a p ul a ;
, , , , t, fibro u s m em
bran e e x t e n d i n g fro m th e fo urche tte to th e s te rn um .
28 6 ZOOLO G Y .

b e co m e s n ece m a i n ta in its e quilibrium i n this

ss ary for it to
) os i ti on ; a n d i n o rd e r to s e cure this its ce n tre of gravity
i
,

§ 2 8 5 ) must b e pl ac e d un de r the sh o uld e rs a n d as l o w as ,

po ssibl e ; for this r e as on durin g flight th e bird ca rri e s th e ,

h e ad w e ll fo rw a rd the n e ck b e in g on the str e tch an d the

, ,

body h eap e d t oge th e r as it w e r e i n to an o v al for m , , .

F i g 225 . .
—Wi g of th n e F al co ’
n.

It is obvi o us on the pl ain e st m e ch an ical pri n cipl e s th at al l

, , ,

thin gs be in g e qu al the fac u lty an d po w e r of flight w i ll b e i n

,

th e r ati o o f th e e x te n t o f the wi n gs th e s e b e in g the m o vi n g ,

fo rce ; an d i n fact al l birds re m ar ka bl e for th e ir po w e r o f

sustai n i n g a l on g an d rapid flight h ave l arge wi n gs the op po ,

site b e in g the ca s e with bir ds of l ow sl ow an d sho rt flight ; , ,

the c o n do r (A m e ric an vult u r e V ulture of the A n d e s ) a n d the ,

s e a bir d c all e d f r i g a te ar e g o od e x a mpl e s of such po w e rs o f

,

fli ght The dw e lli n g of the con do r is on the l ofty p e aks o f

.

the Co rdi ll e r as fro m wh en ce he de sc en ds to the oc e an at a

,

sw e ep re gardl e ss o f the e ffe ct of rapid ch an ge s i n the te m

,

e r atur e an d i n th e pr e ss u r e o f th e a tm o sph e r e Th y
p e ar e .

s aid to b e stron g en ough to c arry off i n th e ir t al on s sh ee p

an d l a m a s an d wh en un ite d i n n umb e rs to atta ck an d kill an
, ,

ox d
‘
The birds cal l e d frigate s h a v e th e wi n gs pr o po rt i on ally
l on ge r an d ar e m et with i n tro pica l s e as at the di stan ce o f
,

four h u n dred l e agu e s from l an d .

To ris e v e rtica lly th e wi n gs of th e bir d must b e ca rri e d

,

h o riz on tal ly ; but thi s is s e ldo m the c as e an d fr o m the ,

o bliqu ity o f th e ir po siti on th e y impr e ss on the m oti o n s of

th e bir d o bli qu e as ce n si o n a l m o v e m e n t ; o cc a si o n a ll y this

o bliqu ity is s o grea t tha t i n o rd e r to ri se v e rtic al ly thr ough ,

ré mig o p im ary q i ll s o f th e h an d b s e co dary qui lls o r tho s

a ,
e s, r r u ;

, n e
m ; d b a st r d q i lls o th s e f th e th m b
,
of th f r e o e -a r , a u ,
r o o u .

t Th S o th A fri c
e uV ult r s whi ch I h e s ee i ast m be rs i
an u e , av n n v nu n
S th r Afri c h th e s m h b i ts ; th ey e co wardly bir d o t
di n g th i r stren gth an d s i ze —R K
ou e n a, ave a e a ar a n
,
wi thst an e . . .
 TH E CLA SS BI RD S .

th e ai r , thebi r d i s obli ge d to fly aga in st the wi n d The - .

,

r el ativ e l en gth of the r émi g es in flu en ce s the fac i l ity with

w hich the bird ris e s i n c al m a i r Birds which h av e the an te
.

ri o r r émi g es the l on ge st an d m o st r e sistan t h av e a m o re ,

'

F i g 226
. . F
—Th e B i rd c all e d ri g a t e .

obliqu e flight th an th o s e which h a v e the wi n gs tru n c ate d at

th e extr e miti e s .

b a

F i g 22 7
. .
—Wi n g of th e Spa rro w H awk .
’

Thus the falcon s ( Fig . whi ch h av e the wi n gs poi n te d 3

r i s e on ly i n zi g -zag like , a v e ss e l tacki n g ; whilst the h awk 3

a a, pri m ary qui l ls ; b, s eco n d ari es .

28 8 z oo w o r .

ea gl e an d oth e r bi rds o f p rey call ed b ase or i g n obl e wh os e

, , ,

win gs ar e tru n cate d at the e xtre m iti e s can r is e v e rtical l y ,

t hro u gh the ai r .

I n risi n g fro m the s oil th e bird firs t spri n gs or l e aps fr o m

,

the gr ou n d by m e a n s o f his fe e t if th e s e (the limbs ) b e to o

sh ort as i n the c as e o f the m arti n ets th e y fi n d it di fficult to
, ,

m ak e the first bo un d an d s ee k a d e clivity to en abl e th e m to

,

h a v e roo m fo r the e x p an si on an d acti on o f th e ir wi n gs .

Birds i n th e ir flight ar e as siste d by the ta il fe ath e rs which ,

s ee m to act as a r u dde r i n di re ctin g the ir co u rs e .

Wh en r e st i n g on th e s o il the bird is st rictly a

§ 43 3 .
,

bipe d an d h e n ce the n ece ssity for a bro ad an d l ar ge pe lvis

, ,

firmly fi x e d to th e v e rt e br a l co lu m n The h a un ch bon e s ar e .

,

i n fact e x tre m ely de v e l o pe d i n bi r ds an d th ey for m with the

, , ,

lumb ar an d s acral v e rt e br ae a s i n gl e oss eous m a ss ( Fig

, .

I n ge n e r a l this o ss eou s girdl e is in co mpl e te a n te r i o rly ; the

b on e s of the pu bis d o n ot un ite with ea ch oth e r i n fron t ,

whi l st th e ischi atic po rti on s u n ite

with the s ac rum so th at the s o ,

c all e d n otch i n m amm als beco me s

i n birds a fo r a m e n or h ol e The -
.

th i gh bo n e is sh ort an d str aight ,

a n d the l e g is c omp o s ed as i n ,

m am m als of a tibi a fi bul a an d , , ,

rotul a ; but the fibul a is u n ite d to

the tibi a b e for e r e achi n g the l ow e r
p art o f the l eg A si n gl e b on e .

r e pr e s en ts the tar sus an d m e ta

t arsus this suppo rts or c arri e s the
t o e s n e v e r m o re th an four i n
,

n u m b e r ; s o m e tim e s the gr e a t toe

dis app ea rs an d occ asion al l y the ,

on e n e x t it thus l eavi n g thr ee or ,

. .

W
F i g 228 P i d ( M y
- e
oo d p c k r
E p e he )
o
e
en
e
on ly tw o ( Fig
.
ic
T h e n u mbe r

o f the ph al an ge s m e r ca s e s
pr o g r e s
s i v el y fro m withi n o utw a rds fr o m th e gr e at toe to th e e x
,

te rn a l o r fou rth from two to fi v e Fin ally o f th e s e four toe s

,
.
, ,

thre e i n ge n e r al ar e dir e cte d fo rw ar d the thumb or great toe ,

b e in g tu rn e d b ackw a rds ; but s om e tim e s the e x te rn a l toe is

al s o t u r n e d b ackw a rds as e sp e ci all y i n li mbi n g bir ds th e
, c ,

pa ro qu e ts to u c an s an d w oo dpe ck e rs &c ( Fig

, , , . .

Whilst the bird r e sts up on its fe e t on the s o il it is n e ce s ,

sa ry th a t the c en tr e o f gr avity fa l l withi n the b as e of su ste n

 TH E cu s s BI RD S . 2 89

tati o n ; h e n c e th e utility o f the e x tr e m e ly fl e x e d thigh an d

th e o bliquity o f the t ar sus on the l e g Wh e n the foot is
.

l arge an d bro ad , an d the n e ck is so fle xible as to ca rry the

h e ad w ell b ackw ar ds , the e qui l ibrium m ay b e thus m a in t ain e d
without ab an don i n g the h oriz on tal p o siti on ( Fig but .

wh en the n eck is sho rt , the h e ad l a rge , an d the toe s of m od e

r ate l e n gth , the bird is forc e d to m ai n t ai n an alm ost v e rtic al
p o siti on ( Fig . To m ain t a i n th e ir e quil ibrium , birds
pl ac e the h e ad u n d er the win g whilst th ey sl e ep pe rch e d on
o n e f oo t ( Fig The m e ch an ism by which th e y stan d
.

with s u ch e a s e an d for such a l en gth of tim e on o n e foot , is

this : the l o w e r e x tre mity of the fem u r pre s e n ts a h o ll ow , i n
which is l odge d , durin g the e x ten si on of the li m b , the top of
the tibi a , which c an n o t qu it thi s c a vity b u t by a m u sc ul a r
e ffo rt
. The foot o n ce spr e ad o u t, r e m a in s s o, r e qui ri n g n o

f
urth e r muscul ar effo rt , an d c on s e quen tly givi n g r is e to n o
ati g u e .

M o st birds p e rch , an d it i s e a si e r for th e m to spr e a d th e ir

Fi g 2 29
. .
—Th e Ibi s .
F i g 230 —
. . M ch o t
an .

wi n gs an d t ak e flight wh e n p e rch e d on a br an ch o f a tre e or

r ocky e dg e th an wh e n r e sti n g o n th e l e v e l gr o u n d
, In o rd e r .

to e rch with s f e t th e y e mb r a c e the b ough cl os e ] with

p a y ,

th ei r toe s an d i f th i s r e quired an i n c e ss an t muscul a r e or t it ,

co uld n ot b e su p orte d for an y l en gth o f tim e A m e chan i cal

.
.

c on tri v an c e en a l e s the bird to disp en s e with this e v en whilst

as l e e p .The fle x or muscl e s of the t oe s p a ss o v e r th e ar ticul a
U
290 zo om e r .

ti on s of the kn ee an d h ee l i n such a way tha t whilst th ey are ,

fl ex e d th ey act on the te n don s of th e se muscl es an d so flex

, ,

the to e s The w eight o f the bo dy assis ts i n this m ove m en t

.
,

which en abl e s the bi r d to pe rch with out fati g u e .

F i g 23 1
. .
—Th e Ryl o a Ea gle .

The di ffe ren ce s which ex ist i n the form of the fee t of bird s
h av e a r e fer en c e to th e m od e of life an d h abits o f the an im al .

I n th e cas s ow a ry ( Fig 221 ) an d o str ich ( F i g birds as . .

r a pid i n ru nn in g as th e h o rs e the p a ws a r e n ot o nl y r obust , ,

but l o g an d the fe et c omp ar ativ e ly sm al l fi In the m e ss en ge r

n ,
“

( the f a l co s emen ta m u s or s e cr et a ry bird ) which pur sue s

’

, ,

s e rpe n ts as hi s food foll owin g th e m with l on g str id e s thi s

, ,

confo rm a tion o f the foot i s als o o bs e rv e d I n the e agl e ( Fig . .

falcon vultur e &c th e s e o rgan s ar e n ot m e re ly ro bu st

, , .
, ,

but stron g an d the to e s ar e a rm ed with t al on s l a rg e hoo k ed

, , , ,

a n d sh a rp with whi ch th e y s e iz e te ar d e str oy an d ca rry o ff

, , , ,

th e ir pre y Birds d e sti n e d to liv e by the m a rgi n s o f riv e rs

.
,

a n d to hu n t fo r w o rms an d fish e s i n sh al l o w w a t e rs o r by ,

I n th e ri gi l i t i L e p a tt s s o t n o -s le m t r bu st s m i s tr es
o na s, s e n n eu en o e , a
l gu s t l e i d co m p ara t i m t
on e , e e B t i t h w rd f t ( p i d )
ve en u n e o oo e ,

ana to mi sts i d l w ys d i e e ry ani m l th e th e e r g i s f the t s

nc u e a a an n v a r e on o oe
t rs s d m t t rs s —R K
,

a u , an e a a u . . .
 TH E CLA SS BI B D s . 29 1

w ad in g h a v e the l imbs ( p a ttes ) sl en d e r of e at l e n gth an d

g
, , ,

n ak e d or with out fe ath e r s as far as the k n e e

, i g 23 3 ) h e n c e .

th eir n am e of echas s i er s or w ader s Fin al ly i n s om e sp e ci e s

, .
,

the fee t ( p a tte s digit al p art o f the fo ot ) ar e palm at e d an d

, ,

F i g 232 . .
—Af ri c an O st i r ch . F i g 2 33 . .
—E ch a s se ’
d E u r op e .

thus c on v e rte d by an e xp an si o n of the i n t e gum e n ts i n to a

, ,

ki n d o f oar The l a x ity of this m e mbr an e pe rmits o f the

.

fu ll e x p an si on of the foot a s m ay b e s e e n i n d u cks ( Fig

, .

swan s an d i n a gre a t n u m b e r o f a qu atic birds

, .

§ 4 34 T he ta ct i l e s e n sibility is b u t littl e d ev e l o e d i n

birds an d the fo rm o f th e ir wi n gs an d fe e t is als o u n fgvo ur

.

a bl e fo r its e x e rcis e The t a st e is m o re or l e ss o btus e an d

.
,

th e ir c a rtil agi n o us to n gu e with ou t n e rv ous p apill ae s ee ms

, ,

ill ad apte d for t aste ( Fig

-
The s e em to sw all ow th e ir
y .

food with out ta sti n g it The s en s e o t sm e ll app ears str on ge r

.
,

b u t ye t n ot m u ch d e v e l op e d The n a s a l fo ss ae a r e h oll o w e d
.

o u t o f th e b as e o f th e u pp e r m an dibl e ( Fig with o ut .

c o m m un ic ati n g with the si n u s e s Th ey h a v e a v e ry v asc u l ar .

pituit a ry m e m bran e an d thre e c a rtil a gi n ou s l ami n ae ( com e ts )

,

r o ll e d on th e ms e lv e s r e s e mbli n g the turbi n at e d b on e s o f

,

U2
 292 zo o noo r .

m amm al s Th e se l ami n ae s ee m to b e b e tte r d e v el ope d i n birds

y
.

o f pr e th an i n o th e rs l e adi n g on e to sup se th at the s en se o f

,

sm e ll 1 s acute 1 n thi s cl a ss o f birds an d t i1 8 h as b e e n ass er te d

, ,

but e x pe rim en ts an d obse rv ati on s o f re c en t z oo l o gists te n d to

p ro v e th a t e v en i n th e s e th e prey is d e te cte d by
y th e sigh t an d ,
'

n ot by the sm e ll The a pp aratus o f he ar i n g l s simpl e r th an

.

i n m a mm als The e x te rn al ear (figu r e d p art of the e ar ) 1 s

.

w an ti n g an d the app aratus is r educe d to an e xte rn al tube

, ,

a tymp an ic c avity an d in te rn al e ar sf , But th e organ of sight

s ee ms to b e m ore pe rfe ct th an i n m am m als The e y e s a r e .

propo rti on all y an d n e w pa rts e xist The r e ti n a i s

, .

thick an d c on n e cte d by m e an s o f a fold p assin g from the

,

choroid to the c apsul e of the l e n s It has be e n call ed p e cten .

,

an d by s om e is th o u ght to b e a d e pe n d e n c e of the r e tin a .

The pupil 1 s alw ays r o un d th e c orn e a l arg e an d t h e scl e rotic

, ,

Fi g 23 4
. .
— C an ard M cre u s e
a .

As ea rly as I a s ce rt ai n e d by di re ct o bs e rva ti o n t ha t th e S o u th
1 81 7 ,
A fri can vu ltu re 1 s s o le ly gu i d e d by s i ght 1 n di sco ve ri n g hi s pre y —B K
, ,

. .

t The o s s i cu l a a u di tus ar e a ls o re d uce d i n n u m b e r a n d m u ch m o di fi e d

, .
 TH E cr a s s B I RD S . 293

fu rn ish e d with o ss eous pl ate s an te ri o rly wh os e fo rm v a ri e s ,

with the ge n u s an d sp eci e s Lachr al gl an ds a lw ays e x ist .

,

an d b e sid e s the h o riz on ta l e y e lids t ey h av e a thi rd v e rtica l , , ,

mo v e abl e an d e l a stic which can b e d ra w n co mpl e te ly o ve r the

, ,

surface o f th e eye .

Bir ds ar e w e ll kn ow n to h av e a pi e rci n g an d m ost distin ct

vi si on at al l distan ce s th at is to say th e m o st co mpl e te
, ,

a dapta ti on of sight On wh at this d e pe n ds is n ot cl e a rly

.

kn ow n s om e a scribi n g it to the m obility o f the o ss eo u s pl at e s

,

a n d to the v a ryin g fo rm o f th e l e n s i n this cl ss a o f a n i m a l s fi“

The n e rv o us syste m pr e s en ts th e foll owi n g pe culi a riti e s .

The en ce ph al on is l e ss de v el ope d th an i n m a m m als but the ,

c e re br al h e misph e re s ( Fig 2 3 5) still .

m ai n tai n th e ir sup e ri o rity o v e r the oth e r

p arts . The gr e at c o mmissur e c a ll e d ,

corp u s ca l l o s u m is w an tin g an d th e r e
, ,

ar e no c e re bra l c on v oluti on s The .

Opti c l ob e s or th al ami , which i n

m amm als ar e sm all an d co n ce al e d by ,

the o v e rl appi n g o f th e h em isph e r e s ar e ,

h e re ex po s e d an d visibl e with o ut di s
s e cti on Th ey ar e prop ortion all y much
.

l arge r an d in ste a d o f b e in g s olid ar e

, ,

h oll o w lik e the ce r e br al l ob e s The c e r e

,
F i g 23 5
.

B ai f '
_
r n o
b ellu m ( v) is groo v e d tr an sv e rs e ly by th e ost ri c h .

p arall e l an d co n v e rgi n g li n e s ; it is
alm o st wh olly form e d by the m e di a n port i on ; this i n
m amm als is sm al l c om p ar e d with the h e m i sph e re s or l ate ra l
po rti on s which r e m ai n r u dim e n tar y as it w e r e i n birds e sp e
, , , ,

ci al l y i n b ad flye r s Th e an n ul a r pr ot u be ran ce or pons of

.
,

V ar ol i u s i s w an tin g i n birds as w e ll a s i n r e ptil es an d fis h e s

, , .

Fin ally the m edull a spi n al is (e ) is gen e rally v e ry l on g an d

, ,

h as tw o sw e llin gs i n its c o urs e co rr e spon di n g to the goi n g off ,

o f the n e rv e s o f th e w i n gs an d limbs or fe et The for m e r is .

the stron ge r i n bir ds of we r ful flight an d v i ce c ar e d , .

4 35 The foo d of ir ds is v e ry v a ri e d : grai n s in s ects

.
, ,

fish e s fl e sh fr e sh or put rid Th ey u se the feet s o me tim e s as

, , .

in strum en ts of pr e h en si on but the b i ll is al w ays the p rin,

e ip e l o rg an e m l oy e d for this purpo s e ; thus its n atur e

v ar i e s with the p cod an d it b e co m e s an impo rtan t char act e r
,

i n cl assific ati on A h or n y cov er i n g s olid an d m ore or

.
, ,

Th e hi gh y-d e v e l op d ann ul u s albu s s ee m s conn ec t e d wi th thi s ad ap t iv e

— R é
e

p o w e r
. .
294 zo ono e r .

l e ss h ard co v e r s the os seo us bil l e xter na ll y co n v e rti n g it i n to

, ,

a s o rt of cuttin an d t e a ri n g i n strum en t but th e b i r d n e v er

g
h as any tru e te et h : h e n ce th e re is n o m a sticati o n pro pe rly so ,

ca ll e d In b i rds w hich liv e on fl e sh an d tear th e ir prey

.

the fal co ns ( Fig the e a gl e s ( Fig an d th e

vul tur e s ( Fig 23 9) —the upp e r m an dible i s sh ort str on g
. .

.
, ,

h oo k e d an d te rmi n at ed by a sha rp po i n t ; it is o cca

,

s i on all
y s e rra te d an d th e m o r e or l e ss san gui n a ry ch ara c
,

te r of the b i r d m ay b e judge d o f b y th ese st ructu re s Thu s .

Fi g 236. .
—The Ki te . Fi g 23 7
.
- Th e Fl a co n .

the falco n ( Fig 2 3 7 which h as al l th e se ch ar act e rs of th e bi ll

.

i n th e high e st p e rfe cti on , is the b o lde st of all birds o f pr e y

whi lst the kit e an d vul tu re , i n whi ch the bill is s ofte r , l e ss
h oo ked , an d n ot se rr a te d , ar e c ow ar dly ; the vult u r e chi e fly
liv i n g on d e ad o r dyi n g an im al s Se a bir ds w hi ch liv e on
.

fish h av e the b il l l on g an d h oo k ed
( Fig but much lon ge r an d so fte r
.

th an i n th e tr u e bir ds of pre y alread

spo k e n of I n oth e rs , which se ar c
.

fo r sm al l fish e s an d r eptil e s which

m ay b e e asily sw all ow e d , the bil l b e
co m e s still m o re e l on gate d re s e mbl i n g ,

a pa i r of pi n ce rs S uch w e fi n d i n the .

ki n g fi she r s ( Fig 24 4 ) an d the ci g o ne

g .

s a c ( adj utan t ) ( Fig Bi rds

‘

cl , .

which liv e on i n ects (i n e ctiv oro us )

ai n s an s s s
,

w o rms fruit av e n o thin g

mm of the fi n
,

I n the fi rst the bill is

, ,

.
,

ve ry sl en d e r an d but slightly cur v e d or e ve n straight a n d

,
'
, ,

much e l o n gate d (F but if th ey ta ke sm all i n

se cts o n th e wi n g t i en th ei r bill is sho rt an d broad an d
,

wide ly cleft as i n sw al l ow s goat -sucke rs ( Fig

, , &c The . .
 TH E om s s BI R D S . 295

gran i vorous hav e th e b i ll sho rt thick ar che d abov e or

, , ,

con ical an d gen eral ly straig ht ( Fig

, The pe lica n s pr e
.

se n t a re m ar kabl e m odi fica ti on of th e bill ; be tw e e n th e two

Fi g 23 9
. . Th e
- Ye ll o w Vul ture .

F i g 240
. .
—Ci go gn e a S ac
( A dju tan t ) .

br an ch e s o f the l o w e r jaw th er e is a wide cutan eo us expan

sion or b ag i n whi ch th ey sto r e th ei r foo d ( fish e s ) to disgor ge
, ,

it a fte r w ar ds an d to fee d on it at th eir l e isur e

, .

sfifezfifél f
E
F i g -m e
"
s s e s :

But so m e bi r ds pres en t sin gul ariti e s i n the form of the bil l ,

the us e s o f which a re n ot u n d e rsto o d Such for ex ampl e is

.

th e bill of the rhi n oc e ro s h o rn b i ll or cal ao ( Fig

, .
296 zo ono e r .

4 36 . t on gu e i n s o m e bi rds be com e s an i n st rum en t

The
o f pr e h en si on an d is m o difi e d acco rdi n g ]
,
The li n gu al bo n e s
I Fig p r l g d b ackw a rds h i n d the h e ad an d
( t
, 2
. 4 7 ) ar e o o n e ,

th e s e p rol on g ati on s giv e atta chm en t to muscl e s ( m) foun d ,

243 .
—Th e Sp a rro w . Fi g 244
. .
—Ki n gfi sh e r .

lo w er jaw Wh e n th e s e muscl e s co n tract

to th e . ,

th ey 1 for w ar d the hyoid or lin gu al bo n e s an d th e s e ,

p u sh the ton gu e ou t of the m outh to a cons ide rabl e

H g 215 . .
—The P e l i can .

tan ce . This structure is m o st rem ark abl ei n the w oodpe cke r ,

an d in o th e rs which d art the to n gu e rapi d ly at i n s ects ( Fig .

 TH E cu ss B I RD S . 29 7

In the parrot , which to a c ert ain d e gree m ast icate s its

food , the t on gu e is thick an d fl e shy ; i n birds of 18

F i g 246
. .
—C a1ao a o R
C as qu e e n cr i ss an t ( hi nocero s H o rn bi ll ) .

st il l s om e wh at l arge an d s o ft ; in m o st of the gran ivora

Fig 24 7 it is dry tri an gul ar an d r o ugh to w ar ds its b ase
( . , , ,

Fi g .

with sm all cart i l agi n ous po i n ts ; fi n all y in ce rt ain i n s ecti vora ,

its e x tr em ity is ar m e d wi th h oo ks an d s e rr at ed or n otch ed , .

T o ngue glo tt i s &c l th e to gu e ; h hyo i d b on e s ; m m u s cle s o f th e

, , . : ,
n , ,

hyo i d p p ha rynx ; g gl o tti s t trache a ; e gull e t

, , , , .
 298 zo o no o v .

Th e iv ary gl an ds ar e la ce d un d e r the ton gu e an d con

sal ,

s i st of sm all m ass e s of l i t e roun d e d follicl es The sali va i s .

gen eral l y thi ck an d s om e tim e s gluish .

43 7 Th e r e i s n o v e lum p al a ti b etw ee n the m outh an d

.

the phan yn x The gull e t ( Fig

. to w ards the l ow e r p a rt of
.

the n e ck co mmu n i ca te s wi th an e n l a rg ed pou ch c al l e d the cro

,

the w a lls o f which ar e m e mb ran ous I n thi s c a vity wh i c .

,

v ari e s much i n di ffe re n t bir d s the food r em ain s for a ti m e , .

The cro p is m o st de v e l o ped i n grani v or ous birds ; it is al so

fo un d i n bir d s of r ey but it i s w an tin g i n th e o st rich an d i n
,

m o st pisciv o rous i rds Be low thi s en l ar ge m en t the gulle t

.

con tracts but s oon en l arges to for m a s e con d dil a ta ti on ca ll e d

, ,

the v e n t riculus su cce n tur i atu s o n the i nn e r s u rfac e of which

,

n um e ro us o r e s m ay b e s e e n l e adin g to th e foll icl e s which

p ,

s e c re te a gastric j uice This s e c on d sto m ach is g en e rally

.

sm all but it is l ar ger wh en the cr 0p is w an tin g Fin al ly

, .
,

this s e co n d sto m ach l ead s i n fe ri o rly m to a th i r d ca ll ed th e

'
,

gi zz ar d i n which the ch
, fi cati on s ee ms to b e fin ish ed .

Thi s v ar i e s i n capaci t an str uctur e I n fle sh -eatin g birds

the gizz ar d is thi n an dm e mbran ous ; but i n the gran ivor a it
.
,

is po w e rful l y muscul ar an d its in n e r su rfac e is protecte d by

,

an e pid e rmi s al m o st c a rtil agi n o us Its str en g th is imm en s e

. .

Ton gu e .

F i g 248
. .
—H ad e of th e k
W oo dpec er .

I n the o str ich , the h ar de st substan c e s ar e acte d on by it , an d

s e e ms to pe rfo rm the o ffic e of a m astica to ry app aratus .

Th e i n te sti n e fol l ow in g th e s e stom achs l s much sh orte r

th an i n m amm al s , but is co mpo s e d a ls o o f two p o rti on s The .

fir st , afte r fo rm in g the fir st turn , win ds i n v ari ous di recti on s ;

the s e con d di ffe rs but littl e fr o m th e fir st , an d is sm oo th e xte r
n a lly , but i s i n g e n e r a l e asily d isti n guish e d fr o m the fi rst by

two cre ca or e l on g ate d cu l d cs a cs , which e xist at its co m

m e n ce m e n t Th e s e a p en dage s ar e v e ry sm all or abs en t in
la
.

birds of pre y , but ar e rge i n grani v o ro us bi rds .

The liv er is v e r y l ar ge , an d fil l s a great pa rt of the th o r ax as

 TH E cu s s BI RD S . 29 9

w ell as of the
bd omen ; th es e two ca viti e s n ot be in g distin ct
a
as i n m amm als the di aphr a gm is r u dim entary
, Thi s gl an d .
,

Gull e t .

Ve t ri cul s
n u
S u ccen tur i atu s .

Gi zzar d .
Li ve r

Pan creas .

D uo den um .

F i g 249
. .
—Di ge sti ve Apparatus of the Comm on F owl .

the liv e r , is d ivide d in to two l ob e s , n ear l y e qu al , an d giv e s o rigi n

to two h epatic c an als , which , afte r uni ti n g , e n te r the i n te s ti n e .
3 00 ZOOLO G Y .

Fi n al ly a gal l -bl add e r is alm ost al w ays pre se n t which r ece iv e s

, ,

fr o m the l iv e r a po rti on o f bil e an d po u rs it i n to the i n te sti n e

,

by a dist i n ct c an al The pa n creas is e n cl o s e d i n the first l oop

.

o f the sm all i n te sti n e ; it is l on g n a rr o w an d m o re o r l ess

, ,

divide d .

The s l e en is sm all ; the kid n eys ar e l ar ge an d i rre gul ar i n

T
h ey ar e l odge d b e hi n d the pe rito n e um i n little hol ,

l ows al on g the uppe r w all of the pe lvis an d un l i k e the or gan , ,

i n m amm al s th ey h a v e n o disti n ct c or ti ca l substan ce

, The .

ur e te rs as w e ll as the o viducts te rmi n at e n e ar the an us i n a

, , ,

dil ate d p art of the in te sti n e c all e d cl oa ca ( Fig th e r e .

e xi sts n o u ri n ar y bl add e r a n d the u ri n e i s v o id e d with the

,

e x cre m e n ts Th e u r in e is c ompo s ed alm o st wh o lly of ur ic

.

a cid , which is n ot v e ry s olubl e an d wh en dri e d for ms a ,

whi tish m ass .

4 3 8 The n utri en t products of dig e sti on l ea v e the in te s

.

ti n e by lym ph atic v e ss e ls whi ch t erm in a te i n two th ora cic

,

ducts the se ducts op en in to the j ugul ar v e i n s on each side o f

th e ba s e o f th e n e ck .

43 9 The bl oo d of bi rds is ri ch er i n gl o bul es th an th at

.

o f m am m als an d th e s e c or puscl e s i n st e ad of b e in g gl obul ar

, , ,

are e ll i ptic ( Fi g Th e c i r cul ati on i n bi r ds is co mpl ete as

.
,

i n m amm al s an d the an a to mica l arran ge m e n ts ar e the sam e

,

( Fig . But th e w a ll s o f th e l e ft v e n tri cl e ar e much

t hick e r the au ricl e s h av e n o w e ll m ar k e d appe n d a ge s an d the

, ,

right v en tricl e d oe s n ot e xte n d to the apex of the h e ar t .

Th e se l atte r d iffe ren ce s ar e un impo rtan t physi ol o gical l y The .

ao rta at its c o mm e n ce m e n t di vid e s in to thr ee l a r ge b ran ch e s

( Fig . o f which th e first tw o c o n v e y th e bl ood to the

h e ad an d n eck win gs an d m uscl e s of the che st ; whi l st the
, ,

thir d cu rvin g d ow n w ar ds aroun d the r i ht br on chus be co m e s

, ,

the d e scen di n g ao rta Th e re e xist . 0 s om e oth e r

pe cu
l i ar i ti e s i n the m o de of dist ributi on of the ar te ri e s such as ,

th e fo rm ati on of pl e xus e s i n v ar i o u s p a rts o f the bo dy The .

v en o us syste m te rm in ate s i n the right a uricl e by thre e l ar ge

‘

tr un ks o f which on e re pre s en ts the in fe ri o r ca v a an d the tw o

, ,

oth e rs th e subcl a vi an v e in s o f m amm als which i n b i rds e n te r ,

the au ricl e without u n it i n g to fo rm a c o mm on trun k .

§ 4 40 T h e r e spira to ry a pp a r a tu s p r e s e n ts m o difi ca ti o n s
.

m o re r e m ar k abl e th an tho s e o f the circul ation The lu n gs .

c ommun ica te with l ar ge m e mbran ou s ce ll s sp read through out

the bo dy an d e xte n d in g e v e n to th e sk e l e to n Thus the v e n o us
,
.

bloo d in th e w a lls of m an y o rgan s be co m e s expose d to the

 TH E cu ss B I RD S . 301

” I ’m

(1 7 ‘

Fi g . 250 — Ar t e ri a l
. Syst e m of a B i rd .
“

Arte ri e s f th e Greb e
o o rt a ; : m o a, ao f i ts l arge b ran ch e s
a , i t gi e s
ne : v
o ff th e c aro ti d ( ) a d s b cl i
ac n i s lti m a te ly di st ri b te d to the m u scl s o f
u a v an , u u e
th ch e st an d co rr s p o n ds t o th e m am m ry art ri e s o f m amm als ;
e ,
e a e
o e f a v, n o
t he br ch e s o f the e rt e br l art e ry s pplyi g th m scle s f th e sh o ld e r ;
an v a u n e u o u
cc, art ri a l l oo
e fo rm d by th e bra ch s f th e e xt e r l c ro ti d ; l li n gu a l
e n e o na a c ,

a rt ry ; t t rac ea o wi n dpi pe ; m r l rte ri e s ; i i schi ti c arte ry p o

e ,
r a , ena a a , a , r
c ee di g to th e l o w e r e x tre m i t i s ;
n s ac r l art ry fo rm i g a c ti u t i
e as, a e , n on n a on
o f th e ao rt a an d gi vi n g ori gi n t o th e i n fe ri o r m e s e te ri c a rt e ry & c ; l th
,
n , . c , e
cl o ca
a .
3 02 Z OOLO G Y .

acti on of the oxyge n co n ta in e d i n thes e c e l l s , as w e ll as whilst

tra ve rsin g the pu l m o na ry capil l ari e s .

Fi g 251
. .
—L u n gs o f a B i r d .

The lun gs ar e n ot d ivi d ed in to l o be s n e ith e r d o th ey fil l

the ca vity o f the th o rax Th ey ar e as it w e r e fi x e d to the ribs
.
, , ,

an d pr e se n t on th e ir i n f e ri o r sur fa ce se v e r al o rifice s ( Fig 2 51 ) .

be l on gi n g to the b r on chi al t u b e s which trav e rse th e m thr

,

an d through an d th u s co n v ey th e ai r in to th e v ari o us ai r
,

spre ad through o ut the body Th e s e m e mbran ous c a viti e s com

.

m u n i cate with e a ch o th e r .

The e xte n si on o f th e s e c e lls an d c on se qu e n tly of the ai r

,

th ey con tai n bear s a ratio to th e pow e rs o f fli ght o f the bird

,

i n th e eagl e th e y ar e fo un d i n al l the b on e s i n the pe n gu i n s

th e a ir i s e x clud e d from al l or fr o m n e arly all th e bo n es The
, , .

a i r is ge n e r al ly fo un d to e xte n d m o st i n to th e bo n e s chi e fly
us e d for l o co m oti on as th e fe mur of the o strich
, .

W e h a v e alr ea dy a llud e d to the po w e r which bir ds h av e o f

r e sist i n g co ld d u e to the de v e l opm en t of th e re spir ato ry
,

fun cti on an d to a high er te mpe rature th an is foun d i n o th e r

,

an im al s.

44 1 A s i n m amm als th e o rg an of v o ice is a de pe n d e n c e

.
,

o f t e r e spi ra to ry syste m The u ppe r l a ry n x is o f a ve r y

.
 TH E cra ss B I RDS . 303

simpl e str uctu r e an d has but littl e to do with the form ation
,

o f s o un ds Its ori fi ce has the fo rm of a fis sur e (9 Fi g

.
, .

but to w ar ds the l o w e r e xtre mity of the t rachea is the tr u e

l aryn x m o st re m a rk abl e as might b e e xpecte d i n sin gi n g
, , ,

birds This c ompl ex appar atu s will b e be st un der sto od by a

.

re fe r en ce to Fi gs 252 an d 253 It m ay b e co mp are d to a

. .

k in d o f os s eo us dr um the in te ri or of whi ch is divide d in fer i orly

,

by a tr a v er s i n g b ea m of the s am e n atur e surm ou n t ed by a thin ,

s e mil u n ar m e mbr an e ( 0 Fig Thi s drum co mmu n ic ate s

, .

in fe ri o rly with two ape r tur e s of the glottis ( r i mce g l otti d i s ) ,

fo rm e d by the ter m in ati on of the bron chi an d e ach pro vi de d ,

with two lips or v oca l co rds ; fin ally m u scle s wh o s e n u m , ,

b e rs v ary with the spe ci e s e xten d b e tw e en th e diffe re n t r i n gs

,

o f which th e s e p arts ar e co mp o s e d an d m o v e th e m s o a s to ,

Fi g . F i g 253 ?
.

stretch m ore or l e ss str on gly the m e mbr an e s th ey s u ppo rt .

I n birds which do n ot m od u l at e the s o un ds i n a co mpl ex

w ay th e m e m br an o us s e pt u m is w an ti n g ; i n bird s which
,

do n ot s i n g th e r e ar e n o m uscl e s pro pe r to the in fe ri o r la ryn x

, ,

I n fe ri or l a ryn x o f th e r o ck t t r ach e a drum fo rm e d by th e lo we rt '

: , ; ,
’
e n d o f t h e t r ac h e a l mi ddl o ss c l
,
e i u u m o f t h e tr h ;
ac e a b fir st rin g o f th e ,

b ro n chi s e pa ra te d fro m th e thi r d o ss i cul um o f the l a rynx by a m e m bran o u s

,

sp ace ; b bro n c hi ; m p ro p e r m u scle s o f th e l a ry n x the s e m u s cle s h av e

,
:
'
,

be e n re m o e d o n th e p o s t e s d e ; i i m d e pre sso r m u s cle s o f th e trachea

o p
v
—
, .

V rt c l s c t t -y t i nf e ri o rpo rt i o n o f t h e t rac h e a di vi d e d
se lig
1
‘
i i n 0 e n n x
l u n a r m e m bran e si t u a te d a bo ve th e p o i n t o f
e a e o ,

as re g ar ds th e h a lf ;
'

0 , ,

re un i o n o f th e t wo glo tti d e s a n d fix e d to th e o ss eo u s cro ss b e am ( o ) a h ttl e

,
-
,

r i m fo rm e d by th e i n t e rn al 11 1) o f th e r i ht glo tt i s ; me i n n e r s u r fac e o f th e ,

ri ght bro n ch u s fo rm e d by a tym p ani orm m e m bran e ; 6 o rti on o f the

, ,

c avi ty o f the ri ght bro n chu s e xp o s e d by a s e cti o n o f a p a rt of t m e m bran e

, .
304 ZOOLO G Y .

an d the con diti on o f the glottis ( g l otti de s ) can onl y b e

m o difi e d by th o s e which ra is e or d e p res s the tr ach ea .

a n d the y ou n g r e qu i r e n o
§ 44 2 B i r.ds are o vip ar ou s ,

n o uri shm e n t fr o m a bre ast The pe ri od of i n cub ati on of the

.

y o un g i n the e gg v a ri e s with the sp eci e s but is n early th e ,

s am e in the i n di vidu al s of a sp e cie s F or the hu m m i n bi rd

.
,

the sm all e st o f the cl as s the pe ri od i s tw e lv e d ays ; or the

,

can ary it v ari e s from fi fte e n to e ighte en d ays ; for the dom e s
,

tic fo wl tw en ty -on e days ; tw e n ty -fi ve for the duck ; an d

,

from forty to fo rty -fi ve for the sw an The h eat o f the sun .

su ffice s for the i n cubati on of s om e t ropical bir ds but i n ,

ge n e r al it is quite oth e rwis e an d the e g 8 require to b e

,

pl ace d i n a n e st an d car e fu lly an d s e dul o us y h atch e d by the

,

m oth e r .

F i g 254
. .
—Th e Ei d e r ( Go o s e ) .

It is i n the co n struction of the n e st th at birds di s pl ay th at

w on d e rful h e redita ry i n sti n ct o f which w e h av e alr ea dy
sp ok en at c on side rabl e l e n gth a fe w m e r e ly scrap e a h ol e i n
the s oil an d d e po sit th e r e i n th e e g g or e ggs to b e h atch ed
, ,

but with the gr eat e r n umb e r it is quite oth e rwis e an d the ,

spe cie s m ay o fte n b e kn ow n by the fo rm of the n e st

The w a rm an d light substan c e c all e d e d r e d on , us e d i n ,

dom e stic e co n o my is the s oft d own which the bi r d pulls fr om

,

i ts brea st to li n e the n e st .

The l ay of e ggs ( p a n i c) ta k e s pl ac e g e n er ally on c e a y ear ,

s om eti m e s twi ce ; but i n a d om e stic sta te the fecrm d i ty is ,

 TH E cu ss B I RD S . 3 05

still greate r I n the sm all e r Spe ci e s the n umb e r of e ggs

.
,

e xc e eds th a t of the l arg e r ; th e e agl e l ays but o n e or two ; the

to mtit an d the r av en fr o m fifte en to tw en ty

The con stan cy with which th e p are n ts —s o m etim e s the fe
.
,

m al e o n ly s om e tim e s als o the m al e—h atch th e ir e ggs ; the

,

c a re th ey t ake of th e ir you n g wh e n the app e a r ; the c our ag e

an d i n te lli g en ce sh o w n by the p ar e n t ird i n d e fen d in g the
y ou n g ar e facts withi n the obs e rv a ti on of al l Ne v e rth e l e ss
, .
,

th e r e ar e s om e birds as the cuck oo which d epo sit th e ir e g g

, ,

or e ggs i n th e n e sts o f oth e r bir ds ; the y o u n g cuck o o ra

g
du ally disl odge s his co m pan i on s fr o m th e n e st an d o cc u pi e s ,

the wh ol e It afte rw ards rej o i n s its p aren ts which s e e m to

.
,

r e m a i n i n the n e ighbo urhoo d for th at p u rpo s e I n stin ct l e ads .

the cu ck oo to d e po sit its e ggs i n the n e st o f s o m e i n s e ctiv or o us

bird (th at b e in g the food on whi ch its o wn y oun g r e qu ir e s to b e
fe d) such as the n e sts o f th e li n n e t y e ll ow -ha m m e r bl ack
, , ,

bir d & c , .

N o twiths t an di n g the str en gth of th e in stin ct which l e ads

bir ds to h atch th e ir e ggs it s ee ms ce rtai n th at it m ay be
, ,

m o difi e d by ce rt a in cir c u mst an c e s Ostrich e s for e x ampl e .

, ,

sit ca r e full y o n th ei r e ggs i n te mpe rate cl i m ate s but l eav e ,

th e m i n tropic al re gi on s to b e i n c u b ate d by th e su n It .

w o uld se e m als o th at s e v e r a l of th e s e l arge bir ds un it e to

, ,

l ay th e i r e ggs i n on e n e s t t akin g ch ar g e of th e m a lt e rn at e ly
, .

4 4 3 W e h a v e a lr e ady
. 3 2 5) d e sc rib e d at l e n gth the
mi grato ry i n sti n ct of b i rds which i n d u ce s th e m to migr ate
,

fro m on e r e gi on to an oth e r at fix e d s e a s on s The ca us e o f .

i s e x pli ca bl e i n s o m e in st an c e s b u t n ot i n oth e rs ; fo r ,

c e rta in sp e ci e s it m ay b e a ffir m e d th a t the c aus e s of the s e

,

migr ati on s ar e wh ol ly u n k n ow n I n s om e e x p e rim e n ts m ad e

.

on th e yo un g o f mi g ra to ry birds it app e ar s th at the a n x i e ty,

to l e a v e co m e s on wh e n th e s e ar e d e ta i n e d i n c aptivity an d
ple n t i fully s u ppli e d wi th foo d .

Upo n the who l e atm o sph e ric ch an ge s w o ul d s e e m m o st to

,

i n flu e n ce m i g rato ry b i rds an d th at s u ch ch an ge s als o m odify

,

th e t i m e of a r ri v a l an d d e p a rtur e I n e a ch sp e ci e s h o w e v e r
.
, ,

th e p e ri od is fi x ed an d m ay b e c alcul at e d o n
, Occ asi on ally .
,

a e m o di fie s the tim e o f flight o r d e p a rtur e the ol d l e a vin g

g ,

b ef o r e the y oun g .

al s o a r e m a rk abl e circumsta n c e i n th e histo ry

§ 4 4 4 It .is
of b i r ds th at th ey can l e a v e th e ir n e sts fo r s o gre a t di stan ce s
, ,

an d ye t r e tu rn with o u t the s m a ll e st difli cul ty or ch an c e o f

mista k e S w allows fo r e x ampl e y e ar after ye ar (for eighte en

.
, ,

x
 306 ZOOLO G Y .

y e ar s a s pro ve d by Sp al l an z an i ) re turn y o un g an d ol d suc

, , ,

ce ssiv e ly to the pl ac e wh e r e th e y w e r e pr oduce d the y o un g ,

buildi n g th e ir n e sts i n the vici n ity o f th o s e o f th e ir p ar en ts .

Sp a ll an z an i r e m o v e d a c ou pl e o f sw a ll o ws i n a c ag e fr o m t he
n e st wh e r e th e y w e r e h a tchi n g fr o m P avi a to M i l an ; on b e i n g

l et loo s e th e y r e tu r n e d i n thi rte en mi n ute s to th e i r y ou n g .

The i n sti n ct o f s o ci ability h as als o b e en allude d

3 30 an i n stin ct
, h ow e v e r w hich pre v ail s , ,

m o stly with i n s e ctiv o rous or gran iv oro us bi rds Bir ds o f .

p rey ar e gen e r ally s ol it ar y or liv e onl y in p ai r s

'
.

4 4 6 Bir ds di fle r als o i n th e m an n e r i n w hich th ey pr o

.

c u r e th eir foo d : s om e s earch for it by day oth e rs by n ight , ,

an d s om e by twilight ; an d of th e s e l a tte r it i s su ffi ci e n tly ,

r e m a rk abl e th at th e y ar e of a s ombr e co l our with do w n y ,

pi ni on s so th at th ey strik e the air wi th o ut an y n ois e To

, .

F i g 255
. .
— Gyp a é te , or th e L am b Slayi n g Vul tur e
- .

this cla ss b e l on g the owl an d g oat -suck e r s & c th e i r h abits , .

an d structur e a r e strictly i n u n is on .

4 4 7 The sp e ci e s kn o w n to n a t u r alists am ou n t to se v e n
.

th ous an d an d th e ir cl a ssifica ti on is di fficul t by r eas on of the

,

gre at uni fo rmity o f th e ir structur e Th e i r disti n guishi n g .

’ ’

ch ar acte rs a s b e i n g i n r e l ati on with th e i r r eg zm e h av e b ee n

, ,

t a k e n chi e fly fr o m th e con fo r m ati on of the bill an d l e gs .

C uvi e r wh o m w e fo ll o w divide d th em i n to six o rde rs

, , ,

n a m e ly ra p aci o us birds p as s e rin e s cli mb e rs gal lin ac eo u s

, , , ,

bi r ds w ad e rs an d p almip e ds
, , .

4 4 8 Th e r a p a ci o u s birds or birds of pr ey a r e r e c o g
.

ms by th e ir cl a ws th e ir r o bust sh o rt an d po w e rfu l bills

, , , ,

a n d the stre n gth o f th e ir l e gs Th e ir as p e ct d e n o te s th e ir

.
 TH E CL A SS B I RD S .

fi e rce n e s s . th e s e s o m e ar e diu rn al an d m ay b e k n own by

Of , ,

th e ir cl o s e pl u m age an d the l a t e r al dir e cti on o f th e ir ey e s

, .

Th e s e ar e the vultu r e s ( Fig

,
the g ypaete s ( Fig . .

th e falc o n s the ea gl e s ( Fig

, the sp a rr o wh a wks th e
.
,

kite s ( Fig . th e b u zz ards & c Th e oth e rs a r e n o ctur n al

, .
,

an d co n stitut e th e fa mily of th e o wls k n o w n by th e ir d o w n y ,

plum age an d the an t e ri o r dire cti on of th e ir ey e s .

Fi g 2 56
. .
—Th e O wl ( S co p s V lg ri s )
u a . F i g 2 57 . .
—B i r d o f P a ra d i s e .

449 . Th e
rde r p ass e rin e h a v e th e ir l e gs sl e n de r fe e bl e
o , ,

an d fo rm e d i n th e usu a l w a n e ith e r a rm e d with cl a ws n o r

y ,

e l o n at e d lik e stilts a n d with a si n gl e toe

, dir e ct e d ba ck ,

w ar 3 . The bill is fe e bl e ( Fig .

str aight o r b ut littl e c u rv e d

,

Figs 259
.
, th e ir wi n gs ar e
s u ffi ci en tly l a rge an d th ey ar e al l
s m all o r o f m o de rate siz e an d h a v e ,

slight an d light fo rms .

S om e liv e on i n s e cts o th e rs on ,

grai n a n d oth e rs ar e om n iv or ous

, ,
F ’ 2 58
a n d to this o rd e r b e l on g a l l si n g g ' '

i n g birds an d m o st birds o f p a ss a g e .

The n umb e r of the p ass e r e s is im m en s e : as sp e cim en s w e

m ay m en ti on the bl a ckbird l i n n e t sw all o w g oat -suck , , ,

x 2
3 08 ZOOLO G Y .

Fig l a rk ( Fig S p a rr o ws cr o w bird of aradi se ,

( . .
, ,

( Fig . the co lib ri or hummi n g bird ( F i g t . e wr en ,

Fig kin gfish e r ( Fig an d the ca l ao ( F i g

( . .
.

F i g 260 —Th e
.

Wr
en
.

F i g 259
. . Th e L ark .

4 50 The
. climb i n g birds ha v e with the r efqi me an d the
,

o rdi n a ry o rg an iza ti on o f the p a ss e r e s two t oe s dir ecte d for

,

w ar ds an d two ba ckw a rds ; h e n c e the fa cility with which

F i g 26 1
. .
—Co li b ri , or H ummi g B i rd
n .

th e y cli m b i n al l dire cti on s I n this d ivisi on are a rr an ged the

.

to u c an s — r e m a rk a bl e fo r th e ir e n o rm o us bills th e p ar r oq u e t ,

( Fig . th e cuck oo the w oo dp e ck e r ( Fig

, &c . .
 TH E cr a s s B I R DS . 3 09

§ 4 51 a ll i
. G
n a c e o us bi rds h av e th e bill m od e r at e ly e n
'
l ar g e d a bo v e , an d a dapte d on ly for a gr an iv o r ous r eg i m e f

the w i n gs ar e sh o rt , th e b o dy h e avy , th e l e gs m od e r at e , an d
the to e s fe e bl e , but u n it e d g e n e r al ly at th e ir b a s e by a sm all
cutan eou s fold The m aj o rity o f th e s e birds fly b adly ; th e y do
.

n ot build th e ir n e sts i n t re e s , an d th e y s e e k fo r th e ir fo o d o n

262 .
—Th e P arr o qu e t ( A r a ) .

th e s oil This o rd e r is c o mp os ed of two di sti n ct fam ili e s ;

.

th at of pige on s an d th at o f the galli n a c eous bir ds prop e rly so ,

ca ll e d
, c o mprisin g the c ock the ph ea s an t the p ea cock the
, , ,

turk ey th e pi n t ad o or gui n ea fowl the h o cco ( Fi g

, , the .

p a rt r idg e the qu ail th e pt armigan ( Fig

, , th e gro us e &c
.
, .

452 The w ad e rs (e chas si ers ) ar e kn o w n by th e ir e l e v ate d

.
310 zo o r o c r .

ta r si an d th e i r l e gs with out fe ath e rs i n fe ri orly a str uctu re

, ,

which giv e s th e m the app e aran ce o f w alki n g on st i lts fav ou r ,

F i g 263
. .
—The P ta rmi gan ( La g o ped e )

a bl e a t once to rapid m o v em e n t an d to w adi n g i n fo rd abl e

Th e ir h ei ght is i n ge n e ral e l e v ate d an d , the l en gth

F i g 264
. .
—Co mm o n 11 0000 .

'
of th e ir n e ck is such th at h o w e v e r e l e v ated the i r l e gs th ey
, ,

ca n c o ll e ct th e ir foo d on the gr o u n d with o ut sto o pi n g So m e .

 TH E CL A SS B I R D S .
31 1

live on h er bs oth er s on a qu atic r e ptil e s oth e rs on sm a ll

, ,

a sh e s The b ir ds c a lle d o i s e a u x d c r i va g e fr e qu en ti n g the

b an ks o f l ake s an d ri ve rs b e l on g to this divi si on —such as
.
, ,

th e h e r on the cr an e ( Fig
,
the S to rk ( Fig . th e .

buto r ( Fig . th e w o o dc o ck th e ibis ( Fig the, .

é ch as s e ( Fig th e w ate r h e n the fl ami n g o ( Fig

.
, .

an d s o m e o th e r g e n e r a which liv e n o t n e a r th e w at e rs b u t

r e s e mbl e the pr e c e di n g i n th e ir co n fo rm ation —such as the

,

o strich ( Fig the c ass o w ary ( Fig

. an d th e bust a rd . .

F ig 26 5
. .
- Th e Cr an e . F i g 26 6 . .
—Th e B u to r o f E u ro pe .

45 3 Fi n ally the p almip e ds or swim m i n g bird s ar e

.
,

ch ara cte riz e d by th e ir l e gs of m od e rate l e n gth te rm i n ate d by

, ,

l ar ge w e bbe d fee t The s e s e rvi n g the p u rp o s e of car s ar e

.
,

fo rm e d by th e to e s b e i n g re u n ite d to e ach o th e r by an i n te r ‘

digita l m e m bran e o f the co m m on i n te g u m en t ; the l e gs ar e

pl ace d far b ack which is fa v o ur abl e fo r swi m m i n g b u t ill
, ,

a d apte d fo r w a l k i n g : as e x a m pl e s o f this gr o up w e m ay m e n

tion the m an ch ot ( Fig th e p e n gu i n which h av e the

.
,

wi n gs s o sh ort t hat th ey c an n ot fly ; the p e tre l the a lb atro s the , ,

m ou e tte s a n d the s ea sw all ow ( Fig

, which h av e on the .
,
31 2 ZOOLOGY .

con tra ry l on g wi n
, an d a o w e rful flight
p th e pe lic an s ( Fig .

the frig ate ird an d the fou (b o ub i e ) which ar e as

, ,

F i g 26 7
. . F
—Th e l a mi n go .

Fi g 26 8
. .
—Se a Swall ow .
 CLA S S or R E P TI L E S . 31 3

w e ll o r g an iz e d for flight as th e p r e c e di n g an d th e fir st Still ,

m o r e c o mpl e te ly w e bb e d ; fi n ally the sw an the goo s e an d , , ,

th e duck ( Fig who s e bill is c ove re d with a so ft ski n

.

i n ste ad of a h orn y en v el op e .

C L A S S OF R E P TI L E S .

4 54 . The
cl as s R e ptil e s c o mpris e s al l v er te b rat e an i m als
wh o s e r e spirati on is fr o m bi rth a é r i en n e an d i n com pl e t e .

Th e y h av e lun gs li k e m amm als an d birds b u t th e ir circu l a

,

t o ry app arat u s is a lw ays so a rr an ge d th at a p orti on of the d ar k

bl oo d mi n gl e s with the arte ri al with o ut h a vin g t r av e rs e d the
,

r e spira to ry o rg an s an d g en e rally this admixt u re t ak e s pl ac e i n

the h e ar t which h a s i n th at c a s e but a si n gl e v e n tricl e co mm u
,

mic ati n g with two a u ric l e s Fi n ally the ski n o f r e ptil e s ,

Fi g 26 9
. .
—Lé zar d Ve rt Pi qu e té .
*

is gen er ally o r a lm o st a lw ays c o v e r e d with sc al e s I n th e i r .

g en e ral fo rm th e y r e s e m bl e m am m al s m o re th an bi r ds ; b u t
i n this r e sp e ct th e y v a ry Th e t o rto i se ( Fig
. li za rd
( Fig . a n d s e r pe n t ( Fig 2 7 1 ) h a v e v e r y d iffer en t for m s
. .

Th e ir lim bs wh e n pre s en t ar e s o sh o rt th at th ey s ee m rath e r

, , ,

to cr ee p th an w a lk an d th e ir st e ps ar e n ot dir e cte d i n th e
,

a x i s o f th e b ody b u t l at e r a lly : h e n c e t he w o rd r e ptil e

, .

4 55 Th e ir sk e l e t on pre s e n ts i n its S truct ur e v a ri ati o n s

.

muc gre a te r th an wh at o ccurs in hot-bl ood e d v ert e brate

an im a ls .All its co m po n en t p a rts m ay i n th e i r turn b e w an t
i n g e xc e pti n g the h e a d a n d v e rt e br al c ol u m n ; but the b on e s
,

co m po s i n it pr e s e rv e great a n al ogi e s an d h om ol o gi e s with

the hot-b cod e d v e rte br at a an d exhibit an al o gi e s with the,

oth e r cl as s e s .

Th e gr e e n li zar d : l ace rt a vi ri di s .
314 ZOOLO G Y .

§ 456 The cr a.n ium is a lw ays sm al l an d the face e l on ,

birds th e l o w e r jaw is co m p o s e d of s e v e ral

A s in
gr
e .
,

attidn ct pi e c e s an d is a rticul at e d as i n th e m with th e a s

,

g u a d r a twm or tym p an ic b o n e E v e n this bo n e is s om e ti m e s

.

suspe n d e d to a m o v eabl e l e v e r a s i n s e rp en ts by which the , ,

d il ata bility of th e m outh i s gr e atly in cr e a s ed The upp e r .

jaw is i n g en e ra l im m o v a bl e but i s s o articul ate d i n s e rpe n ts

,

as t o p e rfo rm s o m e m o v e m e n ts I n s e v e r al a s i n liz ards an d

.
,

to r to is e s the bon e s of the cran i u m ar e e x ten d e d o v e r the te m

,

po ra l sp ac e s like a buckl e r th u s c aus i n g th e h e a d to appea r

,

l ar ge F in ally th e h e a d is gen e ral ly n ot v e r y m ov e abl e an d

.
, ,

is a rticul ate d with th e co lum n by a sin gl e con dyl e with

s e v e ral fac e tte s .

2 70 — T o r t u e — N aj a
’
F ig . . G re cq u e . F i g 27 l. . A S p i ci f

457 I n l i z ar ds an d
cro co dil e s an d oth e r r e ptil e s for m e d ,

af te r th e re ar e i n ge n e ra l b u t fe w an om a li e s
th e s am e way,
th e ribs ar e m o r e n u m e r o us th an i n birds an d m amm als an d ,

pro te ct the a bd om e n a s w el l as the ch e st Se rpen ts h av e .

n e ith e r ste rn um n o r limbs an d th e fr e e e x tr e m i ti e s o f the

,

ribs s e e m to b e u s e d as o rg an s of l o co m oti on In th e co n .

T e st u d o Gr mca th e Co mm o n T o r to i s e
: .

1
’
C o l ub e r Naja C o b ra d e C a p e ll o th e C o bra
: , .
 CLA S S or R E P TI L E S . 315

l e uv r e (add e r or s n ak e ) th e r e ar e m o re th an thr ee hu n dr ed
p air s of ribs The v e rte brae als o by th e ir m o de of a rtic u l a
.
,

ti on with e ach o th e r ( a ki n d o f b a ll -an d -s o ck e t ) p e rmit o f e x ,

te n siv e m o v e m e n ts But the m o st r e m a rk a bl e

.

m odific ati on o f the sk e l e ton is i n th e to rt ois e

a n d turtl e ; the b o n e s fo rm a b u ckl e r withi n ,

whi ch the an im al m ay withdraw its el f on the

a pproach o f d an ge r . The do rsal o ss e o us pl ate
is call e d the ca r ap a ce ; t he v e n tr al jol as tr on ,

( Fig. Un ite d a t the sid e s th e y l e a v e ,

i n fr on t an d b e hi n d o p e n i n gs fo r the h e a d
an d li mbs . This ki n d o f c u ira ss is on ly
co v e r e d by the ski n which i n its t u r n is
,

pro t e ct e d by l a rge h o rn y pl ate s : al l the

m uscl e s an d o th e r s o ft p a rts ar e co n t ai n e d
wi thi n the ca vity thu s fo rm e d .

4 58
. No twithsta n din g th e p r o fo u n d
m odific ati on s which th e sk e l e ton u n d e rgoe s
to m e e t such an o rgan iz ati o n w e fi n d th e s am e
,

e l e m e n ts o r pi e c e s which c on stitut e the S k e

l eton i n the oth e r v e rte br ata m e re ly ch an ge d

i n fo rm an d v o l u m e .

Wh e n w e e x am i n e the c arap ac e s u p e ri o rly ,

w e fi n d it c ompo s e d o f a gr e a t n u m b e r o f
o ss e o u s pl at e s ,u n it e d by sut u r e s o f which ,

e ight o cc u py th e m e di an li n e ; si x t e e n o th e rs

fo r m o n e ach sid e a l o n git u di n al r o w ; a n d

tw e n ty -fi v e or tw e n ty -six s ur r o un d the wh ol e .

W e h a v e o n ly to l oo k at the i n n e r sid e o f
th e c a r ap a c e ( Fig 2 7 4 ) to s e e th a t th e s e
.

m e di an pi e c e s ar e si m ply d e p e n d e n ci e s o f the
do rs a l v e rte brae ( ml ) The bo dy o f e a ch o f
.

th e s e b on e s an d the c an al fo r the S pi n a l m ar
r o w m ay b e s ee n with th e ir o rdi n ary sh ape
, ,

but the uppe r p orti on o f the o ss e o u s ri n g

h as b e e n S Ipr e ad o u t lik e a disc u n iti n g with ,

the s a m e part s b e l on gi n g to the pre c e di n g

an d fo ll o wi n g v e rt e br ae The d ors a l v e rte br ae
b e c o m e th u s i m m o v abl e : e ach ca rri e s a p air
o f ribs as i n m a n b u t th e s e ( 0 ) spr e ad o u t s o a s to t ouch e a ch
,

o th e r thr o ugh o ut a lm o st th e ir wh ol e l e n gth an d to ar ticul a te ,

with e a ch o th e r by m e an s o f s u tu r e s ; fin al ly the m argin a l ,

pi ec e s ( cs ) which a rtic ul ate with the e xtr e mity o f the

316 ZOOLO G Y .

r ibs , which for m i n so m e m e a su re the bo rd e r of the

an d

c arap ace e vide n tly r e pre s e n t the st e r n a l p o rti on o f th ese

,

r i bs w h i ch i n m a mm a li a re m a i n ca rtil a gi n o us but which i n

, ,

birds a r e co mpl e te ly o ss i fi ed In .

s om e to rto is es th e y r em ai n ca rti
l ag i n o us an d i n a lm o st al l th e se
,

a n i m a ls s e v e r al o f th e m ar e s u or te d

l ate rally on the e dg es of the pl tr on .

The pl as tron i s for m e d by the ste r

n u m which p r e se n ts an e x trao rdi n ary
,

d e ve l opm en t an d ex te n d from the ,

s

bas e o f the n e ck to the co mm en ce

m e n t o f the ta il The bo n e s com .

p o si n g i t are n i n e i n n umbe r ar ,

r an ge d i n pa irs an d so a rticul ate d ,

wi th each o th e r as to fo rm a gre a t
o v al pl ate The pl as tr on is so m e
.

time s e n tir e an d so lid throu gho ut i ts

wh o le e x te n t s o m e tim es divide d in to

Fai
g
n thre e po rti on s o f which the an te ri o r
,

an d
po ste ri o r ar e a li tt l e m o v e abl e ;
a t oth e r ti m e s it is h o ll o w e d o ut i n th e ce n tre lik e a pictur e
fr am e Fin ally it is fixe d o n e ach sid e to the car apa ce b
bon e o r by ca r til ag e Al l the m u scl e s an d so ft p arts as w ell
.
,

.
,

as the o rgan s ar e c on ta i n e d wi thi n th e s e two pl a te s

, .

The bon e s o f th e sho ulde r (0 cl co ) a rtic u l ate with the , ,

v e rte br a l co l u m n on the o n e h an d an d the ste r n al o n th e o th er .

O n e o f the s e b on es ( o) suspe n d i n g it to the ve rte br al co lum n is

e vid en tly the sc a pul a ; a se co n d di r e cte d b a ckw ar ds ( co ) co r
, ,

r e spo n ds to the co r a co id bo n e o f birds ; a n d the thi rd ( cl )

'

r e r es e n ts th e cl a vicl e o r a t l eas t th e ac r omi a l pro ce ss of

p ,

t h e sc ap u l a with whi ch it ge n e r ally articul at e s

, .

The p e l v is ( b ) gr e atly r es e mbl e s the o ss eo us gi rdl e fo rm e d

by th e bo n e s o f th e sh ould e r ; it is al s o co mpos ed of three di s
ti n ct p a ir s of b on e s : the ili ac b on e at tach ed to the tran sve r se
,

p roce s se s o f th e pos te ri o r v e rte br ae of the ca ra p ac e a pubis , ,

a n d ischium dire cte d to w a rds the pl as tr o n a n d u n ite d to the ,

co rr e sp on di n g bo n e s o f the o th e r sid e . .

459 I n o th e r r e ptil e s the b on es o f th e sh o uld e r m o re

.
,

r ese m bl e th o se o f birds The limbs g en e r al ly h a v e n othi n g

.

r e m a rka bl e so m e tim e s th e y ar e t ru n ca te d at the e xtr e mity

, ,

T e stu d o Graeca : Co mm o n T o rto ise , se e n fr o m be lo w .

 CLA S S or R E P TI L E S . 31 7

as in the l an d to rto is e ; s om e tim e s th ey te r min at e i n

sl e n d e r fin g e rs a s i n the liz ard ; an d at o th e r ti m e s the e x
,

tr e m i ty o f the fi n ge rs an d t o e s ar e bro a d e n e d ou t as i n th e ,

ge ck o ( Fig . an d b e i n g pr o vi de d with sh o rt cut an e o us

p f
F i g 274
. .
—S k e le t o n of th e T o rt o i s e .
‘

fo lds p e rform i n g th e offic e o f s u ck e rs th ey e n abl e this hid eou s

,

an im a l to cr e ep a l on g th e sm oo th e st w al ls an d e v e n a l on g th e ,

s k l t T rt s l stro n h as b e e n re m o e d cc c e rvi ca l
S e e o n o f th e o o i e ; t h e p a v :

r bs ; cs st e rn al ri bs —th e m a rg i n al
,

v e r te b r w ; d rs l rt br
cd , o a ve e ae ; c, i , ,

b one s cr c
o f th e sc l
a ap a e : o , co l l ar b o n e co co racoi d b o n e ; 6
ap u a ; cl , ,

p e l s
v i f , tfh e r tb fib l
e m u ; t, i i a ; p , u a .
318 ZOOLO G Y .

Th er e ar e al s o re ptil e s which h a v e the fin ger s c ap a bl e of

be i n g opp o s ed to e ach oth e r as i n the h an d of m an ; in th e
cam e l eon ( Fig 2 7 6 ) th e y ar e ar r an ged in to two p ack e ts en
.
,

a bl i n g th e m t o h old o n to the br an ch ; th e y h av e a ls o a pre

he n s il e t ail an d thus th e y ar e i n fact climbin g an im als

, .

275 .
- Th e G e ck o of th e W all s .

Fin ally i n oth e r r e ptil e s m or e form e d for an aqu atic li fe

, ,

the fee t an d h an ds ar e fo rm e d lik e car s : th e tur tl e ( fi g 2 77 ) .

the on ly r e ptil e which at pr e s e n t offe rs us this ki n d o f

F i g 27 6
. .
—Th e C o mm o n C am e l e on .

Structure ; b u t i n re m ot e e p o chs of th e g e ol ogica l histo ry o f

the gl o be o u r s e a s w e re p eo pl e d with l a rge a n im al s with
,

swim m i n g p aws re s em bli n g car s an d h a vi n g m an y po i n ts o f

,

re s e mbl a n c e with the r e ptil e s an d s e rp e n ts of the pr e s e n t d ay .

 CLA S S O F R E P TI L E S .

M od e rn an a o t mists h av e c all e d th e m ichthyo s a uri ( Fig 2 7 8 ) .

an d pl e si o s a uri ( Fig . an d th e i r fo ssil sk e l e to n s h a v e

b ee n fou n d e n tir e .

Wi n ge d re ptil e s als o ex ist The dr agon s ( Fig . an i .

m als r e s e mbli n g liz a rd s h a v e a l a rge fold o f ski n p l ac e d al on g

,

F i g 27 7
. .
—Th e T u rtl e ( T e st u do

t he fl an ks r e s e m bl i n g th e wi n gs of the b at b u t a r e supp o rt ed
, ,

o n ly by th e first six fa ls e ribs e x t e n d e d h o riz o n ta ll y i n a

straight l in e It us e s this m e r e ly a s a p a r a ch u te i n droppi n g

.

fro m bran ch to br an ch ; it i n h abits I n di a : thus re al izi n g to

F i g 27 8
. .
— I chthy o s a u ru s .

a c e rt a i n p oi n t the flyin g liz a rds o r s e rp e n ts o f which s o m e

write rs h av e sp ok en But the dr ag o n s of n atur a lists attack
.

on ly i n s e cts .

D u rin g th e e p ochs of the gr e at s a u ri an s o n th e e a rth th e r e ,

e x iste d a flyin g r e ptil e still m o r e si n gul ar th an th e dr a g o n .

3 20 ZOOLOGY .

It has b e en c all e d the pte rod actyl e ; it was a s auri an m ad e ,

s o m e wh at lik e a b at ; it co u ld w alk o r fly b u t the S eco n d ,

fin ge r o f the h an d wa s thrice as l on g a s the tru n k an d ,

n o d o ubt suppo rte d fo lds o f i n te g u m e n ts r e s e m bl i n g wi n gs

(Fi
R e pt i l e s a r e l e ss quick i n th e ir m ov e m en ts th an

F i g 279
. .
—P l e s i o s au ru s .

birds or m am m als n or can th ey sust ai n th e ir m o v e m e n ts so

,

w e ll pr o b ably o wi n g to a l e ss e n e rge tic r e spirati on The

, .

muscl e s re c e iv e l e ss bl oo d an d ar e p al e r ; but th ey m ay b e e x
,

cit e d l on g afte r de ath by a v a ri e ty o f stimul an ts The t a il o f .

a liz a rd d e t a ch e d fr om the b o dy h as be e n s e e n to m o v e fo r
,

s e v e ra l h ou rs ; a n d the tu rtl e d e ad i n appe a ran c e for s e v e ra l

,

F i g 280 —Th e
. Dr g a on .

d ays , m ay be m ad e m o v e its limbs The m ut u a l d e

to .

e n d e n ce b e tw e e n th e n e rv o us an d musc u l a r syste ms see m s

p
n o t t o b e s o i n ti m a t e as i n m a mm a l s .

4 6 1 The br a i n is s m all s m o o th an d with o ut circ u m

.
, ,

v o luti o n s Fig
( . The h e m isph e r es a r e h o ll o w a n d th e r e ,

i s n o stri at e d bo dy Olfa ct o ry glo b u l e s o f c o n sid e r a bl e siz e a r e

.
 CLA S S or R E P TI L E S . 3 21

situ at ed at the o rigi n o f the first p air o f n e rv e s The optic .

l ob e s ar e i n ge n e ra l l arge situate d b e hin d an d on the s am e

, ,

pl an e as the h e misph e re s ; but the littl e br a in i s sm all an d it ,

s en ds n o prol on gati o n s a cro ss the m e dull a so as to fo rm a ,

Fi g 28 1
. .
—P t ro d tyle *
e ac .

So rt of ri n g m am m als The spi n a l m arro w c om p a r e d

, as in .
,

t o the br a i n is l ar ge ; s o a ls o the n e r v e s a s co mp a r e d to the

, ,

cer br spi n a l ax is ar e l arge r th an i n th e s u pe ri o r cl a ss e s o f

e o -
,

a n i m als .

§ 4 6 2 T h e ta ctil e s e n sibility is but littl e d e

.

v e 10 e d th e ski b e i ng g n e r a lly pr t ct e d by
p , n e o e

h orn y sc al e s : wh at w e cal l to rto is e sh e ll is m e re ly

the h orn y pl at e s c o v e ri n g th e c ara p a c e o f th e turtl e
( Fig . the te st u d o c a re tt a Th e e pide rmis is .

fre qu e n tly r e n e w e d falli n g s om e ti m e s i n p o rti on s o r

,

pl at e s an d s om eti m e s c ast off e n tir e a s i n s e rp e n ts

, , .

S e rp en ts thr o w off the e pid e rmic c ov e ri n g s e v e r a l fi g 28 2 .

ti m e s a y e ar .

Th e re is but litt l e r e m ar k abl e i n the ey e s o f re ptil e s b u t

u p on the W
ho l e th ey r e s e mbl e the e y e s o f birds ; at p e cte n
,

i s but ra re ly fou n d S om e h av e thr e e e y e lids i n o th e rs

.
,

Th e bl ack p art i n di cate s th e pre s um e d co n to u r o f the s ki n .

Y
3 22 zo o r o o r .

th ey ar e wh olly w an ti n g as i n the s e rp en t ; to this may b e

,

a scrib e d its fix e d l oo k .

The a udito ry a pp a r at u s is m u ch l e ss co mpl e te th a n i n

m amm al s or e v en i n birds Th e e x te rn al ea r is a lm o st a lw a s
, .

co m pl e te ly w an ti n g ; th e re is n o a udito ry ca n a l a n d t e ,

drum o f the ear is o n a l e v e l wit h the o ute r su r fa c e o f th e

h e ad ; the tym p an ic ca vity is i m
p e rfe ctly fo rm e d a n d s e e ms to b e a ,

so rt of d e p e n d e n c e of th e ph ary n x .

The bo n e s o f th e e ar m os t fr e q u e n tly
a r e w an ti n g an d th e c ochl ea is o fte n
F i g 28 3 . .
,

rudi m e n t ary ; the o r g an s of s m e ll a r e

but littl e de v e lop e d ; the ton gu e is s om e tim e s thick an d
fl e shy but ge n e ral ] thin d ry an d protractil e i n s e rpe n ts
ds
, , ,

( Fig 2. 8 3 ) a n d liz ar it is b i fi d : i n th e ch a m e l eon th e t o n gu e

b e com e s an in strum en t of pr e h en si on for it can b e d ar te d fr o m ,

the m outh to t he di sta n ce o f s e v e ra l in ch e s an d th u s fli e s ,

an d o th e r sm a ll i n s e c ts ar e ca ught b m ean s o f a vi s co us b a ll
y
which te rm i n ate s it .

46 3 F e w re ptil e s liv e en tir e ly o n v e g eta bl e foo d ; th ey

.

ar e al m o st al l c a rn iv o r o us a n d purs u e a livin g pr e y which

, ,

t h ey sw al l o w e n tir e The m outh i s alm ost alw ays l a rge i n

.

th e cl e ft an d is s o dil at abl e i n s e rp e n ts as to e n a bl e th e m to
, ,

sw all o w an i m als h a vi n g a l arge r di am e te r th an th e ms e lv e s .

The tw o bra n ch e s o f t he l ow e r ja w ( m i Fig 2 84 ) ar e u n ite d ,

.

on ly by lig am e n t an d th e tymp an ic b on e ( t)
, an d the m as .
,

P P
—
Fi g . 28 4 . H e ad
R ttl s
of
a
th e Cr t al u s
e na
o
ke .
, or Am e ri ca n

to id i a n b o n e (m a ) by m ean s o f which the l o w e r jaw is

,

a rt i c u l a te d to t he cr a n ium ar e b oth m o v e a bl e an d th u s the

, ,

a ws ad m it o f v e ry gre a t di l a ta ti o n
j ; m o r e o v e r th e br a n ch e s ,
 cu s s o r R E P TI L E S . 323

of the upp e r jaw (m ) ar e atta ch e d to th e in te rm ax i ll ary b on e s

a ls o by lig am e n ts an d e v e n th e p a l a ti n e a r cke s p arta k e of
,

the m o v e m e n t Th e ir te e th ar e i n te n d e d on ly to s e ize th e ir
.

pre y an d a fte r sw all o win g it th ey r e m a in l on g i n a sta te of

,

to rpidity .

§ 4 64 M an y s e rpe n ts s u ch as the vipe r

.
, th e co br a th e , ,

r attl e s n a k e an d the trigo n o c e ph al u s or bro w n vip e r of Car o

,

li n a po ss e ss a d an ge r ous v e n om ous app a r a t u s o f an al a rmi n g

,

ch a ract e r Ce rtai n gl an d s an al ogous to the s aliv ary s e cr et e

.
, ,

this p o is on ( Fig th e y ar e pl a ce d u n d e r th e te m po r a l
.

m u scl e s s o as to b e c om pr e ss ed by th e m wh e n i n action Th ey
, .

c o mmu n ic ate by a ca n a l with a fan g o r p ois on e d to oth on e ith e r

sid e ; this is e ith e r groo v e d or pe rfo rate d by a c an al the e x it ,

o f which is n o t a t the p o i n t but a littl e high e r u s o as n ot

,p ,

to i n te rfe r e with the a ctio n o f th e po i n t o f the t ooth Wh en .

Fi g .

the anim al bite s th e v en o m i s by this m e an s tran sfus e d i n to

,

the bo tto m of the w o un d Th e s e t ee th ar e fix e d b u t the

. ,

b on e s to which th ey ar e att ach e d ar e m o v e abl e wh e n n ot i n

u s e th e y l i e h o riz on t a ll y with th e p a l a t e e n c a s e d i n a s o rt of
, ,

sh eath of m u co u s m e m bran e The is on its e lf is n eith e r acrid

.

n or bur n i n g to the t a ste an d it is ar ml e ss wh e n sw a ll ow e d ;

,

its te rribl e e ff e cts ar e fe lt on ly wh e n m in gl e d with the bl oo d

i n a w oun d an d th ey v a ry with th e c on diti o n o f th e an im a l
,
.

O n s o m e a n im a ls th e p o is o n o f th e vip e r h as n o e ffe ct as on ,
.

l ee ch e s slugs the co m m on s n ak e an d the civ e t w hal st i t

, , ,

ki l l s with the great e st r apidity al l hot-bl o od e d a m m al s the ,

P o xs o n ap a a t u s i n th e
r
r R
a ttl e s n a k e v, p
o i s o n gl an d , wi h i ts d u t

r
t
l e ad i n g to th e a g e po i s o n fa n g ( c) m , e l e v a to m u s le s o f t he j a w , whi h c
c
c
rtly c t h l r
a n d , a n d m ay co m p r e s s i t 8 , s a h va ry gl a n d
s o n th e e ge
d
h
a o ve e
p
o f th e ja w s ; n , t e n o st i l , u n d e r
Wt r c
l l i s th e l i ttl e a vi ty d i s tm g m shm g
o

r
th e s e s e p e n ts a n d th e t ri go no ce p h al i f o m vi pe s r r .

Y 2
3 24 zoo no e x .

li z ard an d the vi pe r its e lf A grai n o f the po iso n of the viper

, .

wi l l k i ll a spa rro w but it wi l l r e qui re six tim e s as much to

,

kill a pige on As the po is on a cts throu gh the ci r c u l ati on

. ,

th e m o st r a pid m ean s m u st b e ad opte d to pre v e n t a bs o rpti on ,

such as w a shi n g with w ate r an d stron g spir its a lig ature ,

r o un d the p a rt bitte n an d if po ssibl e its e xcisi on , A mm on i a

, ,
.

h as b e e n much c e l e br ate d as an an ti dote but it can n ot be de ,

p e n ded on T h e I n di an s o f S o uth A m e rica co n sid e r as a

.

po w e rf ul an tido te a pla n t c all ed gu ac o or m i can i a gu a co ,

th e y ass e rt n ot on ly th at th e ap l i cati on o f the l e a v e s of thi s

pl an t to the w o un d p re v en ts a dan ge ro us e ffects but th at ,

the i n o cul ati on o f the j uice o f the pl an t will pr e v e n t such

bit e s h avin g an y b ad effect s H umbol dt thin ks th at th e re .

m ay b e s o m e thi n g i n the odo ur of the pl an t which m ay pr e

v e n t the s e rp en t fro m biti n g the pe rs on The s e rpe n ts with .

fan gs call e d m o v eabl e ar e the m o st d an ge ro us ; the fan gs ar e n ot

i n fact m o v e abl e but atta ch e d to v e ry s ma ll m axill ary bon e s
, ,

which ar e so I n gen e ral you fi n d o n e fan g fix ed i n e ith e r

.

side with s e v e r al oth e rs of di ffe re n t stag e s o f growth ready

, ,

to re pl ace th e m wh en l o st which prob a bly h appe n s a t r e g u l ar

,

pe ri o ds The poi s on e d fan gs ar e sh ed by a proce ss an al ogo us

.

to wh at ta k e s pl ace i n the te e th of fish e s In the vi r .

,

ra ttl e s n ak e co bra an d s e v e r al o th e rs th e uppe r m

, , ar y ,

bo n e s c arr y po ison fan gs on ly ; an d th u s be tw ee n th e m an d the

co mm on s n ak e th e re i s this m ark ed di ffe re n c e th at the m axil ,

l a ry an d p al atin e b on e s i n the upp e r ja w ca rry ea ch a r o w o f

te e th givi n g an app ear an c e o f fo ur ro ws to th e m whil st in
, ,

th e tru e po is on e d s e rpe n ts j u st m e n tion e d we fi n d onl y two

rows th e p al atin e on ly ; but in the v e n om ous w a te r s n ak es
, ,

an d i n m an y oth e rs th e sup e ri o r m a xill a ry bon e s c a rr y

,

simpl e te eth as w e ll as the po is on ous fan gs So m e r e ptil e s .

h av e n o te e th such as the to rto is e an d turtl e a h orn y l ayer

, ,

like the bills of birds s u pplyi n g th e ir pla ce .

46 5 Th e r e i s n e ve r an y p en d u l o us p al a te an d i n m o st
.
,

the ph aryn x is n ot di stin ct fr o m the m o u th n o r the gu ll e t ,

fr o m the sto m ach The i n te stin e s ar e sh o rt an d h a v e n o

.
,

caecum ; the l arge i n te sti n e di ff e rs b u t little fro m the s m all ,

an d te rmi n ate s i n a cl oac a as i n bi r ds ; th e y h av e lymph atic

,

an d l acte a l v e ss e ls .

4 6 6 W e h a v e alr ead y r e m ar k e d th at th e ir bl oo d is n ot
.

rich i n glob u l e s a n d that th e s e ar e l arge an d e lliptic The

, .

dispo siti on o f the circ u l a ti n g a ppar a tus v a ri e s b ut ,

a s we h a v e s aid th e r e is al w ays a d i re ct co m m un ica ti on

,
 cra ss o r R E P TI L E S . 3 25

b e tw ee n the v as cu l a r s ste m ca rryi n g r ed bl oo d an d th at

,

ca rryin g dar k bl ood an dthus th e o rgan s r e c e iv e a fluid i m

,

pe rfe ctly acte d on by r e spirati on The h ea rt I S alm o st a lw ays.

co mpo s e d of two auricl e s ( F i o pe n i n g i n to a si n gl e

.

v e n tri cl e The arte ri al bl oo dg co m i n g fr o m the lun gs r e

.
,

ce i v ed i n to the l eft a ur icl e an d th e v e n o us bl oo d co mi n g fr o m

,

diffe ren t p arts of the bo dy an d co ll e cte d i n the right aur icl e ,

ar e bo th po ur ed in to th e si n gl e v e n tricl e ; i n this th e y ar e

min gle d togeth e r A po rti on of this mixture r eturn s by

.

th e ao rt a i n to th e d iffe r e n t o rg an s it 1 8 in te n d e d to n o u ri sh ,

wh i lst an oth e r p art proce e ds to the lu n gs by v e ss els which

sp rin g imm e di ate ly fr o m the co mm on v e n t ricle or fro m the
ao rta its e lf I n cr oco dil e s th e h e a rt ( F i g 2 8 7 ) m o r e r e s e m
.
,
.

bl es th at of bi r ds an d m a mm als h avi n g a s eptum s e parati n g,

P lm ona ry Ar t e ry
u .

Le ft A uri cle .

V e n a Cm "
S i ng l e v e n t ri c l e .

L e ft Arch of th e A o rta .

B i ght A o rta .

Ve n t ra l A ort a .

F i g 286
. .
—H eart of th e Tu rtle .

the right v en tr icl e fro m th e l e ft ; but a pe culi ar dispo siti on of

ar te r i e s ca us e s th e mi xtu re of th e dar k an d r ed bl oo d to
.

the
ta k e Ipl) a ce a t s o m e distan ce fr o m th e h ea rt an d thus the po s ,

te r i or hal f o f th e body r e ce iv e s bl oo d i mpe r fectly arte ri ali z ed .

I n fact th e right v e n tr i cl e i n ste ad of s en di n g off on e ar te ry

, ,

the pulm on ar y s en ds off two on e o f which w in di n g be hi n d the

, ,

h eart u n i te s with th e d e sce n din g ao rta but n ot u n til al l th e

, ,

v e ss els h a v e be en giv en off which go to th e h e ad an d fo re

rt o f th e With g
r eg ard to the dist rib u ti on of the
p a

a r te ri e s i n r w e sha l l li mit o u rs elv e s to the re m ar k ,

th at th e re e xist two or m or e aorti c arch e s b en din g to ,

the right an d l e ft an d r e u n iti n g to fo rm a sin gl e tr un k

,

(F i
i 4 6 7 Re spir ati on i s n ot activ e i n r eptil e s th ey co n sum e
.
,
326 ? zo o no s x .

but littl e oxyg en an d can r e m ai n al iv e for a l o n g tim e with o ut

,

ai r ; b u t this a ctivity di ff e rs a cco rdi n g to the t e mp e ratur e o f

the s ea so n The l un gs ar e c om po s ed o f l a rg e ce l ls an d i n
.
,

co n se qu e n c e a r e n ot v e ry v a sc u l ar The t ort o i s e an d t u rtl e .

sw a l lo w the a i r as it w e re the , ,

c r ibs
c be in g i m m o v abl e ; th ere is
n o n atur a l divisi o n be tw ee n the
ch e st an d the abdom e n an d r e spi ,

r ati on is n ot r e gu l ar ; i n s e rpe n ts
o n e lu n g is ru di m e n t a ry ( Fig .

4 6 8 A l l r e ptil e s ar e c o ld .

bl ood e d an im als an d the tem ,

p e r a tur e o f th e ir b o di e s ris e s a nd

09 fal l s with th at of the sur ro u n din g

°
m e di u m A h e at o f fr o m 40 to 50 °
.

”t tig d sc l is q ickly f t l
( C e n r a e a e ) u a a
'
to m o st of th e m an d the e fle cts of ,

co ld ar e w e ll k n o wn for du r in g ,

Fi g . w i n te r m o st re ptil es cat n o food an d '

,

d o n ot e v e n di g e st wh at h app e n s
to b e i n th e ir sto m achs ; th e r e spirati on be co m e s sl o w e r an d ,

th e ir wh o l e st a te r e s e mbl e s hyb er n ati on .

4 6 9 L ik e bi r ds th e y l ay e ggs an d th e ir y oun g do n ot
.
, ,

suckl e th e y h av e n o m a mm ae but th e re is thi s pe culi ar ity ,

which als o h appen s i n s om e fish e s th at i n s om e the y ou n g ar e ,

h atch ed be fo r e be in g b orn as i n the vipe r ; an d such an im al s

'
,

ar e c all e d ov om v ip a r ous .

Th e o un g r e ptil e on quittin g the egg re s en ts n othi n g,

an o rm it r e s e mbl e s its paren t i n its m o e of re sp i rati on ,

g e n e ra l st r u ctur e of th e b o dy a n d e xte r n a l fo rm ,
.

4 70 R e pti l e s g en e r a lly ab an don th e ir e ggs wh e n l aid

. ,

d the yo un g ar e d e v e l op e d by the h e at of the e xte rn al

atm o s h e re ; but th e r e is on e r e mar k a bl e e xc e pti on i n the

eat n di an s e rpe n t c all e d pyth on which h atch e s i ts e gg s

, , ,

u r i n g which pe ri od its o wn te mp e r atur e will r is e to

H e a rt an d la rge e ss Cro co di l e - ve i n s w hi ch b ri n g ba k
v v, v, c
bloo d fro m di ff re t r ts o f th e b o dy to th e ri ght ri cle ( d ) t th
e n a au 0 o , e
tw o e tri cl e s i t e r
v n ,
y s e p ar t e d by p rti ti o ; p th two p ul m o n ary
n n a a a n u , e
arter e i s rooee d i g fr m th e ri ght e t ri cl to th e l un gs ;
n o sse l p o v n e a, a ve r
ce e di n g m th e s m e
o t ri cle to th d es c n di
a ve n rt ; up p l m o ry e e n ao a , u na
vei n s carryi g th n rt ri l bl od fro m th e l gs t t 0 l ft r cl (
e a e a o fr m un o e au i e o o
wh c i t p a ss s i t t h l fi e tri l
en e e n o d th s
e te rs the rt
e v
) a d
n c e , an u en ao a no n

i n to t h t w a rt ri s ( ) w hi ch pr c e d t th e h d &
e o e e cc !Th l tte rs o e o ea ,
c. e e co
m th bo e figu r h be ad e rte tly p la c e d o n the ri ht a uri cle
as we l l as o n th e d e s c e n di g ao r t a —
e a v e a ve en
g in v n
R K ] n . . .
 CLA S S OF R E P TI L E S .

Fi g 288.
— An a to m y o f th e
r ( Co mm on Sn ke ) C o l ub e a .

l to g u d gl o tt i s ;
n e an g ll et t r o ss t ’t o sh o w th h rt
cc, u cu ac a aa
, ,ea e
'
i t h st ma ch t h e i t sti n e ; l cl o ac a ; us ; f
,
8te i it
, n s u , i e o , th e
n e c , a n , an ,
l’r ari m
’ th o r c
i ve th e o, ov o u e gs ; t wi d p i p e ; p
o e va i i l
r l g
g , p p ; , n , n a un
p l
, ttl il g ;e t
’
e t
un ri c l ; c l ft
,
v
au ri cnl e
’ r i ghte ri cl e ;
0, e l ft ao rt ; c ,
au a, e a
a d , ht rt ;
ao t r l ao rta ;
a a , caroti d ar t e ri e s ; s up ri or c a
ve n a a c, v, e av
e r o ca ry e i n
.

cc, op p l m o
i r va
, u na v .
3 28 zo o m c v .

R e ptil e s ar e di vid ed i n to thr e e o rd e r s : ch e l on i an , s au ri an ,

an d o phidi an .

The ch e l on i an (to rto is e an d tu rtl e ) h av e fo ur limbs ; the

ski n co v e re d with l ar ge sca l e s ; th e m ou th without te e th ;

Fi g 28 9
. .
—Th e A gam e .

the j aws p r o vide d with a h orn y bill or co v e rin g ; the ribs

imm o vabl e an d in th e m w e fi n d th e h orn y d o rs a l an d v e n
,

t ra l pl a te s call e d ca r ap a ce an d p l as tr on al read y d e s cr ibe d

, .

The s au ri an or liz ard -sh ape dr eptil e s an d the ophidi an s or

,

290 .
—C r o til u s , o r R ttl s
a e na ke .

se rpe n ts h av e the ribs an d d or s al v e rte brae m o v e abl e ; a sc aly

,

ski n ; an d t e eth The tw o o rd e rs ru n in to e ach oth e r but

.
,

it is ge n e r al ly agree d on to c a ll th o s e with li m bs s a ur i an an d , ,

th os e witho ut Ophidi an : as Oph idi an m ay b e cite d th e vipe r

, ,

r attl e s n ak e ( Fig. co bra ( Fig as v e n o m o us ; an d

.
 CLA SS or B A T RACH I AN S . 3 29

as h arml e ss s n ak e s th e co m m on s n a k e or co lube r ( cou l e uv r e )

, ,
*
the b o a an d pyth on The o rd e r s auri an s co mp ris e s cro co
.
,

Fi g 291
.
—Th e C roco di l e .

dil e s ( Fig . liz a rds , ch am e l eo n s ( Fig . 27 6 ) g e ck os

( Fig . a
g am es ( Fig . the i gu an a &c , .

CLA SS OF BA T RA C H IAN S .

4 7 1 The ba tr achi a or a mphibi a w e r e l on g con fou n d e d

.

the r e ptili a ; wh e n yo u n g th e y br e ath e by br an chi ae or

gil ls , an d r e s e m bl e fish e s i n the ge n e ra l c on for m ati on o f the
bo dy , b u t th ey ch an ge th e i r forms an d acqu ire l un gs b e for e
be c o mi n g ad u lt .

L ik e fish e s an d r e ptil e s th ey ar e c old bl oo d e d an i m als , ,

th e i r ci rc u l ation is i n co m pl e te an d th e ir r e spirati on co m ,

p ar a ti v e l
y i n a ctiv e Th e ski n is n a k.e d or u n a rm e d the ,

ske l e ton v e ry i n co mpl e te an d the h e art is com p o s e d o f a ,

si ng l e v e n tricl e an d two a u ricl e s .

I n th e ir e x te rn al for m th ey v a ry con sid e r a bly s o m e r e s e m ,

bli n g liz a rds an d e v e n s e rp en ts but ge n e r ally the bo dy i s

, ,

flat sh ort an d thick with ou t a ta il with w e ll -d e v e l o p e d

, , , ,

limbs .

4 7 2 I n th e i r m od e o f d e ve l opm e n t th e y r e s e mbl e
.

fis h e s ; whil st i n the e g g the y ou n g an i m a l i s n ot surroun d e d

,

by the m e mbran e c all e d a mn i os an d which i s always pr e s en t ,

'

i n th e thr ee pre ce d i n g cl ass e s n e ith e r h a v e th ey an a l l a n tozs ,

which pl ays an impo rt an t p art in the e con o my of the chick

,

an d o f the y ou n g of r eptil e s d ur in g in cub ati on ; at bi rt h th e y

stron gly r e s e m bl e fish e s .

The y o un g b atr achia ar e k n o wn by the n am e of tadpo l es

T rave l l e rs are cau ti on e d n o t to b e mi sl e d b th e n am e s gi ve n to s e rpe n ts

b y n a tu r ali s ts Th e b o a f as ci a ta o f S chn e i e r i s a m o st ve n om o u s an d
.

dan ge rou s s nak e R K - . .

33 0 zoo no cx .

( te ta r d s ), an d a r e
fo rm e d for an aqu atic life : at bi rth th ey h av e
a ta il but n o fee t ; gills proj e cti n g e xt e rn ally ( b b Fig
, , .

an d th e i r sk e l e to n is c a rt i l a gi n o us .

F i g 292
. . C rap d ( th e T o d )
au a .

Th e s e proj e ctin g gills or bran chi ae i n s om e con ti n ue through

ou t li fe a s i n the pr ot e us
, a x o l otl ( Fig , an d s i r e n . .

mg . 294 .
—Ax olo tl .

But i n m o st batr achi a th e s e b ran chi ez

s oon with e r aw ay an d dis appe ar al ,

though the aqu atic l ife on ti n u e s for ,

the t adp ol e h as i n te rn al br an chi ae lik e ,

fish e s as w e ll as e x te rn al ( Fig 295)

, .

th e s e fix ed or i n t e rn al bran chi a i n the

293 —T a d p o l e o f th e
. ro g t a
Fdp o l e a r e a tt a ch e d u n d e r th e n e ck

to c a rtil agin ou s a rche s be lo n gi n g to

the hy oid b on e s an d a re prote cte d by the skin ; the w a te r
,
 B A T RACH I AN S 33 1
‘

cr a s s o r .

re ach e s them by the c avity o f the m o u th an d e sc ap es by on e ,

or t wo o ri fic e s situ at e d u n d e r th e n e ck I n th e tad po l e of th e .

fr o g the hi n d fe e t appea r first an d th e y b e co m e o f s om e

, ,

l e n gth b e fore the fo r e fe e t ar e v isibl e ; th e s e appe ar l ate r

( Fig . I n the s al a m an d e rs it is th e opp o site ; fin ally ,

i n the sir e n th e hi n d l e gs n e v e r a pp e a r The ta i l of th e

‘

t adpo l e co n ti n u e s to gr o w i n the s a l am an d e r an d pr o te u s
wi th the r e st o f the b o dy ; but i n fro gs an d in m an y oth e rs
th e t a il w as te s a way an d dis app e a rs ( Figs 298 A b ou t .
,

the s a m e tim e the l un gs app e ar an d b e gi n to p e rfo rm th e ir ,

fun ction s s o th at at this p e ri o d th e t a dp ol e is strictly an

,

a mphibi o u s an i m a l ; b u t alth ough this strictly a mphibi o u s

st at e co n ti n u e s i n s om e i n ge n e r al it doe s n ot ; the gill s

,

dis appe ar an d i n the a dult th e re r e m ain n o tra ce s o f s u ch an

,

a pp a r a t u s .

Fi g 29 5 . .
F i g 296
.

F i g 297
. . F i g 298 . . Fi g 299 . .

F gs i . 295 —299 —M e tam o rp h s s

. o e of th e T a d po le of th e F
ro g .

The cir cul ato ry app a rat u s al s o der g oe s impo rt an t m etam or

p h o s es .T h e h e a rt o f the a dult b a t rachi an is co mpo s ed o f two

a ur icl e s an d a v e n tricl e wh e n c e spri n gs a l a rg e art e ry bul

, ,

bo us ( l i ke tha t of fi s l ze s ) at its c o m m e n c e m e n t an d which ,

s oon divide s to fo rm the two arch e s of the ao rta ; but wh en

th e y o un g an im a l br e ath e s by br an chi ae on ly the bl oo d e x ,

e l l e d fr o m th e v e n tricl e is distri b u te d to the g i lls ( a s i n

p
s he s ) wh e n ce it pr o ce e ds for th e gr e ate r p a rt to the d o rs al
fi , , ,

a rte ry ,
wh o s e bran ch e s r am i fy i n the di ffe re n t o rgan s ( Fig .

W e h av e alr ead y s ee n th a t i n fish e s the bl oo d foll ows

,

the s am e co urs e but wh en the l un gs a r e de v e l ope d ,

the dispo sition of the v as cul ar app ar atus ch an g e s ; a di r e ct -

3 32 z oom e r .

co mmun ica ti on i s e stabl ish e d be tw een the a rter i es which

c arry the bloo d to the gills an d th o s e which r e ce iv e it fro m ,

th os e o rgan s so th at th e bloo d i s n o l on ge r o blig e d to

,

trav e rs e the gi l ls i n o rd e r to r e ach the do rs a l arte ry an d ,

th e n ce to b e dist ribute d to the v ari ous p arts o f the bo dy .

The a rte ry ( a ) which 5 ri n gs fr o m th e v e n tricl e an d which ,

m ay a t this ti m e b e cal e d a br an chi a l a rte ry b e c om e s th en ,

the o rigi n of the d o rs al v e ss e l an d con sti tute s with it a tr u e ,

1 t o t

ab 2
F
c

F i g 3 00 . .
-Bl oo d ve sse l s o f th e T ad p o l e of th e ro g .
‘

ao rta ce rtain br an ch e s of w hi ch pr o ceed in g to th e lun gs thus

, ,

d e v e l op an d e stablish a pul m on ary circu l a ti on Fin all y th e .

,

bran chi a l v e ss e ls ar e obli te rat ed an d th en the cir cula ti on tak e s ,

pl ace n e a rly as in o th er re pti l e s Th e v en ous bl oo d r etu rn in g .

fr o m al l pa rts o f th e b ody is p o ur ed i n to the v en tricl e b on e ,

of the a ur icl e s an d is th e r e in min gl e d with the a rte r ial

, l ood
a, rt e ry a ri si n g fro m th e si gle v n t ri cl e a d di i di n g i n to si x
a n e , n v
b ran ch e s ( b ) whi ch g o to th e thr e e p i rs o f b r chi ae an d ra m fy the re
a ,
a an , i
they c ll e d b r ch l rt ri ; b th e b r c hi showi g th e di trib a
ar e a an ia a e es r ,
an a
e, n a
ti o o f th br chi l rt ri s p th m a d ca i g th e bloo d to th m an d
n
i s ( b ) b ri gi g b ck th e bl oo d z m th e m a fte r i t has be e n
e an a a e e u on e , n r n e
t h e b r c hi alan ve n v , n n a o
e p o s d to t h e
x e g f th e t m sph er e c o t i n d i th e w t r s t acro ss o n a e n a e en
th gi lls th s e ift h e t wo l st p i rs o f b r c hi ae uni t t fo rm o
,
o en o a
e : o ( a ach si d e a a an e o n e
v es s e l ( ) w hi c h a
c sto m o s i g i i ts t
,
wi th th t f th e p p o s i t e s i d e f rm s
na n n ur n a o o , o
th e tr l ao rt a
ven a d rs l rt ry ( ) whi ch p roce di n g b ack wards di s
or o a a e av , ,
e ,

tri b t e s th bl d to t h grea te r p rt f th e bo dy Th e b ran chi al e ins of

u e oo e a o . v
th e first ai r o f b r chi ae c r e f rw rds d c rry th bl o o d t war ds th e
an u v o a ,
an a e o
h ea d ( t t l ,
ry fi an d a sto m ti c b ran ch i t s th e b r an hi al ar te r y
, a ve ne na o un e c
a d n i t g th r t t h b s e o f th fir st p i r o f b ran chi ae
ve n o e e a e d thi s e nl ar gi n g
a e a ,
an
aft e rw rds a ll w s th bloo d t p ass b e tw en th se two e sse ls wi th t p a ss
, a o e o e o v ou
i g a cr ss th s m ll t m o ti c bran ch ni ti n g i th s am e w y
'

n o 11 ; 2 e ,
a a a n as o , u n e a
t h e a rt r e ei o f th
an s c o d p ai r f b hi 3 e ss l w hi ch b
e o r an c se a v e
y v n ; e n , ,

un i ti n W th s m ll b r ch s i t t d m r i w rds co e ts th e a rte ry a
a ua e e nn c n
ein 0g
i a an o n a ,

v th e pos t e ri o r b ran hi s ; o rb i ta r art ry ; p rudi m e ta ry p ul m ona ry

c e o, e a ,
n
a rt e ri es .
 cr a ss or B A T RACH I AN S . 3 33

a rr i vi n g fr o m th e l u n gs a n d p o ur e d in to the v en tricl e by th e
,

o th e r a uricl e This mixtur e p e n etr at e s

. ao rta an d ,

throu gh it pro c e eds i n sm a ll qu an titi e s to th e lu n gs , an d

h e n ce to the o the r o rg an s o f th e bo dy .

F i g 302
. .

Fi g 301
. . s ame p a rts as i n F i g 300 i n a t adpo le i n
The .
, the
b r a n ch i m b e gi n to l o s e th e i r i m po r t a n ce a n d i n w h i c h a pa rt o f t h e bl o o d
,

p roce e ds fro m th e h e a rt to d i ff e re n t p a rts o f th e b o dy wi tho u t tra ve rs i n g

th e s e o r gan s Th e s a m e l e tt e rs i n d i ca te th e s am e v e ss e ls a s i n th e p r e
.

c e d i n g fi gu re a n d i t Wl l l he re m arke d th a t th e a n a sto m o ti c b ra n che s ( 1

, ,

2 ,
whi ch i n the p re ce di n g t a dp o l e we re m e re ly c ap i lla ry are n o w la r g e
, ,
3 34 zoo no o r .

The lun gs of theb atrachi a h av e but a fe w i n c ompl ete

‘
a du l t
cel ls ; th ey rece iv e the bl ood fr o m two sm all bran ch e s of the
ao rt a th e s e p e rfor min g the ofli ce o f a pul m o n ary art e ry
,
.

Thus the pul m on a ry r e spirati on is fee bl e but the cutan eo u s ,

F i g 303 .
—Sk e l e ton of th e Fr g
o .

m ak e s up for it by its activity W h en the te mpe rature is l o w it

.

i s su ffici e n t to m a in ta i n life Fro gs breathe by the acti on o f

.

d e glutition s o th at to s u ffo ca te th e frog it is on ly n e ce ss ar y

,

to h o ld its m o uth o p e n for a tim e This m ode of .

F i g 3 04
. .
— R ai n e tte .

is c ssita te d by the 1 n com pl e te st at e o f the sk el e to n o f

ne e

the a d u lt fro g ; the ribs ar e w an ti n g an d thus the th o rax ca n ,

n o l o n ge r b e dil at e d as i n m a m
, m als birds an d o rdi n ary r e p , ,

and th a t i t i s wi th th e m ra th e r th a n wi th th e b ra n chi al v e ss e ls th a t the

a rt e ri e s co m i n g fro m t h e hea rt s e e m to b e co n t in u e d Th e u l m o n ar y
rt e ri e s a r e al so m uch d e v e l o pe d —Fi g 3 02 The s am e pa rts i n the rfect
.

a . .

a n i m al i n d i c a te d by t h e s m e l e tt e rs
,
a t h e v e ss e ls w hi c h i n th e t ad p o we n t
to t h e t w o b ra nchi te o f t h e s eco n d pa i r a r e c o n t i n u e d n o w wi th t h e ao rta by
,

t he i n t e rm e di u m o f t h e a n a st o m o ti c b ra n ch e s a n d th u s c o n st i t u t e t h e
t wo ao rti c a rch es .
 cr a ss o r F i sH Es . 3 35

til e s Fi n ally th e n e rvou s syste m i n th es e a n i m als is b u t

.
,

littl e d e v e l op e d ; th e br ai n is sm a l l a n d the ce r e b e ll u m ,

i s sc arc e ly visibl e .

Th o u gh th e cl a ss b a tr a chi a b e n o t n um e r o u s i t
§ 4 7 3 .
,

h as n otwithst an di n g be e n d ivid e d i n to fo u r o rde rs

, , .

The A n our e s whic h u n de rgo c o m pl e te m e t a m o r ph o s e s an d

, ,

which i n the a d ult sta te h a v e 11 0 t a il ; the s e ar e the fr ogs ,

to ads r a i n e t te s pip as S u ri n am to ad &c

’

.
, , , ,

Th e Uro d e l e s which pr e s e rv e the t a il b u t which i n the

, ,

a d u lt stat e h a v e fo u r li m bs b u t n o br an chi ae ; the a qu atic ,

s al a m an de rs o r trito n s a r e ex am pl e s of this o rd e r ( Fig

,

F i g 3 05
. .
— A qu a ti c S a la m an d e r .

Th e Pe r en n i ata , which pre s e rv e the bran chi ae throu gh

o u t l i fe an d which
,
a ls o h a v e l un gs : th e s e a r e the pr o t e us ,

t he l tl ( Fig
ax o o : t he m e n o br a n ch u s a n d the sire n
-
, .

Fin ally th e c e cili as

, , whic h h av e n o li m bs an d str on gly r e ,

s e mbl e Se rpe n ts .

S o m e v e ry s i n g u l a r a n im a ls h a v e b e e n l at e ly disc o v e r e d ,

which h a v e br an chi ae a n d l u n gs lik e the sire n b u t which ,

h av e i n pl ac e o f fe et o n ly cyli n dric a l fi n s a n d which so r e ,

s e mbl e fish e s i n th e wh o l e o f th e ir o rg an iz ati on th at m ost

z oo logists h ave a rr a n ge d th em i n t he fo ll o win g cl a ss z—th e s e
,

a r e the l e pid o sir e n s ( Fig .

C L A S S OF F I S H E S .

4 74 . The
fifth an d l a st cl a ss o f the prim ary divisi on of
v e rte bra t e an im als c om pri s e s the cl ass fish e s The circ u m .

st an ce o f th e ir b e i n g d e sti n e d to liv e un d e r w at e r stro n gly ,

a ff e cts th e ir wh o l e o rgan iz a ti o n as is m o st s e en i n wh at '

r e ga rds the app ar atu s o f r e spir ati o n an d circ u l ati o n ; th ey

bre ath e by gills an d n e ve r h a v e l u n ged“ at a n y p e rio d of th eir
,

Th e s wi m m i g bl dd r s e m s i d tl y to f rm a r di m e t ry l
n a e e
g
—R K ev en o u n a un . .
33 6 ZOOLO G Y .

liv e s Th e ir h e art is compo s e d o f two c a viti e s the a uricl e

.
,

a n d v en tricl e co n t ai n i n g o n ly d a rk bl oo d ; this bl oo d is se n t
,

to th e gill s an d re t u rn s fr o m th e s e a fte r b e in g e x po se d to
,

the ox yg e n to b e distri but e d to the v a ri ou s p a rts o f the

,

bo dy n o h e art b e i n g in te rpo s e d be tw e e n the gills an d the

,

o th e r o rgan s o f the bo dy ; th e i r bl oo d is co ld a n d th e ir skin ,

n ak e d c ov e re d on ly with sc al e s ; th ey l ay e ggs th at be in g
, ,

th e ir m od e of re producti on ; an d fi n al ly th e ir limbs h av e the ,

fo rm o f fi n s .

e y di ffe r co n sid e r ably i n h

§ 4 7 5 Th . t e fo rm o f th e i r
bod i e s b u t the ou tli n e is gen e r ally simpl e th e r e is n o n eck
, , ,

pr op e rly so c a ll e d an d th e h e a d is l arge ; th e ir ta il is n ot
,

disti n g uish abl e fr o m the r e st o f the b ody So m e h a v e n o .

fi n s b u t ge n e r all y w e fi n d th e m pr e s en t a rr an g e d i n
, ,

symm etr ic ally at the sid e s o r sin gly on the b ack an d a bd o

Fi g .

m en ( Fig . Th o s e i n pai rs r epr e se n t the l imbs o f ve r

te b r ate an i m als Th e a n te ri o r ar e ca ll e d pe cto r a l fi n s ; the
.

i n fe ri o r which v a ry much i n p o siti on ar e ca ll ed v e n tral ; the

, ,

a symm e tric al fi n s ar e the d o rs al ( d ) an al ( a ) an d c a ud a l , ,

a cc o rdi n g a s th e y ar e pl a c e d o n th e b ack u n d e r the t a il or a t , ,

its e x tre mity Th ey re s e mbl e e ach oth e r i n stru ct u r e an d

.
,

co n sist al m o st a lw ays o f a fold o f ski n suppo r t e d by o ss eo u s ,

o r c a rtil a gi n o u s r ays pre tty much i n th e w a y th a t t he win gs

,

o f b a ts a n d dr ag on s ar e s u pp o rte d by the fi n g e rs an d ribs .

The l a rg e Op e n in gs l e a di n g to th e gills ar e pl ac ed b e hin d

th e h e ad ; i n br e a thi n g th e w a t e r p as sin g in to th e m o u th is
,

Le
fi n s , &c
R ou
-
g e t ( M u ll u s B a rb a tu s )
p, ec to r a l fin ; v,
, th e B a rb e d M u ll e t to sh o w th e di fi e r e n t
v e n t ra l fi n ; dl
,

fi rst d o rsa l ; d z se co n d
, ,
'

d o rsa l ; c, cau d a , a na l; o, o p e ni n g l e ad i n g to t h e g i ll s ; b fe e l e rs o r b a rbs

, ,

of t he l o we r j a w .
 cr a ss o r FI H
S ES . 3 37

drive n across the gil ls an d e sc ap e s by th e s e ope n in g s e ne . G

ral ly th e re i s b u t on e on e ach side an d it has a m o v eabl e ,

prot ectin g cov e ri n g ; fin all y th e re is throu gh out the who l e

,

l en gth o f the bo dy on e ith er side a s eri e s of po r e s cal l ed the ,

la te ral l i n e The ski n is

.

s om e time s alm o st na ke d ,

but i n e n eral is cov e re d

w i th s c e s ; th e s e h a v e cc
cas i on al l th e fo m o f r u de
y r

g ra i ns s om e tim e s of v e ry
,

la r ge tube rcl e s or pl ate s ;

but gen er a lly th ey re se mble
v e ry thi n l am el l ae o v e r ,

l appi n g each oth e r lik e the

til e s of a h ou s e an d eu ,

ca s e d i n folds of the ski n .

Th ey m ay b e c omp a re d to
ou r n a ils, but ge n e r al ly
they in clude m u ch m or e of
th e calca r e ou s s alts The .

co l ours of fish e s a sto n ish by

th e ir v ari e ty an d bri lli an cy ,

r e s e mbli n g g o ld an d silv e r

th e s e d ep en d on a n umbe r
o f sm al l p oli sh e d pl ate s se

cre te d by th e skin .

4 7 6 The sk e l e ton o f
.

fish e s is e ith e r o ss eous or

c artil agin o us : i n the l am
prey it r e m ai n s alm ost
m e m b r an ou s an d thus e sta
,

b l i she s a li n k b etw een th e

v e rte brata an d i n v erte b r ate .

4 77 Th e i r b on e s h a v e
y
.

no m e dull ar c an al an d ,

wh en bo iled i n w ate r the y

giv e ou t n o gel ati n e The .

S k e l e to n is c ompo s e d Of a F i g 307 —S k e l t o o f th e P e rch

. . e n .

h e ad t run k an d l i m bs
, , ,

with a hyo id app aratus l ar gely d e v el op e d an d a ssistin g i n ,

re s pi rati on .

§ 4 7
. 8 T h e str uctur e of th e h ea d i s v e ry c ompl e x an d ,

com pos ed of m an y b on e s ; its m edi an porti on (Fi g 308) .

z
3 38 ZO O LO G Y .

'

re s en ts b eh i n d a c ran ial ca vity l od ng the or gan of

h e ar i n g a s w e ll as the bra in A bo ut the mi dl e ar e the orb i te r .

c a viti e s (or ) an d an te ri orly the ca viti e s be l on gi n g to the

, ,

o lfa cto ry a ppa ratus an d a ki n d o f l a rg e p ro mi n e n ce fo rm ed

b the v om er an d suppo rtin g the uppe r jaw ( Fig 309
,
.

he an al o u es o f the o ccipit al te mpo r al sph en o ida l pari e ta l , , , ,

fr on t al e t moi dal an d v om e r m ay re adi ly b e re cogn i se d

, , ,

but m o st o f th e s e p arts ar e co m pos e d of se v e ral pi e ce s the ,

o rigi n a l ge rms o f th e s e bon e s whi ch n e v e r u n it e i n fis h e s ,

.

A n te ri orly is foun d the uppe r aw which is s om etim es

°

, ,

fix ed but m or e usua lly v e ry m o v e a l e ; on e ach side ar e

,

in te r m axil l ary bon e (i m ) an d a m axil la ry bon e ( m) which is ,

m o v e abl e on the fir st .

ch ai n o f
A sm al l bon e s exten ds on e ach side from the an te
ri or an gl e o f the o rbit to the p o ste ri or an d thus c om pl e te s ,

t p io
Fi g 308 1—B o ne
. of th e H ea d o f th e Pi k e .
‘

the or b i ter
circl e D eep e r m ay be s e en on e ach side a kin d
.

o f v e rtical p artiti on sus n d ed to the cran ium an d s e par atin g ,

the o rbits an d ch e e ks r om the m outh It is formed by the .

an al o gu e s of the p al atin e pte rygoids tymp an ics &c an d , , , .

,

ar ticul ate s with the cr an ium by tw o po in ts ( 0 11 the v o m e r

an d te mpl e s ) In fe ri orly it giv e s attachm e n t to the l ow e r jaw

.
,

po ste ri o rly it is prolon ged so as to fo rm a m ov e abl e co v e rin g ,

c alle d the gill co v e r Three bon e s on e ach side for m the .

l ow e r jaw which a rtic u l ate s b a co n ca v e surface with th e

,

j ug al app aratus j ust de sc ri fin al ly an a ss embla ge o f

, ,

th m e
cran i um or o rb i t ; n as al fo ssa ; im i te rm a i l l a ry bo e m supe
c,

ou , an
,
n,
ri o r m axi lla ry b e ; t a ki d f l te ral p rti ti o p r ti th e ch ee fr m
on n
th d whi ch arti c l te s f rwa rd wi th t h o m r y m ea ns o f th
u a
o a
o
t
a
, n
n se
e v
x
a a
e
n
n ,

k o
e

p al ti e rch e s
a n b o e wi th t he rani m ( ) b elo w wi th th lo we r j w be hi d
a , a v c u c , e a ,
n
- e rc l m
wt th
i t h p e p ( p ) whi ch i i ts t r s p p rts t h pe rcu l m ( p )
re O u u , , n u n, u o e o u o
to , h e p r e -o pe rcul um bo e fo ll o we d by t h e su b - p rcu l um
n , o e .
 cras s o r F I BE R S . 3 39

bon e s is fo u n d at the botto m of the m outh supporti n g the

ills an d s e e mi n gly an al og ous to the hy oid app ar atus
g
,

Fi g e xtr e m e ly d e v e l op e d
. .

The bo n e of the to n gu e ( l ) is con ti n u ed b ackw ard with a

.

s e ri e s of pie ce s an d artic u l ate s on e ach side with a v e ry l on g

,

an d v e ry
l ar g e l ate ra l br an ch
( b ) an d t hi s by its Opp o site ,

e xtre mi ty 1 s us d d t th l ate r al p a rtiti on of th e h e ad

s pe n e o e ,

al rea dy d e sc ri be d Th e s e la te ral br an ch e s fo rm e d o f s ev e ral

.
,

pk ar 3

F i g 309
.
—H ea d
. an d Rs e pi rato ry A pp arat u s o f
.

a F sh
i .
‘

bon es supp ort i n fe ri orly a s er i e s o f fl att en e d curv e d r ays ( r )

, ,

which assist with the Ope rcu l a r to co m pl e te the w alls o f the

Fi g 309 P rc r
Os s eo u s h e a d o f t h e e h , p a ti al ly di ss ect e d , so as to sh o w
o f th e m o u th a n d th e hyo i d a pp a a t u s —c,
. .

t he i n t e ri o r cr r a n i um r
or , o bi t
v , vom r r e , a r
m e d wi th t e e th ; i m, u p p e ja w ; dp , t e e th fix e d i n to t h e a l a
tine rch ; a r r r r c
m , l o we m a x i ll a y ; l , h n gu a l b o n e ; b , l a t e a l b a n h e s o th e
hyo i d pp r t s ; styl t s e r i g to s s p d th s e b r ch s t th i r
a a a u 8, e v n u en e an e o e nn e
s rf
u f th j g l p r ti t i
ac e o s ; r r di i b ch i t g i
e u a b r chi l ch s
a on , a r an os e : a , an a ar e

p h s p ri o r p h ry g al b o s ;
, u e rt i c l r s rf c o f the t i ti al dy
a n e ne ar ,
a u a u a e ar on r ea
m ti d ; t k ss s gi dl s p p rti g t h p ct r l d '
en one 0 o , o ( p)
eo u r e u o n e e o a n o an o ,

s c p l f rm d o f tw o p i e c s ; h h u m e r s ; b b s f the fo r rm ;
a u a, o e e , u a , on e o e a
ca c rp al b o s ;
,
a coracoi d b o e
ne co, n
 zoo no e r .

br an chi al c aviti e s ; th e se ar e the r adii b r an chi oste g i Be hin d .

th e s e br an ch e s th e re d e sc e n d fro m the m edi an p o rti o n o f the

hyoid appar atu s fo ur p a irs of o ss e ou s arch e s ( a ) which ulti ,

m ate ly ar e atta ch e d to the b a sis of the cr an ium by m e an s o f

s om e sm all bon e s c all e d sup e ri o r ph aryn geal bon e s (p k) ;
,

l s an d for this r eas on ar e ca ll ed

°

th e s e a rch e s ca rry the ,

bran chi al arch e s Stil l u rthe r b ack at the en tran ce of th e

.
,

gull e t ar e the two i nf e ri or ph aryn geal bon e s so dispo s ed as

, ,

to b e appli e d a g a i n st the supe ri o r .

S uch gen e r ally is th e co mplic a te d str uctu r e of the h ead of

fis h e s : a n om ali e s e xist a s i n th e sword -fi sh an d i n s o m e
,

sp e ci e s alli e d to the tun n y ; i n th e s e the uppe r jaw is pr o

l on ge d i n to a p ow e rful w e apon with w hi ch th ey atta ck the ,

l arge st s ea an im als A n y fu rth e r com p aris on with the oss eo us

.

h e ad of m amm als n ee d n ot de tai n us h e re for much un ce r ,

t ain ty pr e v ails .

4 7 9 I n the v er te br a te co lum n th e re ar e but tw o disti n ct

.

Fi g 3 1 0 —E s p a d o n ( X i p hi a s
. .

C o mm o n Swo d - i sh ) r F .
Gl adi us ,

po rti on s a dor s al an d a ca ud al ( Fig

, The b ody of .

e a ch v e rte br a is form e d lik e an h o ur -gl a ss with the tw o e x ,

tr e mi ti e s h o ll o w e d ou t i n to c on ic al ca vity which s om e tim e s

un ite by an o pe n i n g : th e dou bl e c avity r e sultin g fro m the
j uxta p ositi on of the two v erte brae is fi l le d with a s oft e l asti c ,

subst an ce The o ss eo us r in g fo rm e d by the pro ce ss e s of the

.

d ors al p ar t of th e co l u m n for the prote cti on o f the spi n al

m ar r o w is r e pe ate d b en eath the c olumn i n its c aud al por
,

tion ; it l o dge s the grea t a rte ry o f the t run k .

In so m e the ribs ar e w an tin g i n oth e rs th e y ar e v e ry com

,

l e te an d s u rr o u n d the t r u n k ; a n d i n s om e th e y ar e con n e cte d

p ,

an teri o rly with a ch ai n o f b on e s r e pr e s en tin g the ste rn u m .

The ribs m or e o v e r o ft e n ca rry on e or two sm all spi n e s which

, , ,

ar e dir e cte d o utw ar ds an d p en e trate th e fl e sh

, S imil ar styl e ts .

a ls o s om e tim e s pr oc e e d fr o m the bo di e s o f the v e rte brae

; an d
th e s e ar e i n s o m e v e ry n um e rou s as i n the h e rrin g Fi n ally , .
,

i n the m edi a n l in e o f th e b o dy a r e fou n d the i n te rspi n a l

bo n e s ( Fig 3 1 1 if) ; th e s e re st on the spi n ous pro c e ss e s o f
.
,
 cu ss or FI H S ES . 34 1

the v e rte br ae, an d articu l ate by th e o th e r e xtr e miti e s with

the r adii of the m edi an fi n s (r ) th e s e r adii v ary much
i n difier en t fish e s : s om e tim e s th ey ar e on ly oss i fi ed
b as e , fo rm e d a fte rw ards of a n umbe r of s m all a rticu lati on s .

Th e s e l ast ar e c all ed s o ft or articul at e d radii ; th e y al w ays fo rm

the c au d al fi n ( Fig . an d s o m e ti m e s th e r e ar e n o oth e rs
.

4 80 The l ate r al fi n s, r epre s e n ti n g the limbs , a r e te r

.

mi n ated by r adi i s i mil ar to the do rs al , an d an al ogo us to the

fin ge rs ; i n the p ecto ral fi n , fo ur or fi ve sm all fi at bon e s ( Fig .

3 09 ca ) r e pr e s en t th e c arpus , an d th e s e ar e suppo rte d by two .

flat b on e s ( a b ) , th e r adius an d the ul n a The o ss eou s gi r dl e

.

suppo rti n g th e s e is co mp os e d o f a s e ri e s o f thre e bo n e s , of

whi ch on e ( it ) r epr e s e n ts the hu m e rus , a s e con d ( 0) the s ca
pul a, an d a third , c o mpo s e d of two pi e c e s , m ay b e ca ll e d the

Fi g 3 1 1
. .
—D o rs a1 F i n .

coraco id ( co) The po ste rio r li mb ( Fi g 3 07 ) is l e ss co mpl ex ;

. .

the r adii of the v e n tra l fi n ar e s u ppo rte d on ly on a sin gl e bon e .

4 8 1 I n c artil a gi n ou s fish e s s u ch as th e sk ate an d the

.
,

sh ar k the sk e l e to n s om e wh at r e s e mbl e s th at o f the t adpo l e

, .

The cr an ium is with ou t sutu re s an d i s co mpo s e d of a si n gle

,

pi e c e b u t m od e ll e d an d pi e rc ed like the cr an ium of a c omm on

,

fish The u ppe r jaw is fo rme d of pie ce s an al ogo u s to the

.

p al at in e bo n e s an d to the v o m e r ; the m ax i ll ary an d i n te r

m ax ill ary b on e s e ith e r do n ot e x ist or ar e m e re ly rudim e n tary .

The l o w e r jaw is als o fo r m e d o f a si n gl e pi e ce on e ach side ,

a n d th e o p e rcul a r a pp aratus is w an ti n g The v e rte bra l co lum n

.

is ofte n form ed of a si n gl e tube pi e rc ed on each side for the

,

p ass age of the n e rv e s but n ot div i ded in to disti n ct v e rte b rae ;

,

a n d th e g e l ati n o us -l oo kin g s u bsta n ce acti n as a lig a m e n t to

g
c on n ect the v e rte brae to e ach oth e r ofte n form s a co n tin u ous
,

c or d The arran ge men t of the bon e s of the shoulde r pe lvis

.
, ,
 342 ZOOLOGY .

an d fins, v ar i e s Fi n a lly the hyoid apparatus supporti n g

.
,

t he gil ls is arran ge d pre tty much as i n o th e r fis h e s b u t i n ,

the l a st of the s e ri e s the l ampreys the bran chia l ar che s are

, ,

w an tin g .

§ 4 8 2 M o st fish swim with gr ea t agility an d it is s a id

g ,
.

th at the s alm on oe s at the rate of tw e n ty -fou r fe et i n a

s e c on d Th ey s wi m by al te rn ate flex i o n s o f the tail an d
.

trun k an d the m uscl e s in te n ded to m ov e th e se fo r m the

,

grea te r p art of the m a ss of the b ody The l ate ral fin s are .

n o t m u ch us e d i n pr o gr e ssi on an d s e e m m e r e ly in te n d e d to
,

m ai n ta i n the e qui librium of the body or slightly to m odi fy ,

the dir e cti o n o f its c ou rs e

A
.

4 83 r e m ark a bl e fe a tur e i n th e o rgani za ti o n of so m e

.

fis h is the swi m min g bl adde r pl a ce d in the a bd o m en un de r

,

the d ors a l spin e c omm un ic atin g o fte n with the gull e t o r

,

st om ach by a c an al p e rmittin g of the e scap e of ai r fr om i ts

,

i n te r i o r ; but s om etim e s n o such p ass ag e e xi sts an d th e n it i s ,

e vid e n t th at th e ai r con tai n ed i n the swi mmi n g blad d e r i s

a s e cre tion fro m a glan d situ ate d on its w alls By the .

m o v e m en t of the ribs this ai r bl ad de r is a cte d on s o th a t by

, ,

the q u an tity of ai r be i n g di m in ish e d th e sp e cific gra vity of th e

,

fish a lte rs a cco rdin g to cir cumst an c e s ; but fish swimmin g

n e a r the b otto m h a v e n o ai r bladde r— such a s th e sk ate so l e , ,

tur bot an d eel ; an d s o m e tim e s this bl add e r is m e mbran o us

,

a n d v a scu l a r s o a s to r e s e mbl e a lu n g
, .

I n a sm all n umbe r o f fish e s as the flyin g fish the pe cto r al

, ,

fi n s ar e much e xte n d ed so as to l r m it the an im al to lea v e

the w a te rs an d to fly to a con si diiiab l e di st an c e ; an d s om e
,
'

by th e s am e m e an s trav e l on the l an d an d e v e n cli mb ,

up tree s .

Whi l st sp eak i n g of the organ s o f m otion i n fish e s we ,

ca n n ot omi t m e n ti on i n g a si n gular app aratus which s o m e of

th e s e an im al s h a v e by m ean s of which th ey a dh e re stron gly
,

to a fo r e ign body : it is a fl atte n e d dis c co v e ri n g the to p o f

the h e ad co mp os ed o f ca rt i l agi n ous pl at e s m o v e a bl e an d di
, , ,

r e cte d obliqu e ly b a ckw a rds ( Fig Fish e s o f the ge n u s

.

ech e n e is ar e the o nl y o n e s which h a v e this ki n d o f o rg an iz a

ti on ” an d the S pe ci e s fou n d i n the Me dite r ran e an has bee n '

l on g ce l e brate d u n d e r the n am e of r e m o ra ( F I ts
n atur a l hi sto ry h as bee n o ve rl oad e d with fa b e s an d the ,

o w e r o f sudde n ly a rr e sti n g a s hi p i n its co ur s e w as as c r ibe d to

p
it. A spe ci e s clo s e ly r e s e mblin g the pre c e di n g is v e ry c omm o n
i n the w ate rs a r o u n d th e Isl e o f Fr an ce a n d it i s s aid th at ,
 cu s s o r F I SH ES . 3 43
'
on the coast of Caflr ari a it is e mpl oy e d i n fis hi n g for othe r
fi sh e s ; a li n e b e in g attache d to its ta il it is l aun ch e d i n ,

r s ui t o f o th e r s ; s o soon as it be c o m es attach ed to th e m
p n
the fish erm an by m ean s of the stri n g gain s po ssess i on
, ,

o f bo th .

4 84 The life o f a fis h is o ccu i e d a lm o st wh olly i n pr o

.

p
v idi n fo r its subsiste n ce an d e sc ap i n g i ts e n e m i e s ; its s en s e s
g
an d faculti e s s ee m o btuse an d li mi te d ; it e x e rcis e s n o kn o wn

i n dustry an d s ee m s to b e with o ut an y r e mar k able i n stin ct ;

,

i ts bra in i s sm al l an d th e o rgan s of s en se i mpe rfect

, Th e .

br a in doe s n ot fill the cavity o f the cran iu m th ere be in g ,

fo u n d wi thin it a s on gy fatty m as s p articul ar ly i n the adul t ,

spe cim en The 10 es co mpo sin g the br ai n ar e pl ac ed i n a

fil e on e p ai r be hi n d an oth e r —
.

,
n am e ly the o lfacto ry l o b e s
, , ,

the h e misph e re s the opti c l o be s an d th e l ittl e b rain an d

, , ,

behi n d th at the lob es be l ong in g to the m edull a obl on g ata .

ton gu e ; an d as th e n as al fo ss ae co n s i st o f ca vi tie s which ar e

trav e rse d n e ithe r by ai r n or w ate r mix e d wi th ai r the po w e r ,

of sm e ll cann ot b e ac u te The organ of h e ari n g is e n cl o s e d

.

within the ca vity o f the c ran ium an d is co mpo s ed of a v es ,

ti b ul e an d thr e e s e micir cul ar c an als which s oun ds can on ly ,

re ach by vibrati on s o f th e c omm o n in te gum en ts an d bo n e s o f

cr ium T h y s it is tru l r g but n ot v e ry
th e a n .e e e e ar e ,
a e , ,

m ov ea bl e the i ris is n ot con tractil e an d the l e n s is sph erica l ;

, ,

th ey h av e n e ither ey elids n or l ach rym al apparatus In s om e

‘

fl at fi s h es — as t he so l e pl a ic e t ur,
bo t —b o th e
, y e s ar e p l ace d on

on e sid e of the h e ad an d this w an t o f symm e try e xte n ds to

,

o th er p arts of th e body .

485 Fish e s ar e v e ry v orac i ou s : a v e ry fe w on ly h ve

.

chi e y on v e getabl e s ; an d th ey ar e in disc rimin ate as to the i r

 34 4 ZOOLOGY .

foo d . So m e spe ci e s h av e tee th ; but i n m ost th ere e xi st

no

s e ve ra l rows , as i n the sh ark ( Fig w e fi n d th e m .

,

i n d ee d attached to s e v e r al bon e s with which th ey u n ite for

, ,

the h a v e n o roo ts ; th e y are sh ed at r e ar in te rv al s an d

e d by w t th d b ing l ll f n e ki n d

th ey re ce iv e th ei r n am e s fro m the i on e s which ca rry th e m

re e n er a o o
p ac n e e e an e , y
,

Fi g 3 1 4
. .
—Th e T b o t
ur .

as v o m eri n e m axil la ry 850 But i n diffe r e n t speci e s

pal ati ne , , , .

th ey v ary v e ry mu ch i n form b e i n g s o m e tim e s so fi n e an d

,

thickly set as to r es e mbl e the pil e of v elv et i n oth e rs they ,

ar e str on g robus t h oo ks r oun de d tube r cl es or sh a rp cuttin g

, ,

pl ate s .

Fi g 3 1 5
.
—H ea d of the Shar
. k .

4 86 . So m e , as the
l amprey liv e by sucti on n e ve rth e l ess
, ,

they al s oh av e tee th Th e r e is n o s alivary ap aratus an d

.
,

the gu ll e t is sh o rt the li v e r l a rge a n d so ft an d

, e p an crea s ,

is re la ced by the p an crea tic caeca s u rroun din g th e pylor us ;

fi n y the po siti on of the ex tre mity o f the g u t v a ri e s m u ch ;
,

the ki dn eys ar e e x tre m e ly l a rge e xte n di n g o n bo th sid e s of the

,
 cm ss o r F I BE R S . 345

v e rtebral c olum n an d n early through out its wh o le l en gth

,
.

Th e ir e xcre to ry ducts t e rmi n ate i n a ki n d of bl add er the ,

e x te rn a l o rific e of which is sit u a te d imm edi a te ly b e hin d the

an us an d th e o rific e o f th e r e pr o du cto ry o rg an s .

D i e sti o n s e e ms to b e p e rfo rme d r apidly an d the chyl e i s

abs o rbe d by n u m e r o u s ly m ph atic v e ss e ls which t e rmin ate by
,

s e v e ral tr un ks i n the v en ou s syste m n ea r the h e art .

§ 4 8 7 T h e bl oo.d o f fish e s is r ed a n d the gl ob u l e s are ,

e lliptic an d of c on sid e r a bl e siz e

, 8 1 Fig 28 c) The h e art , . .

( Fig 4 3 ) i s pl ac e d u n de r the throat i n a ca vity s ep ar ate d

.
,

from the a bdo m e n by a kin d of di aphragm pr ote cte d by the

ph a ry n ge al b on e s the bran chi a l arch e s an d th e hum e ral
, ,

girdl e It is c omp o s e d o f an au ricl e an d v en t ricl e fr o m which

.
,

sprin gs the p ul mon a ry a rte ry This v e ss e l is e n l ar ge d i n to a

.

co n tractil e bulb at its co mm en ce m e n t ; it s oo n divide s i n to

br an ch e s which p roce ed to the gills ; an d the bl oo d a fte r
, ,

h avi n g tra v e rs e d the s e o rgan s re turn s to w a rds the h e art by

,

an oth e r v e ss e l a ls o p assi n g al o n g the e dg e o f th e br an chial

,

a rch e s .Th e re th e s e c an als s en d s o m e bran ch e s to the n e igh

b ou ri n g p arts an d r e un ite to fo rm a l arge d ors al a rte ry which
, ,

proc e e d s b ackw a rds u n der the v e rte bral c olu m n an d giv es ,

bran ch e s to al l p arts of the b ody (Fig F i n ally al l the .

,

v e n ous bl oo d d oe s n ot p as s di re ctly to the sin us (au ricl e)

alr ea dy m en ti on e d ; th at fr o m the i n te sti n e s an d fro m s om e

oth e r p art s b e fo r e r e tu rn i n g to the h e art cir c u l a te s i n the

, ,

l iv e r by th e v e n a portae fi“
Th u s it is th at th e h ear t o f fis h e s co rre sp on ds to the right
or an t e ri o r h e a rt o f h ot-bl o od e d an im al s an d the bl oo d p a ss es ,

o n ly o n ce thro ugh the h e a rt The cir cul ati on must b e sl o w er

.

th an i n th e m ; n e v e rth e l e ss the pul m on ar y (bran chi al ) cir cu

,

l ati on is com pl e te ( Fig .

4 8 8 R e spir ati on is pe rfo rm e d i n fish e s by m e an s o f the

.

ai r diss o lv e d i n the w at e r w hi ch e n t e r i n g by th e m o uth is

,

p ass e d acro ss the gill s or bran chi ae Th e s e ar e va scul ar .

l a m in a s u pp orte d by the o ss eous br an chi al arch e s a lr eady

,

d e scribed F ou r bran chi ae gen e r ally e xist on e ach sid e I n

. .

m o st cai t il agi n ou s fish e s th e re ar e fi ve an d i n the l am pre y ,

s e ve n I n n ea rly al l the oss e o us fish e s the s e l am ell ae ar e simpl e

.
,

an d a r e fix e d on ly by the b as e ; but i n a s m a ll n u m be r such ,

as the hippo ca mpi co mmon ly c alle d s e a -fi or s es ( Fig

, .

th ey ar e on the con trary r am i fi ed an d ha v e the form of

, , ,

A s i n m amm als , b i rds , &c .

—R . K .
346 ZOOLO G Y .

bun ch es of feath e rs ; fin ally i n m o st cartil a l ou s fis h e s as

i n the sk ate an d shark th ey ar e a tta ch ed i yt he i r e xte rn al
, ,

e dge to th e ski n as w el l as by th e ir in te rn a l to th e
,

ar che s .

The m ech an ism of bre a thin g is be st o bs e rv e d i n the l i vin g

fis h : the m outh an d gill -co v e rs o pe n a lte rn a te ly ; th e w ate r
e n te rin g by the m outh e sc ap e s by th e ope ni n o f the ill
g s ,

the gill s th e m se lve s h a vi n g i n the m e an tim e en bath e d i n

it ; whi ls t this h ap pe n s the oxyg en is e xtr acte d from the
,

Fi g 3 1 6
. .
—Hi pp ocampu s .

w at e r . ss eous fish e s th e r e is ge n e r all y but on e ap erture

In o
of the gills o n e ith er sid e : i n th o s e with fix e d gil ls th e r e are ,

a s m an y a pe rtur e s a s bran chi ae Thus i n the sh ark ( Fig 3 1 7 )

.
, .

th ere ar e fi v e p airs of ope n i n gs an d i n th e l am prey ( Fig 3 34 )

, .

s e v e n H en ce the n atur e of the r e spirato ry a paratus m ay b e

k n o w n by an i ns pe cti on of the exte ri o r Fi n a lly i n s om e fis h e s
.

.
,

( the l am pr ey) the w ate r e n t e rin g by the m outh r each e s th e gill s

,

through a kin d of can al pl ace d un d er the gu l let an d in te r ,

F i g 31 7. .
—Th e S har k .

p os e d betw een the cavity of the m outh an d th at for the gi lls ;

the a rr an ge m e n t r e s e mbl e s i n s om e m eas ure the t rach e a o f
th e high e r o rg an iz e d an i m als .

Fish e s do n ot c on sume m u ch ox ygen ; n e v er th el e ss so m e ,

co m e to the s u rfa c e fr o m tim e to tim e to br ea th e a i r as i f ,

th at abs o rb e d by the gills w as n ot s u ffici en t S om e e v e n .

s w al l o w it an d co n v e r t th e oxyg e n i n to c ar bon ic acid whil st

,
 CLA S S or FI S H E S . 34 7

passi n g thr ough the in te sti n e s ; the l oach of sti ll w ate r s

pre s en ts this sin gul ar he n om en on Wh en re m ov e d fro m .

w ate r in to the ai r m o st he s spee dily be co m e asphyx i ate d n ot

the a bs e n ce of o x ygen b u t b e c aus e the branchial l amina
, ,

, ,

n o l o n ge r fl o atin g i n w at e r co ll aps e an d e xclud e the a cce ss o f

, ,

ai r ; th e y a ls o dry u p an d be c om e un fit fo r the e x er cis e of

,

th e ir fu n cti on s The l arg e r the e xte rn al ape rture of the gi lls

.
,

th e s pe e d i e r doe s d e ath e n su e
y
.

’
The famil with l abyr in thifo rm phar yn g e al s "F h a v e r e ce p
tael e s i n whi ch th ey can pre se rv e w ate r as i n r e s e rv o ir s to , ,

m oiste n the bran chi ae : th e s e r e ce ptacl e s ar e w ate r co ll e ctin g

ce l ls pl ace d a bo v e the b ran chiae ; h en ce the n am e of the
fa mi ly .

F ig 31 8
. .

o
R
— e sp ir ato ry A pp ar t u s of th e An a b as
C li m bi n g i sh
r F a

.
,

Th e s e ce l ls ( Fig en c l o s e d un der the g il l cov e r an d

.
,

for m e d by the l am el l w of the har yn g ea l bon e s r e tai n a ce r ,

o f w ate r an d t us all o w the an im al to li v e a

,

l on g tim e i n the ai r Th e y l ea v e the ri ve rs an d sta gn an t

.

w ate rs i n which th ey li v e to trav er s e t racks of l an d an d s om e

, ,

e v e n a r e e n abl e d to climb tr ee s as the an ab as Th ey ar e , .

n ativ e s o f the I n di e s C hin a an d the Mo lucca s ; an d on e s

, ,
pe
ci e s the go u r ami m u ch e st ee m ed has be e n acclimate d i n
, , ,

the a d s o f the Isl e o f F ran ce an d Cay enn e

$ A
y .

4 89 . r e m ar k abl e pro ducti on of fis h e s is th at o f el ec

tri ci ty an d the po w e r it giv e s th e m of kill i n g th e i r pr ey by

,

mani p le s : am b er s ca n de m, cl i m b i n g fi sh ; oep kr omm m o

’

tf as , th e
gour ami - B . K .
3 48 ZOOLOGY .

an e el ct ric sh ock The to rpe do the silur us or m alapte ru rus

.
, ,

an d a spe ci es of ot u s h a v e this po w e r ; an d wh at is v e ry
r e m ar k abl e i s
, t at the e l e ctric o rgan p r e s en ts a
co nfo rm ati on in e ach .

F ig 31 9
. .
—Th Gym t s El ectr i c
e no u us.

The gym n otus or e l e ctric e el o f S urin am ( Fig

, po s .

s es ses the po w er i n the high e st d e gree ; it r e s e mbl e s an ee l ,

but it has n o fi n s to w ar ds the e xtrem ity o f the ta il an d it ,

h as n o di stin ctly visibl e sc al e s It att ai n s s om eti me s six fee t

.

i n l en gth an d the ski n is co v e re d with a

,

glu e y m atte r It is m et with i n v ast n u m

.

b e rs in the rivul e ts an d sta gn an t w ate rs

o f the imm en se plai n s of South A m e rica .

The e l ectric sh ocks whi ch it disch ar ges at ,

will ar e s u fli ci e n tl y stron g to kill m en an d

,

h orse s ; an d b e i n g t ran smissible th ro ugh

w ater the gym n otus doe s n ot req ui re
,

to to uch its pr ey A t fir st the e l e ctr ic

.

di sch arge s ar e fe e bl e but wh e n ro use d ,

th ey be co m e te rr ibl e ; but by this e ffo rt it

be co m e s e xh austed an d r equire s r e po s e b e
,

fo r e i t can r en e w the att ack ; thi s is the

m o m e n t its ca pto rs a v ail th e ms e lve s of to
s e ize it W i ld h o rs e s ar e d riv en i n to the
.

m e n T o rp e d o
. w ate rs i n h abite d by th e s e fish e s an d on ,
'
th e s e the gym n oti e xpe n d the fir st sh ocks ;
b e in g thus e xh aust e d th e y ar e e asily ta k en by the n e t or
,

h a rp oo n The e l e ctric o rg an s o f the gym n otus ar e arr an g ed

.

al on g th e b a ck an d ta il i n four l on gitudi n al fas cicul i co m ,

 CLA SS or F ISHES . 3 49

po se d of a gre at n umb e r of p ar all e l m e mbran ifo rm pl ate s ,

whi ch ar e n ea r] h oriz on tal an d un it e d by an i n fi ni ty of oth er

sti l sm all e r plate fi pl ace d v e rtica lly acro ss ; th e s e sm al l
,

l s “

p rism atic an d tran sv e rs e ce lls fo rm e d by the r e u n i on o f

th e se l amin ae ar e fill e d wi th a gel atin ou s m atte r an d the ,

a p ar at u s r ec e iv e s n um e ro us v e ry lar g e n e rv e s
p .

u
—E l ct ri c Ap p r t s o f th e T p d d
3 21 . e a a u or e o
'

The to rpe do ( Fig is a ca rtil a g in ous fish

.
, re s e mblin g
th e sk a te Its bo dy is s m oo th an d r e pr e s e n ts a
.
, disc n e ar ly
I h e c t d 24 0 f th s p l t s i th i ch —R K
av o un e o e e a e n e n . . .

t thc, b r i ; m s p i l m rr w ;
e a n ye, d p ti c
na r a o 0, e e an o n e ve ; e, l ct ri c
e e
org s ; p p m g st ri c r pr c d i g t th l ct ri c
an u , neu o a ne v es o ee n o e e e o rga s ;
n al , a
br ch f t h p rec d g f rm i g th l t r l r
an o e e in sp i l
o n e a e a ne ve n, na ne v r es .
 350 zo ono o r .

ci r cul ar , the
t rior e dge of which i s fo rm ed by two pro
an e
l on g ati on s of th e m u zzl e which on e ach sid e proce ed to un ite
,

with the p ecto ral fi n s an d l e a v e be twe en th es e o rgan s the

, ,

h ead an d the bran chi ae an o v al space i n which is l odg e d the

, ,

e l e ct ric a ppa ratus o f the fish This a par atus ( Fig 3 2 1 ) i s

b y
. .

co mpo s ed of a n umber of v e rtical m e m r an ou s t u be s cl o se l

p ack ed li k e hon eyco mb an d subdi vid ed by h oriz on ta l p arti
, ,

ti on s fil l ed with muco siti es an d an im a ted by se ve ral v er y l arge

,

b ran ch e s of the n eu m og as tr i c n er v e I n th e s e si n gul ar .

o rgan s is pr od uce the e le ct ricity which has n ow be e n pr o v ed ,

to r e s e mbl e i n e v e ry re spe ct co m m o n e l e ctrici ty Th e s e an i .

m als ar e l es s po wer ful than the gym n otus By e x pe rim en t .

,

it has bee n a sce rta in ed th at t his prope rty de pe n ds on the

p o ste ri o r l o b e o f th e e nce ph a l on a n d th at by d e str oyi n g this
,

l obe or cutti n g the n e rv e s pro ce e di n g fr o m it the faculty i s

, ,

l o st Th ey ar e foun d i n the s eas on the co ast of La Ven d ee

.

an d P ve ce
r o n fi“

F i g 3 22
. .
—Ele c t ri c M alap te ruru s .

Fin ally the silurus el ectri cu s or m alapte rurus ( Fig

,
is .

a n ativ e o f the N il e an d the Se n e g a l ; its l e n gth v ari e s fr o m

a foo t to fifte en i n ch e s an d its e l e ctr ic pr o pe rti e s s e e m to

,

r e sid e i n a p articul ar sp a ce situ ate d be tw e en the skin o f th e

,

flan ks an d the muscl e s re s e mbli n g a l eafe d ce llul ar tissu e

,
.

Th e Ar abs call it th e r a d a ol i which signi fi e s thun de r ,

.

e s m u ltiply by m e an s o f e ggs an d a si n gl e
§ 490 Fish . ,

sp aw n in g i n s om e p rodu ce s h u n dr e ds of th o us an ds I n .

gen e ral th e y h a v e on ly a m u cil agi n o us prote ctin g e n v e lo pe ,

an d th e y ar e h a tch ed a fte r S p a wn i n g with out a n y ca r e o n t he

p art o f the p ar en t Bu t s om e ar e o v o vivipa ro us H ow e v e r thi s
y
. .

m ay b e th e ar e all a b an don e d by th e ir p aren ts an d m an y

, ,

pe rish It i s probably o wi n g to the circu m sta n c e s co n n e cte d

.

with th e bi rth th a t fish e s ar e foun d in v ast tr00ps ca ll ed by

,

Th e
T o rp ed o ,
R o r
an d u s e d th e m f o r t h e
c
m a n s w e e w e ll a q u a i n t e d wi th t h e
c r
u e o f p a a lys i s r .
l ctri c pro p e rti e s
—R K
e e
. .
of th e
 cnx ss o r F I BE R S . 35 1

the fish e rm en b cm cs Th e s e re u n i on s can sc arc ely be ca ll e d

.

so ci eti e s an d th ey prob ably fo ll o w e ach oth e r from a te n den cy

,

to imita ti on .

4 9 1 H ow e v e r thi s m ay b e th e s e an i m als u n ite i n v as t

.
,

tr00ps to asce n d riv e rs or to ch an ge th e i r ha b i ta t Som e .

l e ad a s ed e n ta ry li fe re m a in in g alw ays i n the s am e l oc ality ;

,

o th e rs ar e c on stan tly w an d e ri n g an d s o m e pe rfo rm di stan t ,

v oy ag e s A t fix e d pe r i ods o f the y ear th e y ass e mbl e in v ast

.

n umbe rs fro m r e gi on s which if n o t distan t ar e a t l e as t u n , ,

k n ow n Th is is the eas e with the h e rri n g an d the s am e m ay

.
,

b e s aid of the s a l m on The h e rr i n gs d e p o sit th e ir e ggs n ear

.

th e co ast an d th e y o un g re t i r e i n al l prob ability m e r e ly in to

, , ,

d ee pe r w at e rs The id e a of th e ir tra v e lli n g to an d fro m the

.

A r ct ic Seas s e e ms quite a fabl e Th ey appe a r o n the coast i n .

wi n ter an d i n ea rly spri n g an d a ga i n at midsum m e r an d ,

dur i n g the au tum n Their n u mb e rs wh e n th e y first appea r

.

s ee m in cre dibl e ; but th e y ar e c aprici ous an d will ab an don ,

ce rtai n w a te rs fo r a l o n g pe ri od Fro m the middl e of Octob er .

to the e n d o f th e y ea r th ey a b oun d i n th e p art o f the se a c a ll e d

L a M an ch e ( th e E n gl ish Ch an n el ) an d pri n cip a lly i n the ,

Straits of D ov e r as far as the m ou th o f the Se i n e

, I n July .

an d A ugust th e y ar e g e n e r a lly fo un d i n th e op e n s e a at a ,

distan c e fro m the co ast an d the sp aw n has b e e n fou n d at ,

e v e ry se as on of the y e ar A fte r sp aw n i n g th e y ar e p oo r an d
.
,

o f l ittl e v al ue S i x ty th ou s an d e ggs h av e b e en fo u n d i n a
.

sin gl e fe m al e o f a m e diu m siz e I n c on clusi on b u t li ttl e is .

,

k n own o f th e n atur al histo ry of the youn g o f th e s e fi sh e s fi"

4 9 2 The s ardi n e m ack er e l h e rrin g an d an ch o vy ar e
.
, , , ,

fi sh of p ass age or m i gr a to ry which p e ri odic al ly vis it ou r

, ,

Th e h e rri n g fishe ry w as fo rm e rly e s p e ci ally wi th th e D u tch a b ran ch o f

, ,

P r o r an d
h un
e st W F
i n d us try o f gre a t n a t i o n a l i m p o rt an c e ; an d i n t h e t wo p ro vi n c e s o f H o ll an d
ri e sla n d tw o th o us an d v e ss e ls a n d m o re th an e i ght
,

th ous an d p e o p le w e re e n ga g e d i n t hi s fishe ry Al th o u gh m u ch .

di mi ni sh e d i n i m o rta n ce e e ry w h e re th e v a ri o u s p o r ts b e t we e n D un ki r k
a n d t h e m o u th 0 pth e S e i n e sti l l e m l o y fro m thr e e to fo u r h un dr e d ve ss e ls
v
, ,

a n d a b o u t fi ve th o u s an d s e am e n i n t i s fish e ry a n d th e p r o d u c ts h av e b e e n ,

v al u e d a t n e a rly fo u r m il li o n s o f fran c s .

It i s a n e t fish e ry t he n e ts b e i n g s u s p e n d e d i n th e s e a li k e a w all
,

i n to th e m e sh e s w h c h m u st b e o f a l e g al s i z e th e h e rri n g e n t e r s h e a d fo re
, i ,

m o st b e y o n d th e gi ll c o ve rs a n d i s th u s ca u ght b e t we e n t h e gi ll c o e rs a n d
, v

t h e p ecto ral fi n If i n t e n de d f o r s al ti n g i t sh o ul d b e d o n e as s o o n as p o s
.
,

si bl e B’ th e o l d D utch la ws n o h e rri n g w as a ll o we d t o b e s a lte d a ft e r

s uns e t yhe D u tch sti ll m ai n t ai n th e i r s up e ri o ri ty i n th e c uri n g o f he r r i n g s d
.
,
‘
.

1 The c
il ch a r d , st i ll a u ght i n g e a t r b e rs o n the co a st
n um of Co rn w ll a is
rri n g —R K
,
a fi sh 8. o g o u e i n i ts h a b i ts t o the h e . .
3 52 zo ono o r .

sh ore s an d giv e ri s e to imp ort an t fish e ri e s The s alm on is

, .

als o e q u all y r e m ark a bl e for its j o ur n eys or v oy a g e s It i n .

h abits al l the A rctic Se as an d e ach spri n g it en te rs the riv e r s

,

i n v ast tr 0 0 ps to as ce n d th e m e v en to th e ir s ourc e s
, In .

th e s e e migr ati on s the s alm on follo w a r e gul a r o rde r fo rm i ng ,

two l on g fil e s r e u n ite d in fr on t c on ducte d by the l a rges t

, ,

fe m al e which pre c e d e s whilst the sm a ll m al e s for m the rea r

g u ar d
, ,

Th e s e troops swim i n gen e ral with much n oise

.
,

i n the midd l e o f riv e rs an d n ear t he surfa c e o f the w a te r if

,

th e te mp e ratur e b e mild but n e are r th e b otto m i f the h e at b e

,

gr eat I n ge n e r al s alm on adv an c e sl owly spo rti n g a s th e y

.
, ,

proc e e d ; b u t if d an g e r appe a rs to thr eate n th e m th e r apidity ,

o f th e ir co urs e b e c om e s s u ch th at the e ye can sc ar ce ly fol l o w

th e m If a dyk e or ca sc ad e Oppo s e s th e ir progr e ss th ey m ak e

.
,

the gre at e st e ff o rts to o v e rc o m e it R e sti n g on s om e rock .

,

an d e x t en di n g the b ody sudd en ly an d with vi o l e n c e afte r ,

be in g curv e d th ey Sprin g ou t of the w ate r l e api n g o cca

, ,

s i on al l y to th e h e ight o f fo u r or fi v e m e tr e s ( fiftee n fee t ) i n

the ai r an d s o as to fall b ey on d the o bst acl e w hi ch sto ps th e m

, .

Sal m on a sc en d riv e rs e v e n to th ei r s our c e an d s e a rch i n the ,

sm al l stre am s an d tran quil pl ace s a botto m of s an d an d

grav e l ad apt e d for the d e p o siti on o f th eir e ggs Th e n fe e bl e .
,

an d thin by s u ch fati g ue th e y d e sce n d i n a utu m n t o w a rds

,

th e m ou th o f the riv e rs i n o rd e r to p a ss th e i r wi n te r i n the

,

s ea . Th e e ggs ar e d ep o site d i n a trou gh dug by th e fem al e

i n the s an d ; th ey ar e afte r w ar ds fe cun d a te d by the m al e .

The y oun g s al m on gro w v e r r apidly ; an d wh en th ey ar e

ab o ut a fo o t l on g th e y l e a v e t e riv e rs to r ep ai r to th e s e a
, ,

whi ch th ey qu it i n its tur n to ag ain e n te r the riv e rs wh en ,

th ey ar e ab ou t fo ur or fi v e de ci m e tr e s i n l e n gth ( from six tee n

to tw e n ty i n ch e s ) th at is to s ay to w a rds the middl e of the
, ,

summ e r th at fol l ow e d th e i r bi rth W e h av e already s ee n .

th at the sw all ows which at the approach of the co ld sea son

,

e mi gr at e to th e s ou th r e tur n an n u a lly to th e s am e pl ac e s
, .

It appe ars th at s alm on h av e the s am e in stin ct T o be a ssur e d .

o f it a n atu r a li st o f the n a m e o f D e sl an d e s put a c o ppe r rin g

,

i n th e ta il o f tw e lv e o f th e s e fish e s an d r e sto re d th e m to ,

lib e rty i n the r iv e r A n z ou i n Britt an y Soo n aft e rw a rds th e y .

al l di s a pe a r e d b u t th e y e ar fo ll ow in g th e y c au ght i n the
sa m e p la
,

c e fi v e of th e s e s alm on ; i n the s e con d y e ar t hre e an d ,

i n th e y e a r fo ll owi n g still thr e e .

!T h e s a rdi n e th e m a ck
, e r e l th e t u n n y th e a n ch o vy
, an d , ,

the spra t ar e a ls o fish o f p a ss a ge which pe ri odically visit

, ,
 CLA S S or F ISH ES . 3 53

the c oa st an d giv e ris e to impo rtan t fish e ri e s The s alm o n

,
.

e q u a lly r e m ar k abl e fo r its v oy a g e s Its pr e cis e b a b i ta t .

i n th e o c ean i s un k n own ; but a t st ate d pe r i ods it a sc e n ds

th e riv e rs e v e n to th e ir s o u rc e s i n ge n e r a l duri n g the ,

a ut u m n an d e a rly wi n te r m on ths Un d e r th e gr av e l o f .

th e s e fr e sh -w at e r str ea ms it dep o sits its e ggs w hich i n e arly ,

spri n g u su ally abo ut th e b egi n n i n g o f May l e av e the

, ,

gr av e l to pa ss i n to the str eam The p e ri o d i n te rv en i n g b e .

tw e e n th e ir e sc ap e thro u gh th e gra v e l to th e ir d e sc e n t to ,

th e o c e a n as s m o l ts ( th a t is y o un g fish co v e r e d with silv e ry

,

sc al e s ) h as n ot yet b e e n fu lly d e te i m i n e d s o m e vi e wi n g it a s
, ,

a y e a r o th e rs o n ly a fe w w e e ks
, Bu t h o w e v e r this m ay b e .
,

th e re appe ar an n u ally i n May i n e v e ry s a lm on riv e r v a st , ,

shoals of s m olts th a t is silv e ry sc al e d fish e s an d which for

, ,
-
,

ce rt ai n ar e th e y ou n g o f the s a lm on I n a v e ry sh o rt tim e .

th e y b e gi n to de sc e n d th e str e am s i n which de sc en t th ey ,

a r e m u ch a id e d by a fl oo d e d st a t e o f th e riv e r fr o m r a i n a n d ,

with th e m d e sce n d th e sp aw n e d s fi h — th e ir pr e s u m e d p ar en ts .

The s m olt which de sc e n ds to th e o c e an i n th e b e gi n n i n g of

M ay an d which at th at ti m e is fou r or fi v e i n ch es i n l e n gth an d
, ,

o n e o r t wo o un c e s i n w e ight r e t u r n s i n J u n e an d J u ly a w e ll
,

gr o w n s al m on o f fi v e or S i x p ou n ds Th u s if the gro wth .

, _

o f y o u n g s al m o n i n fr e sh w at e rs b e sl o w th e ir gr o w th i n the ,

sea , wh e re th ey s e e m to o bta in a p e c u li a r ki n d of fo od is ,

r apid b e y o n d i m a gi n ati on D uri n g the win t e r th e fish th at

.
,

a r e a b ou t to sp a w n a n d th at h a v e sp aw n e d d o n ot s ee m to
, ,

fe e d ; th ey l o s e w e ight c on st an tly an d r e turn to th e s ea i n ,

M ay g e n e i al l y i n an e x tr e m e ly e x h a u st e d st at e
, L ik e .

sw a ll o ws s al m on h av e th e i n sti n ct of r e t u rn i n g to th e pl ace
,

o f th e ir birth a fa ct k n o w n fr o m the m o st r e m o t e ti m e s
, ,

a n d pr o v e d by a v a st n u m b e r of e x p e rim e n ts m ad e i n S co t

l a n d d u r i n g the l a st h a lf c e n t u ry Th e a v e r ag e p e ri o d o f t he
'
.

i n cuba ti on of the e g g u n d e r the gra v e l is a b ou t on e hu n dre d

a n d tw e n ty d ays ; th e y in c u b at e on ly d ur i n g the win t er an d
spri n g a n d the y oun g s alm o n whilst i n the r iv e rs ha s
, , ,

g e n e ric ch a racte rs a n d a de n tition co m m on to al l the s al

m o n i d ae .
—R K . .

a bits o f fish e s d o n o t o ffe r m an y curi o us

The
§ 4 93 h .

p artic u l ars ; n e v e rth e l e ss r e fl e ct i n g on th e ir i m p o rtan ce b u t

, ,

a fe w y e a rs ag o i n th e hi sto ry o f th e m arit i m e n a ti o n s o f

E u ro pe a n d th at i n Fran c e th e r e ar e fr o m thirty to fo rty

,

th ou s an d s e a fa ri n g m e n still e n g a g e d i n this br an ch o f i n
dustr y e x te n din g th e ir v oy ag e s to the coa sts o f Ic el an d an d
,

A A
 ZOO LOGY .

Ne wfou n dl an d i n qu e st ( Fig of a l a rg e an d
th e cod .

e xc e l l e n t fish a bo un di n g o n th e se c o a sts th o ugh n o t on o urs , ,

the subj e ct c an n o t b e s a id to be w ith o ut i n te re st .

4 94 Cl as s ifi ca ti on — Fish e s fo rm on e of the m ost

y
.

n um e rous cl a ss e s o f th e a n im a l kin gd om a n d ar e usu all ,

divide d i n to two s e ri e s a cc o rdi n g to the n atu re of th ei r

,

sk e l e t on.

The gro up or sub -cl a ss o f o ss eous fish e s is by far th e m os t

n um e ro us i n gen e r a a n d s e ci e s It is c mp s d f l l th
p o o e o a
. e

F i g 3 23
. .
—C o mm o n Co d .

o rdi n ary fish e s an d is su bdivid ed i n t o s ix ord e rs by cha

,

r acte r s i n g en e ral n ot v e ry i mpo rta n t Th e s e o rde r s ar e .

A c an th opte ryg i i M al a copte r ygi i a bd o m i n al e s M al aco pte rygii

, ,

sub bran chi a les Mal acopote r yg ii apod e s Loph o br an chii an d

-
, , ,

P l e ct o gn athi .

4 9 5 The pl e cto g n athi d iff e r fr o m a l l o th e r fis h e s i n the

.

con form ation of th ei r m o uth for i n th e m th e uppe r jaw -bo n e

,

is u n ite d to the cran ium This fa mily comp ris e s the c offre s
.

F i g 3 24
. .
—
C
'
ofi r e , o r A s t r ac i o n .

( Fig . which h a v e th e b o dy co v e r e d with a ki n d o f cuira ss

with o ss eo u s co m p art m e n ts ; the di o d on o r glo b e -fi s h a n d ,

the t e tro d on which by sw a ll o wi n g the a ir b e co m e in fl a te d

,

lik e a b all ar e e x a mpl e s o f this cl a ss

,
.

4 9 6 The l o ph o bran chii a re ch a ra cte riz e d by the s tr u c

.

tu re o f the gills Th e s e i n s te a d o f re s e m bli n g the t ee th o f a

.
,

co m b divide i n to littl e ro u n d ed tu fts fix e d i n p ai rs al o n g th e

, ,
 CLA SS or r rsn n s . 3 55

bran chi al a r ch e s . The syn gn athus an d the hippo campus

b e l b n g to this famil y .

§ 4 9 7 The acan thOpte ryg u co mpris e al l o ss e ous fish e s

with the upp e r jaw m ov ea bl e an d co mb -fo rm e d bran chi ae an d ,

i n wh om the fir st fi n is supp o rte d by o ss eo us an d spi n iform

F i g 3 25. .
-
Tho n ( th e T unn y ) .

rin gs ( Fig . The p e rch the m ack e r e l the tun n y ( Fig

, , .

th e sw or d -fi sh an d n e arly thr e e -fo u rths of al l k n o w n

,

fish e s b e l on g to t hi s family
, .

§ 4 98 .T h e abdo min a l m al acopt e ryg i i ar e distin guish e d

from the pr e c ed i n g by h avi n g the r ays o f the fi r st d o rs a l fi n

F i g 3 26
. . F i g 3 27
.
— B ro c h e t , or Pi ke .

c artil a gi n ous articul at e d to w a rds the ex trem ity an d g e n er all y

, ,

divid e d i n to s e v e r al bran ch e s ( Fig This ch a r act e r i s .

co m m on to it with th e two r e m ai n i n g grou ps of o ss e o us

fish e s an d to disti n guish th e m it is n e c e ss a ry to add th at
, ,

the v e n tr al fi n s ar e situ at e d u n d e r the abd om e n b e hin d the ,

F i g 3 28
. .
—The An cho vy .

p e cto ra l fi n s a n d n o t att a ch e d to the b on e s of the sh ould e r

, .

To this o rd e r b e l o n g the c ar p the pik e ( Fig th e , .

s i lurus ( Fig . the s alm on the h e rri n g the s a rdi n e an d

, , ,

th e an ch o vy .

A A2
3 56 z oo m s Y .

4 99 . Th e
sub -b r an chi ated m al aco pt e rygi i h av e th e fin s
for m e d i n the s am e m an n e r as i n the l a st ; but th e ir a bd o mi na l
fi n s ar e pl ac e d un d e r the pe cto r al s This divisi on co mp ri se s .

the co d ( Fig th e m e rl a n the r e m o r a ( F i an d the

family o f the pl e uron e cte s o r flat fish as the pi ri ce ( Fig

.
,

, .

the t u rb o t ( Fig th e s o l e & c

.
, .

500 Fi n ally the m al aco pte r yg n ap o d e s ar e ch ar acte ri ze d

.
,

by the abs en ce o f v e n tral fi n s an d o f spin ou s r ays i n the ,

d o rs al fi n To this fa mily b el on g the ee ls the gymn otu s

.
,

( Fig . & c .

Fi g 3 29 . .
—The Pl i ce
a .

501 . The
c artila gi n ous fish e s or ch on dropte rygi i h av e
the sk e l e to n c ar til agi n ou s an d s om e tim e s a lm o st m e mbran o u s
, ,

n e v e r o ss e ou s the c alc a r e o us m att e r h ai d e n i n g its surfa ce

,

b e i n g d e po sit e d i n littl e gr ai n s Th e re is e v e n a r e se mbl an ce .

b e tw e e n it an d th at of th e t adpo l e The su pe i i or m ax il .

l ary an d i n te rm axil la b on e s ai e ru di m e n ta ry an d the uppe r ,

h e pal a ti n e b on e s
j aw is fo rm e d e s s e n ti y by t So m eti m es .

th e gills ar e fre e a t th e ir e dg e an d s o m e ti m e s fi x e d an d th i s
, ,

di ffe re n c e s e rv e s as a b a sis for th e ir divisi on i n to two grou ps ,

— n a m e ly the ch on dr opt e ryg i i with free br an chi ae an d th os e
, ,

with fix ed bran chiae ; an d th e s e l att e r a r e subdivid e d i n to t wo

o th e rs th e s e l a ci e n s an d th e cy cl o s to m es
,
.

§ 50 2 T
. h e o rd e r o f ch o n dr o pte ry gi i with fr ee gills ar e

als o c all e d s tu r i o n e s b e c au s e th e y h a v e for th e ir type the

,

sturge on (s tu r i o) I t is c om po s e d o f fish e s i n wh o s e fig u re
.

th e r e i s n othi n g irr e gul a r ( Fig a n d which h av e for th e .

0

m o st part the ski n pr o vid e d with l a rg e o ss eou s pl at e s dis

po s e d i n r o ws * a n d the m o u th too thl e ss .

503 The ch on d r o pte i yg i i with fi xe d gills h a v e a r e

.

m a rk abl e c o m m on ch ai a cte r which has alr e ady be e n de ,

In o th e r w o rds , a d e r m o i d sk e le to n —R K . .
 CLAS S OF F I SHE S . 357

sc ribed The gill s ar e fix e d at b oth edge s an d i n ste ad Of

.
,

h avi n g on e op en in g by which th e w ate r e s ca pe s the re ar e

e a ,
—
s v r l as m an y Ope n i n gs i n fact as th e r e ar e i n te rv al s
e
, ,
,

be tw ee n th e gill s The o pe n in gs ar e alm o st alw ays e x te rn al

.
,

n e v e rth e l e ss th ey t e rmi n at e s o m e ti m e s i n a co m m o n ca n a l

y
b which th ey tran s m it the wa te r e x te rn ally ; fin a lly car
ti l a i n ou s ar ch e s susp e n d e d i n the fl e sh ar e Ofte n fo un d O
,
,

g p
pOSi te th e e xte r n a l e dg e s o f the br an chiae L as tly th e s e .
,

F i g 330 —Th e S t u
. . rge on .

fish e s di ffe r fro m e ach oth e r an d con sti t u te two o rd e rs

m uch ,

- h
t e s el aci an ( pl agi o sto m a) an d the cycl o sto m a .

504 The first i n cl u di n g th e fam ily Of th e squ a li co m

.
, ,

po s ed o f the sh arks pro p e rly so c a lle d the r e qu i n ( Fi g , .

th e h a m m e r -h e ad e d sh a rk ( Fig th e s aw -fi sh &c ; an d
.
, .

th e family Of th e sk a te i n which th e to r p e d o ( Fig 3 20)

, .

as w e l l a s the sk a te pr o p e rly s o c all e d h a v e a pl ace ( Fig .

A l l th e s e fis h e s h a v e fi v e br an chia l Ope n i n gs on e ach sid e o f

F i g 332
. .
—H h d e d S ha r k
am m er - e a .

th e neck r e s e m blin g fissu r e s ; an d s e v e ral h av e on the u pp e r

,

p art O f the h e ad two o pe n in gs c a ll e d blo w -h o l e s by which

, ,

th e w at e r r e ach e s th e gi l l s wh e n the thr o a t is te mpo r a rily

fil l e d with th e i r pr e y Th ey ar e m o st v o r aci ous an i m als
.
,

e spe ci a l ly th e r e q ui n o r blu e sh a rk ( Fig S o m e ar e .

o vip ar ous whil s t o th e rs l ay e ggs c o v e r e d with a har d a n d

,

h or n y c as e .

505 The or d e r Of cycl o sto m e s is ch a r acte riz e d by the

.

gular confor m ation o f the m o uth ad apte d onl y for suc , .

3 58 ZOOLO G Y .

ti o n ( Fig . th ey ar e th e m o st impe rfe ct of al l the

o rdi n a ry v e rte br a ta . Th e i r sk e l e to n i s so m e tim e s m e m
b ran ous as i n the am oce te s o r riv e r lampr eys an d is alw ays
, ,

l e ss c ompl e x th an i n o th e r fish e s ;
th e i r n e rvou s syste m i s b u t littl e
de v e l ope d an d the g il ls h a v e the
,

fo r m o f sm all b ags The la m pr eys .

Fig c stit u te th e p r i n cipa l

( 33 4 )
. o n

typ e Of this gr oup

A
.

v e ry si n ul ar an im al
e vid e n tly b e l o n gin g to ti e v e rte br a ta
,

but d e fici e n t i n m an y of th e ir cha

r acte r s h as 1ate ly attr acte d s ome
F g w O f th e
,
l
ig
'

a tte n ti on It is cal l e d th e amphi

.

ox us an d is a sm al l m a rin e a ni m al
, ,

suffi ci en tly like a fi s h b u t which has n e ith e r v e rte b ra

,

pr op e rly s o c al l e d n or h ea rt n or r ed bl ood n or a dis ti n ct

, , ,

brai n Its sk el e to n is r e pr e s e n te d by a carti l a gin ous stal k

. ,

r e s e mblin g th e c a rtil ag i n o u s co rd p r e ce din g the fo rmati on o f

F i g 33 4
. .
—Th e L am pre y .

th e v e rte bral co lum n i n the e mbr y o of the or din ary v e rte

br ata ; the c e r e br o-spi n a l axi s o ccupi e s its usu al pl ace but ,

pre s e n ts an te ri o rly n o enl ar ge m e n t whi ch m ay b e co m

to a bra in ; the cir cul ati on i s a cco mpli sh e d by m ea n s of
v e ss e ls wh os e w a lls ar e con tractil e an d the w all s of the ,

h ar yn g e al c a vi ty tak e the pl ac e of a r e spira to ry app a ra tu s .

o st z oo l o gists arr an g e this d e gr a d ed v e rt e br a l an im al i n th e

cl ass fis h e s ; b ut it s ee ms e vid e n t to us th at i n a n at ur al ,

cl assifica ti on the amphi oxus o ught to o ccupy a p articul ar

divisi on .

’
It f rm d n o p art o f th e pl an o f th e auth o r s e x ce l
! o e
l e n t w o rk to foll o w o u t an y o f the grea t vi e ws which the i n
tr od u cti on Of the tr an sce n d e n ta l an atomy in to sci e n ce h as
fo rce d o n th e c on side rati on o f all Obs e rv e rs an d I h a v e th e re ,

fo re n ot de e m e d it n e ce ss ary to ad d l a rge ly to th e fe w h i n ts
giv e n by the au th o r hi m s e l f A s i n a pa ss age or tw o o f th e pr e
.

ce di n g po rti o n s o f the w o rk the a u th o r has gl ance d a t a sub

j ce t o f gre at i n te re st n am e ly the di sti n c tn es s of spe ci e s an d
, ,
 CLA SS OF r r sn s s . 3 59

e ve n gen e ra yet st ron gly r e s e mbli n g e ach oth e r i n dif

of ,

fer en t r e gi o n s o f the gl o be I h a v e th o ught th at th e fo ll owin g

,

bri e f sk e tch of the re l ati on Of sp e ci e s to ge n us might in te r e st

the r e ad e r
Zoo l o gy to b e estee m e d a scien c e must b e b a se d on phil o
, ,

so phica l pri n cipl e s Tr u e it is a sci e n ce o f obs e rvati on an d

.
,

n o t o f ca lc u l ati on ; it h as to d e a l with liv in g bodi e s an d wi th ,

the myste ri ou s an d hith e rto u n dis co v e r e d pri n cipl e o f life ,

wh o s e l aws ar e n ot to b e e xpla i n e d by n u m be rs ho w e v e r ,

multiplied n or by a geo m e t ry h ow e v e r r e fin e d Flu x i on s

, , .

a v a i l n ot h e r e n o r the i n t e gr a l ca lcul us
, N e v e rthe l e ss s om e .
,

t min ds h a v e sh o w n th at Zo ol o gy has its laws which , ,

e spit e diffic u lti e s a lm o st in n u m e r abl e m ay b e so i n quir e d ,

in to as to e v o lv e so m e t ruths o f m or e impo rt to m an th an at
fir st appea rs .

“
The o bse rv a ti on of n atur e i s n o d oubt th e fir st duty Of
e v e ry can did Obs e rv e r ; n e x t c om e s the duty o f th e i n qu i re r

i n to he r l aws for th e m e r e Obs e rv an c e o f a fact is Of n o v al u e

,

wh ate v e r u n l e ss th at fact b e pl ace d i n its re l ati on s with al l

,

oth e rs M en had Obse rve d an d n o d oubt Obs e rv e d ca r e fully

.
, ,

l on g b e for e the ag e o f A ris totl e but he a lon e w a s e qu al to the ,

pr oducti on of the H i s tor i es A n i m a l i u m H e was foll ow e d .

,

a t a l on g i n te rv al by B ufi b n an d L i n n é ; l a st ca m e the i m
,

m orta l Cuvi er The di sc ov e ry of the true sign ifi cati on Of the

.

fo ssil re m ai n s o f the o rgan ic w orld by this ill u str i ou s an d

j u stly ce le brate d m an was u n qu e sti on ably the m o st r e m a rk
,

a bl e s te p e v e r m ad e fo r the a dv an ce m e n t of th e hum an mi n d .

The e l e m e n t of r e s ea rch he e m pl oy e d w as the de scriptiv e

an ato my o f the ad ult or fully -d e v e l o pe d i n dividu a l o f al l or ,

at l e a st of m o st o f the sp e ci e s o f an im als n o w o cc upyin g th e

,

gl ob e The m in u te d e scriptive an a to my of th e sp e ci e s with

.
,

a vi e w to th e rig o r o u s d e te rm i n a ti o n Of its tru e n atur e a n d

po siti on i n a n atu ral -histo ry arran ge m en t s ee m ed to b e the ,

ult i m atum o f a ll his i n quiri e s ; an d if he spo k e of ge n e ra or

n atur al famili e s it w as m o re as a n atur alist or as on e by
, ,

wh om ge n e ric distin cti on s w e re vi e w e d r ath e r as expre ssi on s

o f p h il o s ophic a rran g e m e n t th an as r e aliti e s b as e d i n N a tur e .

It w as whilst purs u i n g this i n quiry in to the e xi sti n g an d

liv i n g fa una of the pr e s e n t w o rld ; th at the th ou ght str uck '

y
him o f appl in g the e l e m e n t of re s ea rch he the n wi e lde d with
s u ch d e xte r i ty to the fo ssil re m ai n s of a form e r w orld : n e ve r
si n ce m an st u di e d sci en ce h ad a tho u ght s o fr u itful i n gre at
r e sults en te r ed the hum an mi n d By it he diss ecte d as it .
,
 ZOOLO G Y .

w e re , the
gl o b e its e lf givi n g to the l o v e rs Of t ruth i n sci e n ce
,

a ke y wh e re with to r ea d th o s e v es ti g e s o f s u cc e ssiv e a n i m a l

fo rm s which w e for w an t o f a m o re c o rre ct te rm c all

, ,

V e stige s of Cre ati on an d r e m o v e d fr o m th e m e n ta l visi on o f

,

m e n th a t d a rk v e il o f ig no ran ce which had c e rta i n ly e n dure d

fo r s om e th o us an d y ear s .

As C u vi e r purs u e d his an ato mic al i n v e stig ati on s for th ey ,

w e re strictly so he cl ass i fi e d an d a rran ge d the i n dividu al

,

an im al s e x a mi n e d by h i m i n to disti n ct sp e ci e s a cc o rdi n g to ,

the ir a n ato mi ca l di ffe r en c e s ; still adh e ri n g to the a n atomic al ,

m e th od he on ly v i e w e d the distin ction s as gen e ri c wh en th ey

,

w e re wid e r l arg e r an d quit e appa ren t Not th at he d e spis e d

, , .

e x te r n a l ch a r a cte rs o r n e gl e cte d th e m , but as an an a to m ist

he fe lt hi m s e lf b o un d to vi e w th em a s s e c on d ar y an d O f ,

i n fi n it e ly l e ss imp o rt an ce th an the an at o mic al Mo r eo v e r .

,

th ey w e re wh olly i n applicabl e o r n e arly s o to the fo ssil , ,

w orld at l ea st to th at cl ass th e V e rte brat a i n which m an i s

, , ,

m o st i n t e re ste d .

“
If the th eo ry I a m abou t to pr opo s e b e true th at the ,

you n g n am e ly o f e v e ry sp e ci e s re pre s en ts a g en er i c a n i m a l
, , , ,

e mbr aci n g i n its str u ct u r e a n d n at u r a l his to ry ch ar a cte rs the

o s s i b l e Of al l th e sp e ci e s p ast pre s e n t a n d to c o m e b e l on g
p , , , ,

i n g to th e n a t u ral fa mily o f which it fo rm s a p orti on th en ,

th e n at u ra l hi st o ry of the fo ssil w o rld might b e gu e ss e d at ,

m ight b e r e sto re d but n ot o th e rwis e , The fo ssil h o rs e was .

o n ly a h o rse g ene r i ca l l y b u t wh e th e r a h o rs e prop e rly s o

,

call ed an ass a z e bra a qu agga or n on e o f th e s e n on e can

, , , , ,

n o w for c e rt a i n s ay : th e fo ssil tig e r w a s n o tig e r i n a l l pr o ,

ha bil ity ; n or the bea r a b e ar appe rta i n i n g to o r to b e cl ass ed , ,

with a n y sp eci e s n ow livi n g The e x t e ri o r of the fo ss i l

,
.

w o rld is l o st for e v e r ; al l th at is l e ft o f it be i n g m e re ly the

'

f a bul o u s t r a d i t i o n s O f ru d e ag e s p e opli n g the w o rld with ,

mon ste rs which the disc o v e rie s o f Cu vi e r i n s om e m eas ure

,

c o rro bo rate d .

’
Wh en the an at omica l m e th od fail e d i n Cu vi e r s h an ds as ,

it o fte n did the ill us tri o us disco v e r e r w as thro w n upo n the

,

fie ld Of hypothe sis The s e e m i n g fix i ty of sp eci e s w as the

.

first stumbli n g-bl ock h e e n co u n te re d ; this l ed to his th e o y

o f su cc essi v e cr e a ti on s if th a t can b e ca ll e d a th e o ry w h i z
, li
re mo v e s the i n q u i ry at o n c e fro m al l furth e r i n v e sti g atio n .

By an ato my it w a s n ot e asy o cca si on all y impo ssibl e to di s , ,

ti n g u i s h sp e ci e s fro m e ach o th e r which wh e n vi e w e d a s , ,

clo th e d with th e i r e x te rn a l attribute s are o bvi ously an d ,

 T RAN S C E N D E N T AL ANA T OM Y . 361

no o t ri o u sly di sti n ct I n this pre dic am e n t stoo d the li on an d

.

tig e r p an th e r an d l eop a rd h o rs e z e br a ass dog w olf fox

, , , , , , , ,

j ack all pig ox m an The th eo ry of v ari ety to a c e rt ai n e x t e n t

, , , .
,

p e rm an e n t w as n ex t bro u ght to be a r on th e s e di fficult qu e s

,

ti o n s ; the i n fl u e n ce of dom e sticity w as als o i n v o k e d an d ,

e v e n th e fr u it ful n e ss of hyb i i d r a c e s w as a ss e rte d ; s o th a t

Natu i al H isto ry fa st r etro gr ad ed t o w ards the silly hyp oth e sis

a scrib e d to A ri sto tl e w ho i s suppo s e d to h a v e c o nj e ctur e d
,

th at the v a st v ari e ty of an im a l fo rm s with which A frica

a b o u n ds is d u e to th e a rid n at u i e o f t h e c oun try
,
a n d its ,

p a u city Of riv e rs an d sprin gs th u s bri n gi n g to g e th e r an im als,

o f m an y sp e ci e s an d g e n e r a ; h e n c e th e v a ri e d ch a r a ct e r of

A fr i c s F au n a .

The i n a d e qu a cy of an at om y to disti n guish sp e ci e s i n e v e ry

ca s e w a s ful ly ad m itt e d by Cu vi e r hi m s e lf I a ls o adm it this .

pra ctica lly b u t with this r e s er v ati on th a t th e m i n u te an ato m y

, ,

o f e v e n th e Oste ol o gy Of e v e ry sp e ci e s di ffe rs i n a c e rta i n

d e gr ee h o w e v e r slight fro m e v e ry oth e r ; b u t such mi n u te

d i ffe re n c e s a r e n ot of n in ch i m pmt an ce i i i th e e st ablish m en t
, ,

o f i m p o rt an t pri n cipl e s n o r can th e y al w ays b e d e p e n d e d on

, .

The n a s a l b on e s o f the h o rs e a n d as s diffe r i n fo r m fr o m e a ch

oth e r, m o re p erh aps th an an y p a rt of th e ir r e sp e ctiv e OS
te ol og y ; b u t ho w i n sign ifi can t is this di ffe r en c e i n a n at u r a l ,

hist ory p oi n t of vi e w wh e n c om p ar e d with th o s e e x t e rn a l

,

ch a r act e rs which m ark th e z e br a th e h ors e the a s s an d , , ,

ua
q gg a l T h e s a m e r e m a rks a pply to the li o n an d tig e r i n ,

r e sp e ct of th e s e v e ry b on e s the n as a l an d th e ir r e l ati on s to
, ,

th e sup e ri o r m a x ill a ry bo n e s ; to th e whit e ox of S c otl an d ,

a n d to th e co m m on d o m e stic o x The n a al b o n e s th e s ke l e .
s
,

to n Of th e h e ad th e ch a r a cte r of th e t e e th d o n ot di ffe r m o re
, ,

r e gularly or c on st an tly n o r to the s a m e e x t e n t i n the h o rs e

, , ,

z e br a an d ass th an th e y d o i n the r a ce s of m an Th e sk el et on
, , .

Of th e h e a d o f th e n e gro an d B o sj e sm an d i ffe r m u ch m or e

wid e ly fr om the white rac e s o f m a n th an th os e Of the h o rs e

an d li o n di ffe r fr o m th e c o rr e sp o n di n g stru ctur e s i n th e tig er

an d z e br a I d o n o t the r e fOi e ad m i t to the fu ll e x te n t th at

.
, , , ,

an a to mical ch a r a ct e rs e v e r fai l to discri m i n at e spe i e s ; b u t I

c

fre e l y admit th e ir o cc a si on al in ad e qu acy to ch a r act e riz e or to

l e ad to the de te rmi n ati on of sp e ci e s i n a pr a ctical s e n s e On .

the o th e r h an d the fa cility with which this m ay b e d on e by

, ,

a c on sid e rati on Of the ext e rn al ch ar acte rs i s k n ow n to al l the ,

w orld S ci en c e admits o f n o e x agge r atio n An ato my has

.
,

don e much for N atural Hi sto ry ; m uch for Phi l osophy ; sti l l
362 ZOOLO GY .

m ore for hum an ity by pur gi n g the hum an mi n d of d ee p

,

r oo t e d e rr o rs o f a gr o ss a n d sca n d a l o u s ch a r acte r
,
o f fo rty ,
’
ce n turi e s gr o wth But A n atomy h as its li m its n otwi th
.
,

st an di n g a n d the se li m its w e re a dm itte d an d d e fin e d by the

G ,

re at M ast e r hi m s el f .

I t w as n ot to b e e xpecte d th at a m i n e o f k n owl ed ge such

a s w a s disc o v e re d a n d first w o rk e d by the gr eat Cuvi e r sh o uld ,

con t i n u e to b e e xp l o r e d by s o m an y vig o r ou s h a n ds a n d th a t ,

al l sh o uld o s m oo thly wi th the l a b o ur e rs : di fficul ti e s s oo n

g
a ppe ar e d an d th ey i n cr e as e d s o r id l y i n n umbe r an d in
p
str en gth a s to cl oud with an xi e ty q
,

, o r the fa te o f his grea t

disco v e ry the m i n d of the imm o rt al auth o r o f the Oss em ens

F os s i l e s . It s e em e d as if he w e r e about to s u rvive his o wn
v a st r eputati on SO s e e m i n gly u n impo rta n t a q u e sti on as the
.

i n flu en ce of d o m e stication o v e r an im al life e mba rr ass e d the

great an ato m ist The an ato mica l e l e m en t of i n quiry h a vin g
.

fa il e d i n e st ablishi n g spe cific disti n cti on s i n the v ari o u s ox e n

which orn am en t the cul ti v ate d e a rth Cuvi e r w as fo rce d to
im agi n e th e m to b e lik e the dog of on e spe ci e s ; oe th e the ,
,

G ,

tran sce n den t al ist st artin g fro m a high e r po i n t of vi e w had

, ,

ar riv e d at th e s a m e co n cl u si on The i n fin ite v a ri e ti e s of the

.

’
d om e stic o x o bs e rv e d the sublim e au th o r of F a u s t ar e
, ,
‘

simply the gift t o m an of d om e sticity act i n g throu gh mill i on s

’ ’
o f y e a rs .S uch a ls o w as Cu vi e r s o pin i on o mitti n g th e ,
’
‘
million s of y e a rs Wh at his r e al opi ni on s w e r e o n the
.

i n flu e n c e o f ti m e an d circ u mstan c e s he n e v e r s o far as I k n o w , ,

com m u n i cate d to a n y o n e Th e m on u m e n t a l re c o rds of E gypt

.
,

d e picti n g m an th e n as he is n o w afte r the l aps e o f at l e ast ,

four th o us an d y e ars w e r e pe rfe ctly w e ll kn o w n to him S till

, .

gr e ate r di ffi cul ti e s he prud en tly p a ss e d by with o ut a p assi n g ,

n otic e A n d ye t his gr ea t disco v e ry l aid the fo un d ati on o f

G
.

e ol o gy ,P al aeo n to l o gy an d a t r u e histo ry o f life on th e

,

gl o be B e fo re hi m th e s e sci en ce s cou ld n ot b e s a id to e xist

G
. .

P ri o r to this e v e n tful sci en tific e r a th e e r m an sch oo l of ,

phil o s o phic an ato mists had m ad e an ad v an ce to w ards the

s am e o bj ect b u t fro m a di ff e re n t p o i n t of vi e w An
, .

w as still th e e l e m e n t o f re s e arch which th ey e mpl oy e d ,

w a s th e a n ato my o f the e mbr y o A t th e h e ad o f this sch oo l

o e th e —poe t G
.

w as th e j u stly -ce l e bra te d phi l o s oph e r n atu

, , ,

r al i st m ath e m atici a n ; his g e n i u s s e e m e d u n iv e r sa l

, H e it .

w as w ho first disti n ctly for m ul ed th e l aw o f u n ity of the

o rgan iza ti o n i n al l th a t liv e s o r h as liv e d The do ctri n e o f .

’
a rr e st o f d e v e l o p m e n t c a m e soo n a fte r i n to v o gu e chi e fly
th rou gh M e cke l an d the er m an schoo ls of an a to mists —a G ,

,
 TR AN s cE N D E NTA L ANA T OMY . 36 3

do ctrin e bas e d on a s u pe rfici al an d a s om e wh at i n c o rre ct

a pplica ti o n o f facts curi ou s an d impo rtan t i n th e m s e lv e s ; to
,
’
this at l ast w e re ad ded the Te rat ol o gi e o f Eti e nn e Geo flroy
( St H il aire ) an d the s e ri al u n ity of D e Bl ai n vil l e
. .

Be li e vi n g the tr an s cen d en t al i n An at om y to b e the on ly

i n stru m e n t o f r e s e ar ch at pre s e n t k n own by which a co rr e ct
ba sis can b e l ai d for the phil o s ophy of Zoo l ogy I h av e ,

n e v e r ce as e d to study an d t e ach it si n c e the p e ri o d ( 1 8 1 1 )

wh en it fir st b e ca m e k n o w n to m e To the writi n gs of .

’
V icq d A zyr I am i n d e bt e d for th e first hi n ts of its ex ist e n ce
'

. .

Bi as s ed i n fa v o ur o f de s criptive an at omy I h av e e v e r obj e cte d ,

to the too h as ty a d o pti on o f e x tr e m e tran sc e n d e n ta l vi e ws ,

h o ldi n g it to b e a tru e m axim i n sci e n c e as w e ll as i n s oci al ,

l i fe th at the ch an ge o r ste p i n a dv an c e i n o rde r to b e c er t a in

, ,

an d t rustw o rt hy must e v e r b e m ad e with cau ti on an d if

, , ,

po ssibl e s u ppo rte d by the d e m on strati on of physical m ate ri al s

,

o r i n o th e r wo rds the th ou ght which g e n i u s s u bmits to the

, ,

w o rld as a n id e a m u st be co m e a physical d em on str ati on b e fore

th e w o rld can fa ir ly b e c al l e d o n to admit its t ruth This is .

the vi e w I ta k e i n the fo l l o wi n g Me m o irs * i n s o m e of which ,

it is my i n t e n ti on to apply th e tran sc en d en t al to N atur a l

H isto ry a s a pr e li m in ary to m y i n quiry in t o th e n atur a l
,

histo ry o f m an The tru e re l ati on o f sp e ci e s or r ac e to ge n us

.

o r n a tur a l famil y s e e m e d to m e to pr e s e n t a fa v o ur abl e m od e

o f t e sti n g th e v a l ue o f the tr an sce n d e n t a l n ot with an id ea

y
o f te sti n g its tr u th —th a t h as b ee n s e ttl e d l on g a o — but of
,

, g ,

a s ce rt a in in g its pr actic a l v a l u e as an in strum e n t of r e s e arch .

The tr u e r e l ati on o f r a ce to n a t u r al fa m ily b e i n g fir st dis

co v e re d i t will th en b e ti m e en ou gh to a pply the tr an sce n
,

d e n t a l to the r e l ati on pre s u m e d to s u bsist b etw e e n n atur al

fami li e s an d l a stly be tw ee n th e s e an d the u n iv e rs al p ri
, , ,

m ae val life o f the o rgan ic w o rld o f this gl o be .

I n s e l e ctin g the n atur al fam il y o f th e S a l m on id ae as a sub

j c et o f r e s e ar ch I h av e bee n g ui d ed by s e v e ral co n sid e rati on s
,

I had al rea dy m ad e th e m the s u bj e ct of e x te n d e d r e s e arch an d ,

th e i r e x te rn a l ch ar acte rs offe r e d fav our abl e po in ts of vi e w for

such an i n qu ir y It i s chi e fly to the e x te rio r th at I giv e my
.

atte n ti on i n the pr e s e n t M e m o ir s ; th e in te ri o r will fo ll o w I .

co mm e n c e d with the d e n titi o n th at n atur al -histo ry ch ar a cte r

,

to which al l wh e th e r n atur a lists or an at o mists as c rib e such

, ,

i mpo rtan c e n ex t fo ll o w e d a bri e f i n qui ry in to the syste ms of

co l o rati on an d propo rtion To all th e s e the tr ans c en den ta l
.

P ubli sh e d i n t h e Z oo l og i s t . V an V oo rst L on d on . .
36 4, Z OOLO G Y .

pli e s or o ught to a pl if tru e Th at it is t ru e as a

a peo ry I have n ot a dim t mys e lf ho w e v e r I m ay fa il i n
, .

p r o vi n g it to th e s a tisfa cti o n o f o th e rs M y i m m e di a t e o bj e.ct

18 to pr o v e th e e xiste n ce o f a e n e r i c a n i m a l the pr o duct n o
g , ,

d o ubt of h e re di t ary d e sce n t fro m a s pe ci e s but i n its e lf i n

, ,

sl u di n the ch a r ac te ristics o f al l th e sp e ci e s be l on gi n g to th at
n atur a fam i ly ; or i n o th e r t e rms pr o v i n g h e r e di t a ry d e sc e n t
, ,

to h a v e a r e l a ti o n prim a rily to ge n us o r n atura l fam ily By .

this te rm I e n d e a vour to e x pl a i n family lik e n e ss e s com

m i n gli n g with the ge n e ric ; th e gr e ate r or l e ss re s e m bla n ce ,

for e x a mpl e of an in di vidu a l with o th e r affil i ate d race s to n on e

, ,

o f which it b e l on gs by str i ct h e r e dit a ry de sc e n t My ulti .

m ate ai m is to o ffe r a sci e n tific e x pl an ati o n of th e appe a r an ce ,

fro m tim e to ti m e o f s e e mi n gly n e w sp e ci e s on the e arth

, ,

an d o f th e e x ti n cti o n of o th e rs thus r e st o rin g to l e gitim ate

,

sci en c e th at br an ch o f phil o s ophy which th e th e o ry of suc

ce s s i v e cr e ati on s i n v e n te d by C u vi e r a n d sti l l m a i n t a i n e d by
,

his fo llo w e rs h ad cl e arly r e m o v e d fro m it To pr o v e the

, .

un ity of the o rgan iz ati o n the u n ity o f cr e ati on a n d the s e ri al

, ,

un ity of al l th at liv e s or ha s e ve r liv e d fo rms th e a i m of the ,

fir st p art of this i n quiry .

P r o b a bly n o cl a ss o f an im al s pr e s en ts s o m an y s u bj e cts for

d ee p co n t e m pl ation to the ph i l o s ophic n atu ralist as the cl ass
fishe s Th ey h av e fu rn ish e d th e chi e f m at e ri als fo r the tran
.

s ce n d e n tal an a t o my o f th e sk e l e to n ; i n th e histo ry o f the

bran chi al a rch e s w e h av e the r e fut ati o n o f the arr e st of d e

’
v el O m e n t th e o ry ; i n the e x te rn a l ch a r act e rs of th e y o u n g
p
sa lm on w e h av e the pr o ofs th at i n th e y o un g o f an y o f the
fa mily of the s alm on idae w e m ay fi n d th e type s o f al l the ad ult
spe ci e s o f the fa mily thus r en d e rin g d ou btful th e th e ory o f
,

th e tr an s m ut a ti on o f spe ci e s a n d o ff e ri n g the on l y pr o b a bl e
s oluti on of the m o st di fficult of al l q u e stio n s—th e app e aran ce
,

o f n ew sp e ci e s an d e v en g e n e r a o n t h e s u rfa ce o f th e gl o be .

L astly it is i n th e s am e cl a ss fish e s th a t w e fi n d m o st di s
, , ,

ti n ctl y spe ci a lis a ti o n s r e ca lli n g th e an tiqu e fo rm s o f an i m a ls

,

which h av e l on g c e as e d to b e I n the m e t am o rph o sis o f the

.

y ou n g s alm on the fi n s h av e at fir st fo rm s which b e l o n g to

,

e x ti n ct sp eci e s ; n e x t a d en titi on s o p e rfe ct s o co mpl e te as , , ,

to e mbrac e the adult for mul ae o f al l e x istin g spe ci e s o f th e

fa mily s o th at to c on v e rt the d e n titi on o f on e sp e ci e s i n t o
,

a n o th e r n othi n g is e v e r add e d b u t m e r e ly a s o m e thin g l e ft

, ,

o ut . Co n tr a ry th en to th e th e o ri e s o f th o s e w ho m a in ta in
, ,

th a t the ad u lt al o n e is p e rf e ct we fi n d th at it is the y o un g
,
 TH E ANN E L I D E S OR E N TO M OZOA B I A .

which typify i n g th e g en u s is en titl e d to th at ch ar acte r

, , .

L astly it is i n th e m th at a p o rti on o f the n e rv o us syst e m

,

a cq u ir e s a de v e l o p m e n t e qu a l to th e pr o d u cti o n o f e l e ctricity ;

a n d i n c e rt a i n o f t he cl a ss it is th a t w e fi n d th e r e m a i n s o f a

sk e l e to n the t e gu m e n ta ry which i n th e ex ti n ct w o rld pr e

, ,

v ail e d to an e x te n t o f which w e n o w can scar ce ly fo rm an id e a .

I n th e g a m i d o r m a il e d e x ti n ct fish e s th e sk e l e t on which
, ,

fro m its c o n n e x i on with th e skin m ay b e c all ed te gum en t ary

,

o r d e r m o id ( b u t to which pr ob ably th e mo r e a ppr o pri at e n a m e

o f n e u r o -sk e l e t o n a s pr ot e cti n g th e e x tre m iti e s o f th e n e rv o us

,

p api l l ae might b e b ett e r appli e d) r e ach e d its high e st d e ve l op

,

m e n t a s r e g ards the cl as s fish e s ; i n th e pr e s e n t or livi n g

z ool o gy on ly two ge n e r a of fish e s e x hibit a si m i l a r a rra n g e
,

m e n t o f th e t e g u m en ta ry sk e l e to n n a m e ly the l e pido st e us of
, ,

th e Ohi o a n d t he p olypt e r u s o f the N il e

, I n th e stur g eo n w e
.

fi n d a v e i y c o m pl e t e t e g u m e n t a ry sk e l e to n but n ot a rr a n g e d
,

i n the a d m ir a bl e m e ch a n ic al m an n e r o f the e xti n ct g a no i cl

fish e s — R K )
. . .

R
S E C O N D P R I M A Y D I VI S I O N .

TH E A N N E L I D E S OR E NTOM OZ OA R IA .

507 Th e an i m als c o mpo si n g this divisi o n ar e s o disti n ct

.

fr om the pr e c edi n g as to b e re co gn is e d at a gl an c e Th e ir .

bodi e s , i n fact , ar e c om po s e d o f s e g m en t -lik e ri n gs , pl a ce d i n

a fi l e b e hi n d e a ch o th e r I n s o m e , thi s a n n u l a te d ap pe a ran c e
.

is c o n fin ed to the e x ist e n ce of a c e rt a i n n um b e r o f tra n sv e rs e

folds groo vi n g the ski n an d e n girdli n g th e b o dy , b u t i n m o st
th e an i m a l is e n cl ose d i n a s o rt of s o lid a rm ou r , c o mpo s e d of
a s e ri e s o f ri n gs u n ite d to e a ch oth e r , or s o a rtic u l at e d a s to

a d m it o f m o ti o n This a r m ou r s e r v e s the p u rpo s e i n s o m e

.

m e as u re of a sk e l e to n , for it d et e rm i n e s the ge n e ral fo rm o f

the b ody , pr o t e cts th e s o ft p arts , offe rs po i n ts o f att achm en t
for the m u scl e s , an d p e rfo r m s the o ffic e o f l e v e rs : thus , it is
o ft e n c a ll e d an ex te r n a l s k e l e to n B u t it must n o t b e for
.

gotte n th at it is m e r e ly th e ski n h ar d e n ed an d be c o m e rigi d ,

or e v e n e n cr u st e d with a c alca r e o us e pid e rmis , an d thus is ,
a t m o st a te u m e n ta r y s ke l e to n
g
, .

508 I n c e rta i n O . f the articul ata or an n el ide s , as i n the

3 66 ZOOLOGY .

s co l o pen dr a ( Fig the ri n gs strictly r e se mbl e e ach oth e r ;

.

a n d this te n d e n cy to r e pe titi on is w o rthy o f o bs e rv ati on .

E ach ri n g m ay c arry two p airs o f app en d ag e s or limbs on e ,

be l on gin g to its dor s al a rch or uppe r po rtion ( Fig th e .

o th e r to the l o w e r or v e n tra l ; a n d whe n th e s e a p pe n d ag e s

h app e n to b e but littl e d e v e l op e d a l l the rin gs ar e i n fact , , ,

pro vid e d with l i mbs But in g e n e ral the a ppe n d a e s o f ce r

ta i n rin gs acquire a l a rge d e v e l opm e n t as if at tge e xp en se
.

o f th e o th e rs whi ch in this c as e r e m ai n rudim e n t ary It

, .

a lm o st a lw ays h a ppe n s th a t it is the l o w e r appe n d a ge s which

a r e thus d e v e l op e d an d whi ch a ssum e v ar i e d fo rms ac co rdi n g

, ,

a s th e an im a l is hi gh e r o r l o w e r i n t he s cal e D i ffe r en tly .

m odifi e d th ey fo rm t he an t en n ae the v ari o us o rgan s o f m as

, ,

D o rs al Ar ch D rs al Oar
. o , or S wi mm i n g P aw .

S e ts a

F
.

ee t .

Ve tra l Arch Ve tral O

n . n a r or P aw .

3 35 .
—
V e rt i cal S e ct i
of A li d
an nn e
on o f a
e of th e
Rg in g o r S e g m e n t o f th e B o dy
e n u s Am p hi n o m e .

ti cati on , the feet fi n s & c ( Figs 1 2 2

, So m e tim e s the upp e r
, . .
,

a pp e n d ag e s r e m a i n an d pe rfo rm lik e th o s e o f th e i n fe ri o r a rch , ,

’
the offi c e o f fe e t : v a ri o us an n e lid e s o fle r e x ampl e s o f this ; but
g en e rally the y e xi st m e r e ly o n the ri n gs sit u a te d to w ar ds th e
middl e o f the b o dy a n d th ey co n stit u t e th e wi n gs o r o rg an s
, ,

h e ld a s an al ogous to th e m The fe e t ( p atte s ) a r e ge n e r ally thr ee

.
,

fo u r fi v e or s e v e n p a irs i n n u m b e r b u t o cc a si o n a lly th e y a r e
, , ,

i n h u n dre ds a n d s o m e ti m e s alto g e th e r a bs e n t ; i n th a t c a s e
, ,

th e y s e e m to b e r e pr e s e n te d by c oars e h a ir s i n bu n dl e s as ,

m ay b e s ee n i n ea rth w o r m s -
.

509 Th e te n d e n cy to r e pe titi on s o r e m ark a bl e i n the

.
,

t e gu m e n t a ry sk e l e t on o f the an n e lid e s e x te n ds to the m u scl e s , ,

n e rv o u s syst e m a n d oth e rs I n g e n e ra l e a ch s e gm e n t has a

, .

p a ir o f n e rv o u s gan gli on s ; a l l th e s e ar e u n ite d to e ach o th e r

 TH E AN N E L I D ES OR E NTO M OZ OA R I A .

by a d oubl e ch ai n o f c o mmun icatin g

fil a m e n ts occu pyin g the m e di an li n e
o f th e b o dy n e a r its v e n tra l a sp e ct ( Fig .

I n m o st o f the i n fe ri o r arti
cu l ate d an i m als an d i n the m o r e
,

e l e v a te d ,but wh o s e de v e l opm e n t
is n ot fi n ish e d th e s e gan gli on s ar e
,

a lm o st al l e qu a l an d fo rm thus con
, ,

n e cte d to ge th e r two ch ai n s r e s e m
,

bl i n g k n otte d co rds fro m on e e n d of the

bo dy to th e oth e r ( Fig b u t as
.
,

w e a sce n d i n th e sc a l e w e fi n d a dis ,

o siti on i n th e s e gan gli on s to a fu si on

p .
,

1 n th e l ate r al a n d l on g it u din a l s e n s e

( Fig . s o as to fo rm a m a s In s .

crabs this c e n tr aliz ati on is c arr i e d

,

s o fa r as to fo rm b u t two n e rv ous
m a ss e s for al l the r i n gs or s e gm e n ts
o f th e b o dy — , on e sit u at e d i n th e
h ead the oth e r i n the th o rax ; but
,

e v e n i n this c as e th e n e rv o u s c o ll a r

e n circli n g th e gu ll e t is a lw ays fo u n d ,

s o th at t w o s u ch m a ss e s s e em the
m ax i m u m of n e rv o us fusi on I n the .

m oll usc a w e al s o fi n d th e n e rv ou s
co ll ar ; but the v e n tra l o r p o st -oeso
h a eal ga n gli on a ry p o rti o n is com
g
p
po s e d i n th e m on ly of on e or two p airs
o f g a n gli on s situ a te d o n th e m e d i a n

l i n e of the bo dy ; whilst i n the an n e

li d e s w e fin d a l on g s e ri e s of v e n tr al
gan glion s ; an d whe n we fin d i n this
p a rt of the b ody m e r e ly a si n gl e
F‘
fififii séfi fifiw
r c c r
S phi n x o f th e p i v e t a , e p h ali ga n gl i o n s , o r b ai n , s i t u a t e d b e fo e th e r
r c r
gu ll e t , an d gi vi n g o i gi n t o t h e O p ti n e ve s , & c b , n e vo u s o ds o f com
. r cr
c c r r
m u ni ca ti o n , o nn e ti n g th e fi st p a i o f g an gli o n s wi th th e s e co n d , a n d i n
rc r c rc r p r
th e i o u s e e n i li n g th e gu ll e t 0 , fi st a i o f p o st -oes o p h a g e a l g a n gli o n s
r
s i tu a t e d b e hi n d th e m o u th ; d , a n gl i o n s o f th e fir st i n g , o r s e gm e n t o f th e
r r r
th o a x ; e , n e vo u s m a ss fo m e by t h e ga n gli o n s o f t h e s e o n d a n d thi d c r
r cc p r
th o a i r i n gs ; f , si x th ai o f abd o mi n a l ga n gli o n s ; h , th e m o n th ; i , t h e
r c
p o b o s ci s j , t h e gu ll e t k , th e st o m a h ; l , t h e m te s ti n e a n d b i l i a y v e ss e ls ; r
r
m , l a g e i n t e st i n e ; n , th e a n u s 0 , fe e t o f th e fi st p a i r r
p , fe e t o f t h e s e o n d c
p rai ; q, fe e t o f t h e thi d p a i r r r r p r
, fi r
st a i o f m e m b a n o u s fe e t o f th e l a v a r
r r r
8 , d o s a l v e ss e l ; t, fi st mu g o f t h e th o a x r r
u , h o n s u m o un t i n g t h e e x tr e
m i ty o f th e abdo m e n i n th e l a va r .
 ZOO LO GY .

ne rv o us m a ss w e k n ow w e ll th at it i s the r e sult o f a fus i on

,

o f s e v e r a l g a n gli o n s .

A n ato m ists fi n d i n th e c eph a lic g an gli on s the an a l o gu es o f

the br ai n an d i n the k n otte d c o rd of i n s e cts th e spin a l m ar
,

r o w O f th e v e rt e br at a but such vi e ws ar e qu e sti on abl e an d ,

if an y an a l o gy e x iste d it w o u ld r ath e r b e fo u n d i n the g an

,

l i o n s sit u a te d o n th e p o ste ri o r r o ots o f th e spi n al n e rv e s

g
.

5 1 0 I n r e sp e ct O f th e n e rv o u s an d l oco m o to r syste ms
. ,

the an n e li d e s sta n d high e r th an the m o llusc a ; b u t as r e g ar ds ,

the fu n cti o n s o f v e g e t ativ e life th e ir circul a to ry syst e m i s ,

l e ss c om pl et e an d is o cca si on a lly alto ge th e r a bs en t I n gen e

,
.

r a l th e ir bl o od is whit e but n o t i n al l a n d t his diffe r en ce

, ,

s e e ms n ot m u ch to a tfe ct th e m Th e ir mode of re spirati on .

m l s

F i g 337 . .
—An a t om y o f th e B u tt e rfly Sp hi n x ’
.

v ar ie s ; th e ir dige stiv e tu b e e x te n ds fro m on e e xt re mity of the

b ody to the o th e r ; th e m o uth is pl a c e d i n the h e ad an d ,

the an us at th e o th e r e x tr e mity Fi n ally th e re e x ist a lm os t

.
,

al w ays j a ws o r a t l e a st p a rticul a r i n str u m e n ts fo r th e

, pr e
he n s i on o fth e foo d an d th e s e o rg an s a r e al w ays dispo s e d l ate
,

r a lly i n p a irs i n st ead Of v e rtic ally an d b e fo re e ach o th e r as

, , , ,

i n the v e rt e bra ta .

This pri m a ry divisi on is subdivid e d i n t o t w o gro ups first ,

a rtic u l a t e d an im als pr op e rly so c all e d ; s e con d v e rm e s o r

, ,

w o r m s I n th e s e th e re ar e n o li m bs o r at l e a st th ey ar e
.
,

r e pre s e n t e d m e re ly by tube rcl e s fu r n ish e d with h airs ( se ti

g e rous
) a n d,th e o rg a n s o f ge n e r ation a r e so d e grad e d as to
b e c om e a t l a st e xtre m e ly i m p e rfe ct .

The di ff e r t p art s
en are in di c t e d by th e s am e le tt e rs as in th
a e p re c d i n g
e
fi gu re .
 CLAS S I N SE C T S . 369

S UB D I V I S I O N
O
e
.

ANTH R OPODAR IA OR A RT I CUL A TED A N I MA LS ,

PROP E RLY SO CALL E D .

A rticul a te d an im als o we th e i r sup e ri o rity to the

51 1 .

cl ass v e rm e s to the supe ri o r d e v e l op m en t of th e ir n e rv ou s an d

l oc om otiv e syste m s , an d to the m o r e c om pl e te l oc aliz ati on of
th e ir o rg an s S o m e o f th e s e ch ar ac te ristic di ffe r e n ce s h ave
.

bee n a lre ady po i n te d o ut The fo ll owi n g s n Opt Y

ta bl e m ay th e re fo r e su ffic e to r e ca l c e rt ai n o f the ch a r a ct e rs
e culi a r to th e v a ri o us gr o ups
p .

I
A RT C UL A TE D A NIM
r p rl y ALS , ll d
p o e so ca e .

B o dy co mp o se d 0
thre d i sti c t p e n or
t i o s h ad tho r n
I s cts
, e , ax ,

d bd m n ; thr e
n e .

an a o e e

p i rs o f fe e t ; g e e
a n
A h e ad di sti c t n
fro m th e th ra r o
l l y wi gs
x,
a n .

f r sh e d Wi th e
u ni
No di st i ct i
u
be n on
A cri s u re s p i ra tw th th r d
een e o ax a n
t i o by trach o
n e ae r abd o m e ; t w ty M yri p o d n en a a.

p ul m o na ry s acs . fo r p i r s f f t o u a o ee r
re ; no Wi n gs .

H e ad dis t i n c t from th e th orax ;

}
n ot no
A r ach n i d e s
an t e n n ae .
.

A q ti c r e sp i m

} g e n e ral fi v e s e ve n p ai rs o f fe e t Cr st
ua
In or u a ce a .
ti o n by bran chi ae .
.

CLA SS I N S E C TS .

51 2 To the
. d e fi n iti on giv e n o f this cl as s o f an i m als i n
th e subj oi n e d sy n optic t abl e w e h av e o n ly to add th at th ey
, ,

h a v e n o v a scu l a r syste m prop e rly so c all ed an d th at n early ,

a lw ays th e u n d e rg o m e t a m o rph o s e s wh e n y o u n g Th ey ar e
y
.

th e o n ly In v e rt e br a te an im als o rg a n iz e d for flight

. .

51 3 The t e g u m e n t a ry sk e l e t o n o f i n s e cts th at is th e
. , ,

h arde n e d i n te g um e n ts pr e s e r v e s s o m e tim e s a c e rt ai n fle x i
,

B B
 ZOOLO G Y .

b i l i ty,
but has gen e ra l ly a co n sist e n c e re se mbli n g h orn It .

is n ot h o rn y h o we v e r A substan ce c a ll e d cki l i ne form s the

, .

b as e It is compo s ed of s e v e ra l pi e c e s so u ni te d as to admit
.
,

o f m oti on .

The bod y as al r e ady d e sc ri b e d is co mpo s ed of rin gs or

, ,

s e m en ts pl a ce d i n a pil e ; a n d i n this s e ri e s of s e gm en ts th ree

g
po rtion s are disti n guish e d —the he a d tl zor a x an d a bd omen
, , , .

H e ad .

F
L i m bs o f the
i rst P ai r .

IVi n gs of th e
c d P ai r
Se o n .

L i m bs f th e
o
A bd ome n
Thi rd P i r a .
.

T a rs u s .

fi g 3 38 . .
—A n a to m y o f th e T e g u m e n t a ry S k e l e t o n of a G ra ssh oppe r .

The m e mbe rs or a ppe n d ag e s c on n e ct e d with th e s e di ffe re n t

ri n gs h a v e a str u cture an al o go us to the tr un k o f the an im a l ;
th ey a r e c o mpo se d i n fact of s olid t u b e s or h o rn y pl ate s e u , ,

cl o si n g i n th e ir i n te r i o r m u scle s an d n e rv e s i n te n de d to m ov e
,

th e m .

The h e ad is fo rm e d o f a si n gl e s e gm e n t an d c arri e s the ,

 '

CLA SS I N S EC T S . 37 1
'

e yes a n tennae, an d a ppe n d ag e s o f t he m outh The a n tenn ae ‘

con stitute the fi rst p a ir o f the m e mbe rs or appe n d age s o f

,

i n sects a n d ar e co mpo s e d of a n umb e r of j o i n ts pl ac e d on e b e

,

fo re the o the r Th e y a ris e fro m the an te ri o r or s u p e ri o r part

.

o f the h e a d , an d aff e ct i n g e n e r a l th e fo rm of fl e xibl e sl e n d e r

01

Fi g .
—C p ri co rn
a of l s
th e A p . Fi g 3 10
.
—H o rn y P ns s
a en .

h or n s ( a Fig , but th ei r con fo rm a ti on v ari e s e sp e ci a lly

.
,

i n the m al e s I n s ofn e th e y r e s e mbl e fe ath e rs ( Fig

’

. .

s o m e tim e s s a ws an d l ittl e clubs (F i g an d o cc a si onally .

th eya r e fo rm e d o f li ttl e jl am ell ae lik e t he l e av e s of a b ook

.

'

,
"

( Fig . Th e ir l e n th is s o m etim e s v e ry co n sid e ra bl e

g .

F i g 34 1
. .
—S m all B om by x ( P ao n de Na i f ) .

Of the i r u se n othi n g i s kn o w n fo r ce rtai n ; but th ey m ay

s e r v e for ta ct Or e v en au diti on .

Three pa ir s of oth e r appe n dag es a ris e fro m the l o w e r pa rt '

o f the h ead c on stitutin g organ s of m asticatio n or s u cti on
, .

W e sh all re turn to th e s e wh e n spe aki n g of digesti on 521

an d

13 3 2
3 72 Z OOLO GY .

51 4 . The
th orax of i n se cts occupi e s th e middl e po rt ion
of t e bod y an d c a rri e s limbs a n d wi n gs
, It i s a lw ays co m .

pos ed o f thre e circl e s o r ri n gs n am ed p r o tl wr a x mes o , ,

tkor a a an d m e ta l /Lo r na: ( a b c Fig

'
, a n d it i s to th e
, .

v en tr al arch of ea ch of th es e ri n gs tha t on e o f the pair s of

limbs ar e fix e d The w i n gs o n the co n t r ary sp ri n g fro m
.
, ,

th e d o r sa l a rch o f the th o racic ri n gs ; b ut the p r o t/zor ax

( a ) n e v e r c a rri e s an
y a n d th,e r e n e v e r e x is ts m o r e th an a

p air o f th e s e appe n da ge s o n ea ch o f the two foll o wi n g rin gs ,

so th at th e r e ar e n e v e r m o r e th an two a i r s
p .

F i g 34 2 No to n ect e
. . . Fi g 34 3. .
—C ri c k e t.

51 5 I n th e. li m bs of i n s ect s we di s ti n guis h a h a un ch
co mp o s ed of two j o i n ts a thigh a n d l eg an d a s o rt of foo t
, , ,

c all e d ta r s us d ivid e d i n to s e v e ral j o i n ts the n um

, ,

b e r o f which v ari e s fr o m tw o to fi ve Th e y te rmi .

n ate i n n a i l s It m ay b e r esd i l im agin ed that th e ir

.

fo rms v ar y i n un is on with the bits o f the ani m als .

Thus i n se cts which h av e the b i n der l imbs l on g

,

( Fig . l e a
p ra th e r th a n w a lk I n i n se cts .

which swim such as the dytique s the n o to n ecte s

, ,

( Fig . a n d th e gyri n co mm o n ly cal e

l d tom
,
'
Fi 3 44
u e ts ( Fig t a r si ar e ge n e r a l] fl tt d
s rv
i n : q th.e a e n e ,

cili ate d an d dispo s ed lik e oa rs ; a n i n th ose

,

which can w alk on sm ooth surface s with th e body s u spen de d

w e fi n d o n the t e rmin a l j o i n t a s u ck e r by which th e a dh e re , y ,

to the bo dy th e y to uch Som et i m e s als o th e an te ri or li m bs

. , ,

ar e e n l a rg e d as i n m o l e s to e n abl e th e m to di g in to the
,

s o il The co u rti l i e r e ( Fi
. g ,

which d oe s such mischi e f

.

by c u tti n g the r o ots i n 1 ts c ou rs e is an e x ampl e o f thi s ,

a rr a n g e m e n t .

The re ar e als o spe ci es i n which th e s e s am e li m bs fo rm

 CL ASS I N SE CTS . 3 73

o r gan s of p re h en si on the l e g be in g fl e xi bl e
, disp o s ed l ik e an d
a cl a w the e dg e
, be i n g a rm e d with Spin e s The m an tis r eli .

gi o s a ( Fig . a l ar g e i n s e ct o f the s outh o f Fr an c e is ,

a rm e d i n this w ay .

Fi n ally th e r e ar e i n s ects ( s e v e r al diurn al butte rfli e s F i g

, . .

3 4 7 ) i n which th e an t e ri or li mbs a r e s o sm a ll o r ru dim en ta ry

as to e sca pe n otice as if th e y h ad o n ly fo ur a i r o f limbs
, p .

F i g 345 . .
—bo ur til i e r e .

51 6 . The
wi n gs of i n s e cts ar e l ami n ate d a pp e n da g e s ,

c o mp o s e d of a do ubl e m e mbr an e supp o rt e d in te r n ally by ,

”
m o re s olid n e rvur e s When sc a rce ly d e v el op e d th e y ar e
.
,

s oft an d fl e x ibl e ; but th ey s oo n dry an d be co m e sti ff an d ,

e l a stic . Th e r e ar e n e v e r m o re th an two p airs s o m e tim e s ,

on ly on e an d th e y v ary i n fo rm ; th e y alw a s sp ri n g fr o m
, y

F i g 346. .
—M au ti s Rlge i i os a .

the l ast two ri n gs of the th orax Wh en th ey r e ally s e rv e for .

flight th e y ar e thi n tr an sl u ce n t an d co v e red with micro sc op i c

, ,

sc a l e s lik e dust as is s een i n butte r fli e s ; but the an te ri or

,

wi n gs o ft e n be com e h ar d an d op aqu e an d be c o mi n g use l e s s ,

a s wi n gs fo rm e l y tr a i e prote cti n g sh e aths for the oth e rs

, . .
,

a Fi
( , g . A t oth e r tim e s th e s e s am e wi n gs sti ll m e m ,
3 74 Z OO LOG Y .

b r an ou s towards th eir e xtre miti es be com e hard an d Op aque at

,

the ir b as e an d ar e th e c l d
,
n al e s em i -e l tr a
y
Th e re ar e i n se ct s i n w hi ch the wi n gs in ste ad of be in g ,

l ami n a te d ar e cl e ft i n to a n umbe r o f m e mb ran e s ba rbe d on

, ,

the e dge s lik e feath e rs dispo s e d l ik e a fan

,
Thi s m ay b e .

Fi g . 34 7 —M o rp he . Fi g 343 —C
ap ri corn e C harp e n ti er .

ge n us pte rophor e an d orn eo de ( Fig

the .

Fi n all y wh en the po ste ri or win gs ar e w ant i n g th ey ar e

, ,

usu ally r e pl ac ed by two sm all m ov e abl e fil am en ts , t er mi n ate d

l i ke a c l u b an d n am e d b al ance s ( Fig
,
.

Fig . m .
—
Om éO d e .

The of
51 7 .

abl e n umbe r o f r i n
b
adi n s e cts 1 8 compo s ed o f a co n sid e r
om e n
m o v ea bl e o n e a ch o th e r
, As m an y as .

n in e m b e cou n te an d wh e n th e r e ar e fe w e r it s ee m s as f
i
som e hadb e co m e fus e d
,

I n the pe rfect in se ct th e s e ri n gs or
.
,
 CLA S S I N s s cr s . 3 75

Se gm e n ts h av e n eith e r win gs n or limbs ; but th o s e o ccupyi n g

th e po ste ri o r e x tre m ity o f the b o dy gi v e o r i gi n to app e n d ag e s
v a ryi n g both i n form an d siz e So m e tim e s th ey a1 e simpl e .

h a irs o r styl e ts wh os e fu n cti on s ar e n o t w ell k n ow n a s i n

, ,

th e e ph e m e r a for e xam pl e ( Fig

, So m e ti m e s th e s e
.

o rg an s aff e ct th e fo rm o f h oo ks an d c on stitute m o r e o r l e ss
,

Fi g 3 50 —C o n o p s
. . .

po w e r ful for ce ps i n the fo rfi cul e o r e a rwig

, as t’ ( Fig 3 51 ) .

So m e tim e s th ey an sw e r the p u rpo s e of a S pri n g to e n abl e the ,

an im al to m o v e fo rw a rd a s i n the podu r e l l e ( Fig

, .

s m a ll i n s e cts which 1 n
, ou r clim ate c on ce al th e ms e lv e s u n d e r
ston e s or fl oat to
, the o f st ag n a n t w ate rs an d ,

F i g 3 51
.
—F
. o r fi cul e . 352 .
—P od ur e ll e .

fou n d u n d e r the s n ow i n the cold e st

re g i on s of the gl ob e F i n ally th e s e abdom i n al ap n dag e s
.
,

h a v e at oth e r tim e s a m o r e co mpl e x str u ctur e an form a n ,

off e n siv e w eapo n as i n be e s an d w asps o r an app ar atus

, ,
3 76 ZOOLOGY .

d e sti n ed to s e cure a d e p6 t for the e g s o f the i n se ct i n a

pl ace adapte d fo r the d e v e l opm e n t o f t e y o un The sti n g
o f the w a sp an d b ee is fo rm e d o f t wo sh a rp s tyie ts l odg ed i n ,

a h o rn y sta lk o r sh e ath h a v i n g e ach a fu rro w a l on g which

, ,

fl ows the poiso n s ecre te d i n a sm all gl an d sit ua te d cl os e to it .

I n th e sta te o f r e po s e the wh ol e a pp ar atus is dr a wn withi n

,

the body o f the an im a l ; but wh e n the in s e ct wish e s to u s e it ,

the S h e ath is pr otrud e d an d al on g with the S t i n g i s driv en

,

i n to the ski n of its e n em y So m e tim e s it is impo ssibl e to

.

with dra w it an d the wh ol e sti n g s e para te s th en from the

,

body r em ai n in g im pl an te d i n the w oun d ca u s in g the S pe ed y

, ,

d e ath of th e i n se ct The .

m al e i s alw ays stin gl e ss ,

an d thus can b e h an dl e d
with out d an ge r ; but the
fe mal e an d the w o rki n g
b ee ar e pr o vide d with it ,

an d its stin g produce s a

v e ry p ai n fu l i n flamm ati on .

The a ug e r o f the foan us

( Fig .o f t h e i ch n eu

m on s an d of m an y oth e r i n
,

s ects has a s om e wh a t an al o
,

go us ar ran ge m e n t ; an d we
re m ark als o in gen e ral a , ,

s e r r at e d ed g e by which it ,

divid e s the e n trails of the

an im a l or th e tissu e o f the

3 53 — Th e P oa s
. nu v e g e tabl e i n whi ch it pur
.

pos e s d e po siti n g its e ggs

y
.

It is b pi er ci n i n this m an n e r an oak of the Le van t th at a

°
,

sm a ll m sect ca l e d cyn ips v e s ris e to the fo rm ati on of the

gall -n u t o f which so muc u s e is m ad e i n the fabric ation o f
,

i n k an d i n th e pre pa rati on o f d ark dy e s The sm al l fissur e

.

produc e d by the auge r of the i n s e ct giv e s ris e to an e ffusi on

o f v e get abl e j ui ce s an d this
,
r od uce s an e xc re sce n ce i n the ,

ce n tr e o f which m ay b e fou n the e ggs o f the c n ips

5 1 8 I n s e cts h a v e the o rgan s of se n se hi g h
.

l y d e v e lo e d ;
.

p
th e y po ss e ss S i ht sm e ll a s w ell as tact taste a n d h eari n g ;
, , , ,

but hith e rto e o rgan s o f ol facti on an d au diti on h ave not

bee n di sco v e red : b ut littl e i s kn ow n of the o rgan of tas te .

Th e struct ur e of the ey e s di ff e rs v e ry much fro m th at of th e

hig h er ord e r o f an i m als I n ge n e ral the o rgan which at
.
,
 CLA S S I N SE CT S . 37 7

fi rst sight appe ar s to b e a si n gl e eye is i n r eality form e d by ,

the aggl om e r ati on o f a n umb e r o f sm al l ey e s h a vi n g ea ch a ,

co rn e a vitreo us h u m ou r o f a con ica l fo rm a l ay e r of c ol ou r

, ,

i n g m a tt e r an d a n e rv ous fil am e n t
, I n th e m ay-b u g for .
,

e x a mpl e w e fi n d n i n e th o us an d such i n a S in gl e co mpo u n d

,

e e an d th e re ar e i n s e cts which h a v e m or e th an tw e n ty -fi v e
,

t ou san d A l l th e s e sm all corn e as ar e h e x agon al an d un ite

.
,

to geth e r s o as to form a kin d o f co mm on corn e a wh os e sur ,

face pre se n ts a v ast n umbe r of face tte s M ore ov er each of .

,

th e s e s m all co n stitue n t pa rts o f th e s e multi pl e o r co m p ou n d

o rgan s is quit e disti n ct fro m th o s e ar ou n d it an d forms with ,

th e m a b un dl e of tube s each te r min ati n g i n a n e rv ous

,

fil a m e n t pr o ce e di n g fro m th e t e rm in a l e n l arge m en t of the

,

sa m e o ptic n er v e A lm o st al l i n s e cts h av e a p ai r of th e s e
.

c ompo u n d ey e s ; but the ar e s om e tim e s r epl ac ed by S impl e

ey e s a n d a t o th e r tim e s
, th s o rts ar e pr e s e n t The simpl e .

e y e s a ls o c all ed s tem m a ta
, h av e the gre at e st an al ogy with
,

the structur e of e ach o f the e l e m e n ts o f the c om po un d ey e s .

I n g en e ral th e s e simpl e e ye s fo rm a grou p of thr e e on the

,

summit of the h ead No thi n g pre cis e i s kn ow n re spe ctin g

.

the m an n e r i n whi ch th e s e ey e s act o n the light n or of the ,

m ech an ism o f visi on i n i n s ects .

51 9 Se v e r al i n s e cts h av e the po w e r o f produci n g

.

s ou n ds which th e y d o by fri cti on of ce rta in p a rt s of th e ir

,

body on e ach oth e r or th ey m ay d e pe n d on th e m o v e m e n ts

,

impre ss e d on th e S pe ci al i n strum e n ts for the c on tracti on of

the m uscl e s Th e m on ot on ous an d d eafe ni n g s ou n ds of the
.

b alm crick e t or chirpi n g gr assh oppe r re s u lt fr om alte rn ate ,

ten si on an d r e l ax ati on o f an e l astic m e mbran e dispo s e d like ,

the ski n o f a drum o v e r the b a s e o f th e abd o m e n ; i n crick e ts

, ,

the s o u n ds ar e c au s e d by c e rta i n p a rt s of th e win gs w hi ch , ,

r ubbi n g a g a in st e ach o th e r vibr at e i n t en s e ly an d the st ru e

, ,

ture prod u cin g this is v ery si n g ul ar ; but th e buzzi n g of fli e s

a pp e ar s to d e pe n d on the r a pid e s ca p e o f th e a ir through the th0 o

racic stigm at a duri n g the vi o l en t m o v e m e n ts of flight Fin al ly .

,

th e r e ar e oth e r in s ects whi ch produc e s ou n ds by a m od e as yet

’
un k n o wn s n ob as the n octur n al butte rfly or d eath s -h e ad Sphin x
, .

§ 5 20 T h.e n e rv ous syste m of i n s e cts h as be e n al r eady

i n a gr e at m ea su re de scribe d It i s com se d p rin

ci pal l y of a d ou bl e s e ri e s o f g an gli on s r e un it e d y l on gi tu ,

di n al co rds ( Fig the n umb e r of the gan gl i on s co rr e spo n d

.

to the n umbe r o f rin gs ; so m e tim e s equidistan t an d e x te n di n g ,

from on e end of the body to the oth er at oth er tim e s th ey ap ,

p reach each oth e r and be com e co nf us ed i n to a n e rv ou s m a ss
, .

The ce ph a lic gan gli on s a r e l a rge an d gi ve o ri gin to the n e rv e s ,

o f the e e s a n d an te n n a e &c The fi rst pa ir o f g an gli on s

, .

b e hi n d t e g ulle t giv e o ff the n e rv e s of th e m o uth an d the

, ,

l on gitudi n al fil am e n ts co n n e ct i n g th e m with the Ce ph alic

g an glion s from the n e rvous colla r s u rrou n di n g the g u ll e t °
.

Fi n a lly the brai n v e s off on each sid e a

,
'

n e rv e wh i ch as ce n n g on the sto m ach a n d

, y

u n itin g with th at o f the Oppo site sid e co n sti ,

tu te s a m e di an n e r v e situat ed a bo v e the di ,

g e s ti ve c an al an d h avi n g i n its co u rse tw o

,

gan glion s The three p a i r s o f g an glion s fol

.

l o w i n g be hi n d th e gul l e t be l on g to the three

ri n gs o f the th o r ax an d g iv e o ff the n e rv e of the ,

limbs an d wi n g s ; gen e rally spe aki n g the y ,

ar e v e ry n ear e ach oth e r an d much l ar g e r th an ,

the fo llow i n g pa irs which be l on g to the ab ,

d om e n .

§ 5 2 1 In s e cts v a ry much
. i n th e i r m o d e

o f n o u ri shm e n t so m e li v i n g on the j u ice of

,

pl an ts whilst o th e r s fee d on s ol id ali m en ts

, ,

an d ar e e ith e r carn iv o rous o r phyto ph ag o us an d

th e s e diff e re n ce s co rr e spon d to a re m ark a ble

m odi ficat i on i n th e str uct u re o f th e m on th .

I n the gri n di n g i n se cts s u ch as the s ca r a be i , ,

the m ay-b u g the bl a tta ( Fig , the gr ass .

hOppe r s th e ope n in g of th e m o uth is furn i sh e d

=
,

an t ri o rly with a m e di an pi e ce cal l e d l a bium

e ,

o r uppe r l i p ( a
. Fig a n d pre s en ts on
, .

ea h sid e a kin d of l ar e m o v ea bl e too th v e

c

h ard an d ca ll ed m an di l e ( 6 Fig
,
hi g , . W
, _

ser v e s to divid e the foo d Im m ed i a te ly be hin d .

th e s e ar e the m o re co mpl ex j aws ( c F i E ach o f th e s e l a st

o rgan s offe rs be sid e s a p l a te or a cyii n d e r m o r e or l e ss h a rd
,

, ,

ar m ed wi th sm a ll te e th o r h airs a n d ca r ri e s on i ts o ute r sid e ,

o n e or two sm all sta lks co m po s e d o f se v e r a l j o in ts ca ll ed m ax ,

ill pa lpi Fi n ally be hi n d the j aw s i s a s e co n d p a i r o f ap

iig e s wh o s e b as e i s suppo rte d by a m e dia n h o r n y pi e ce
, ,

p e g , ,

call e d th e chi n ( d ) th e s e app e n dag e s con sti tute the l an gu e tte

or l ittl e to n gu e, Th ey ar e appli e d a ga i n st the j a ws as th o se
ar e th e ms e lv e s appli e d a ga in st the m an di ble s ; th e r e e x ists b e ~

s ide s a pa ir o f a rticu l a te d a n d m o v ea bl e fil a m e n ts ca lle d l a bi al

palpi beca use th e na m e o f l o w e r l i p is us ually giv e n to the chin

,
 CLA S S I N S ECT S 37 9
‘ ’

un it e d tothe l an gu e tt e Th e s e di ffe ren t par ts vary c rd

'
‘

re . ac o
a

F i g 355
. .
-
H e d o f the'Bl tta
a a , F i g 3 56 .
—B u ccal A p p en d a ge s
d b e fo r e
.

o f th e C a ra b u s
lr
V i e we . .

i n g to th e t r e an d con s i ste n c e of the foo d The p alpi s e rv e

na u .

pri n cip ally to s eiz e the foo d

a n d to h o ld it b e tw e e n the

m an dibl e s whilst th ey di
vide it . Som eti m e s the
j aws a ssum e an en o rm ous
de v el opm e n t fo rmi n g a ,

s o rt of fo rceps i n fron t o f
i

the h e ad ; th i s a rr an g e
m e n t is v e ry r e m a rka bl e
i n th e h e r on be e tl e ( Fig .

an d i n the o th e r s pe

ci e s of the gen u s l u c an u s .

522 F or suck i n g i n
.

s tru m e n ts th e j aws an d

the l abi u m b e c o m e e l on
at e d s o as to form a
Fi n d of tu bul ar probo scis
,

i n th e i n t e ri o r o f whic h
th e re ar e o fte n d e lic at e
fil am e n ts p e rfo r m i n g the
,
.

fun cti on s of littl e l an c ets , .

an d fo rm e d o f the m an ~

F i g 357 —
dibl e an d j aws ex tr em ely ,
Lu ca .
s M e tal l i u s . nu c
m odifie d
. .

“ ( a t nfle s 6 co m pou n d as
n en S
i gle e ye s ; a l abi um ; , man c. n 3
bi al p al pi i
. ,
9 , li ttl e to ngu e a
3 80 Z OOLO GY .

I n bees , i n the an th oph ora , the bo ur don or so litar b e e ,

an d o th e r i n sects , cal l e d by z oo l o gists hym e n opte r a , the u cca l h
app ar atus pr es e n ts a d ispos iti o n i n s o m e m eas u re in te rm ed i a te

be tw ee n th e s e two e xtre m e s The u ppe r li p ( a F ig 359 )

.
, .

a n d the m an di bl e s b
( ) g r eatl r e s e mble th o s e of the gr in di n g
i n se cts but the j aws ( c) an the l an gu e tte ( d ) ar e e x tre m e ly
e l o n g a te d , a n d the first a ssum e a tubul ar for m l on gitudi n a lly ,
en cas in g the sid e s o f the l an gue tte , so th a t th e s e o rg an s ,

re u n ite d i n to bun dl e s , fo rm a prob o sc i s se r v i n g to co n duct ,

th e food , a lw ays s oft an d liquid , o n which th e se i n se cts liv e .

This p ro bos cis is m ov ea ble at its b as e , an d fl exibl e th rough out

A n te nn a .

M axi l l ary F eel e r .

L ate ra l Lob e s o f the

Li ttl e T o n gu e .

F i g 358
. .
- He ad of the A n th o p ho ra R s
e tu a , o r Wi ld Be e .

the re st o f its exte n t but it is n e ve r roll ed u as we s ee i n

th e .
,

g
butte rfly With re ar d to the m an di l e s th ey s e rve ,

chie fly to cut the mate r 1 al s with whi ch the hym e n Opter a

m ak e th e i r n e st or to s eiz e an d put to de ath the pre y of
,

whi ch th e s e in se cts suck the j uice s It h as bee n rem ark e d .

al s o th at th e re e x ist i n the i n te ri o r o f the m o uth o th e r so li d

,

i e ces wh i ch ar e a bse n t i n the gri n di n g i n se cts an d which

p ,

con stitute v alv ul e s i n te n d e d to cl o se the ph aryn x e v e r y ti m e

tha t de glutiti on doe s n o t tak e place .

523 . I n th e w o o d -bug the chi rp i n g gr assh oppe r the

, ,

v i ne -frette r an d oth e r h em ipte ro us i n s e cts the appar atus of

, ,
 CLA S S I N S E C T S . 38 1
'

s ucti on is co mpo s ed of the

m e e l e m en ts bu t a littl e di f
sa ,

fe r e n tl y arran ed Th e m o uth is a rm ed with a tubul ar an d

.

cyli n drical hi o r be ak di rected ,

d o wn w a rds an d b ackw ar ds ( Fig .

an d c o mpo se d of a S h e a th

e n cl o si n g fo ur st l e ts ; th e S h e a th
y
( a Fig 3 6 1 ) is i n i ts
, .

o f fo ur j o i n ts , pl a ce d e n d to e n d ,

an d r ep re s e n ts the l o w e r lip ;
fin all y the styl e ts ( b c) which
, ,

h av e the for m of sl en de r fil a m en ts ,

S ti ff a n d s e rr a te d at th e i r sum

mi t to e n abl e th e m to pi e rc e th e
,

S ki n o f an i m als or th e tissu e s o f
pl an ts ar e the re pre s en t ativ e s of
,

the m an dibl e s an d j a ws ex ,

tr e m e ly e l on gate d In the he m i p
.

te ra which liv e at the expe n s e

o f an im als th e bill is i n g en e r a l
,

v e ry st ron g an d folde d i n t o a
,

s e micir cl e u n de r the h e ad I n tho s e w hi ch ar e n ourish e d on the

.

j uice s of v e g etabl e s it is on the con t rary a lm o st a lw ays

, , ,

F i g 360
. .
—Th e Woo d - Bug . 36 1 .
—B c
u cal A pa ra tus of a
H e mi p te ro u s ns e ct .

S enlde r an d appli e d i n re po s e ag ai n st the i n fe ri or sur face

,

o f th e th o r a x b e tw e e n th e l imbs Its l e n gth is s om etim e s .

3 82 Z OO LO G Y ; i

so c on side ra bl e th at it p asse s backw ards b ey on d the poster i or

e xtr e mity o f the a bd om e n
“

I n the fli e s the pr o bo scis som e tim e s s o ft an

, d r e tr a cti l e s o m e ,

tim e s h o rn y an d e l on gat ed r e p re se n ts a ls o the l o w e r l ip an d

,

, ,

o fte n ca rri e s fe e l e rs o n i ts
b as i s a l on g i tudi n al groo v e
,

o ccupi es th e supe ri o r sur

face an d l odg e s the styl e ts ,

wh ose n umb e r v a rie s from

t wo to six an d wh o se an a ,

l o g n e s i n the bruisi n g or
gr i n di ng i n s ects ar e the m am
di b l e s the j a ws an d the
, ,

l an gu e tte o r lit tle to n gu e .

So m e ti m es this p ro bo scis ao
quir e s an e n orm o u s l en gth
( Fig .so m e ti me s o n ,

t he co n t ra ry it is sca r ce l y ,

visibl e .

§ 524 Fi n al ly in the
*

.
,

butte rfli e s ( Fig whi ch .

ar e al s o n o urishe d o n li quid
s u bsta n ce s b u t which ar e ,

fo un d at the b otto m of
fl ow e rs an d which h ave n o ,

occas i o n for c u ttin g o r pi e r c

i n g i n strum e n ts to o btai n
th e m th e re n o lon ge r e xi st
,

styl e ts pe rfo r m i n g the fun c

ti o n s o f l an ce ts as i n the ,

pre ce di n g an d the m o uth is ,

furn ish e d with a l on g pr o

b os ci s ( c d F ig roll e d, .

in to a S piral ; an d com po s e d
o f two fil am e n ts hollo w ed ,

in to a gro o ve on th e ir
F i g 3 62 —N m st ri n l o n gi r os t ri
. . e e a i n n e r surfa ce which are
s .
,

n othin g but j a ws e x tr e m ely

e l o n ga te d a n d m odifi e d 1 n th e ir sh ap e A t t he bas e o f thi s

.

pro bo scis w e distin guish an te ri o rly a sm all m e mbran o us

pi e c e which i s the r e pr e s en ta tiv e o f th e l abi u m o1 l i p
, ,

a n d o n ea ch side a s m a ll tube rcl e the l as t v e stig e o f th e

,

m an dibl e s . W e o bs e rve a ls o h e r e the r udi m e n ts of th e

.
 CLAS S I N S E CTS .

h -

m axill ary p alpi an d be hi n d i s fo u n d a Sm a ll tri an gul a r

‘
‘

lip ca rr yi n g two v e ry l a rge l abi a l pa lpi co mpo s e d of three

‘

j oi n ts a n d alm o st always v e lv e ty an d co v e re d with sca l e s

,

§ 5 2 5 Th e al i m e n ta ry c an a l pr e s en ts i n g en e r al a suf
.

fi ci e n tl y co mpl e x structure ; s o m e tim e s it is st ra i ght an d off e rs ,

pre tty n early the s a m e di a m e te r thro ugh out its wh o l e l en gth

b ut i n g en e ra l it is m o r e or l e ss flexu o u s an d h as s e v e r al ,

succes si v e en l a rge m e n ts an d co n tra cti on s W e di stin guish .

,

th e n ( Fig a ph a ryn x a g u ll e t a first sto m ach o r cr op

.
, , ,

a se co n d st o m a ch o r gizz a rd wh o s e w a lls ar e m u scul ar an d, ,

o fte n pr o v ide d with h o rn y p a rts ad a pte d t o tri tii r a te the

‘

foo d ; a third sto m ach calle d the chy l ify i n g s tom a ch; wh o s e
,

363 .
—Pro b o s ci s F i g 364 . .
—M cr p h a H el en o r ,

of a B tt rflyu e .
’
( V am p s ) .

te x t u r e i s s oft an d d e li ca te ; a sm a ll i n te st i n e a caecum a n d , ,

a r e ct u m A S i n th e s u pe ri o r an i m als w e o bs e r v e a re l ati on
.
,

be tw e e n the n a t u re o f the food an d the de v e l opm e n t the c an a l

r equir e s ; i n c a rn iv o ro us i n s e ct s it is i n ge n e r a l v e sh o rt ,

whil st i n i n s e cts whi ch ar e n o u rish e d o n v e g e tab e sub

stan ces it i s i n g e n e ra l v e ry l o n g The foo d which r e ach e s .

it i s imbib e d with s a liv a ; the appa r at u s which s e cre te s this

liq u id con sists i n a ce rt a i n n u mb e r o f fl oa ti n g tube s te r ,

m i n atin g s o m e tim e s by kin ds o f u tricl e s an d c o mm u n i

ca t i n g with the ph a ry n x by e x cr e t o ry c an a ls m u lti tud e
,

. A
a ,
h ea d ;b, b a se of the a n t e nn ae o r fe e l e r s ; c, th e e ye ; ( I, th e p ro
b o sci s ; e,
p a lp i .
3 84 zoo m e r .

of vill ositi e s with which the ck l e -f o r m i n g s to m a ch i s us u

ally fu rn ish ed s ee m to se r v e for t

,
e s e cre ti on o f a g as t ric j uice ,

an d it is al so i n this c avit
tha t the bil e is p our
Th e re e xists n o liv e r pr o ,

rl S e ki n i n i n sects ;
ut { hi gd hi s replace d
,

by l on g an del icate t u bes ,

which float i n the i n te ri or

o f the ab d o m e n an d o pe n ,

supe ri o rly i n to th e chyl e

fo rmi n g sto ma ch ( c Fig , .

Th ese bil i ary ves

s e ls a ls o ta k e the place of
u rin a ry glan d s for it is h e re
,

tha t the ur ic acid is fo rm e d .

By on e of th e ir e x tr e miti e s
th ey a lw ays o p en i n to the
chyl e - fo r m i n g sto m ach ,

an d th e oth e r e x tr e mity
is s o m e t im e s fr ee s om e ,

tim e s fix e d to the i n te s
tin e wh e th e r n e ar the fir st
,

o pe n i n g o r i n the n e igh

b o ur hood of the r e ctum .

Fin a lly w e still fi n d to

, ,

w a rds the po ste ri o r e xtr e ’

mity of the m te sti n al can al ,

o th e r s e cr e ti n g o rgan s ( e )

s e rvin g to e l a bo rate pa rti

cul at flu ids ( s uch as the
v e n o m o f the b ee ) whi ch
s e v e ra l in s ects ej ect fro m
the e xtr e mity of the a bd o
m e n wh e n th ey ar e di s
tur b e d .

§ 526 It w o uld al
e a r th a t it i s by s i m ple
.

p
i mbibiti on th a t th e chyl e
mg ”an m
’

365 “ 3 8 8 tM A
trav e rse s the w all s of the
a h e a d carryi n g th e a n t e n n ae m a n di ble s &c
, , , b, cro p an d g i zza rd fo l ,

lo we d b y th e chyl e fo rmi n g st o m ach ;

- b i li ary ve ss e ls ; d, i n te st i n e ; e ,

se cre ti n g o rga n s f a n u s
, .
 CLA S S I N S E C T S . 385

dige s tiv e tube an d min gl e s with th e bl oo d This l ast liqu id is

, .

w at e ry an d co l ou rl e ss it is n ot en cl o s e d i n v e ss e ls an d is fou n d ,

spr ead a bo u t i n th e i n te rstice s which the o rgan s h av e b e twe e n

th e m or pre s e n t i n the s u bstan c e o f th e ir tiss u e I n s e cts als o
, .

h av e n o r e g u l ar circul ati on W e pe rce iv e i n d e e d i n c e rt a i n

. . ,

p a rts o f th e ir b odi e s c ur re n ts e v en su ffici e n tly rapid b u t the

, ,

n o u rishi n g liqu id d oe s n o t d e scrib e a circl e s o as to r eturn

co n stan tly to its p o in t of de pa rtu re Th e re e x ists i n fa ct i n

.
,

th e s e an i m als on ly the v e stig e s o f the circu l ati n g a pp ar at u s

,

W e o bs e r v e n e a r the d o rsal s u rface o f the bo dy a

l on gitu di n al tub e ( Figs 3 3 6 an d . which p e rfo r m s a lt e r
n a te m o v e m e n ts o f co n tr acti on an d o f di l ata ti on an al o g ou s to ,

th os e of the h e art i n the s up e ri o r an i m al s B ut this do rs al .

v e ss e l s ee m s to giv e off n o bran ch The n ou rishi n g liqu id.

p en e tr ate s in to it by l a te ra l o pe n i n gs fu rn i sh ed with v al vul e s

,

to pr e v e n t its r e p u ls e an d e sc ap e s fr o m it by its ce ph a lic

,

e x tr e m ity . M o r e o v e r the m oti o n o f th e bl o od doe s n ot

,

d e pe n d a lt og e th e r o n this o rgan for th e r e ha v e b ee n dis

,

co v e r e d i n s e v e r al i n s e cts m o v e a bl e v a lvu l e s wh o se p u lsa ti o n s ,

d e t e r mi n e i n this liquid r apid c u rren ts an d str an ge to s ay it , ,

is i n the lim bs th at this app a rat u s is l o dg e d .

§ 5 2 7
. T h e bl oo d b e co m e v e n o u s by its ac ti on o n the

di ffe re n t tis s u e s o f the e con omy is thus u n a bl e to r e ach a

,

d e te rm i n at e p a rt o f th e bo dy to pl ac e itse lf i n c on t a ct with
,

the o x yg e n a n d th u s to r e co v e r i ts vivifyi n g q u a liti e s

, If .

the r e spir a ti on w e r e a cc o m p l ish e d i n th e o rdi n ary w ay by ,

the ai d o f l un gs or by the e x t e rn al s u rfa c e o f th e b o dy it ,

w o u ld h a v e be e n c o n s e qu e n tly e x tr e m e ly i n c ompl et e ; b u t th e
dis a dv an tag e which w ou ld s e e m n e c e ss a rily to h av e r e s ulte d
fr o m this gr e at i m p e rfe cti o n i n the so i m po rtan t fu n ction of
th e circ u l a ti o n do e s n ot i n r e ality e x ist
, N a tur e has m ad e .

a m e n ds fo r the r a pid an d r e gu l a r tr a n sp o rt o f th e bl o o d by ,

co n d u ct i n g the ai r its e lf i n t o a l l p arts o f th e b ody by m e a n s ,

o f a m u l t i t u d e o f c an a ls which c o m mun ic ate with th e e x t e ri o r ,

a n d a r e i n fi n it e ly r a m i fi e d i n th e s u bst an c e of th e s e o rg an s

( Fig .

T he s e ai r -b ea ri n g tube s d e sign at ed as w e h av e alre ady

, ,

s aid u n d e r the n a m e o f tr a c/t e ce pr e s e n t a c om pl e x ,

str u ctu re ; th e y a r e co m po s e d ge n e r ally o f thr ee t u n ic o f s,

which the m iddl e o n e is fo rm e d o f a ca rtil agi n ou s fil a m e n t

r oll e d i n t o a spir al lik e the e l a stic of a str ap ( b r e te l l e)
, .

So m eti m e s th ey a r e si m pl e b u t at o th e r ti m e s th e y pre s e n t
,

a c e rta i n n u m b e r o f l arg e sw el li n gs i n the for m o f s o ft

‘

C C ,
3 86 Z OOLO G Y .

v e sicl e s whi ch pe rfo rm the fu n ction s o f a res er v oir of air

,

( Fig . The a p e rtur e s by which the a i r p en e tr ate s i n to

the trach e a ar e c all e d s ti g m a ta ; th ey r e s e mbl e i n ge n e r a l a
sm all bu tto n -h ol e b u t th e s e ofte n h av e v a lv e s which op en
,

an d shut lik e th e fo l d i n g or cl app e r of a d oo r A p air m ay .

gen e r al ly b e s e e n on the l ate r al an d upp e r p arts of e ach r i r ;

but th ey ar e o fte n abs en t i n the l ast two s e gm en ts of ge
th orax .

With r e gard to th e m e ch an ism by which the ai r is ren e w ed

i n th e in t e ri o r o f this r e spi r at o ry app aratus it w ould s e e m ,

to c on sist g e n e r a lly i n the m o v e m en ts o f co n tr a cti on an d

dil ata ti on of th e abdom en Th u s as we h av e alre ady s aid
.
,

e ls e wh e r e the r e spir ati on i s v e ry activ e i n th e s e an im al s

, .

Th ey co n s u m e a co n side r abl e qu an tity of ai r co mp ar ed with ,

th e ir bulk an d sp ee dily a sphy x i ate wh en d e p riv e d of ox ygen ;

,

but wh e n th ey ar e i n this c on diti on of appare n t de ath th ey ,

F i g 36 6
.

(
.
—M al e L am py ri s
Gl o w -wo rm
)
F i g 36 7
. . F
— e m a le L am p yri s .

can con ti nu e so for a gr e at l e n gth of tim e with o ut l osin g the

fac u lty o f r e tu rn i n g to life .

§ 52 8 M o
. st in s e cts pr o duce but v e ry littl e h e at ; b u t

s om e of th e s e an i m al s dis en g age u n d e r ce rta i n circum st an ce s

, ,

a s u ffici e n cy n o ta bly to r ais e th e ir t e mpe r a tu r e B e e s o ffe r .

a n e x an
pl e of thi s e sp e ci a lly wh e n th e y ar e m uch agit a te d
,

i n th e ir hiv e ; an d it is to b e obs er v e d th at the r e spir ati on ,

b e c om e s th e n v e ry a ctiv e .

529 A n o th e r an d a m o re r e m ark a bl e ph e n om e n on an d
.
,

o f which th e ca us e is still u n k n o w n is the productio n o f ,

light obse rv e d i n s o m e i n s e cts The l am pyris o r g l ow -wor m

.

is an e x ampl e of this w e l l kn o wn to al l who freq u en t the

,

fi e lds : the m a l e ( Fig which has wi n gs is b u t li ttl e

.
,

l u m in ous ; the fe m al e ( Fig which has n o wi n gs an d

.
,

which is o fte n fo u n d d u ri n g the w a r m n ights o f s um m e r o n

the thick e ts s pre ads a ro un d a v e ry liv e ly ph o sph o re sc e n t
,
 CLA SS I N S E C T S . 3 87

light I n an oth e r sp e ci e s o f l am pyri s i n h abiti n g It aly the

.
,

i n dividu als of b oth s e x e s ar e at the sa m e ti m e win ge d an d

l u m i n ou s ; b u t this s i n gul a r pr ope rty is e speci ally re m ark
a bl e i h c e rt a in t au pi n s i n h a biti n g th e h ot r e gi on s o f A m e ric a ,

a n d which pr od u c e whi l st th ey v au lt i n the obscu rity a

, ,

n atur a l illu m i n a ti o n o f th e ha ppi e st e ff e ct ; th e w om e n fr e

qu e n tly pl ace th e m i n th eir h air as o rn am e n ts an d it is ,

a ss e rt e d th a t th e I n di an s m a k e u s e o f th e m to p o i n t ou t th e

w ay d u rin g th e n ight I n o n e l ampyris the light c o m e s fr om

.
,

ce rt ai n sp ots S itu ate d o v e r the two or thre e l a st r i n gs o f the

a bd o m e n ; whilst i n the t aupi n s it c o m e s from an al o go us
sp ots o v e r th e pro th o r ax o r c orsl e t It a pp e ar s th at the .

i n s e ct ca n v a ry a t will the i n te n sity o f the ph osph o ric light ,

an d th a t it is c on n e cte d wi th th e a cti on o f th e o x yge n u p on a

fa tty m att e r s e cre te d by th e ph o s ph o re sce n t o rga n s .

53 0 Th e s e x e s ar e disti n ct I n th e s e an im als an d th e r e
.
,

e x ist o ft e n gr e at diffe r e n ce s b e tw ee n th e m a l e an d th e fe m a l e

the co m m on l am pyris h a s a l re ady o ff e r e d us an e x am pl e

( Figs 3 6 6
.
, Al m o st al l i n s e cts l ay e ggs ; n e v e rth e l e ss ,

s o m e ar e vivipa ro us Th e r e ofte n e x ists at th e e x tr e mity o f

. .

th e abd o m e n o f the fe m al e a d ar t a wimbl e or s om e oth e r , ,

o rg an d e sti n e d to fo rm h ol e s a d apt e d to r e c e iv e th e e ggs ; a n d

,

by an a dmirabl e i n sti n ct the m oth e r u n ifo rm ly d ep o sits th e s e

i n a pl ac e wh e r e th e y ou n g will fi n d th e m s e lv e s i n pr ox imity
with the foo d th e y r e quire e v en al th ou gh it b e i n m o st c as e s
,

n ot th e ki n d which th e p a r e n t liv e s o n .

I n y ou th i n s e cts ch an g e th e ir ski n s e v e r a l ti m e s an d pr e
, ,

s e n t a l m o st alw ays a ph e n om en on o f th e m o st r em a rk abl e

k i n d o f which h o w e v e r we h a v e alre ady s e e n an e x am pl e i n
, , ,

th e b atr a chi a M o st o f th e m on qu itti n g the e gg n e ith e r

.
, ,

r e s e mbl e th e ir p are n ts n or wh a t th ey will th e ms e lv e s afte r

w ar ds b e co m e an d u n d e rgo b e for e a rr ivi n g at the p e rfe ct
, ,

stat e Ch an ge s so c on side ra ble a s to co n stitu t e a tr u e m e ta

,

m o rp hos i s .

I n g e n e r al , i n s e cts p ass th rou gh thre e con diti on s quit e ,

disti n ct which h av e b ee n n a m e d th e l a r v a s ta te or co n diti on

,

( Fig . t h e n
y mp h s ta te ( Fig an d the p erf e ct s ta te
.

( Fig . b u t t he ch an g e s th e y u n d e rg o a r e n o t a lw ays

e qu a lly gr e at So m e tim e s th e s e ch an g e s r e n d e r th e an i m al
.

a lt o e th e r u n r e c o g n iz abl e at o th e r ti m e s th e y c on sist o n ly
,

i n t e d e v e l opm en t o f wi n gs ; an d th e s e v ari ous d e gr ee s of

tr an sfo rm ati on ar e kn ow n by th e n a m e s of comp l e te m e ta
m o rp hoses or o f s e m i -m e ta mo rp hose s .

C C 2
 ZOOLO G Y .

53 1 In s e cts which un d e rgo a co mpl e te m etam o rph o si s

.

ar e a lw ays m ore o r l e ss v e r mifor m wh e n th e y l eav e the e

gg
a n d wh e n th e y ar e i n a sta te of l ar v a ( Fig Th e ir b od .

is e l on ga te d alm o st e n tire ly s oft an d divid ed in to m ov eab e

, ,

ri n gs of which the re g u l ar n umb e r is thi rteen Som e tim e s

, .

th ey ar e alto ge th e r with out li m bs ; at o th e r tim e s they h av e

a v ar i abl e n umb e r of th e s e o r g an s but who s e co n fo rm ati on ,

i n n o sh ape r e s e mbl e s th at of the s am e arts i n the ad ult

an i m a l A lm o st alw ays th ey h a v e m er e f S i m l e ey e s an d
.
y ,

th e y a r e s om etim e s compl e te ly wi th out an y i n al l y th e i r .

,

m o uth is alm o st al w ays arm ed with m an dibl e s an d j a ws -

,

wh at e v e r b e the con fo rm ati on which th e y assum e i n the e n d ;

an d w e ofte n s ee the fi rst o f th e s e o rga n s s e rv e for l o co m oti on

as w ell as fo r th e p r e h e n si on of th e food Th e s e l a rvae v a ry .

,

m o re ov e r i n th e ir fo rm an d ar e kn ow n s om e tim e s u n d e r the
, ,

n am e o f cke vi l l e ( c ate rpi l l ar s ) ; s o m e tim e s but e rro n e ously

'
, ,

un de r the n a m e of wor m s .

F i g 368 . .
—Ch e vi ll e d u P apil l o n M ach ao n ( L arva of
th e B u tt e rfly M ach ao n ) .

A fte r h av i n g r e m ai n e d i n this c on diti on d u ri n g a l on ge r or

sh orte r pe ri od an d afte r h a vi n g e x pe ri e n ce d s e v e ral m ou l ti ng s
, ,

th e ir w i n gs fo rm un de r the ski n an d th ey ch an ge i n to n ymphs ,

D u rin g the wh ol e dur ati on o f thi s s e co n d

pe ri od o f th e ir e x iste n ce th e s e sin gul a r an im als ceas e to t ak e
,

food an d r e m ai n imm ov a bl e
, S o m e tim e s th e skin which .

th ey h av e j u st sh e d dri e s up an d fo rms a s o r t o f o vifo rm c as e , ,

i n the i n te ri o r o f which th e y re m a i n e n cl o s e d ; s om e ti m e s th e y
a r e on ly c o v e r ed with a thin p e llicl e which appli e d cl o s e ly , ,

o ve r th e ir e xt e r n a l o rg an s fo ll o ws a l l th e ir co n to ur s an d
, ,

re s embl e s lin e n i n which th e i n s ect is e n ca s ed o r b an d a g e d

, .

Thi s l ast a rr an ge m e n t which i s s e e n i n the n ym phs o f b u tte r

,

fli e s or c/zry s a l i d s ( Fig has o bta in e d for th e m the

.

nam e of p p u a or o f m a i l l ot
B efo re u n d e rgo i n g this m et a m o rph o sis the l a rv a ofte n pr e ,

p a re s a r e fuge a n d shuts its e lf u p i n a c as e which i t m ak e s

, ,

L i te r lly s w ddl i g clo th s a , a n - e .

 CLA S S I N S E C T S .

with sil k s ecr e te d by gl an ds an al og ous to the s a liv a ry gl an ds

, ,

a n d pr e p ar e d by m e an s of wi n d e rs h o ll o w e d o u t i n its li s
p .

A t o th e r tim % it s u s n ds its e lf by m ea n s o f fil am en ts ( F i g .

or co n c e al s i ts e f i n s om e h o l e It i s whil e the i n sect

.

is i n this st ate of app ar en t r e po s e th at th e re t ak e s pl ace i n

the in t e ri o r o f i ts bo dy an activ e l ab o ur the r e sult o f which ,

i s the co mpl e t e d e v e l o pm en t o f al l i ts o rg an iz ati on Its i n .

te rn al p arts s ofte n an d by litt le an d littl e assum e the fo rm

,

.
—Ch rys li s f th e M ach
F i g 36 9 . a o ao n .

which th ey ar e afte rw ards to m ai n ta i n The v ari ous organ s .

with which the adult an im al is to b e pro vid e d be com e d e v el o pe d

u n d e r the e n v el o pe c on c ealin g th e m an d wh en this e v olu ti on
,

i s fin ish ed it fr e e s its e lf o f this ki n d of m ask un folds its

, ,

win gs which s oon acqui r e con siste n ce an d be co m es a pe rfect

, ,

i n s ect
.

F i g 3 70
. .
—P ap i llo n M achao n .

53 2 A S . x ampl e o f th e s e m e ta m o rph o s e s w e c o uld

an e ,

n ot ch oo s e a b e tte r th a n th at o f th e b om byz cof ti re m u l ber r y ;

for this i n s e ct i n the sta te of a l ar va is for us of imm e n s e
, ,

i n te re st It i s the silkw o rm the r earin g o f which con t ribute s

.
,

so o w rfu lly to th e agricul tural pr os p e r ity of ou r s o uth e rn

p e
pro vi n ce s an d wh o se pr oducts suppo rt s o m an y w e alth -pr o
,
3 90 Z OOLO G Y .

duci n g Thi s i n sect

°

ei n pl oym e n ts . lly fr o m the n ort h ern

, o na

pro vi n ce s o f C w as i n tr od u c i n to E uro pe onl y i n

the s i xt h e r a Som e
. G
re e k m i ssi o n ari e s brou ght the e ggs
to Con stan ti n opl e d u ri n g the r ei gn o f J u sti n i an a n d at ,

the e po ch of the first Cr us ad e s its cultu r e spr e a d i n to S i cil

an d Ita ly ; b u t it was on l i n the ti m e of H e n ry the F ou rt h
th at this bran ch o f a g r i cu tu ral i n d u stry acqu ir e d s o m e i m
po rtan ce i n ou r s o u th er n pro vi n ce s o f which it fo rms at the , ,

pre s en t d ay on e of the prin ci al s o ur ce s of w e alth

The e ggs o f th e m u lb e rry g
.
,

om b x a r e k n o w n to a r i cu l
y g
tu r i sts by th e n am e o f s ee d of the s i l kwor m Wh en th ey .

h a v e b e e n e x p os e d to the ai r th ey h av e an a shy -gr ey ti n t ,

a n d with s om e c a r e th e y m a
y b e thus pr e s e rv e d fo r a s uffi

ci en tl y l on g tim e with ou t b e c omi n g d e te ri o ra te d I n o rd e r .

th at i n cu bati on co m m e n c e an d th at the l a rv ae appe ar or un

,

fo ld th e ms e lv e s ; it i s n e ce ss ar y th at the e ggs b e pl ace d for

s om e tim e un de r the i n flu en ce o f a te mpe ra ture of at l e ast
° ° °
1 5 or 1 6 Cen t (59 . Afte r h avi n g expe ri e n c e d e ight
or te n d ays o f i n cr e a s in g h e at th e y b e co m e whitish a n d s oo n ,

a fte r th e la r v ae b e gi n to co m e fo rth Th e s e sm al l an im als .

at the m o m en t of th ei r b i rth ar e o nl y abou t a li n e an d a

qu arte r i n l en gth Th e ir bo dy (F i g 3 7 1 ) i s e l on gate d cyli n

. .
,

dr i cal an n ul a te d s m oo th an d ge n e r a lly o f a gr eyish c o lou r

, , , .

A t its an te ri o r e xtr e mity m ay b e distin gui sh e d a h e ad fo rm e d ,

by tw o ki n ds of h ar d sca ly c aps o n which m ay b e r e m ar k e d ,

'

bl a ck po i n ts which a r e the ey es The m outh o ccupi e s the

, .

an te ri o r p ar t o f this h e ad an d i s a rm e d with S tr on g j a ws
, .

The th re e fo ll owi n g r in gs h a v e e ach a p ai r of sm all scal y

limbs an d re pr e s en t the th o rax Fi n ally the a bd om e n is
,
.
,

v e ry la rge an d has n o li m bs on the first two s e gm e n ts but

, ,

i s fu rn ish e d po ste ri o rly with fi ve p ai rs of fl e shy t ub e rcl e s ,

which r e s e mbl e stu m ps an d which co n stitute s o m an y l im bs

, .

I n the s o uth of Fr an ce si l kw or m s ar e c all e d m a g n a n s an d ,

'
h e n ce the n am e of m a g n a n e r ze giv e n to th e e sta bli shm en ts
i n whi ch th ey ar e r e ar ed The first ca r e th e y r e q u ir e afte r
.

th e ir bi rth is to s e ar ate th e m fro m th e ir co coo n s an d to

pl ace th e m on hurd e s wh e re th e fi n d n o urishm e n t ap ) r o y ,

or thi s p u rpo s e it i s usu al to

,

p ri a te to th e ir w a n ts F .

co v e r the e ggs w ith a S h e e t of pe rfo rate d p ape r thr ou gh ,

the h ol e s m ad e in which the w o rms asce n d to r e ach the l e a v es

o f the m u lbe r r y
pl ace d a bo v e ; an d it is wh e n th ey ar e on the
bran ch e s fu rn i sh e d wi th the s e l ea v e s th at th e y ar e tr an s
po rte d on the hur dl e s pre pa re d to s e rv e as th e ir dw e lli n gs
 CLA SS I N SE C T S .

The n ou rishm en t of the si l kw orm con sists i n the l eav e s of

th e m ulbe rry (Fig an d it is co n s e qu en tly o n the cu l .

t ur e o f this pl an t th at the po ssibility of r ea ri n g th e s e in s e cts

d e pe n ds The white m u lb e rry is the spe ci e s m ost gen e r ally
.

e mpl oy e d fo r this
pu o se ; it is a tre e which gro ws to the
h e ight of forty or fi y fee t a n d which giv e s fou r or fi v e ,

n a *
qui t ls of l e ave s s o m e tim e s e v en te n or tw e lve It acco m , .

m od ate s its e lf su ffici en tly w el l i n m o st l ocaliti e s an d it h as ,

been cul tivate d with succe ss e v e n i n the n o rth of E urop e ,

F i g 37 1
.
—Sil
. k
wo m r .

but it grows n owh e r e wild I n fa ct this m u lbe rry tre e is -

G
.
,

o rigi n a l ly fr o m Chi n a Two r e e k m on ks i n tro d u ce d it i n t o

.

E u ro p e to w a rds th e middl e o f th e si x th e r a an d th e sil k ,

w orm with i t i Its c ultur e s oon spre ad through ou t the

.
*

Q i t
u n a l — o e h u dr d p oun ds w e i ght
,
n n e .

1 I d t pl i th t si l k i ri gi lly s p un fro m th e b w ls o f a
n ee no ex a n a s o n a o e
ca te rp i ll r d th t i t co m p s s t h
a ,
an ld t m b fr m wh ce w o rm
a o e e o en o o en a
e m rg s i
e e th f rm o f a b tt rfly
n e th re i g
o f J sti i t h e i lk
u e . e n o u n an , S
w rm s w h o f d
o , th l e s f th e whi t m lb rry tr e w e re c fi d to
ee on e ave o e u e e , on ne
C hi a ; th s o f th pi th e o k a d th h w re co mm i th f r sts
n o e e ne, a , n e as , e on n e o e
bo th o f As i d E r p e b t as th i r e d c t o i m re di ffi c l t
a an u o , d th i r
u e u a i n s o u ,
an e

p r o d c e m re
u c e rt io th ey w r gunerall y gl c t d
a n, c e p t i n th l i ttle e e en ne e e ,
ex e
i sl an d of L o s r th e coast f A fri c A thi g
e ,
nea w s p ro c re d fro m o a . n a u ze a u
th e i r w bs
us
a
e, w as
ed thi s L e o m
on
an

m y b e r i s d by th g rm ts f th e M e d s
a e
fac t r th i
l g d mi r d b th i th E a st d t m e
a
ti o f w m f o fe m l
e
d A ssyri
e
n
o
an u
h t e r s s p i ci on s
n

s Vi r gi l i the
a en
e
o
u e,
an
e
a
e
nve n
R
an
o
on
. W a

an
o
a ev

,
an,
u
r

s
a e

m st ci e t wri t e r wh e p r ss] m e ti o s th s ft woo l whi ch was co m b e d

fro m th e t re s f th S e re s Chi s ; d thi s t ral e rro r l ss m r
o an n o x e n n e o
e o e or ne e an na u , e a
v ll
e ou s th th t r th was slo w] co rrecte d by th k o wl dge f a l u b l e
an e u , e n e o va a
i ns ec t th e fi rs t ar tifi ce r o f th e u u y o f
,
ti o s Th a t rar an d e l g t x r na n . e e an
3 92 zo o no e x .

P el o po n n e sus , an d it gave to this p art of re e ce the m od e rn G

n am e o f M or e a From th e n ce the mul be r ry an d the sil k
.

w o r m p a ss e d i n to S icily by the ca re o f Ki n g Ro ge r a n d , ,

a c uir e d i n Ca l abri a a r a pid e x te n si on S o m e g e n tl e m e n w h o

q .

had acco m pan i e d Ch a rl e s th e E ighth i n to Ita ly duri n g the

w ar o f 1 4 9 4 h avi n g disco v e re d al l the adv an t ag e s which
,

th at c ou n try dre w from this bran ch o f agric u lture w e re ,

d e s i ro us of co n fe rri n g the gi ft o n th e i r n ativ e co un t r y an d ,

s o c a u s e d the m u lbe rry to b e tr a n spl an t e d fro m N apl e s in to

P r o v e n c e an d D au phin e It is b u t thi rty years ag o wh e n .

might b e s e e n still at A ll a n n e a r M on te l i m art the first of , ,

th e s e tre e s which w a s pl an te d i n Fran ce It w as brought .

th e r e by Guy P o pe of St: A uban l o rd o f A ub an A t pre s en t , .

,

the mulb e rry c ov e rs a gr e at ar t o f the so uth o f Fr an c e an d ,

is cultiv ate d e v en i n the n o rt

S ilkw o r m s liv e i n th e sta te o f a l a rv a a b out thi rty -four
d ays an d durin g this tim e ch an ge th e i r ski n fo ur time s ;
,

the tim e co mpris e d be tw ee n th e s e succe ssive m o u lti n gs co n

s ti tu te s wh a t the a gr icult ur al ists c al l th e v ar i o us age s of

l ux u r
o
ce s r d i th e a g e f Ti b ri s by th e gr e st f th e om an s
Tw y dr d y rs ft r t h
un
w as
e
n u e

g o f P l i n y th
ea a
n

f p re o ev
e e of
o
a e
e u

, e use
av
o
o
u , r
R en
.

mi d s il ks w as c fi d t o th f m l s a d l l th o p l t ci ti s o f
xe on ne e e a e ex , n a e u en ze n
R m
o d th e p r i c s w re i s s bly f mi li ri e d wi th t h
e an ov n e m pl o f
e n en i a a z e exa e
H li o g b l s th first wh by thi s fle mi n te h b i t h d s lli d th d g i ty
e a a u ,
e o, e
'
a a , a u e e i n
of m p ro r
an e
R
d m e A r li co m pl i n e d th t p o d f s i lk w s
an a
so ld t m f tw l e o ce s o f gold ; b t th e s upp ly i cr ed wi th the
a o e or
d m d d th e p ri ce di m i i sh d w i th th s pp ly
e an , an
e v
an .

un
n
u

e
e an

e
u
a

u .
a a
n
un

e as
o a

A“
lk b ec m f i di s p s ble
s Si a th E m p ro r J sti i
e o n sa w wi th co
en a u se , e e u n an n
c r th t the P rsi s h d occ pi e d b l d d
e n a e an th m o o p ly o f thi s
a u an an se a e n o
i m p rt t s pply a d th t th w e lth hi s s bjects was c ti lly drai n e d
o an u ,
n a e a 0 u on nu a
by a t i na f e e mi e s
on d i d l t rs
o n A n ac ti e g rnm e t wo ld ha e
an o a e . v ove n u v
r st r d t h t d e o f E gyp t d th
e

ve
o

e
e

e ,
e ra
d c y d wi th th p ro sp r ty f th e E m p i r e ; n d th e
e a e
i g ti o o f th R d S a w hi c h had

h a s ai l d fo r th p rchas e o f sil k t o th p o rts o f C yle u

me i

of M l acc
o
an
ss ls m i ght
or ,
e n av

e
a
a
n
R
e

e
o
on
e
an v e

,
e ,

e
a a,
even o f C hi J sti i na.m b race d m o r h m bl
u n an edi t d s o li ci te d a e u e ex e en an
p ,

th ei d o f hi s C hri sti
a l l i e s E thi o pi n s f A byss i an w h o h d rece tly
a , a o n i a, a n
ac q i r d t he
u rts o f
e i g ti a th spi ri t f t rad e n avd th s e a p r t o f
a on , e o ,
an e p o
Ad li ust i ll d c ra te d wi th th tro p hi e s f Gr i co q e r r Al o g the
s, e o e o a ec a n n u o . n
Afri c c ast th y p tr te d to th E qu t r i s arch o f g ld e m ralds d
an o ,
e ene a e a o n e o , e , an
a ro m ti c s ; b t th y wi s ly d ecli e d
a u e eq l c m p e t ti e i n w hi c h the y n an un ua o i on,
m st b al w ys
u e t d b tha i ci i ty o f th P e
r e ve n e s to th m rk e ts o f e v n e rS i a n e a
I di ; a d th
n a m p e or e
n m i tt d to th e di s pp i tm
e r t ti ll hi wi sh e s
u e a o n en , s
w r gr t i fi d by
e e e p ct e d
e t Th g s p l h ad b h e d t th e een
o f S t fir
a a n un x e e ve n . e o e e ac o
I di s ; a b i h al ad y g o r e d th e C hri st
n s om s o n th e i a ns

p pp r c st o f p
an o re ve n . a ,

e e l al b r ;
oa ch rch w p l t d i C e ylo a a d th mi s si o n
a u as an e n n , an e
a ri s p r s
e d t he f o tst e p s o f c mm e rc to the e tr mi ti e s f A si a Two
u ue o o e x e o .

P rsi m o ks had lo g r s i de d i Chi

e an n
p rh p s i n t h e ro y l ci ty o f
e n na , e a n a
N ki th s t o f a m arch a ddi c te d t f r i g s pe r sti ti n s an d w ho
an n, e ea on o o e n u o ,

ac t lly r e i d
ua mb ec fr m t he i sle f Ceylon Ami dst th i r pi u s
ve an e ass o o . e o
o cc p t i o
u a th y i w e d w i t curi s e y th c mm o dr s f th C h s
ns , e v e a ou e e o n es o e ine e,
th e m an uf ac t ur s o f s il k d th m yri a ds f si lkwo rms whose e d uca ti o
e , an e o , n,
 CLA SS I N S E C T S .

th e se l ittl e an im al s At the appro ach of ea ch m oultin g th ey

.

be com e as if do rm an t an d c e as e to e at ; but afte r h avi n g

,

ch an g e d th e ir ski n s th e ir hun ge r red o u bl e s Th ey c all p e ti te .

f r éze t h e m o m e n t o f t h e g r e a t appe tit e which pre c e d e s e ach

o f the fo u r first m o ulti n gs a n d g r a n d e f r éz e th a t which is

,

o bs e rv e d d u ri n g the fifth ag e of the w o r m The q u an tity of .

n o u rish m e n t which th e y co n s u m e i n cr e a se s r apidly It i s .

re ck on e d th at for the l arv ae spri n gi n g fr o m an o un ce of s ee d ,

s e ve n po un d s o f l e a ve s ar e r e qu ir e d du ri n g the first ag e the ,

d u rati on of whi ch is fi ve d ays ; tw e n ty -on e po un ds d u rin g

the s econ d a e whic h co n t i n u e s on ly fo ur d ays ; s e v e n ty
g
,

po un ds for the thi rd ag e which l asts s e ve n days ; tw o hu n dre d

,

an d te n p ou n ds d u r i n g the fo u rth ag e which con ti n u e s s e v en ,

d ays ; a n d fr o m twe lv e to thi rt ee n h un dred po un ds du ri n g

the fif th ag e It is on the six th d ay of the l ast ag e th at the
.

g r a n d e f r éz e ta k e s pl ace T h e w orm s d e v o ur th en fr o m two

.

to thr e e hu n dre d po u n ds o f l e a v e s an d c a us e whi lst e atin g a , , ,

n o is e lik e a h eavy sh o w e r o f r ai n The s ec o n d day th e y .

ce as e to eat an d p rep are th ems e lve s to un de rgo the first

,

ei th e r on t re e s o r i n h ou s e s ha d o n ce b e e n co ns i d e re d a s th e l ab o ur o f
,

u e e ns Th e y s o o n di s co ve re d tha t i t w as i m practi ca ble t o t rans p o rt the

.

s o rt li ve d i n s ect b u t th a t i n th e e ggs a n u m e ro u s p ro ge n y m i ght b e p r e

-
,

s e rve d a n d m ulti pl i e d i n a d i st an t cli m a te R e l i gi o n o r i n t e re st had m o re

.

o we r o v e r t h e P e rs i a n m o n ks tha n th e l o e o f th e i r c o u n t ry v A f te r a l o n g
p .

j o ur n e y th e y a rri v e d a t C o n st a n ti n o l e i m p a rte d th e i r p roje c t to th e E m

,

e r o r a n d w e re li b e ra lly e n co ur a g e d
,
y t he gif ts an d p ro mi s e s o f J u sti n i an .

o t h e hi sto ri a n s o f tha t p ri n c e a c a m p ai gn a t th e foo t o f M o u n t C a u ca su s

,

h a s s ee m e d m o r e d e s e r vi n g o f a m i n u te re l a ti o n th an th e l a b o u rs o f th e se
m is s i o n a ri e s o f co mm e rce wh o a gai n e n te re d C hi n a d e ce i v e d a je alo u s
, ,

p
i n t ri u m p h wi th t h e s p o i ls o f th e E as t U
e o p l e by c o n ce a li n g t h e e ggs o f th e s il kw o rm i n a h o ll o w c a n e a n d re t u rn e d
n d e r th e i r dir e c ti o n th e e ggs w e re
.

h a tch e d a t t h e pr o r s e a s o n by th e ar t i fici al h e a t o f d un g ; t he w o rm s w e re
,
,

f e d w i th m u lb e rry e a v e s ; th e y l i v e d a n d l a b o ur e d i n a fo re i gn cli m a t e a
s u ffi ci e n t n um b e r o f b u tt e rfli e s was s av e d to r o p aga t e th e race an d t re es ,

w e re p lan t e d t o s u p p ly th e n o u ri shm e n t o f t e ri s i n g g e n e ra ti o n s E xp e .

ri cu ce a n d re fle cti o n co rrect e d th e e rrors o f a n e w a tt e m p t a n d th e So gd o i te

am b a ss ad o rs ackn o wle dge d i n t h e s u ccee di n g r e i g n th a t th e
, o m an s w e re
n o t i nf e ri o r to th e n a ti e s o f C hi n a i n t h e e d u ca t i o n o f th e s e i n s ec ts an d the
v
,
,

R
m a n uf act u r e s o f s i lk i n w hi c h bo th C hi n a a n d C o n sta n ti n op le h av e b e en
,

s urp a ss e d by th e i n d u st ry o f m o d e rn E u ro 0 I am n o t i ns e nsi bl e o f the .

b e n e fits o f e le ga n t lux ury ye t I re fl ect wi t s om e pai n that i f the i m rte rs

o f s il k had i n tro d u ce d t h e a r t o f ri n ti n g al re ad y p ra ct i se d by the C
,

th e c o m e di e s o f M e nan d e r an d t e e n ti re d ecad e s o f Li vy wo ul d h a v e b e e n
e se
,

e e tu at e d i n the e di ti o n s o f t he s i xt h ce n t u ry A l ar g e r vi e w o f the gl o be
p .

mi g t a t l e a st h a v e p ro m o t e d the i m p ro e m e n t o f s pe c ula ti v e s ci e n ce b u t
v
,

th e Chri st a n g e o g ra p hy wa s fo rci bly e xt rac te d fr o m te x ts o f Scri p t ure an d

i
,

t h e st u dy o f n a tu r e w as th e s u re st sym p t o m o f an un b e li e vi n g mi n d Th e .

o rth o d o x fa i th co n fi n e d th e h a b i t a bl e wor ld to on e te m pe ra te zo n e an d ,

re pre s e n t e d the e arth as an o blon g s urface fo ur hun dred da ys journ e i n ’

l e n gth two hun dre d i n bre a dth e n”co m p ass e d by the oce an a n d cove re dby
,
,

, , ,

the so li d cryst al o f th e fi r mam en t - D ecl i ne a nd F al l vol vi

.
, . .
3 94 ZOOLOGY .

m e t am o rph o sis Th ey m ay b e s e e nth en to cli m b the br an ch es

.

o f sm a ll faggo ts pl a c e d i n te n ti o n a lly a n d c a r e fu l ly a bo v e the

hurdl e s i n which th e y had hith e rto r e m ai n e d Th e ir bodi e s .

b e c om e s oft a n d th e re spri n gs fr o m th e ir m ou th a thre ad o f

,

silk which th ey dra w a fte r th e m Soo n th ey fi x the ms e lv e s .

,

throwi n g a rou n d th e m a m u ltitude o f t hre ads o f e x tre m e

fi n e n e ss call e d b a n e or b a n ne an d s u spe n d e d i n the middl e
, , ,

o f this n e tw o rk spi n th e i r co co on which th ey con struct by

, ,

co n ti n u ally turn i n g on th e ms e lv e s i n di ffe re n t w ays an d thus ,

r o lli n g a ro u n d th e ir bod y th e thre ad which l ea v es the wi n d e r

with which the ir lip i s pi e rce d The thre ad thu s fo rm e d i s .

pro du ce d by gl an ds which h av e much an al o gy with the

s al iv ary gl an ds o f o th e r an im a ls an d the m a tte r o f which ,

it i s co mpo s e d is s oft an d visc ou s at th e m om en t o f its l e avin g

th e m ou th but s oon h a rd e n s i n the ai r
, From this it r e s u lts .

th at the diffe ren t t u r n s o f this sin gl e thr ead be co m e ag g l u

ti mate d to g e th e r an d fo rm an en v e lo p e wh o s e tissu e i s firm
,

an d wh o s e sh ap e is o v o id The co l ou r o f this silk v a ri e s ;

.

s om e ti m e s it i s ye ll o w s o m e tim e s pure whit e a cco rdi n g to

, ,

th e v a ri e ty of th e w o rm which h as pro d u ce d it a n d th e ,

l e n gth of e ach thr e a d o fte n e x ce eds s i x h un dre d m e tre s ,

( s o m e wh at m ore th an six hu n dre d y ards ) but it v a ri e s much , ,

a s w e ll as th e w e ight o f th e c ocoo n s The w or ms pr o d u ce d .

fr om a s i n gl e o u n c e o f s ee d m ay pr o du ce as much as o n e
hu n dre d an d thi rty po u n ds b u t s u ch a har v e st is r are an d
, ,

ofte n th e y o bta i n on ly fr o m s e v e n ty to e ighty p ou n ds fr o m the

co co on s .

I n ge n e ra l fr om thr e e da ys an d a h alf to fo ur d ays suffi ce

,

for th e l arv a to fi n ish th e ir co coon an d if we a fte rw a rds op en ,

this kin d of ce l l u l e we m ay s ee th at the ani m a l ( Fig .

n o l on ge r o ffe rs th e s a m e app ea r an ce as b e fo r e its s e clusi on ;

it has a cquir e d a bro wn co l ou r its ski n r e s e mbl e s ol d l e ath er

, ,

an d its fo r m is o v o id a litt l e po i n t e d at i ts po ste r i o r e xt r e

,

mi ty N e ith e r h e ad n or j aws ar e to b e an y l on ge r disti n

.

ti n g ui sh e d but its po ste ri o r p o rti on is o ccupi e d by m o v ea bl e

,

rin gs whil st an te ri o rly an o bli qu e b an d m ay b e obs e rv e d

, ,

dispo s e d li k e a s carf an d r e pr e s e n ti n g th e fut u re rin gs of the

,

p e rfe ct an i m al The ti m e durin g which the b o m b yce s re

.

m ai n th u s sh u t u p i n a stat e o f Chrys alis v a ri e s acco rdi n g to ,

° ° °
the te mpe r ature If the h ea t b e from 1 5 to 1 8 ( from 59
.

°
to 6 5 F ahre n h e it) th e y c o m e o u t i n the pe rf e ct sta te fr o m
,

th e e ight e e n th to the tw e n ti e th d ay To pi e rc e th e ir co coon .

,

th ey m oisten on e e xtr e mity with a p artic u l a r l iqu id whi ch

,
 CLA SS I N S E C T S . 3 95

y
th e dis go rge an d afte rw a rds th e y st rike th e i r h e ads vi ol en tly
,

a gai n st the po i n t thus s o ften e d Wh en the b o mby x has i n .

this m an n e r fi n ish e d its m e t am orph o s e s it app e a rs un de r ,

the fo rm o f a bu tt e rfly with w h itish w i n gs ( Fig .

m o nth i s n o l on ge r a rm e d with j a ws as wh en y o un g but ,

is pro l on ge d i n t o a pro bo scis r oll e d i n to a s ) ira l ; i ts limbs

a re sl e n de r an d e lo n gat e d an d its i n te rn al c on fo rm ati on,

d i ffe rs as m u ch from th at o f the l arv a as its ex te rn al fo rm .

S oon afte r th e ir birt h th e p api l l on s s e e k each o th e r ; afte r

w ar ds the fe m al e s l ay th e ir e ggs th e n u m be r o f which ,

a m ou n ts to m o r e th an fi v e h u n dr ed for e ach o f th e s e i n s e cts ;

fi n ally afte r h a vi n g liv e d i n the p e r fe ct st at e fro m ten to

,

tw e n ty days th ey d i e , .

53 3 The b e e s o f which w e h a v e al i e ady h a d o cc a si on

.
,

to sp e a k e x p e ri e n c e ch an ge s still gr e at e r sin ce i n ,

the l a rv a st at e th e y h a v e n o li m bs an d r e s e mbl e littl e ,

F i g 37 2 . .
—B o m by x , or M o th o f th e M l b e rry
u . 3 73 .
—C hrys l i s
a .

w orms It is th e s am e with fli e s g n ats an d a gr e at n u mb e r

.
, ,

o f o th e r in s e cts thus the v e rm i fo r m an i m als which sw arm

,

i n p u trid fle sh an d which ar e k n o w n by the c o mm on n am e

,

o f a s ti c o ts ar e n othi n g e ls e b u t th e l ar y aa o f the g o lde n fly

G
.
,

n ats which a t n ight v aul t i n the a i r i n n u m e r o us gro u ps

, ,

an d which a r e so h ar assi n g to m an by th e ir e n v e n om e d
stin g liv e i n w ate r whi l st i n th e ir l ar v a st a te They ar
,
.

th e n v e rmifo rm with ou t li m bs an d h av e the abdo m e n te r

.
, ,

m i n ate d by bristl e s an d app e n d ag e s dispo s ed i n r ays ( Fig .

fi n ally the l ast r i n g but on e giv e s o rigi n to a tub e

,

su ffi ci e n tly l on g ( t) by m ea n s o f whi ch the an i m al dr aws

,

fr o m the atm osph e r e the ai r it requir e s To bre ath e i n thi s .

3 96 zo o no e v .

w ay , it suspe n ds its e lf as it w e re to the surface of the w ate r ,

w i th th h ea d d o w n w ar ds a n d w e s e e it at sh o rt i n te rv als
e ,

r en e w 1 ts a rr an g e m e n t The ny mp h c on ti n u e s to li v e i n
.

w ate r an d to mo ve i n it but in ste ad o f bre athi n g li ke the

,

3 74 .
—Larva o f th e F i g 3 75
. .
—G at
n , m a gn i fi e d .

G nat .

l arv a it o bta i n s the ai r which it r equir e s throu gh the m edium

,

o f two tube s pl ace d u n d e r th e th o ra x It fl oats on the sur face

.

o f th e liqui d a n d a fte r h avi n g acc omplish e d its m e ta m or

,

p h o s e s th e p e rfe ct i ns e ct Fi
( g 3 7 . e mpl o ys its c as t - ff
o
co v e ri n g whilst a n ymph as a ba rge or bo at un ti l its l on g ,

limbs an d win gs h av e a cquire d su fli ci en t s olidity to pe r mit i t

'
to w a lk o n th e sur face o f the w a te r or to fly a w ay ; for i f i ts
b ody h appe n e d to b e su bm e rge d as occurs ofte n wh en the
,

wi n d 11 s e ts its frai l e mb arka ti on it w ould in fal l ibly b e

,

dro wn e
53 4 The i n s ects which u n d e rgo a s e mi -me ta m o rph o sis
.
,

a ls o ass thr o ugh th e sta te o f l ar v a a n d n ymph be fo r e arrivi n g

p ,

at th e i r p e rfe ct st ate but h e re the l a rv a di ff e rs onl y fr om the ~

p e rfe ct i n s e ct by the absen ce o f wi n gs an d the sta te of n ym ph

y
i s on l ch aract e riz e d by the gro wth of th e se o rgan s which at
,

, ,

fi rst folded an d co n c e al ed u n de r the ski n be com e th e n fr ee , ,

but acquire al l th ei r de v e l opme n t on ly at the epo ch of th e ir

l as t m o ulti n g .

W e m ay cite as ex ampl e s o f i n s e cts re s e n tin g th i s ki n d o f

m etam orph os e s the gr assh oppe r an d t e e ph e m e r a ( Fig
, .
 CLASS I N S E C T S . 3 97

Th e s e l ast pre s en t e v e n a r e m ar k a bl e p e cu li arity ; for i n

"

ge n e ral i n se cts ch an ge th e ir ski n for the l a st tim e wh en th ey

p ass from the sta ge of n ymph to the ir p e rfe ct sta te whilst ,

the e ph e m era ex pe ri e n c e s an oth e r m o ulti n g b e fo r e b e co min g

co mpl ete ly adult altho ugh i n this state it live s but a fe w
,

F i g 3 76
. .
—E p h e m e ra .

h ou rs The l ar v a o f this e ph e m e r a liv e s i n w ate r an d di ffe rs

.
,

b u t li ttl e fro m th e adult ex ce pti n g i n th e sh o rt n e ss of its

,

li m bs the a bs e n ce of w i n gs an d by the r o w o f l am i n ae or
, ,

pl at e s which it has on e a ch sid e of the abdom en an d whi ch ,

it e m ploys as organ s o f r e spir a ti on an d of swi m m i n g The .

n ymph ( Fig o n ly di ffe rs fr o m th e l a rv a by

.

the pr e s en ce o f sh e aths e n cl o si n g th e win gs At .

th e m om e n t wh e n th e s e o rgan s ar e to b e de
v e10 pe d th e i n s e ct q u its the w at e r an d aft e r
, ,

h avi n g v ault e d i n the ai r for s om e m i n ute s pr o .

ce e d s to r e st u p on an e l e v a t e d o bj e ct wh e n it ,

ab an d on s its el f to vi o l e n t m o v e m e n ts by m e a n s ,

o f which it throws off its t e g um e n t a ry m e m br a n e

it is th en on ly th at its limbs a cquire al l th e ir l en gth ,

an d i ts b o dy th e c ol o u rs it is a ft e rw a rds to pr e s e rv e .

53 5 So m e i n s e cts a lth o u gh th e y u n d e rg o
. ,

c on sid e r abl e ch an ge s wh en y o u n g d o n o t p as s ,

thr ough th e co mpl e t e s e ri e s o f tran sfo rm ati on s of

which we h a v e j u st sp ok e n ; th e y s e e m a s it w e r e ,

to st0 p en r ou te an d n e v e r c o m e to po ss e ss
,

wi n gs .
Fl e a s ar e i n this c a s e an d l eavi n g F i g 3 7 7 , .
. ,

th e e g g th e y h av e n o fe e t a n d h a v e th e fo r m
, ,

o f sm all w o rms o f a whitish c ol o u r

, Th e s e l a r v ae a r e v e ry
.

liv e ly an d roll th e m s e lv e s i n t o a circl e or spir al

, So o n .

th e y b e com e r ed dish an d a ft e r h avin g liv e d i n thi s sta t e a

,

d o z en d ays th ey sh u t th em s elv e s u p i n a s m al l silky c o c o on o f

,

e xtr e m e fi n e n e ss to b e tr an sfo rm e d i n to a n y m ph ; th e n at
, ,
 3 98 z o o no e x .

the e n d of a bo ut tw e lve days o f s e clusi on i f the tim e be w arm , ,

th l e av e the e n v e lo pe i n the pe rfe ct sta te .

53 6 Fi n a lly th e r e ar e a ls o in s e cts which do n ot u n

.
,

d e r g o a m e ta m o rph o sis an d which a r e bo r n with al l the

,

o rg an s th e y a r e u lti m a te ly to po ss e ss ; b u t it i s al w ays
th e apt e ro us i n s e cts which o ff e r us thi s m od e of d e ve l o p m e n t .

The p od ur e ll a ( Fig . alre ady spo k e n of an d th e l o u s e ,

( Fig . o ff e r e x a m pl e s of this .

§ 5 3 7 .I n s e ct s s o r e m ar k a bl e by th e ir o rgan i z ati on ar e ,

still m o re s o by th e ir ha bits an d by the ad m ir able in sti n ct

,

which n atur e has bes to w e d on so m an y o f th e m The ar ti .

fi ce s th e y e m pl oy to pr ocure th e ir food or to withdra w th e m ,

s e lv e s fro m th e ir e n e m i e s an d th e i n dust ry th ey displ ay i n

,

th e i r l a bo urs a sto ni sh al l who h a v e wit n e ss e d th em ; an d

,

wh en w e s ee the m un ite i n to n um e rous s oci eti e s to m ak e up ,

fo r th e ir i n di v id u al fe e bl e n e ss a ssist e ach oth e r divid e a m on gst

, ,

th e m the w o rks n e ce ss a ry to the prospe rity of th e ir com m u

n i ty pr o vid e for th e ir fu tur e w a n ts a n d fr eq u e n tly e v e n r e gu
, ,

l at e th e ir acti o n s a cco rdi n g to the accid e n ta l circu m sta n ce s i n

which th e y m ay be pl ace d on e r e m ai n s c on fo un de d to fin d i n
, ,

th e s e b e i n gs s o sm all an d appa r en tly s o i m p e rfe ct in stin ct so

, ,

v ari e d an d s o po w e rful an d in te ll e ctu a l co m bi n a ti on s which

,

so str on gly r e s e mbl e r e a s on in g o r j udgm e n t The subj e ct .

w ould n ot b e c o m e e xh au st ed if w e fe lt i n clin ed to rel a te h e re

,

e x a m pl e s o f th e s e c u ri o us ph e n o m en a but th e n a rr o w limits ,

o f th e s e l e ct u r e s d o n ot p e rmit u s to co n se cr ate a t this m o

m en t m o r e tim e to this subj e ct ; an d w e can onl y r e fe r o u r

r ea d e rs to wh a t w e h av e al re ady s a id whilst tre ati n g i n a
ge n e r al w ay of the acti o n s o f an im als 3 1 7 to
53 8 C l a s s ifi ca ti o n f
. o I n s e cts — If w e n o w e n de av our
.

i n a fe w w o rds to sum up the m o r e impo rt an t di ffe r en c e s

which in s e cts pre s e n t w e sh al l fi n d th at th e s e diffe ren ce s
,

d e p e n d e sp e ci ally on the structur e o f the m o n th which r e gu ,

’
l a te s the r eg i m e o f th es e an im als ; i n th e di spo siti on of the
o rga n s s e rvi n g fo r a eri al l oco m o ti o n a fu n cti on which giv es
,

to the e n tir e cl a ss on e o f its m o st pro mi n e n t ch a ra cte rs ; fin all y ,

o n th e k i n d o f m e ta m o rph o s e s which th e s e b e i n gs u nd e rgo

wh e n yo u n g No w afte r wh at w e h av e s aid e ls ewh ere r e
.
,

spe ctin g th e e ss e n c e o f n at u r al cla ssific ati on it is e vid e n t th at ,

it o ht i n c o n s e qu en c e to b e i n th e m o dific ati on s o f the

bu cca a pp ara tus o f the wi n gs an d o f th e ir m od e o f d e v e l o p
, ,

m e n t th a t th e z oo l o gist sh oul d l oo k fo r the b as is o f a m e th o

,

di ca l di st r ib u ti o n o f th e s e a n im als I n fact it is i n this way

.
,
 CLA S S m s s cr s . 3 99

th at th ey h av e c om e to divid e th e m i nt o a c e rtai n n u mb e r o f
o rd e rs to which h av e b e e n giv en the n a m e s o f co l e op ter a
, ,

or tb op ter a , n e u r op ter a , hym en op ter a , l ep i d op te r a !ze ,

m ip ter a , d ip te r a , r l zip ip ter a , a n op tu r e s ,

a n d th s a n ou r e s
y .

53 9 The c o l e opte r a , a s w e ll a s th e o rth o pte ra an d the

.

n e u r o pte r a, ar e fo rm e d to b e n ourish e d on s ol id subst an c e s ,

Fi g 3 7 8
. . Vri ll tt
- e e Fi g 3 7 9 -Sca r ab e u s ( o r A l e s cu s ) ,
. . F i g 3 80
. .D rm e st
- e e
P ti s )nu . cr
S a e d B e e tl e o f th e E gyp t i a n s . du L rda .

wh eth e r an i m a l o r v e ge t abl e an d ar e fur n ish e d for this pur

,

po s e with m an dibl e s an d j a ws a d apt e d for the divisi on o f this

ki n d of foo d ( Fig Th ey h a v e two p airs o f win gs b u t
.
,

th o se of the first p ai r ar e n ot ad apt e d for fli ght an d c on stitut e ,

a s ort o f h a rd an d h o rn y bu ckl e rs c al l e d e lytr a ( a Fig , .

Th e wi n gs of th e
s ec on d p air ar e ,

o n th e co n tr a ry m e mbr an o u s tr an s
, ,

p are n t an d to o l on g to b e c o n c e a l e d
,

u n d e r the e lytr a with o u t b e i n g fold e d

a cr o ss ; s om e ti m e s th e y ar e a lto
g e th e r w an ti n g an d th e n the i n s e ct
,

ca n n ot fly ; this is the c a s e with th e

ch ar an on (the w e e v il ) which d e stroys E
o u r g r fn a ri e s mn d is r e m a rk a bl e fo r its
g l '

h e a d pr ol on g e d i n to the fo r m o f a b e a k
,
.

Th e col e 0 pte r a u n d e rg o c om pl e t e m et am o rph o s e s The .

l a rv a r e s e m bl e s a w o rm with a h o rn y h e a d whilst the r e st of ,

th e bo dy i s a l m o st a lw ays s o ft ( Fig 3 8 1 ) its m ou th is fo rm e d

.

i n the s a m e w ay a s th at o f the p e rfe ct i n s e ct ; the th r e e ri n gs

 400 w om e n .

which fo llow the h ea d h av e e ach o f the m alm o st always a pai r

o f limbs r lly v y sh r t fi n a ll th e re e x ists i n a gre a t
n umbe r o f th e s e a n im a ls a p air o f fay
g e n e, a e r o ; ,

" e limbs a ttach e d to the

l ast s e gme n t o f the a bd om e n The n ymph is i n activ e a n d

. ,

ta k e s n o n o u ri shm en t ; it is co v er ed with a m e m bran o us ski n ,

appli e d e x actly o v e r the subj ace n t p a rts an d p e rmits th e i r ,

be i n g s e en .

Mo st o f th e s e i n se cts are re m ark abl e for the h a rdn e ss o f

th e ir i n te gum e n ts an d the b r il l i an of th e ir co l ou rs So m e
carn iv o ro us — the gild e d car tih
.

ar e ,
us ( b ee tl e ) o r g a rd e ner

( Fig . so co mm on i n th e s an dy w a lks for e x ampl e ; o th e r s , ,

a s t he m a -b u liv e o n v e g e ta bl e s Th e ir n u mbe r is i m
y g , .

m e n s e an d al r ea dy thi rty th o u s an d spe ci e s a r e k n o wn ; b u t

,

w e sh a ll l i m it o urs e lv e s h e r e to m e n ti o n i n g on ly the sc a r a b e i ,

o f which on e sp e ci e s ( Fig 3 7 9 ) is ce l e br a te d by r ea s o n o f the

.
,

re sp e ct with which it was vie w e d by the an ci e n t E gypti an s ;

th e c an th a ride s o r Sp an ish fli e s ( Fig which i n the .
,

s o uth of Fran ce an d of Spai n l iv e on the as h-tree an d the ,

lil ac an d fu rn ish to m e dici n e a v e ry e n e rge tic bliste rin g s u b

,

stan ce ; the w e e vils which liv e on ,

r a i n ; th e vrill e tte ( Fig 3 7 8 ) ( P ti n u s

g ) .
,

a n d th e w oo d pi e rc e rs which i n t he ,

state of l a rv a pe rfo ra te the w oo d o f

ol d fur n iture an d ti m be r w o rk ; the
de rm e ste s ( Fig wh o s e l a r v ae liv e
.

o n the c a st -o ff skin s o f o th e r a n i m als ,

a n d o fte n i n thi s w a
y d e stroy fur ri e ry
a n d z oo l o gical c o ll e cti on s ; fin ally the ,

co cci n ella or b é te a b an d i e u the ,

cici n de l a the ca ra bu s ( Fig 7 &c

, . .

§ 5 40 T h e o rth o pte r a
. r e s e m bl e
the pr e c edi n g by the ge n e ra l di spo
— siti o u o f the o rg an s o f m a stica ti on a s
Fi g 3 8 2
or
. C th ri s
Sp ni sh ly
.

a
an
F a
w e ll as by the n umbe r an d con
.
,

siste n ce of th e ir win gs b u t ar e disti n ,

g u i s he d by the m an n e r i n which th e ir p o ste ri o r wi n gs ar e

fo ld e d a n d by t he n at u r e o f th e ir m eta mor pho s e s The e lytra
, .

a e l e ss h a rd th a n i n the c o l e o pt e r a a n d th e m e m b ran o us
r
W i n gs ( Fig 3 83 wh e n th e y ar e a t r e st ar e n ot fo ld e d tr a n s

v e r se l
) .
,

y b u t m e r e ly l o n git u di n a lly i n the m an n e r o f a fa n

, , .

Th e y u n d e rgo o n ly a s e m i -m e t a m o rph o sis a n d the l a r v a as

y
w e ll a s t he n m ph re s e m bl e s a pe r fe ct i n s ect e x c e pti n g as
,

W
re g a rds the i n gs Fi n a l ly al l ar e t e rre stri al an d m o st o f
.
,
,

,
 C L x ss I N SEC TS . 401

th e m remark abl e for the e l on gation of th e ir bo dy an d for

ar e

t he e x tre m e d e v e l opm e n t of th e i r po ste ri o r limbs which ,

m ake s th e m l e api n g an im als .

Fi g . 3 8 3 —L o cu st
. . F i g 3 84
. .
-
C o ckro c h a .

The l o custs crick ets ( Fig 3 43 ) ar e

an d . the pri n cipal r e pr e
s e n tati v e s o f this gr oup : b u t i n it ar e a ls o ar r an g e d the
.

m an tis ( Fig . th e phyl l is ( Fig . . th e gri ll on

Fi g 3 85
. .
—H o u s e Cri ck e t .

( Fig . th e co u r ti l i er e ( Fig 3 4 5) , the co ck r oach ( Fig

. .

an d th e fo r fi cu l ae ( Fig .

54 1 The n e u r opte r a ar e disti n gu i sh e d from oth e r m as

.

D D
4 02 zo o no e v .

ti ca ti n g i n s ects by the structur e o f th e ir wi n gs four i n ,

n umb e r ; th ese ar e al l m em bran ou s tr an sp are n t of ex

y
tre m e delicac an d o f equ al utility fo r flight The bo dy of
,
,

.
,

such i n s e cts i s gen e ral ly s o ft a n d v e ry e l o n ga te d Fi n al ly

, .
,

s om e u n d e rgo a co mpl e te m e ta m or ph osis oth e rs onl y a s e mi ,

m etam o rph o sis This o rd e r c o m pri se s the li b e l l u l ze ( Fig

. .

th e a g ri on s ( Fig the e ph e m e ra ( Fig

. the fo urmi .

li o n ( Fig . the fr i g an i dae the te r mit e s &c , , .

3 86 .
—
P hyl li e F e ui l l e S é ch e ( Phyll i u m S u ccif ol i um ) .

Th e s e l as t i n s ects k n o wn als o by the n a m e o f white an ts

, ,

ar e v e ry d e stru ctiv e ; th e y ar e m e t with chi e fly i n w a r m

c o un tri e s b u t th ey ca u s e c on sid e ra bl e d e str u cti on i n som e
,

pa rts o f Fran c e a s a t R o ch ell e an d at Ro ch e fo rt fo r ex am pl e

, ,
’
th e y d e stroy the timb e r of c a rpe n te rs w o rk a n d liv e i n ,
 CLA S S I N S E C T S .

n um e ro us s oci e ti e s co mpo s ed of wi n ged m al e s an d fe m al e s

, ,

o f W i n gl e ss n e utr a l i n divi d u a ls an d o f th e y o u n g , .

54 2 The hym e n opte ra e st ablish i n s om e m e a sur e the

.

p ass a g e b e twe en m asti cati n g an d s u ckin g i n s e cts : th ey h av e

i n fro n t m an dibl e s v e ry lik e the fir st b u t which do n ot s e rv e ,

fo r m as tic ati on an d th e y ar e n ourish e d with s oft or liqu id

,

m atte rs which th ey suck up by m e an s o f a m o v e abl e a nd

,

fl e xible prob o scis com po s e d of gums an d of the l an gu ett e

,

e x tre m e ly e l on g at e d ( Fig Th ey h av e lik e th e n eu

.
,

r opte r a fou r m e mbr an ou s an d tr an sp a r e n t win gs ; but th e s e

,

wi n gs i n ste a d of be i n g r e ticul ate d lik e l ac e ar e divide d in t o

, ,

38 7 .
—Li b lle ul e é r é e ( L i b ll
D p im e ul a d e pre ss a ) .

a ce rtai n n umbe r o f to l e r ably l arge ce llul e s by h orn y n e rvur e s ,

a n d th e y cr o ss e a ch o th e r h o riz o n t a lly o n th e b o dy d u ri n g

r e po s e Th e s e i n t e gumen ts ar e n ot v e ry h ard a n d the

.
,

a bd o m e n o f the fe m a l e i s te rmi n a t e d b
y a wi m bl e or d a rt .

Th e s e in s ects u n d e rgo a c o m pl e te m e t am o rph o sis The .

l ar v a s o m e ti m e s de priv ed of w i n gs r e s e m bl e s a w orm ; at
, ,

o th er ti m e s h a vi n g s i x fe e t with h oo ks an d o ft e n als o fro m

, , ,

twe lve to si x te e n m e mbr an ou s fe et it m o re re s e m bl e s a c ate r ,

pill ar I n bo th c as e s it has a s caly h e ad with m an dibl e s j aws

.
, , ,

an d a lip a t th e e x tr e m ity o f which

, is a wi n de r fo r th e
p ass age o f the silky m a tte r o f which th e co coon i s to b e con
’
str u cte d The r eg i me of th e s e l a rv ae v a ri e s much Se v e ral
. .

D D 2
 ZOOLO G Y .

r e q uire fo reig n a i d an d ar e brou ght up i n co m mon b y ste ril e

,

i n dividu als re u n ite d i n to a s o ci e ty as we h a v e seen i n s pe ak

, ,

i n g o f be e s The n ymph r e m ain s with out n ourish

F i g 388
. .
—T e rm i te s ( Whi te An ts ) .

~
m e n t , a n d i n c om pl e te r e p o s e Fi n ally , i n th e ir pe rfe ct
.

the hym e n opt e ra liv e alm o st al l o n fl o w e rs , an d th e y di e at

t he e n d o f the fir st y e a r o f th e ir e x iste n c e .

F i g 3 89
. .
—B o m b u s , or H um bl e Bee ( A pi s m u s co ru m
) .

Thi s o rd e r co mpris e s m o st o f the in s ects m or e rem a rka bl e

fo r th e ir i n s ti n ct such a s an ts be e s ( Fig
s
, an d w as ps
, . to
 cu s s I N SE C T S . 405

it a ls o be l on g the b u m b l e b e e ( Fig . the xyl oc op e s ( Fig .

the te n thr ed e s , the si re x ( F ig . the ich n eum o n ,

the cy n ips , &c .

F i g 390 —G i ga n ti
. . c S i re x ( Si re x p e r vo ni a ) .

§ 54 3 . rd The
e r of l e pid opte r a is c o m p o s ed o f i n s e cts
o

wh os e m o uth ( Fig 3 63 ) is so fo r m e d as to b e ad apte d o n ly

.

F i g 39 1
. .
—P eaco k
c B tte rfly ( Papi li o p
u e r vo ni a ) .

for th e dr awi n g up
'

of j uice s de p osit e d on the of

p l an ts ; whos e W gs
in ar e fou r i n n umbe r m embran ous , , as in
 ZOOLO G Y .

the two pr ece di n g groups , op aqu e , an d v ari ously c o l our ed by

the pre s e n c e o f a s o rt o f sc aly d ust fix e d to th e sur face .

The m outh , a s w e h av e alre ad y s a id , h as the fo rm of a pro

b os ci s ro lled i n to a spi ral . Fin al ly th e s e in s ects u n d e rgo
, a

F i g 3 92
. .
—D an ai s P le xi pp u s .

c om pl e te m e t am orph os i s an d th e ir l arvae ( Figs

, .

3 95 , kn own by the n am e of c ate rpi l l a rs ar e p ro vide d ,

with fe e t to w a rds the two extre miti es of th e ir body an d liv e ,

3 93 .
—Sphi nx of th Vi e ne.

ge n e rally on l e ave s ; so m e en v el o pe th e ms e lv e s in a s il k
c o coon i n orde r to co mpl e te th e i r t ran sfo rm ati on ; o th e rs to fi
 C LAS S I N SE CTS . 4 07

th ems e lv e s i n to l eav e s or suspe n d th e ms e lv e s to s om e fo re ign

,

body by m e an s o f a sil k en thre ad .

A m on gst the l e pidopte ra s om e fly dur in g th e d ay oth e rs

, ,

sh o w th e ms e lv e s on ly at dusk an d oth e rs re m a i n as it w e re
,

be n umbe d dur i n g the d ay an d app e ar on ly at n ight The

, .

di ur n al ar e kn o w n by th e ir wi n gs e l e v ate d v e rtica lly duri n g

re po s e ( Fig . an d a r e r e m ark able for th e v ar i e ty an d
bri l li an cy of th e ir co l o urs Th ey ar e ge n e r a lly t e rm ed p ap i l
.

l o n s ( butte rfli e s ) but z oo logists di vid e th e m in t o v an e s sae

,

F i g 394
. .
—O ak L e a f M o th
-
. F i g 3 95
. .
—P yral e s of th e V i n e ’ .

( Fig . p apill on s prop e rly s o ca ll e d ( Fig

, d an ai d e s .

( Fig . &c Th e twi lig ht an d the n o ctu r n a l h a v e the win gs

.

h oriz on ta l d u ri n g re po s e an d h av e i n ge n e ra l m ore s o mbre

,

col our s th an the pre ce din g Th e s e ar e the sphin x ( Fig

. .

the b om b yce s ( Figs 3 7 2 an d . the ph al en ae the ti n e i te , ,

&c . The pyr al is ( Fig which o cc asi on s als o such

.

de stru cti on to the vi n e ri e s b e l on gs to this g ro up

, .

§ 54 4 T h e . h e mipt e r a a lso h a v e the m o uth fo r m e d fo r

Le a f o f th e vi n e a t tac
c r
4b , th e a t e p i ll ar 4 c, the
k dggs
e
e
b y th e pym l es
; 4d an d 4-
—
4 , th e m a le ; 4 a , the
r
e , th e ch ys al i d e s .
female
408 zoo w o r .

sucti on n ot con sist i n g i n a sin gl e pro bo sci s but wi th the

, ,

fo rm o f a b i ll or beak i n the i n te ri o r o f whi ch ar e sha rp

,

styl e ts ada pte d to pe rfo rate an i ma l or v e ge ta bl e tissu e s i n

, ,

fi g 396
. .
—P e n tom n a ( Oim e x or n a u t s) —H a ys W d B g
. F i g 3 97
. .
,
or oo u .

which the an i m a l fin ds the liquids by which it i s n o urish ed

Th e s e i n s e cts h a v e ge n e rall y four win gs lik e al l the ,

pre ce d i n g but us u ally th o s e o f the first p air a r e o n ly m e m

,

b r an o us to w a rds the e xtr em ity an d co n stitut e s e m i e lytra

,
- .

Fi n al ly the m et am o rph o s e s ar e i n c o mpl ete an d th e i n s e ct as

, ,

it gro ws ch an g e s n e ith e r its fo rm n o r its h abits ; on ly it i n

g e n e r al r equire s wi n gs which it h ad n ot at fir st ; s om eti m e s
,

h o w e v e r th e y r e m ai n with o ut th e s e o rgan s T his i s the .

F i g 398
. .
—Th B lm C ri c t
e a k e .

c as e with the b e d b u gs fo r e x am pl e W e a rr an ge i n this

, .

o rd e r the pe n ta to m e the h al ys or w oo d bug ( Fig 3 9 6 an d

,
.

&c the n e pa s or w ate r fle a ( Fig

.
, th e cigal e or .
-
 CLA S S I N SE CTS . 4 09

balm cr ick e t ( Fig the p u c e ron s th e co chi n e al & c

.
,
.

, .

W e m ay a ls o bri n g n e ar to this gr o u p the fle a ( Fig .

fo r e x a mpl e which i s a lw ays apte ro us lik e th e b u g an d

, , ,

which h as b ee n c on sid e re d by m o st n atural ists e n titl ed to

fo rm a p a rti cul ar o rd er call e d suck e rs , .

3 99 .
—Th e le a F . 400 —Th e Ne p a
. . F i g 401
.
—Th e Bu g .

545 The o rd e r of dipte ra is ch ar act e riz e d by the ex

.

i s te n ce o f a si n gl e p a ir of m e m bran ou s wi n gs , n o t un lik e
th o s e o f the hym en opte ra , an d by th e str ucture of th e m outh ,
a rr an g e d for s u cti on on l y ; w e o bs e r v e i n it i n g e n e r a l a pr o

b os ci s , s om eti m e s h o rn y an d e l on g at e d , s o m e tim e s s oft an d

’
re tr a ctil e , an d i n cl osin g s ti fl an d sh arp b r istl e s .

F i g 402
. .
—( E stru s . Fi g 403
. .
—Th e O x -fly , o r G a d -fly .

A s u fli c e n tl
y c o rre ct id e a o f the
i n e r al fo rm o f dipte ro us

i n s e cts m ay b e d e riv e d fro m on e o th e m kn ow n to all the

w o rld—the co mm on fly ; an d w e sh all o nl y ad d th at al l n u ,

de r g o a co m pl e t e m e ta m orphosis The la r v ae ( F ig 402 a )

. .
,

h av e n o l i mb s s thei r h ead i s s oft an d the mouth is gen e rally

,
 Z OOLOGY .

p r o vid e d with h oo ks S o m e tim e s

. th e y ch an g e th e ski n s e v e ral
tim e s a n d spi n a co co on to tra n sfo rm th e ms e lv es i n it in to a
, ,

n ymph ; a t o th e r ti m e s th ey do n o t mo u lt an d th e i r skin , ,

h ard e n ed an d h orn y be co m e s for th e n ymph a s o li d co coo n

, ,

h av i n g the appe ara n c e o f a ree d ( F ig 40 2 a ) .

, .

I n thi di visi on we pl ace i n additi on to the fli es p ro p e rly

s
, ,

s o c a ll e d the g n a ts
, the g ad -fly ( Fig
, the ( 2 3 t ( Fig
. .

&c .

F i g 404 . . S tylo p s
-
.

Fi g 405
. .
—P e di cu l us h am an n s .

54 6 . The rhipipte ra
i n s e cts h a v i n g also b u t two
ar e

wi n gs but i n which the o rgan s ar e fo ld e d lon gitu di n all y l i k e a

, ,

a fa n ; two ge n e ra onl y ar e k n o wn th e styl o ps Fig 4 04 an d

( , ) .

the x e n o s which i n th e ir sta te o f l a rv a liv e as p ar as ite s o n

,

th e a bd o m en o f w a sps an d o th e r hym e no te r a
p .

54 7 The o rd e r a n Opl ur e s o r p ara s i te s is n ot n u me r o us

.
,

an d i s co m po se d o f i n s ects which ar e alw ays with ou t win gs

,
 C LA SS or TH E M YR I APODA . 41 1

which h a v e the m outh a rran ge d for su cti on an d which do

.
,

n ot u n d e rg o a m e ta m o rph o sis A s in di c ate d by th e i r n am e

.
,

th e y liv e on the bodi e s of oth e r an im als wh o s e v e i n s th e y ,

suck Th e y fo rm two ge n e r a th e p edi c u lus ( Fig 4 05) an d the

.
, .

i cu s i n ; th e s e l as t a tta ch th ems e lv e s to th e d og a n d to v ari ou s

E irds .

54 8 F in al ly th e i n s e cts o f the o rd e r thys an ou r a com

.
,

m e n ce e qu al ly with the for m which th e y pr e s e rv e thr o u gh

life an d ar e alw ays with ou t wi n gs but th ey ar e disti n g u ish e d
,

fr om th e pre c e di n g by th e i r m a stic at ory a pp ar at u s an d by ,

th e a ppe n d age s with which th e ir a bd om e n is pr o vid ed Th e s e .

ar e the
po d ur e l l ae ( Fig t h e l e pism
. a m a chilis ( Fig , .

&c .

C L A S S O F TH E M Y R I A P O D A .

54 9 . The
myri ap od a re spir e ai r by m e an s of tr acheze ,

lik e i n s e cts but th ey di ffe r con side r ably fr o m th e s e an im al s

, ,

as w e ll a s fro m th e ar ach n i d e s by th e i r g e n e r a l c o n f orm a ti on

, .

Not on ly th e y n e v e r h av e wi n gs but th e ir b o dy m u ch e l on , ,

gat ed an d divid e d i n to a gr e at n umb e r o f ri n gs carri e s on e ach ,

of th e s e s e g m en ts at l e a st a p a ir o f li m bs b e sid e s the n umb e r ,

o f th e s e o r an s al w ays tw e n ty -fou r at l e a st or m o r e ; n or i s
th e re an y T
, ,

i n e of d e m ar cati on b e tw e en the th o rax an d the

a bd o m en Th e y s o m e wh at r e s e m bl e s e rp en ts o r w o r m s with
.
,

fe e t ; b u t th e ir i n te rn a l o rg an iz ati o n bri n gs th e m n e a r e r to
o rdi n ary i n s e cts e x c e pti n g th at th e i r cir cul ato ry syst e m is
,

much l e ss i n c om pl e te .

Th e h e ad of th e myri a pod a is pr o vide d with two s m all

an t e n n ae a n d with tw o e y e s g e n e r a ll y fo rm e d by th e r e u n i on
, ,

o f o c e lli Th e ir m ou th is fo r m ed for m a stica ti on an d is p r o

.
,

v i d ed with a p a ir o f b i -a rtic u l a t e d m an di bl e s fo ll o w e d by a
,

s o rt o f lip with foiur divisi on s an d with two p airs of app en ,

d age s r e s e m bli n g littl e fe e t The n u m b e r o f the r in gs of th e ir

.

b odi e s v ari e s an d s om eti m e s th e s e s e g m e n ts app ea r r e -u n ite d

, ,

tw o an d two i n such a w ay th at e a ch m o v e abl e s e gm e n t c a rri e s

,

tw o p air s o f limbs ( Fig Th e s e l a st organ s t e rmi n at e

.

o n ly i n a sin gl e h oo k Fin al ly th e re e xists o n e ith e r sid e o f

.
,

th e bo dy a s e ri e s o f stigm a ta i n co mmu n ic ati on with tr ach eae

, ,

fo rm e d i n the s am e way as th os e o f o rdin ary in s e cts The .

my ri apod a e xp e ri e n c e m e ta m o rph o s e s i n y o uth but th e s e ,

ch an ge s ar e n ot an al ogo us to th os e we h av e s e en tak e pl ac e
41 2 ZOOLO G Y .

in i n s e cts prope rly so c all ed an d con sist on ly i n the fo rm a

, ,

ti on of n e w r i n g s an d i n a co rr e spo n di n g augm e n ta tio n i n th e

,

n umb e r of the l imbs .

§ 5 5 0 T w o n a t u ra l gr o ups e asily disti n gui sh e d by the

form o f the an te n n ae c ompo s e thi s l atte r cla ss —n am e ly th e

.
,

, ,

chi l og n athu s o r i u lus an d th e chil o o de s o r th e sco l o pe n d ra

, p .

F i g 407
. .
— I ul u s .

The chi l og n a thi ha v e a cyl i ndri cal bo dy an d fe e d on o rgan ic ,

m a tte rs m o r e or l e ss d e c o m p o s e d ; th e ir p a c e is S l ow an d th ey ,

o ft en r ol l th ems e lv e s in to a spir a l o r b a ll Th ey ar e kn ow n .

b y the n a m e s o f i u lus ( Fig . o

p yl d e s m u s ( Fig an d .

of g l om e r i s

Fi g 407
.
( 408 ) P o l yd e sm us , L at . I u lu s com plan a t u s , F ab .

The chil opod a h av e the b ody fl atte n e d an d m o re m e m

b r a nous th an the pr e ce din g ; th ey a r e ca r n iv or ous an d r u n ,

ve fas t Thr ee pri n cip al gen e ra co mpo s e this gr ou p : the

s cd lbpe n dr a ( Fig
.

.th e li thobius an d th e scutig e ra , .

O F TH E C L A S S A R A C H N I DA .

551 . cl ass o f the a r ach n id a is co mpo se d o f ar ti cu

The
l ate an i m als h avi n g a str on g an al ogy with in s e cts an d
, , ,

l i k e th e m o rga n iz e d to liv e i n a i r but which m ay b e disti n

, ,

g u i sh ed at o n c e by the g e n e r a l fo r m o f the bo dy an d by t h e ,

n umb e r o f th e ir li mbs ; th e y di ffe r als o fr o m th o se an im als i n

 CLA S S ARACHN I DA 413
‘

or TH E .

s e v e ral i mpo rt an t p articul ars a s re gards th e ir in te rn al Str uc

t u re I n fa ct al l the ar ach n ida h a v e the h ead con fou n d e d
.
,

with the th o rax an d h av e n o an t e n n ae ; th e y h av e fo ur p a irs

,

o f lim bs a n d n e v e r wi n gs ; an d th e y br e a th e i n g en e r a l by
,

m e an s o f pul mon ary ca viti e s an d h a v e al l a to l e ra bly com

,

pl ete circu l ato ry appa ratus .

F i g 409
. .
—M yg la e, Gu v . Ar
an e a av i c g l a r i a , Li n .

§ 552 . The t e gum e n t a ry S k e l e to n o f th e s e an im als is i n

ge n e ral l e ss s o lid th an th at of i n s e cts an d th e ir bo dy is com

,

po s e d of two pri n cip al arts al m o st a lw ays disti n ct ; the on e

c all e d cep ha l o tl zo r ax g
,

e ca u s e it is fo rm e d by th e h ea d an d
,

tho rax c on fo u n d e d i n to a si n gl e s e gm e n t ; the o th e r n am e d ,

a b do m e n, an d c o mp o s e d s o m e tim e s o f a s e ri e s of disti n ct
414 ZOOLOGY .

ri n gs , as s ee n i n sc o rpi on s ( Fig
m ay b e so m e t i m e s of a .

s oft m ass gl o bu l ar a n d with out divisi on s as fo r e x ampl e i n

, , , , ,

spid e rs ( Fig .

The o rg an s o f l o co m o ti o n ar e al l fix e d to the ce p h al o
th or ax an d co n sist of e ight p a irs stron gly re s e mbli n g tho se
, ,

of i n se cts a n d a lm o st a lw ays t e r m in ate d b y two h oo ks ; th e i r

,
.

l e n gth is i n ge n e r al c on side rabl e an d th ey e asily bre a k ; but , ,

a s i n th e cr u st a c e a the st u mp a fte r h a vi n g cic a tris e d

, re pro , ,

duc e s a n e w limb which i n cre a s e s by littl e an d littl e an d

, ,

e n ds by b e co mi n g si m il ar to th at o f which th e a n im a l had

b e e n d e priv e d The a rach n id a n e v e r pre se n t e v en the ve s

.

tige s o f win gs an d th e ir a bd o m e n is alw ays co m pl e te ly de

,

r i v e d of l o c om ot iv e a pp e n d a g e s
p .

553 It is i n th e an t e ri o r p art of the ce ph a .

l othor ax th a t w e fi n d the m o uth a n d the ey e s .

Th e s e l atte r o rgan s ar e alw ays S impl e a n d i n ,

c on sid e r abl e n u mb e r ; w e gen e rally fi n d e ight of

mg 4 1 0 .
th e m ( Fig an d w e o bs e rv e i n e ach o f th e m a
.

tran sp ar en t c o rn e a b e hi n d which is a crystal ,

lin e hum our or l en s an d a vi treo us h u m ou r th en a re tin a , , ,

for m e d by th e t e r m in ati on o f an optic n e rv e a n d an e n v e l o pe ,

of co l o u r i n g m atte r W e fin d n othi n g i n r e sp e ct o f the i n stru

.

m e n ts by which the ar ach n id a asce rta i n the pre s e n c e of s o un ds ,

but we h av e m an y pro ofs of th e e x ist en ce o f t s en s e i n th e s e

an im a ls an d it w o u ld e v e n app e a r th a t s o m e o f th e m ar e S e n
,

sibl e to the ch a rms o f m u sic Tou ch is e x e rcis ed chi e fly by the .

e x tr e mity o f the limbs an d by th e a ppe n d ag e s with which ,

th e m o u th i s pr ovid e d .

554 The n e rv o u s syste m o f the a r ach n id a pr es en ts di f

.

fe re n ce s s u fli ci e n tl y re m a rk abl e ; s o m e ti m e s a s i n the s eo r ,

pi on s fo r e x am pl e it is c omp os ed o f a s e ri e s of n i n e g an
,

l i on ar m a ss e s r e u n ite d to g e th e r by d o u bl e c o rds of co m m u
g y ,

mic ati o n an d fo rmi n g a ch ai n e x te n di n g fro m on e e x tr e m ity

,

o f th e b o dy to th e o th e r a n d i n a n a lm o st u n ifo rm m a n n e r ; ,

a t o th e r ti m e s as i n spid e rs &c ,we fi n d a l l the g an gli on s o f , .

,

t he th o r ax u n ite d i n to a S i n gl e m ass ( t Figs 4 1 1 an d , .

wh e n ce proce e d ba ckw a rds t wo c o rds ( c) whi ch proce e d to te r ,

m i n a te i n a sin gl e a bd om i n a l g an gli on ( a Fig F ur , .

th e r the ge n e ra l di spo siti o n o f th e s e p ar ts is alw ays the

,

Th eh id n rac di i d d i to t w rd rs t h p l m o ri
n es are v d th e n o o e , e u na a an e
tr ac h e an a Th fi rst . cl d s s ch g r
e thi n ar u th t r e t l u e ne a as e a n ea , e a an u a,
sc rp i & Th s
o o, c d rd r i cl d s t h p hi l g d wi th i t
. e e co n o ri s
e n u e e an i a, s va ou
o rd e rs f s i r t g l &
o d th
o ro ms f w hi c h th e re
u us , c m y an
b e s ea o ar e an
— su
.
, ,

g e ne ra d pan
e ci s R K S e . .
 or TH E CLA S S ARACHN I DA . 415

s am e ; the an te ri o r gan glion s S itu a te d i n fr o n t o f an d

a b o v e th e g
ull e t an d c on sid e r ed m o st gen e r ally as r epre s e n t
,

i n g th e br ai n of th e s e an i m als giv e o rigi n to th e o ptic n e rv e s ,

an te r i or l an d ar e co n ti n u ous be hi n d with th e Ce s oph a g e al

co ll a r ; t e o th e r g an gli on s ar e situ a te d u n d e r the ali m e n t a ry

tub e an d s e n d n e rv e s to the limbs abdom e n &c

, , , .

555 The a ra ch n id a ar e ca rn iv or o us but co n fin e th e m

.
,

s e lv e s ge n e r al ly to suck the hu m ours c on tai n e d i n the d e a d

body of th e ir victi m an d i n o rde r to r en de r e asy the c aptu r e
o f a n im als wh o s e S tr e n gth th e y might dr e a d n at u r e ha s pr o ,

v i d ed a gr e a t m a n y o f th e m with a v e n om o u s a pp a r atus .

M o st of th e m fee d on i n s e cts which th e y s e iz e alive ; s om e ,

ct e c 71 0

i m b wa m g

Fig 41 1. .
—K e r i 00 8 S yst e m , &c .
*

h o w e v e r ar e p ara site s I n the fir st the m o uth ( Fig 4 1 2) .

, .

is furn ish e d with a p a ir of m an dibl e s a rm ed with m o v e ,

a bl e h oo ks o r fo rm e d lik e fo rc e ps o f a pa i r o f l am e ll a te d
,

j a ws h av in g e ach a l a rge fee l e r m or e or l e ss p e di fo rm an d

, ,

s o m e o f a l o w e r lip ; i n the pa r as ite a r ac hn id a the m on th ha s ,

the fo rm of a s m a l l prob o scis wh e n c e S pri n gs a ki n d o f l an c e t ,

fo rm e d by the j a ws .

The m o v e a bl e b ook or cl a w o f the m a n dibl e s h as n ea r its

e x tr e m ity a sm all o pe n in g which is the o rific e o f th e e x cr e ,

c ph l o th r o f th e M yg l h owi g the di p s i ti o f
S ec i o n t of th e e a o ax a e, S n s o n o
th er
e n s syst m —t c p h l th r
vo u e m m d bl g cl w o m
c ,
e bl a o o ax , an i e , a r ove a e
h k t rm i t i g t ; 6 m o th ;
oo e na the g l l t ;
n I th st m h ; b ri gi
, u as, u e e. e o ac a , o n
f th bd m ; b r i c h l i c g gli ; t g gli o ry m s f t h
co rds ni t i g th e pd omi l g gli s ;
o e a o en c, a n or e a an on ,
an na as o e
th r ;
o ax ca , u no p ti c er e
y th a na an on n o, n v
, e
e ye s .
416 zo o LOGY .

to ry can al o f the v e n om o us l an d a lre ad y spo k e n o f an d the

'

liquid which it po urs i n to t e bo tto m o f the w o un d cau se s

imm edi ate ly th e be n u m bin g of the i n s e cts which th e se an i
m als pur su e but is too fe e bl e to i nj ur e m a n an d it is
, ,

with out an y re a son th at the co mm on pe opl e o fte n a s crib e to

the bite o l spid e r s the pimpl e s an d r ed spo ts which so m e
tim e s appe a r ou the s ki n .

Ce rtai n a r ach n id a a r e pr ovide d with an oth e r v en o mou s

a pp a r a tus d e sti n ed fo r the sa m e pu rpo s e an d al so s e rvi n g as
—
,

de fe n siv e w e ap o s such as th e h ook or cl aw which ter

n ,

m i n ate s the a bdo m en o f s co rpion s ( Fig T his S tin g .

pre s e n ts u n de rn ea th the po in t s e v e ral op en in gs which co m

m u n i cate with th e v e n o m o u s gl an ds an d th e S ti n g o f th e se ,

a r ach n id a i s o ft e n m o rtal e v e n to a n i m als o f co n sid e ra bl e ,

siz e a s the dog The gr ea t sco rpi on s o f hot c o un tri e s ar e

, .

a ls o much dre ad e d by m a n b u t the stin g o f the spe ci e s in ,

h abitin g E ur op e w ou ld s e e m n e v e r
to b e m o rta l ; th e re ge n e ra lly
a ris e s a l oca l i n fl am m ati on m o re ,

o r l e ss a cut e a cc o mp an i e d with fe v e r ,

an d stup o r s o m e tim e s v omi ti n gs ,

a n d tr e mbli n gs as th e r e s ults o f ,

l such a w ou n d To o v e r co m e th e s e .

sympto m s m e dic a l m e n re co m m en d ,

t h e u s e of v ol atil e a l k a li giv en i h
Fi g 41 2 .
} ,

te rn a l l y as w e ll as a ppli e d ex te r
n a lly to th e w ou n d ; e m o l li e n t substan c e s a r e a ls o a ppli e d

to th e w o u n d i l ’

The in t e stin al can al is i n gen e ral v e ry S impl e but i s s om e ,

tim e s c o mpli ca te d with cae c al appen da g e s which pe n et ra te

, ,

e v e n i n to the i n te ri o r of the li m bs .

I n ge n e ral tub e s an al o g o us to the bil i ary v e ss e ls o f i n s e cts

,

o pe n i n to th e i n te sti n e s n e ar the an us ; but i n s o m e ar ach

n ida such as sco rpi on s

,
th e re e xists al s o a liv e r c o mpo se d , ,

o f fo u r gl an dul a r br an ch e s :

B cc l pp ra t s f Spi d e r —s th st e r m ; l th e l i p m j aws ;
u a a a u o a ,
e nu , a ,

p,

v
lpi o f th j w s m m a di bl e s ; g b k o cl ws o f th m di ble s
f In S th r A fri c
)a
ou

a
d o
e
e th
a
n
,

b ks f t h G r t F i sh i r I o h
a,
s e r e d s m ll bl k p i d r w h s e sti g p r d c d t h sym t m s d s c b e d
a ac S e
an

,
n

o
n e
n
,

an
oo

o
s
o
u
r

e
a
e
e
ea
e

o
an
R ve
e
,
.

ri
i th t t e d lt ; b t i o f t h c s s w e h I m t wi th
'

n e ex i th,
ve n n e a u u n n ne o e a e e
d i d th e y pr f t l Th r m di s I p p l i e d w r th e o l ti l e al k li
o ve a a e d e e e a e e v a a an
—
.

stro n p 1t 8 R K
“
’
8 . . .

th b
1 T
e
sm ll fl t l s st s
a
i m ls
e se a n

a
m r s bey a ar e n u
ks f t h Gr t i sh R i r I r m m b r a l rg e p l i c r d wi th
an o e ea
d r th h f w hi ch th r s m e d t r s i d
oo e one ,
F
d i m a gi ti o i S th e rn Af i c o
un
e

e
ou

ne a
ve .
on

e ac
e
o
e
na
e
n
a
e
n

e
ou

ee
a n o ve
o
r
e
e
a,

e
n

a
s r pi o f
co f th h
n dr ds t r d
or o rw e r f il d t fi d
un Th y
e u ne ove e neve a e o n one
‘

e
—R K
.
,

w r
e l l w ys s l i t ry Thi w
e a so a a t th p st f W
o a lK t . s as a e o o e n ze oo s e rS . . .
 or TH E CLA S S ARACHN I DA . 417

It Is als o ar o un d the anal op en i n g th a t w e fi n d the s e cr e

ti n g gl an ds o f the silky m atte r an d the wi n d e rs by the ai d ,

o f which s e v e r a l a r a ch n id a c o n str u ct w e bs which a r e o fte n o f ,

gr e at ex te n t an d of e x tre m e fin e n e ss ( Fig .

Fi g 4 1 3
. .
—Th e Sco rp i o n .

§ 556 .r The
e spir a ti on o f the a r a ch n id a is a e r i an a n d ,

t ak e s pl ac e s om e ti m e s by m e an s o f tra ch e ae ; b u t i n m o st o f
th e s e an im als e sp e ci ally i n spid e rs an d sc orpion s it is con
, ,

ce n tr ate d i n p ou ch e s l o dge d i n the a bdo m e n an d c all e d ,

l u n gs Th e s e l atte r org ans pre s e n t i n te rn a lly a n u m b e r o f

.

m e mbr an ou s l am e ll ae ( I F i g a rr an g e d lik e th e l e av e s
, .

o f a b oo k ; th u s th ey m o r e r e s e m bl e br an chi ae th a n tru e
,

l u n gs E a ch l u n g r e c e iv e s the ai r by an o p e n i n g situ at e d i n
.

the l o w e r a sp e ct o f th e a bd o m e n a n d s o m e tim e s two such

m ay b e c o u n t e d S o m e tim e s fo u r a n d s o m e ti m e s e ight
, ,
.

Ce rt a i n S pid e rs p o ss e ss at the s a m e ti m e l u n gs an d tr ach eae ,

s u ch a s the s e g estr i e s f" an d oth e rs a s the fauch e u r an d

<
,

th e mit e s h a v e tr a ch eae o nl y
, Th e s e t u b e s h a v e the s am e
.

str u ct u r e a s i n i n s e cts an d the a i r e n t e rs th e m by tw o v e ry

,

sm a ll S tig m ata S it u at e d at the l o w e r p art o f the a bd om e n .

Th e bl oo d I S whit e 1 n al l an i m als o f this cl ass The pu l .

m o n ar y a r ach n id a h a v e a circ u l ati n g a pp a r atus s u ffici e n tly

c o mpl e te Th e ir h e art ( Fig
. sit u ate d i n the b ack ha s ,

the form o f an e l o n g a te d v e ss e l an d gi v e s o rigin to v a ri ou s ,

a rt e ri e s ; th e bl oo d a ft e r h a vi n g t r av e rs e d th e o rg a n s pr o

oc e d a to the l u n gs a n d fro m th e n c e r e a ch e s the h e art

, ,

foll owi n g a c o u rs e simil a r to th a t which w e h a v e a lr e ad y

ci e s Ara
R S ub -g e n u s
o ss —B
. . K .
se g e s tr i a, L at . E x am p l e of Sp e : n ea flo r e n ti n a ,
 418 O L GY
Z O O .

s e e n tak e s pl ace i n the c rustacea I n th e arach n ida

which bre ath e on ly by tr achem the ap pa r at u s of th e cir cu la ,
»

ti on i s rudim e n tary Th e re appe ars tto be m er ely a simpl e

.

d o r s al v e ss e l witho ut a rte ri es or v e in s
g
.

557 Th e ar a chn id a l ay e g s l ik e i n s e cts an d the m al e

.
,
'
di fler s g en e r a lly fro m the fe m al e I n the for m of the m axil la ry
fe e l e rs the us e s of which app ear to b e v e ry im po rtan t
,
.

’
Fi g . 41 4 -
. A n at o m y of a M yg al e .

g 1 e at n umb er of th es e an im al s en ve l ope th e ir e gg s i n a
c ocoo n of si l k an d s o m etim e s th e m othe r re m a in s n ea r he r
,

yo u n g fam ily to p ro te ct it an d e ve n ca rri es the littl e on e s o n

,

‘
ct, ce p h al o t h o r ax o p en b e l ow ,
an d gg tt c h t
g ii vi n a a m e n t o t h e i m , l bs
th e b s
a e of w i h ch l
i s i n p ace ; p a , i m o f th e l b fir st
p ai r ; , e e e ; m, f l r
bl s
m and i e ; ab , a bdom e n t t h o ra ci c an i o n a g gl
ma ; ry s s
a d om i n al

g li o n s ; p o , p u l m o n a ryp o u fie s c a, st t
i gm a a ; l , e pi a o r s r t ry
l am e ll ze 0 o n e
o f i ts c t s l d
a vi i e , ai o p e n , 0 , th e o v a i e , or , o i r s r fic
e o f t h e o vi u ; ma , d c ts
mu s cl s
e o f th e a bd om e n a n , an us ; f , wi n e d rs .
 or TH E CL AS S ARACHN I DA . 419

her b ack wh en th e y are too fe e bl e to w a lk alon e A l l th e s e

”

an i m a ls u n d e rg o s e v e r a l m o ulti n gs b e fo r e r e a chi n g th e a d u lt

a e an d s o m e e x p e ri e n c e a s o rt of m e t am o rph o sis
; fo r th e r e
g
,

a r e o f th e m wh o s e limbs a t first ar e o n ly thr e e p a irs i n n u m

b e r b u t which acquire a fo urth at a m o r e adv an ce d ag e

, .

§ 5 58 T h .e a r a ch n id a h a v e v a r i e d
i n st i n cts n o l e ss r e ma rk a bl e th an
tho s e o f i n s e cts ; an d on e fe e ls i n
cli n ed to a cco rd to th e m still high e r

facu lti e s for an im als o f this cl a ss

,

h av e b ee n s e en ca p abl e o f a ki n d of
e duc a ti o n an d to giv e
, sign s of a
s o rt of i n t e l l ige n ce M an y a m on gst
.

th e m h a v e r e co ur s e to p a rticu l a r
tricks to s ecur e the ir pr ey an d ,

o th e rs displ ay i n th e c on structi o n o f

th e ir dw e l li n g a si n g u l ar i n d u stry .

W e h av e al r e a dy had o cc a si o n to
sp e ak of the r e m ark abl e n e st of the
mygal e ( Fig the w e bs which
.

th e g ard e n spid e rs stre tch with an

admir a bl e r e g u l a ri ty a r e e qua lly cu F ig 415
r i on s . The sil k with which th e s e an i
m als thus con stru ct th e ir r e tr e ats stre tch s n a r e s fo r th e i r pr ey
, ,

a n d fo rm co co on s fo r th e ir e ggs is s e cr e te d by an a pp a r at u s
,

l odge d i n the p o ste ri o r p art o f the a bdom e n This app ar at u s .

co n sists i n s e v e ral p ack ets o f v e ss e ls turn e d on th e m s e lv e s an d , ,

te rmi n ati n g i n pi e c e s pi e rc e d at the s u m m it o f fo ur or s i x

co n ica l or cyli n dr ic a l m am e l on s c all e d wi n de rs an d situ at e d ,

u n d e r the an us ( Fig Th e gl u e y m a tte r e x p e ll e d

.

th rou gh th e s e po r e s a cq u ire s c on siste n ce by the c on t a ct o f

th e a i r a n d fo rms thr e a ds o f e xtr e m e te n uity an d o f a v e ry
, ,

gre at l en gth By the ai d o f its limbs the an i m al r eu n ite s

.

i n to a si n gl e c ord a multit u d e of th e s e thre ads an d e ach ,

tim e th at i n b a lan c in g its e lf th e s e wi n d e rs com e to touch

, ,

th e bo dy o n which it r e sts th ey a tt a ch to it the e x tre m ity o f

,

on e o f th e s e thr e ads t he o pp o sit e e n d o f which is still

,

e n cl o s ed i n th e s e cr e t o ry app a r a tus a n d th e l e n gth o f which ,

i t m ay c on s e qu e n tly au g m e n t at pl e a s u r e The co l o u r an d .

th e di a m e te r o f the thr e a d v a ri e s m u ch : a spid e r o f M e x ico

co n structs a we b c om p o s e d o f r e d y ello w an d bl ack thre ads , , ,

A bd o m d H e r t f a Spi d r
e n an a o bd om e n ; 0 h e art r c ph l i c
e a, a
,
: a , e a
a rt e ry ; v, v
e s c ls n ou an a .

E E 2
4 20 zo o noo r .

i n t e rl aced with re m a rk abl e art ; an d it has bee n calcul a te d

th a t te n th o us an d threa ds as th e y co m e from the o e o f o n e
o f the wi n d e rs o f so m e o f o ur co m m o n spid e rs ( p 0 rn ost e qu a l ,

i n thick n e ss on e o f o u r h ai rs ; whilst o th e r spe cie s pe cu li a r to ,

hot c ou n tri e s fo rm n e ts s o stron g th at th e y suffic e to ar r e st

,

the pro gr e ss of s m al l birds an d e v e n m an him s e l f is o blige d to

,

m ak e an e ffo rt to br e ak thr ou gh th e m The m an n e r i n

.

which spid e rs a rran g e th e ir silk i s n o l e ss v ari e d : s o m e

c o n fi n e th e m se lv e s to str etch irre gul a r thr e ads an d oth er s ,

w e a ve a w e b the m e sh e s of which ar e of e x tre m e re g u l a r ity

, .

S o m eti m e s w e s e e th em imm ov a bl e i n th e m iddl e o f th e ir

web ,
w atchi n g th e ir pr ey ; at oth e r tim e s th ey con c e al ,

th e m s e lve s i n a r etre at which th ey co n stru ct at h an d an d ,

which s om e tim e s has th e app e ar an ce of a silky tube s o m e ,

ti m e s th at of a sm all cu p or cupo l a .

559 The a r ach n id a a r e divid e d i n t o tw o o rd e rs a cc o rd

.
,

i n g to th e str u ct ur e o f the o rgan s of r e spira ti o n a n d o f

circ u l ati on .

The a r a ch n id a p u lm on ari a ar e chi e fly ch a ra ct e ri z e d by the

pr e s e n c e of pulm on a ry po u ch e s an d of a w e ll de v e l o pe d v as
cu l a r a pp a r a t u s ; b u t th e y m a a ls o b e
y
r e co gn ise d by oth e r p e culi a riti e s o f stru e
ture Th u s th e i r e ye s ar e s i x e ight
.
, , ,

o r e v e n m o r e i n n u mb e r a n d u n d e r the ,

a bdo m e n m ay b e s e e n two fo ur o r , ,

e ight stig m a ta M o re o v e r th e g e n e ra l ,

fo r m o f th e s e an i m al s v a ri e s So m e .

tim e s th ey h a v e the a bdo m e n gl o b u l a r ,

wi n de rs at its e x tr e m ity an d s m a ll ,

m an dibul a r fe e l e rs ; a t o th e r ti m e s t he
a bd o m e n is e l on g ate d an d c o mpo s e d
,

o f s e v e r a l ri n gs ; th e ir m an dib u l a r fee l

e rs a dv an ce lik e a rms an d t e r m i n ate

,

lik e fo rc e ps ; o r fi n a l ly th e re e x i s ts n o
F g 4 1 6 —Th éri di o
,
1 n
wi n d e rs a t t h e e x tr e mity o f t he body
. .

m l mi g th
a na e. ,

b u t i n g e n e r a l a v e n om o u s a ppar at u s .

S pid e rs pr o pe rly s o c all e d ( Fig

,
th at is to s a y the
.
,

m yga l e ( F i g the e p e ir a t he l yco s ae o r t a r an t u l a

.
, the )
,

th e ridi on s ( Fig pre s e n t u s with the first of th e s e t wo

.

m o d e s o f c o n fo r m a ti o n the sc o rpi on ( Fig the s e c on d

. .

56 0 The a r a ch n id a tr a che a r i ae h a v e n o p u l m o n a ry
.

po u ch e s b u t r e spire by tra ch ea} lik e i n s e cts a n d h av e

, , ,

o n l v a r u di m e n ta ry v a sc u l a r a pp a r a t u s fo r t he circ u l a t i o n o f
 or TH E cu s s ARACHN I DA . 4 21

the bl ood So m e ar e with o u t ey e s a n d i n th o s e which h a v e

.
,

th e m we n e v e r fi n d m o r e th an tw o o r fo ur Som e o f th e s e
, .

a n i m a ls k n o w n by th e n a m e o f fa u ch e u rs
, gre a tl y r e s e m bl e ,

spid e rs a n d ar e r e m ark a bl e fo r the l e n gth o f th e ir li m bs

,

oth e rs h a v e th e m o u t h fo rm e d fo r sucti o n a n d c o n stitut e the ,

fam ily a c a ri o r m ite s ; th ey ar e v e ry sm a ll an d s e v e ral li v e ,

a s p a r a si te s 0 11 o th e r a n i m al s .

On e speci e s th e i x o d e s o f Br azil , ,

fi x e s its e lf o n d o gs ox e n &c , , .
,

an d so d ee ply plun g e s i ts suck e rs

i n to the fl e sh o f th e s e an i m als ,

th at th ey c an n ot b e d e ta ch e d
with o u t r aisi n g u p the p or ti on
o f the ski n to which th e y a dh e r e .

It is a ss e rt e d th at the m u ltipli
c ati o n o f th e s e p a ra site s is s o m e
ti m e s s o co n sid e ra bl e a s to c a u s e
t he d e a th o f the o x e n a n d h o r se s
to which th e y h a v e fi x e d th e m
s e lv e s by , A n o th e r
ki n d o f mite c all ed l ep tu s a u ,

tu m n a l i s o r r o ug e t is v e ry co m
, ,

m on i n th e au tu m n i n ou r fie lds ,

a n d in si n u a ti n g its e lf u n d e r th e
,

ski n o f the l e gs c a u s e s i n
F i g 4 1 7 —S rc
,
t f th P s or
(m g i fi d)
a o o
suppo rt abl e itchi n gs Fi n ally .
,
. .

a n e .
e a

it is a s m al l an i m al o f this
fa m ily which by m u ltiplyi n g i n wi n di n g b u rro ws u n d e r the
,

ski n o cc a si on s on e o f the m o st di sg u sti n g di s e as e s the P s o ra o r

, ,

Itch The sar co pt o f the P s o ra ( Fig 4 1 7 ) i s sc a rce ly v i s i b l e to

. .

the n ak e d eye ; b u t wh e n e x a m i n e d w ith a m icro sc o p e i ts b o dy ,

is s e e n to be o bl on g a n d its m ou th to h av e the fo rm o f a ,

c o n ic al p a pill a a r m e d with s e v e r al bristl e s an d its fe e t , ,

f
e ight i n n u m be r di ffe r v e ry much r o m eac h o th e r the fo u r
, ,

p o ste ri or fe e t b e i n g t rm i n ate d o u l by bristl e s whilst the e

,

fo u r a n t e ri o r fee t ar e fu r n ish e d at t ei r e xtr e mity with sm a ll .

suck e rs by m e an s o f which th e y can adh e re to the m o st

,

p olish e d b odi e s .

P ras i ti c l i m ls o f th i s cl as s b o d i So th e r Afri c
a a an a d I m a un n u n a, a n a
a w r th t th e y tt c h th m s l e s i d i s ri m i
a e a t ly t o
a a ho rs e s d gs
e e v n c na e oxen, , o ,

& c b t i t s ee m d to m
.
,
u th t th y h d p r di l ec ti f the di s as d
e e a e a a e on or e e or
f bl e d i m l ; f i f by ch c
en ee an e h st d h o rs w s l ft
a or t h fi ld an e an x au e e a e on e e
f s m e d ys h e b ec m e co re d wi th the se e rmi whi ls t th y s ld m
tta c h e d th e m se l s to th e h lthy we ll f d i m al —
or o a ,
a ve v n, e e o
a veR K ea ,
- e an . . .
4 22 zoo no e x .

C L A S S O F C R US TA C E A .

56 1 . The c r ust ac e a ar e a rticul ated an im als pr ope rly ,

s o c a ll e d h a vin g the r e spir a ti on br an chi a l o r o n ly cutan eo us

, ,

an d a circ u l a to ry a pp a r at u s s e m i -v asc u l a r an d se mi -l a c u n ar .

The cr a bs cr aw fish an d l o bst e rs ( Fig

, , fo rm the type
.

o f this gr o u p but n at u r a lists a rr an ge i n i t als o a gr e a t n umbe r

,

o f an im a ls wh o s e s ti uctu r e i s much l e ss c o mpl e x a n d wh o s e ,

e x t e r n al fo r m 1 s d iffe r e n t ; fo r m pr o p o rti o n as w e d e sce n d i n

th e n a t ur al s e r i e s o f th e s e an im a ls we fi n d th e g e n er a l pl an
,

o f o rg an iz a ti on to b e s u cc e ssiv e ly m odifi e d an d s i mpli fie d

1n o 1 e a n d m o r e The l o w e st o f th e c ru sta ce a ar e e v e n s o i m
.

p e rfe ct th a t th ey can on ly liv e wh e n fix e d as p a r a sit e s on

,

o th e r ani m a ls an d m o st n atur a1i s ts h a v e a rran g e d th e m with

,

the i n t e sti n a l w o rms

56 2 The t e gum e n t a ry s ke l e ton o f the c r u sta c e a pr e s e n ts
.

i n g e n e ral a v e ry c on sid e r abl e co n sist e n c e It ha s alm o st .

a lw a ys a sto n y h ar dn e ss an d e n cl o s e s 1 11 fa ct a c on sid e r a bl e
, , ,

rti n o f th e c ar b o n a t e o f li m e O ne ma vi e w this s o lid

p o o .
y
e n v e l o p e a s b e i n g a ki n d o f e pid e rmis fo r be n ea th it we fi n d
,

a m e mbr an e ( t Fig 4 2 7 ) r e s e m blin g the d e rmis of supe r i o r

, .

a n im al s ; an d a t c e rt a in pe ri o ds the h a rd c al ca r eou s en v e IOpe

is de t ach ed an d thr ow n off a s we h av e alr ea dy s e e n the

,

e pid e rmis o f r e ptil e s s e p a r at e its e lf fro m the body an d ,

t he t e g u m e n t a ry m e m br an e of the l ar v a o f i n s e cts m ou l ti n
o r r e n e w i n g its e lf s e v e r a l tim e s It is easy to un d e rstan d
.

t he n e ce ssity o f th e s e m o ulti n gs i n an i m a ls wh o s e wh ol e
bo dy i s en cl o s e d i n a s o lid c a s e which a s it ca n n ot gro w
, ,

pro po rti ona te ly with the i n te ri o r struct u r e s w o uld pre ,

s e n t i n surm ou n tabl e obst a cl e s to th e i r d e v e l o pm e n t if it did

n o t fal l o r w as t h r o w n off at the m o m e n t wh e n i t be ca m e too

sm all to l odge the body co n v en i e n tly ; thus the c r ustac ea

ch an ge th e i r e x te rn al c o v e r in g dur in g the e n tir e pe riod o f
the ir growth an d it w ould app e ar th at m o st o f th e s e an im a ls
,

i n cre a s e i n siz e du rin g the wh o l e of th e ir liv e s The m ann e r .

i n which th ey throw off th eir ol d co v e ri n g is v e ry si n gul a r ,

i n ge n e ral th e y co n t riv e to l e a v e it witho ut c a usi n g the

slight e st d e fo rm ati on an d wh en th ey qu it it the wh ol e s ur
,

fa ce o f th e ir bo dy i s alr ea dy c ov e red with a n e w sh e ath ; but

thi s 13 sti l l s o ft an d on ly a cquir es its n e ce ss ary s o li di ty at
,

the e n d o f s o m e d ays .

The bodi e s of c r ustac e a ar e c o mpo s e d of a s e ri e s o f ri n gs

 cu s s o r CRU S T AC E A . 4 23

m ore or l e ss dist i n ct Som e tim e s the m ost o f th es e se m en ts

.

ar e simply ar ticul at e d with each oth e r an d h a v e a to er ab l

, y

418 .
—Th e L an g o us t e , or Lobst e r .

wid e ran ge of m o bility So m e tim e s theya re al l

. to
ge the r an d ca n b e dis t i n guish ed on ly by g roov e s at the po in t s
,
4 24 Z O OLOGY .

of j u n cti on Fi n ally at oth e r tim e s th e i r u n ion is stil l

. , ,

m or e co m pl e te an d it is on ly by an al o gy th at t he zoo l og i st
,

is i n duce d to c o n sid e r th e s e g m e n t r e sulti n g fr om th e ir fusi on

a s c o m po s e d o f s e v e ra l ri n gs r ath e r th a n o n e The re re sults .
,

a s m ight b e e x p e cte d v e ry wid e di ffe re n ce s i n the ge n e r a l

,

fo r m of th e s e an im als ; a n d if w e co m p ar e t og e th e r a clo po rte

Fig w d l o us e a ta l i tr u s ( Fig a n d a cr a b
( 4
. 1 9 ) o r o o ,
.

Fig f r e x a m pl e o n e m i ght b e l e d a t first S i ght to

( . o ,

b e li e v e th e m to b e c on str u cte d on wh olly di ffe re n t type s ; but

a d e e p e r st u dy o f th e ir stru ct u r e sh o ws th a t the co mpo siti on

o f th e ir t e g u m e n tar y sk e l e to n is e ss e n ti a lly th e s am e an d th at
.

the d i ffe ren c e s d e pe n d o n this th at the gre a te r n um be r o f the ,

ri n gs co mpl e te ly disti n ct a n d m o v ea bl e i n the oni scus ar e

, ,

u n ite d to e a ch o th e r i n the cr a bs a n d th at c e rt a i n a n a l og o us ,

p a rts d o n ot pre s en t i n th e se two ge n e ra the s am e propo rti on s .

Th u s i n the on iscu s ( Fig 4 1 9 ) ,

.

or i n the tal i tr u s ( Fig 1 4 6 ) we .

fi n d a distin ct h e a d fo ll o w ed
by a th o rax co mpo s ed o f s e v en
‘ 7
rin s r s
e e mbl in g ea ch o th r
e ( t t ) , , ,

an ca rr yi n g e a ch a p a ir of lim bs
1 7 pp ) fi nal ly at t he p o ste ri o r , ,

p art of the b ody we fi n d an ah

d o m e n ( a b ) fo r m e d als o of s e v e n ,

s e gm en ts wh o s e siz e di mi n ish e s ,

r apidl y b u t wh o s e fo rm is n ea r ly ,

th e s a m e as i n the th o r ax In a .

cr ab o n the co n tra ry ( Fig , .

F i g 4 1 9 - 010 130 “ ( O i s c us )
. . 1 the h e ad i s n ot disti n ct fr o m the
n .

th o rax an d fo rm s with a l l this ,

s e cti on o f the b o dy a sin gle s e gm e n t co v e re d with a l arge s o lid

bu ckl e r n am e d sh e ll o r ca r ap a ce fin al l y the a bd om en at first
, ,

e sca pe s the sight be ca us e it is fo ld e d u n d e r th e th o ra x an d i s

, ,

but sm al l N e v e r th e l e ss it i s e asy to d e m o n st rate th at i n the

.
,

cra b as i n th e oni scus th e re e xist be hin d the h e ad s e ve n e asily

, ,

r e co gn is a bl e th o r a cic ri n gs a n d th a t th e ca ra p a ce is n ot a n e w
,

o rg an cr e a te d fo r the fo rm e r b u t m e r e ly the d o rs a l po rti on o f on e

,

o f t he ri n gs o f the h e a d which has a cq u ir e d an e x tr e m e d e v e l op

m en t an d e n cro ach e d on the n e igh bo ur i n g ri n gs I n o th e r

, .

an im a ls o f th e s a m e cl ass the ge n e ra l fo rm o f th e bod y

,

i s r e m o v e d still furth e r from th o s e o f which w e h a v e j u st

Oni s cus l ocu s t r a ; tal i tr u s Lat Of th e ge n u s Gam m a r i n a fa m i ly
Gt mma r us R .
— K . .
: .
,
 cu s s o r ca u s u cu . 4 25
’

p k en Thus the l i mn ad i aa ar e e n cl o s e d b e tw ee n two o v a l

s o .

buckl e rs u ni te d toge th e r afte r the m an n e r o f the v a lv es o f th e

,

oyst e r ; an d it is a fter h av i n g r e m o v e d thi s m o v eabl e cu i r a ss ,

th at the tru e annula te d structure of th e ir bodi e s is o bs e rv ed

( Fig . the cypr is a bo u n di n g i n sta g n an t w a te rs pr e
,
-
,

s en ts a n an al o go us dispo sition on ly the ri n gs o f which th e ir

,

b odi e s ar e co mpo s e d ar e still m o r e di ffic u lt to b e r e co g n is e d .

w e m ay cit e th e l em ma w h ich a t th e a d u lt ag e
,

pre s en ts th e stran ge st fo rms ( Fig 1 3 2 but which

.
,

E S A L LB

F i g 4 2 0 —Th e C
. . rab ( M am ) .

wh en yo u n g has a disti n ctl y an n ul a te d structur e

This co mp arativ e study o f th e te gu m e n ta ry sk e le to n o f the
crust a ce a pres e n ts a gre at i n te r e st i n r e sp e ct o f phys i ol o
.
,

i cal an ato my o f which o n e o f th e m o st i m p o rta n t br an ch e s

g ,

is to i n v e stiga te the m odi fica ti on s which n a ture c aus e s the

s a m e o rg an ic e le m en ts to un d e rgo to ad apt th e m to v a ri o u s
,

us e s an d to cr e at e with an al o go us or h om o l o gous m at e ri als

,

diss i m ila r i n stru m e n ts ; b u t th e l imits w e h av e assign e d to

the s e lecture s d o n ot admit of ou r to uch i n g at gre a t e r len gth
on this subj e ct .

!T h e qu e sti on h ere m oo te d by my fri en d Mr Edwards em .

,
426 z o o no e x .

b races n early th e who l e qu e sti on of the tr an sce n d enta l an atomy ,

the o n ly fo rm i n w h ich a n ato my an d z oo l o gy b e co m e a

scien ce The follo wi n g o bse rv ati on s r e p ri n te d fr om my l ate st
.
,

i n qui r i e s i n to the l aws o f the tran scen d en ta l i n z oo l og y wi ll ,

s u fli ci e n tl e x pl a in th i s to th e r ead e r
y
B di sse cti on the d e ad ar e an al yse d or r ed uce d to ce rtai n
b ,

as se m la g e s o f o rgan s h oldin g r e l ati on s o fte n m e ch ani cal

, to , ,

ea ch oth er Th ey al l pe rform c e rtai n fu n cti on s so m e of

.
,

which h a v e be e n im pe rfe ctly gu e ss e d at ; m ad e out i n a coa r se

w ay : o rg an s o f l o co m o ti on e xist—bon e s ligam e n ts j o in ts , , ,

m u scl e s or fl e sh ; or
, s o f se n s ati on an d th ought an d wi ll , ,

th e br ai n an d spin m arr o w ; the n er v e s ; or gan s of di ge s

ti on an d a ssim il ati on the sto m ach an d dige stiv e tube an d
, ,

th e ir a pp en d ag e s ; l as tl org an s o f br e a thi n g e sse n ti al to ,

life ; the lun gs by whi o we d ra w fro m th e ai r the bre ath of

,

life Bl oodv es se l s a cte d o n by a h eart ca r ry the bl oo d thr o ugh

.

th e fram e Ou t of th is vital flui d th e body is con stru cte d

.
,

r e pa ir e d fo rm e d
, Now i f w e s e l e ct an y on e of the se o rga n s o r
.
,

se ts o f o rgan s w e shall fi n d th at i n on e sh ape or an oth e r it

, , ,

e xte n ds thr o ugh th e wh ol e r an ge o f v e rte b r ate an im als m o st ,

r o b ably thr ou gh th e e n tir e r an g e of an im a l life but u n d er a

p
sh ap e or fo r m n o lon ge r r e c ogn is abl e by o u r se n ses fe w
,

. A
i n st an ce s will su fli ce to e xpl ain th i s The re is n o occas ion for .

a ny m i n u te or te chn i ca l e xpo siti on o f facts which ar e as it , ,

w e r e on the sur face Le t us first turn o ur att en ti on to the

, .

sk e l e to n Not th at this as s e mbla ge of l e v e rs pro v e s be tte r

.

th an an y oth e r se t o f or gan s the un ity of str uctu re the u n ity ,

o f or g an iz ati o n s ou ght to b e supe r add e d by the G re r m an ( an d

'

S l av on i an ) phil o s o phy to the un ity of pl an l a id d own by

,

Ne wt o n ; I d o n ot e v e n thin k so w e ll ; b u t it pr e se n ts m a te
’

r i als e as i e r to b e h an dl ed easi er to b e in spe ct ed o btai n ed an d

, , ,

u n d e rstoo d .

The b asis o f th e sk e le to n be fo r e on wh e th e r m e r e an im al ,

or m an is a s e ri e s o f bon e s j o i n te
, or ar ti cul a te d with e ach

ot h e r . I n com m on l ang u ag e it is ca ll ed the b ack -bo n e You .

s e e h ow vi o l e n tly in a ccur a te s uch a te r m is wh e n app l i e d to ,

a s e ri e s o f bo n e s pe rfe ct ly di stin ct fro m e ach o th e r po sse ss i n g ,

m ost of the m a di sti n ct m ob i l i t Th e s e b on e s w e ca ll v er

te b r ae h e re is on e of th e m V i b en studi ed by the su rgeon
’
y
.

'

o r m e dica l m an it i s vi e w ed b him m e re ly as a por ti on of

,

the sk e l eto n ; to the phi l oso phi c an ato mist it be com es the
type o f a l l v e rte bra te an i m als o f the e n ti re sk e l e ton l imbs , ,

L ;su
ee
on .
th e R ac e s
.

q ea ; 0 H ayw ard . By R . Kn o x. H m r y Re n sh aw ,
‘
 B AS I S or TH E T RAN S C E ND E N T AL . 4 27

an d h ead i n clud e d ; of the o rgan ic w o rld v e rte br ate an d i n ,

v e rt e brate Ca rr i e d furth e r it
. o ss e s s e s th e fo rm of th e
,

primitiv e cell of the sph e re ; of t e u n iv e rs e

No w loo k at this bon e i n m an —i t app e ars simpl e but it is
.

n ot s o Or igi n ally th at is i n the y ou n g c o m po s e d o f m an y

.
, , ,

disti n ct p o rti on s which aft e rw a rds u n ite with e a ch o th e r but

, ,

which re m ai n i n g disti n ct i n m an y an im als as i n fish e s pro v e s , ,

to us th at t hr ou gh out the wh o l e r an ge o f an i m al s so fo rm e d
, ,

the v e r te br a do n o t r e ally diffe r so much fro m e a ch o th e r a s

m ight at fir st a ppe ar : th at i n fa ct the e l e m e n ts fo rmi n g , ,

th e m s ee m the s am e al m o st n um e rica lly givi n g ris e to th e ,

w e ll grou n d e d b e li e f th at i n the e m bryo th e e l e m e n ts of the

, , ,

sk e l et on m ay b e a ft e r al l the s am e i n e v e ry an i m al
, , F ro m .

m an to the wh al e a l l is a lik e ; o n e th eo ry e xpl a in s all ; on e

,

ide a o r pl an p e rv ade s all .

L et u s tra c e this ch a i n of b on e s upw ar ds an d d ow n w a rds ;

s e e ho w d o w n w a rds ( co ccyg ea l v e rt e br ae ) c e rt a i n e l e m e n ts

ce as e to b e d e v e l op e d o r d o n o t gro w : still the pl an is th e

,

s am e ; id en tic al ; an al o g ou s a s r e g a rds the i n di vid u al th a t is

, , ,

r ep eat ed ; h om ol ogo u s or id e n tic al a s r e g ards on e an im al ,

co m p a re d wit h an oth e r Look to this s e ction o f the sk e l e to n

.
,

cal l e d the h e ad ; the b on e s s e e m wid e ly diffe re n t fr om the

ve rt e bra ; b u t it is n ot s o Th ey ar e m e r e ly v e rt e bra r e .
,

p e ate d u p
,o n a l a rg e r sc al e a s m a
y b e r e q u ir e d : a ch ain of

v e rte bra fo rm th e n the h ead or cran ium Th e s e gre at

G
.
, ,

tr u ths w e o we e x clusiv e ly to the ill u stri o us Sou th e rm an

an d S l a v on i an sch o ols o f tr an sc e n d e n t a l a n at o m y to Oke n an d
S pi x A u te n r i eth Fr an k G
oe th e an d a h o st o f oth e rs
it i“

A
, .
, , ,

v e rt e bra m u st h av e a typ e ; th at is a pl an su ffici e n tly , ,

co mpr e h e n siv e to i n clud e al l fo rm s o f v e rte br a No w wh e re .

is this to b e fo un d ? Is it an ide al typ e n ot yet disc o v e re d ?

Or is it to b e fou n d i n a n y e x ti n ct or livi n g an im al ? I
a ppr e h en d th a t it m a o r it m ay n ot h av e b e e n fo u n d but
y ,

this i n n o way i n te rfe re s with the pri n cipl e th at th e re must

,
b e a type l aid dow n by n atur e ; e te rn al ; e qu a l to al l m an i
fes tati on s of fo rm exti n ct or livi n g or to c om e
, , .

But the disc ov e ry of such a type c o uld on ly b e m ad e w er e

the an ato my o f a l l an im al s th at e v e r l iv e d k n ow n to us ;
pe rh aps n ot e v e n th e n for the future must b e wr apt u p i n
,

the p a st : an d wh at s e e ms to us n ow a m e r e s e ck of b on e a
p ,

n u cl e u s a po in t u n im o rtan t n ay sc a rce ly d i sce rn ibl e m ay

,
p , , , ,

i n a fut u r e o rde r o f th i n gs b e co m e an al l -imp ortan t el e m en t

, .

A s thus
If birds di d n ot exist we co uld s carcely conc e iv e the high
,
4 28 ZOOLOG Y .

o r gan iz ati on which the third ey e lid i n m an a m er e rudi

to ,

m e n t att ai n s i n th e m No t w an te d i n m an the o rgan si n ks

, .
,

to its rudi m e n ta y a n d sc a rc e ly pe rc e pti bl e c o n diti o n Of

r
.

e sse n ti a l se rvice i n birds it sudd e n ly acq u i r e s its s eem i n gly

,

high e st d e v e l op m en t Ye t the o rga n wa s a lw ays pre se n t

, ,

r u dim e n ta ry i n on e d e v e l o p e d in the oth e r Le t u s tak e

, .

an oth e r i n st a n c e .

“
The ad u lt or gr ow n -u p m an has as yo u al l n o d oubt
, , ,

kn o w thre e bon e s to e a ch to e with th e e x c e ptio n of the fir st ;

, ,

th es e thr ee bo n e s ar e c on n e cte d to each oth e r an d to the ,

m e ta t a rs al b on e th eir s u ppo rte rs by thre e j oi n ts I n the

, , .

fee t o f birds you m e e t w ith fo ur o r fi v e bon e s i n ce rta i n o f

th e t o e s ; an d it m ight s e e m to yo u th at the fe e t o f birds
w e r e fo r in e d on a di fi e i en t n u m e ric al pl an at l ea st but it 1 8
'
, ,

n ot s o : fo r 1 1] m an a s i n bi r ds e a ch digita l bo n e 1 3 fo r m e d o
,
f ,

tw o e l e m e n ts or disti n ct b o n e s a t first th at the y o u n g

o f e a ch : a s th e bird gr o ws up th e y r e m ai n disti n c t—i n m an
, , ,

, ,

on th e c o n tr ar y th e y un it ,e — th at is al l The ar ran ge m en t is .

n o t o n ly an a l o g o us but h om o l o go u s or id e n tica l i n the

, ,

stricte st s e n s e o f the t e rms .

A gai n r e m e mbe r th a t a th o us an d simil a r i n stan ce s m ight

,

b e giv e n I m e r e ly s e l e ct a fe w o f th e e asi e st u n d e rsto od .

In m an th e r e is a littl e c ar til a g e s ca rc e l y pe rce ptibl e , ,

c o nn e ct e d to on e o f th o s e bon e s occupyin g the n o stril s ca ll e d ,

tur bi n at e d bo n e s It m ay or it m ay n ot i n hi m s e rv e an y
.

pu rpo s e ; th at is a m att e r of p u re i n di ff e ren ce It is a ru di .

m en ta ry an d a us el e ss o rg an s e e mi n gly No w m a rk the .
,

e x t e n si on an d de v e l o p m en t o f this c ar til ag e o r o rg a n i n th e

h o rs e— still m o r e i n the wh al e ; i n the h or s e wh e re it m o st ,

a d m ir a bly s e rv e s to sh u t o ff the gre a t c a viti e s o f th e n o strils

fro m theyv e stibu l a r ca viti e s i n fron t—thus protecti n g th e m

fro m fo r e ign b odi e s i n the wh a l e acqu ir i n g th e i r pre s u m ed
.
,

high e st d e v e lo pm en t th e s e c a rtil age s n o w gr o w n to the

, ,

siz e o f bolste rs r eturn a fte r br eathi n g i n to the v a st n o s

, ,

tr il s of the wh al e fro m which th ey h ad be e n m o m e n t a ril y

withdraw n filli n g th e m u p s e ali n g the m h e rm e tica lly ag ai n st
, ,

the pre ss u r e o f a th o us an d fa th o ms d ee p of w a te r which th e y ,

sus ta i n with e as e wh e n plu n gi n g i n to the v a st a byss o f the

, ,

o ce a n the gi an t o f n a tur e s e e ks to a v o id his e n e m i e s

, .

L e t us n o w b ri e fly r e vi e w the pr o gre ss w e h av e m ad e i n
this t he hig h e st o f al l an alyses : dee pe st o f all theo ri e s : m os t
impo rtan t to m an M an w e h a ve s e en stan ds n o t al on e he
.
, , ,

i s o n e o f m an y a p a rt an d p a rce l of the o rga n ic w orld fr o m ,

al l e te rn i t y Th at o rg an i c w orld 1 8 the p rod u ct of s e con da ry

.
 R E LA TI ON O F S P E C I E S TO G E NU S .

c aus e s D u r i n g his growth he u n d e rgoe s nu mero us m e ta

. »

m o rph o s e s too n um e ro u s e v e n fo r the h u m an im agi n ati on

,
.

Th e s e h a v e a r e l ati on to the o rgan ic w o rld Th e y e mbrac e .

th e e n tir e r an g e of o rgan ic life fr o m th e be g in n i n g to th e ,

e n d o f tim e N a tur e can h a v e n o dou bl e syste m s ; n o am en d

.

m e n ts or s econ d th ou ghts ; n o e x ce pti on al l a ws E te r n a l an d .

u n ch a n gi n g th e o rbs m o v e i n th e ir sp he r e s r e cis e ly a s th e y
,
p
di d milli o n s o f y e a rs ag o P roc e e di n g a s i t w e r e fr o m a n
.
, ,

i n visibl e po i n t e n d o w e d with life he p a ss e s r api dl y at first , , ,

thr ou gh m an y fo rms al l re s e mbli n g m o re or l e ss e ith e r dif

, , ,

fe r e n t r ac e s o f m e n fr o m his o w n o r an im als l o w e r i n th e sc al e ,

o f b e i n g ; o r be i n gs which d o n ot n o w e x ist th ou gh th e y pr o ,

b ably o n ce did or m ay at s o m e fu t u r e ti m e Wh e n his d e v e lop

,
.

m e n t is i m pe rfe ct it r e pre s e n ts th en s o m e fo rm r e s e m bli n g t he

, ,

i n fe rio r r ac e s o f m en o r an i m als still l o w e r i n th e sc al e o f be i n g

, .

M o r e o v e r wh at is ir r e gul a r i n h i m i s th e r e gul a r struct u re i n

,

s om e o th e r cl a s s o f an im als T a k e for e x ampl e the w e bbe d .

h an d o r fo ot o cc as i on ally fo un d i n m an c on st an t i n c e rt a i n
—
,

an im a l as i n th e o tt e r a n d b e a v e r ; co n st a n t a ls o i n th e
s

h u m an foetus th at is the child b e fo re birth T a k e for e x

, , .
,

a m pl e the c u tic u l a r fold at the i n n e r an gl e o f the e ye

, so ,

co mm o n with the E squim a ux a n d B o sj e s m an or H otte n to t

( the c o rr e spo n di n g y e ll o w r a c e s of th e n o r th e r n an d s o uth e r n
h e m isph e re s ) s o r a re i n the E urop e an but e x isti n g i n e v e ry
, ,

foet u s o f e ve ry r ac e No r l et it b e fo rgo tt e n th at fo r m s ex ist

.

i n the h u m an foet u s which h av e n o thi n g hum a n i n th e m i n

th e strict e st s e n s e o f th e t e r m ; th a t the foet u s o f the N e gro
d o e s n ot a s h as be e n state d re s e m bl e th e foetus o f the E u ro
, ,

p e a n b u t th at the l a tt e r re s e m bl e s the fo r m e r a l l the m o re

, ,

r e s e m bli n g the n e a r e r th e y a r e to th e e m bry on ic c o n diti on .

Un ity o f str u ctur e u n ity o f o rg an iz ati on u n i ty o f life at the

, , ,

c o m m e n ce m e n t o f ti m e wh e th e r m e as u re d by the o rg an ic w o rld
,
”
o r by the d u r ati o n o f i n divid u a l li fe This is the l a w . .

The r e l ati o n of sp e ci e s to g e n u s a ls o m e rits o u r d ee pe st

My first o bs e rv a ti o n s w e re m ad e o n a n im a ls l o w i n the
scal e o f the v e rt e br at a— o n fish e s i n fa ct I s e l e cte d as 1 , .
,

sh all pre s e n tly pl ai n the n atura l fa m ily o f t he

m o re fu lly ex ,

S al m on i d a a s th e on e to which I h ad giv e n m o st a tt e n ti o n
, .

I n the y o u n g o f the tru e s al m o n I fo un d the sp e cific ch a r a c

te rs o f a l l the s u b -fa m ili e s o f t he ge n us pre s e n t ; th at is r e d ,

s pots da rk sp ots o f s e v e ral ki n ds silv e ry sca le s pr opo rti on s

, , , ,

S ee M m oi rs o th e P h i lo s phy o f Z l g y i Th Z l g wt J V
e n o oo o ,
”
n e oo o . . an
V rst L d
oo , on on .
 4 30 Z OOLO G Y .

and a d e n tition iden ti c al The you n g fish b e for e m e was i n

.
,

fact a ge n e ric an im al i n cludin g withi n it the s ) e ci fi c ch ara c

te rs o f a l l the spe ci e s compo s i n g the n atur al fam ily
, ,

To .

conn e ct this ge n e ric an i m a l with an y S pe ci e s yo u h a v e but to ,

im agi n e the dis a pe aran ce of ce rta in ch a racte rs th e n an d

th e re rr es e n t o thi n g r e qui re s to b e ad d e d Ta k e for
e x am pl eth e d en titi o n —th e d e n ti ti on of til e v o me r to which
. .
,

, ,

M V al e n ci e n n e s a tta ch e s so much impo rtan ce an d i n which

.
,

h e h a s e n d eav o ure d to disco v e r the tru e disti n guishi n g

ch aracte rs o f the thr e e sub -famil i e s i n to which th at dist i n
g u i s hed n atur a list subdivide s the S al m on i da L oo k at th e s e
v o m e ri n e te eth i n the y oun g o f a n y o f the spe ci e s —th at is as
.

I vi e w i t i n the g e n er i c a n i m a l an d i n the adult of al l the

spe ci e s th a t is i n the an im al sp e ci a l i ze d —an d w e sh all fi n d
, ,

, ,

th at th e g ene r i c a n i m a l po ss e s se s a de n titi on e mbr aci n g al l

th e cha r acte rs by which the fully -d e v e lo pe d i n divid u als a1 e
a fte rw a rds to b e r e co gn is e d But it is the yo ung al o n e which
.

co mpris e s al l combi n e s wi th the an te r i o r g rou p o f t ee th ( tee th

,

o f th e ch e vron ) a d oubl e r o w o n th e bo dy o f the v o m e r which ,

r o w b e c o mi n g i n d u e tim e si n gl e ch a r acte ri ze s a cco rdi n g to

, , ,

M V al e n ci e n n e s th e a d u lt o f the sub -fa mil y F o re ll e o r dis

.
, , ,

appe a ri n g a lto ge th e r m a rks the tru e s a lm o n wh e n a dult the

, ,

com m o n tr ou t gro win g u p with the d e n titi on o f the ge n e ric

an i m a l The primitiv e type th e n is n ot l o st as M V al en
.
, , , .

ci e n n e s s ee m s to h a v e suppo s e d but is r e t a in e d i n o n e sp e ci e s
,

a t l e a st o f th e n a tur a l fa m ily A s with the d en ti ti o n s o with

.
,

th e co l o r ati on an d pr o rti o n s : a n d th u s the l a w o f ge n e r a

ti on b e i n g g e ner i c a n n ot sp e cifi c m a rks the e x te n t o f the
, ,

n atur a l fa m ily its u n ity i n ti m e an d sp ace the fi x i ty o f i ts

, ,

sp eci e s the de structio n of s o m e an d the a ppe a ran ce o f oth e rs

,

be i n g but the histo ry n ot o f s u cce ssiv e crea tion s b u t o f on e

, ,

d e v eIo pm e n t e xte n di n g thr o u gh m illi on s of y e a rs co un tl e ss

, ,

as t he sta rs o f the fi r m am e n t .

Lo o k n o w a t the c o lt a fe w m on ths ol d as it g ambo ls

throu h th e fi e lds an d say d oe s it re s em bl e the do m es tic
, ,

an im a fr o m which it is spru n g i n c o l o u r pr o po rti o n s m o v e , , ,

m e n ts a ttitud e s ? Not i n the l ea st Its co lo u r i s a rich

, .

d e e p fa wn to b e fo u n d on ly a m on gst the w i l d e ; i n its pr o

,

po rti o n s i t re s e mbl e s the qu a gga o r z e br a an d a s it c an te rs ,

a l o n g its r o cki n g -h o rs e m o ti on a n d sh o rt friski n g t a il r e c al

,

to the m i n d sc e n e s o n ly to b e s ee n i n S o u th e rn A fric a o n the

'
,

pl ai n s o f the K oo n ap or the sl o pe s o f the W in te r b e r ge n

, ,

wh e re r oa m s the wild h o r s e to which this yo un g of a d o ,

 LA W O F G E N E R I C F ORM S .

m e sti c h ors e be ar s the str on ge st re s e mbl an c e The obvi ous i n .

fe re n ce is th at e ve n in an im als so high i n the sc al e of

,

m am m als as the so lidun gul a the y ou n g is a g e n e r i c a n i m a l

, ,

i n cl u di n g i n it the co l o ur propo r ti on s m ov e m e n ts an d h abits

, , ,

o f th e ge n u s o r n atur a l fa mily o f al l its spe ci e s wh e r e v e r

, ,

pl ace d an d r e pre s en ti n g m o re e spe ci ally i n this i n sta n ce a

, , ,

wild spe ci e s o f th at fa mily n e v e r d om e sticate d n or subdu e d

,

by m an E ve n h e re wh e re we sh oul d e x p ect sp e cifi c an d

o th e r in flu en ce s to h a v e to ld str on gly o n th e pro duct—th a t is
.
,

th e y ou n g w e fi n d the g ene r i c l a w to b e i n full fo rc e an d

, ,

th at th e yo un g of the d om e stic h o rse re s e m bl e s a sp e ci e s pe

to a n o th e r r e gi o n of th e e arth The n at u ral fa m ily .
,

th e n o f the s ol idun gul a em bra ce s in th e y ou n g of e ach sp eci e s

,

al l th e fo rms which it the g e n us ca n or h as a ssum e d on th e

, ,

e a rth The qua gg a an d the z e br a m ay be co m e ex ti n ct ; but

.

th e ir forms re m a i n i n the g e n e ric y ou n g o f wh ate v e r spe

ci e s still liv e s The fo ssil h o rs e be l on ged n o d ou bt to the
.
, ,

s a m e fa mil y ; as the e x te ri o r i s l o st the pre cis e spe ci e s can n o t ,

n o w b e d e te r min e d Th at he be l o n ge d to an y spe ci e s n ow
.

livin g I do n ot be li e ve ; b u t he w as of the fa mily an d m ay ,

appe ar a ga in Th u s the s u cce ssiv e a ppe aran ce of n e w fo rm s

.

o r s pe ci e s is n o n e w cre a ti on b u t m e re ly th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
,

fo rms al r e ady e x istin g i n e v e ry n atura l fa mily The e x tin e .

ti on o f speci e s whi ch has gon e on throu gh million s of ye a rs

h as l e d so m e to the be li e f th at n atu r e h a ste n s on w ards to the
e x ti n cti on of life o n the gl o b e It is po ssibl e ; b u t I l e an to
.

the Oppos ite Opi n i on be li e vi n g th a t livi n g n atu r e will h av e n o

,

en d . That which has be e n m ay be ag ai n the po t e n ti ality ,

e xisti n g i n e v e ry sp e ci e s o f e v e ry n at u r a l fa m ily an d to this

cree d po i n t the i n fi n ite a ffi li ation s o f ge rm s n ot c on fin e d to ,

n atur al fa mili e s but e xte n di n g to a l l th a t liv e s

, Th e s e ar e .

sp e cul ati on s 01 1 which I d o n ot e n t e r P rim o rdi a l fo rms ar e .

visibl e i n al l ge rms the g e rms th e m s e lve s m u st b e e t e rn al .

“
If w e i n quire in to the l a w of ge n e ric fo rm s l o w e r i n the
sca l e as i n fish e s to which I h a v e j ust all u d e d w e fi n d still
, , ,

stron ge r co n fi rm ati on of th e po i n t I n o w s ee k to d e t e rmi n e .

The n atur al fa mily o f the Sal m on i d a as the o n e with which I ,

a m b e st acqu a in te d w a s th at fi x e d on for the i n q u i r y

, Loo k at .

the y ou n g s a lm on wh e n b u t a fe w i n ch e s i n l e n gth a n d
g
ou
y ,

will fi n d th at i n its den tition co l ou ri n a n d pro po rti on s i t is

—
, , ,

n ot a sp e c
ifi c a n im al but a
g e n er i c c 6
, it po sse ss e s ( a n d is . .

th e r e for e pe rfe ct ) al l th e n atu ral histo ry ch a racte ristics of

th e th re e sub -fa mili e s i n to whic h the S al m o n i da h av e been
43 2 ZOO LOGY .

di vid ed A t first fo r ex ampl e its d e n titi on is the type o f the

.
, ,

co mm on tr ou t ; as it grows it a ssum e s the ch aracte r whi ch

w e fin d to pre v a il i n s om e o f th e F o r e ll e o r s e a tr out
- L astly .
,

it as sum e s the tr u e sa l m o n d e n titi on ; but th at which e spe

ci al l m e rits a tte n ti o n is th at the o rigi n a l type o f the g e n e ric
y ,

b e i n g i s o f a ch ar act e r so ampl e a s to e m brace all po ssibl e

fo rm s which the d en titi o n can a ssu m e i n an y spe ci e s o f th at
n at u r al fa m ily N o thi n g is w an ti n g ; n o thi n g n e w a ppe ar s
.

n o thi n g h as t o b e s u ppli e d ; a l l is fo r e s e e n ; al l pr o vid e d for

’

To i n stit u te a spe ci e s al l th at is r equire d i s to om it or caus e

, ,

to di s a ppe a r or c e as e to gro w s o m e p a rts o f the o rg an o r

, ,

a pp a r atus a lr eady e x isti n g i n th e g e n e ric b e in g I n e v e ry .

P
s l e m on ‘ ( P al a m o n , F ab .
)

na tura l family th e r e is a sp e ci e s which be ars to the ge n e ric

an i m al th at is to th e y o un
, , g
a str on g e r r e s e mblan ce th an a n
, y
,

o th e r I n th e S al m on i d a i t i s th e co mm o n tr out o f fre s h
.

w at e r riv e rs b u t th e re m ay b e oth e rs I n the so lipe de it

,
.

s e e ms to b e the qu a g a o f So uth e rn A fric a —R K ] . . .

56 3 The l a t e r
. a pp e n d a g e s o f t he v a ri o u s ri n gs co n

s ti tu ti n
g th e bo dy a r e i n g e n e r a l v e ry n u m e r ou s an d pr e s e n t ,

a ls o co n s id e r a bl e d i fle r e 11 ce s i n th e ir c on fo rm a ti on an d th e i r

u s e s wh e th e r we c on sid e r th e m i n the v a ri o u s p a rts o f th e

,

a , t
an e n na of fir st p a ir ; a i a n te n n a o f th e s e co n d p a i r o r i n fe ri o r
th e , ,

a n te n n a ; 1 l a m e ll a te d a
, p pe n di x co e ri n g t h e b a s e ; r ro str um 'o r fro n t a l
v , ,

ro lo n ga ti on o f th e carap ac e ; y e y e s ; p m e x t e rn al l i m b ja w p tho raci c -

p
: ,
, ,

i m b o i t h e fi rst p ai r p tho raci c li m b o f th e s eco n d pa i r f p false s wi m

'
”
, ,

m i n g l i m b s o f th e a bd o m e n ; n c au d al fi n , .
 ‘

cu ss o r C RU S T AC E A . 43 3

s am e i ndi vid ual or c omp ar e th e m i n di sti n ct sp e ci e s Th o se

, .

o f the fi r st r i n gs i n g e n e r a l h a v e r e l ati o n s to the fun cti o n s o f

, ,

a n im a l l ife an d ca rry e y e s or fo rm an te nn a ; the fo ll owin g

,

s u rr ou n d the m o u th an d s e rv e for the pre h en si on o r th e

,

divisi on o f the fo od ( 9 1 22 1 23 t h os e o f the m iddl e por , ,

‘

ti on o f the b ody co n stit u te li m bs for l o co m oti on an d th o s e ,

pl ace d still fu rth e r b ack h a v e v e ry v ari abl e us e s but s e rve i n ,

ge n e ral for re sp i rati on or re pro ducti on : fi n ally this l o n g ,

s e ri e s te rm i n at e s gen e ra lly by on e or m o re p airs o f li m bs ,

a rr a n g e d to s e rv e a s fi n s .

The h ead or ra th e r the c e ph ali c p o rti o n of the body c a rri e s

, ,

the ey e s th e an t en n a an d the b u cc a l a p pe n d age s : s o m etim e s

, ,

it is divid e d i n to s e v e ral disti n ct ri n gs a s i n the squ illi o r ,

shri m ps for ex am pl e (F i g 4 29 ) alth ou gh ge n e rally it pre s e n ts

,
.

n o s u ch s e p ar a ti on b e i n g for m e d on ly o f a si n gl e s e gm e n t
, ,

which s eems to r e pr e s e n t s e v e n ri n gs c on fo u n d e d t o g e th e r , .

So m eti m e s it is m o v e able an d distin ct from th e th o ra x ,

( Fig . a t oth e r ti m e s on th e ,

c on tra ry it i s u n ite d to this s e co n d

,

p o rti on of the bo dy which i n its ,

t u rn i s c o mpo s e d i n ce rt ai n sp e ci e s
b ut
.

o f r i n gs artic u l at e d tog e th e r ,

distin ct ; i n othe rs u n ite d i n t o a ,

sin gl e m ass .

The an te n n a ar e alm o st alw ays

c o mpo s e d of two p a ir s an d con sti ,

tut e i n ge n e ra l ve ry e l on gate d fil i
fo rm h o rn s o r wh at at l e ast r e
,

s e mbl e s th e m The li m bs ar e co n
.

n e cte d i n p airs with th e di ffe r e n t

th o racic r i n g s ; the 1 e ar e fre qu e n tly

s e v en p a ir s : i n th e cl o po rte ( Fig
.

the e i e v e tte s ( pr awn s o f riv a

l ets ) a n d th e ta l ytr i for ex ampl e ;
, ,

but at oth e r ti m e s as m ay b e s e e n ,

i n the cr abs ( Fig 4 20) an d th e .

é cre viss e s ( cr a w fi s h l o bst e rs Fig

-
, ,
.

th e ir n u m b e r is r e d u c e d to F i g 4 22 —H i pp ( H i p p ) . , . e a ,

fi v e p a irs on y ; for th e app en

l
dage s which i n th e first c a s e fo rm e d the foul an t e ri or li m bs
, ,

a r e th e n turn e d to o th e r u s e s an d tran s fm m e d i n t o o rg an s ,

o f m a tic a ti on
s Th e re e x ist a ls o v e ry g r e at di ffe r e n c e s i n
.
g

th e ir s t1 uctu r e ; i n s o m e cr u st a c e a th e y a i e wh o lly foli

 Z OO LO GY .

c us m e mbr an ous an d e x clusiv e ly adapte d for swi mmin g

a co , ,

( Fig . i n oth e rs th ey h av e the fo rm o f s m all fl ex e d ( lik e

e lbo ws ) co lum n s a rticul a ted an d dispo se d on ly for w al ki n g ;
, ,

i n o th e rs S til l be sid e s rem ai n i n g ad apte d for this ki n d o f

,

l o co m oti on th ey be co m e suite d to act as so m an y sm al l

,

sp ad e s wh e re with to di g th e ear th an d i n th at cas e th e y are ,

e n l a rg e d an d l a m e ll a te d to w ar ds th e e xt r e m ity ( F ig .

an d still fin ally i n oth ers th ey te rmin ate i n f orce ps an d

, , , ,

be co m e i n strum en ts of pr e h en si on ful fil li n g at the sa m e ,

tim e th e ir ordi n ary fu n cti on s o f i n str u me n ts of l oco m oti on

( Fig . I n th e swimmi n g c r us tacea such as th e c raw ,

F i g 423. .
—N re v ou s Syst e m of a Crab : th e M ai a .
’

fish an d the l an g o us te ( Fig

l obs te r , the pal a m on s .

(F ig &c , th e a bd o m e n r e se n ts i n ge n e ra l a co n
p
.
.

s id e r ab l e d e v e lo pm en t , a n d te r mm ate s by a l ar ge fi n , so as to

b e co m e the prin cipal o rga n o f l oco m o tion ; but i n those

i n te n d e d to w a lk m o re th an th ey swim , it is i n en e r al v e ry
s m all , an d fo ld ed u n de r the th o rax : i n the cra bs , o r e x a m pl e ,
this p o rti on o f the bo dy is re duce d al m os t to n othi n g , an d
C r pace l i d o p e n —
a a , a a, ex e t ri o r t
an e n na ; y e y e s ; a sto m ach ; 0
, ,

br i ; Op t i c er s a s c p h ag ea l co l l ar ; m sto ma to t ri c n e rves ;
,
a n no, n ve co , ,

t th r ic g y m ss ; n e r ve s o f th e li m bs ; n a 11 o m i n al n e rv e
.

,
o ac gh an o nar a up , , .
 C LASS or CRU S T AC E A . 43 5

con stitute s th en a m ov e abl e apr on pl ac e d on the l o w e r surfac e

o f the bo dy b e tw e en th e limbs .

564 The n e rv ou s syste m i s c ompo s e d of a d o u bl e s e ri e s

.

o f g an gli on s situ at e d on the v e n tr al aspec t o f the bo dy n ear

,

the m e di an lin e Th e i r n u m be r c o rr e spon ds i n ge n e r al to

.

tha t o f the disti n ct s e gm e n ts o f which the body is co m p po s e d ,

a n d th o s e o f th e fi r st p a i r ar e a lw ays l odg e d i n th e h e a d or i n

fron t o f the g ul l e t wh e r e th e y co n stitu te a so rt of b 1 ai n

,

( Fig 4 23
.
, b u t the a rr an g em e n t o f the g an gli on s o f the
th o r ax an d abdo m en v a ri e s much ; s om e ti m e s th e y ar e at
e q u al dista n ce s fr om each o th e r a n d fo r m with th e ir c o rds o f
, ,

co mmu n ica ti on a ch a i n e x te n di n g from on e e x tr e mity o f the

,

b ody to th e oth e r ; s o m e ti m e s th e y appr oach e ach oth e r m o re

o r l e ss, a n d s o m e ti m e s th e y ar e a lto g e th e r r e u n it e d i n to
a m as s situ at e d t o w a rds the m iddl e o f the th or ax ( Fig .

F i g 424
. .
— P o d op th al m u s .

4 23 , t) . It ls o to b e o bs e rv e d th at the cen
o ught a ,

tr al i zati on o f the n e rv ou s syst e m b e c o m e s m o r e an d m om

.

c o mpl e te i n prop o rti on as the an im al r is e s i n the sc al e of

b e in g or acqu ir e s a m o r e el e vat e d o rg an iz ati on M o1 eo ver .
,

al l th e crust a c ea h av e v e ry li m it e d fac u lti e s an d n on e a m on gs t ,

'
th e m pr e s e n t m u ch i n te re st i n r e sp e ct of th e n h abits l he .

e y e s ar e fo rm e d pr e tty n ea rly a s i n i n s e cts Som e ti m e s th ey ar e

.

si m pl e ; but g e n e r ally th ey a r e c o mpo un d o r c o m po site an d m ,

al l t he m o r e p e r fe ct cr u st ac e a th ey ar e c ar ri e d on m o v e a bl e
pe
d u n cl e s ( Fig a n a rr a n g e m e n t n o t fou n d i n an
.
y o f th e
o th e r divisi o n s o f this gr e at cl a ss o f a rtic u l a t e d a n im a ls .

I n m an y m u s ta ce a th e r e e x ists als o an o rgan o f h e ari n g ,

sit u ate d at t h e b a s e o f the ext e rn al an t en n ae ( Fig c om .

p o s ed o f a sm all m e m b 1 an e r e s e m bli n g a m e m b r a n a ty m
F F 2
 4 36 ZOOLOGY .

ani b o v e which
a is f u d ki d o f v e stibul e fil l e d with
p , o n a n

liquid an d en cl o si n g the te rmi n ation o f a speci al n e rv e

,
.

N othi n g is fo r ce rtai n kn o w n r e spe cti n g the facult 1 e s of s m e ll

a n d ta ste i n th e s e an i m a ls .

§ 5 65 M o st cr u st a c e a liv e on an im a l
. s u bsta n c e s ; b ut
’
th ey off e r gre at di ffe r e n ce s i n th e ir r eg i m e ; s om e liv e on ly
o n liq u id m atte rs o th e rs on s o lid foo d an d di ffe re n ce s ar e
, ,

o bs e rv a bl e i n the c o n stru cti o n o f the m ou th co rr e spo n d i n g ,

'
Ifi g .

to th e ir v a ri ed c i rcumstan ce s I n the m as ti ca ti n g crustace a .

th e re i s be fo re the m o u th a sh o rt tran sv e rse li p fo ll o we d by ,

a p a ir o f m a n di bl e s a l o w e r lip o n e o r two p airs o f j a ws pr o

, , ,

p e rly s o call e d an d i n gen e ral on e or thr ee p a ir s o f au xili ari e s

,

o r li m b -j a ws s e rvi n g chi e fly fo r th e pr e h e n si on of th e foo d

,

( Fig . I n the crust a c e a which liv e by s u cti on we fi n d , ,

o n the con tra ry th e m ou th pro l o n ge d in to a kin d o f b e ak o r

,

pro bo scis r e s e mbli n g th os e i n s e cts wh o s e ha bits ar e an al ogou s

, .

I n th e i n te ri or of this tub e a r e sl e n d e r p o i n te d a ppe n d a ge s ,

p e rfo r m i n g the fu n cti o n s o f sm all l an c e ts an d on e ith e r sid e ,

w e fi n d ge n e ra lly o rg a n s a n a l o go us to th e a ux i li a ry j aws o f
the gri n di n g c rusta ce a ( cr u s ta ce e s b r ag/ e a r s ) but whi ch ar e ,

fo rm e d to e n abl e the an i m al to fi x on its pr e y .

56 6 Th e di ge stiv e c a n al e x t e n ds fr o m th e h ead to the

.

po ste ri o r e x tr e m ity o f the abdom e n an d is co mp o s e d o f a v e ry ,

sh o rt gulle t a l arge sto ma ch ( 6 Fig

, a rm e d i n ge n e r a l , .

i n te rn all y with p ow e rfu l t e e th a sl e n d e r i n te sti n e an d a , ,

r ectum I n s o m e crust ace a th e bil e is s e cr e t ed by bili a ry

.
,

v e ss e ls suffici e n tly re s e mblin g th o s e of i n s e cts b u t i n ge n e r a l

A t ri r p rt i
n e o f th i r s r f o f th b o d
o on o e nne u ace e y of a C r b ( M m)
a a
i t r
n e nal t an
; xt r l t n y y s;
e nn a
e a , e e na an en ae : , e e 0, au d t ry rg
i o o an ; m,
l i m b J w s ; b m th ; p b s e o f th
- a , t r r hm b
ou , a e an e io s ; i , en t ra n c t th
e o e res

pir t
a ory c i ty ; avst r m a, e nu .
 CL ASS or cs u s u cm . 4 37

th e re e xists a v e ry v ol u mi n ous liv e r (f o) divid e d i n t o s e v e r al ,

l a ul
o b e s an d co mp o s e d o f a n u mb e r o f s m a ll t u b e s t e rmi n a ti n g
, ,

m c d e s a c an d gro upe d arou n d a r a m ifi e d e x cr e to ry

,

b ve c f vb

st cc

Fig . 42 6 —Ci rcu l to ry A pp a ra t s o f a C ra b

. a
’ u .

c an al the e x tr e m ity o f which te rm in at e s on e ach side i n the

,

i n t e sti n e n e ar the pyl o r u s .

§ 56 7 N othi n g is k n o w n o f th e m an n e r i n which the

.

chyl e p ass e s fr o m the i n t e stin e i n t o th e circ u l ato ry app ar atus .

The bl oo d is co l o url e ss o r slightly bl u ish or li l ac an d , ,

c oa gul at e s r e adily This liqu id is s et i n m oti on by a he a rt

.

pl ace d on the m e di an li n e o f the back (0 Fig an d , .

c omp o s e d o f a si n gl e c avity Its fo rm v a ri e s an d its co n .

,

tr actio n s driv e the bl oo d i n to th e arte ri e s by which it is dis ,

trib u te d to al l p arts of the b ody The v e i n s ar e re pl ace d by .

th e l ac u n ae which th e v ari o us o rgan s l e av e b e tw e e n th e m ,

a n d which ar e li n e d by a thin l ay e r o f c e ll u l a r tiss u e ; th e y

t e rm i n ate i n v ast si n u s e s situ at e d n ear th e b as e of the li m bs

,

an d fro m th e s e c a viti e s th e bl o o d pr o ce e ds to
( s Fig
, .

the r e spira to ry o rg an s th e n r e tu r n s to th e h e a t by dis

,

ti n ct c an als n a m e d br an chi o -c a rdi ac ( c b Fig , .

§ 5 6 8 T h e crust a ce a a r e al m o st al l e ss e n ti a lly a ua tic

.
q
an im als : thus th e ir r e spir ati on t ak e s pl a ce al m o st a lw ays by
m e an s o f br an chi ae an d wh en th e s e o rg an s ar e w an ti n g
, ,

it is the ski n o f c e rt ai n p arts o f the b ody ( m o st g en e rally o f

th e li m bs ) which tak e s th e ir pl a ce Thus i n the crabs .
,

Ve rt i c l s e cti o o f th e thorax f a crus t ace ou s i m l sh owi n g th

a n o an a ,

c rs f ll ow d by th bl d ; th h e rt
ou e o e e s s i s e s ; b br ch i e
oo c, e a s, ven ou nu ,
an
s l c rryi g t h
va , v e se a s blo d t o th e b
n e hi se ;
ve n o u ss e l r ce i i g
o r an c ve , v e e v n

th ble d ft r i t p ss g thr gh th c pi ll ry e tw o rk f t h e b r chi

oo a e s a a e ou e a a n o an a:
vb b r c hi c rd i c
,
an o- a ss ls ; f rch o f the fla cs ; t ste r m ; c cel l l e
a ve e , a n s , nu c, u
of the flan cs ; p , b as e o f the li m bs .
438 ZOOLO G Y .

l obste rs an d all c rustace a of an al og ous or gan izati on the

, , ,

br an chi ae consist of a co n side ra ble n umbe r of sm all cyl in d er s ,

d isp o s e d lik e the b ristl e s o f a b rus h or of sm a ll l am e ll ae , ,

pil e d on ea ch oth e r l i ke the lea v e s of a boo k Th e se organ s .

ar e fix e d by th e i r e xt r e mity to the i n fe ri or m ar gin o f th e

42 7 .
—An tomy
a of th e C rab
Th e gre ate r p a rt o f th e ca ra p ace has b ee n r e m o v e d —t po rti o n o f the
z ,

cu ta n eo u s m e m bran e li n i n g t h e ca ra pace ; c th e he art ; ao Ophth a lmi c

, ,

a rt e ry ; o u a bd o mi n a l a r te ry ; b b r an chi aa i n th e i r n a tu ral ti o n b '

’

, , ,

b r an chi ze rev e rse d e x t e rna lly to sh o w th e i r aff e re n t v e ss e ls

, ,
arch o f th e
fi an ce f flab e ll if o r m a p n d i x o r ep i g n a thua o f the l i m b j aws e st o m ach ;
-

m m u s cl e s o f th e sto m ach; f o t h e li ve r
, , ,

, , .
 CL A S S OF CRU S T AC EA .

of d n cl o s e d i n
a rch (
the flan cs
Fi gs 42 6 a n d an a r e e .

two l arg e c aviti e s situa te d on th e sid e s of th e th or ax an d ,

co mpris e d be tw ee n th e ca r ap ac e an d the ar ch o f which w e

ha v e j ust spok e n an arr an ge m en t which doe s n ot occur i n an y

,

oth e r an i m a l o f this cl a ss Th e r e spir at ory c a vity co mm u n i .

cate s extern ally by two op en i n gs ; the on e s e rvi n g for th e

e n tran ce o f the w a te r alm o st alw ays situ a te d b e tw e en th e ,

bas e of the limbs an d the e dge o f the c ar ap ac e (r Fig , .

the oth e r d e sti n e d for th e e s ca p e of thi s liqu id is pl ac e d at th e

sid e s of the m o uth Fi n al ly the r e n e w al of th e w a te r on
.
,

the su rfa ce o f the br an chi ae is ca us e d by the m ov e m e n ts of a

F ig . . R
428 — e s p i r a to ry A ppar a t u s of a P al e m on .
’

l arge v alv u l e situate d n e a r this l atte r op e n i n g an d fo rm e d by ,

a l a m e ll a te d a ppe n di x o f th e j a ws of th e s ec on d p air ( 0 Fig , .

1 2 3 ; i Fig , I n oth e r cr usta ce a th e squi l li ( shr imps )

.
,

for e x am pl e ( F ig the b r an chi m h a v e th e fo r m o f

.

bun ch e s o f fe ath e rs an d i n pl ac e of b e in g e n cl o s e d withi n the

,

thor ax fl oat free ly e xte r n ally an d ar e atta che d to the abdo

, , ,

min al limbs ; i n othe rs stil l as i n the cr ev e tte s de s r u i ss e a ux

, ,

( pra wn s of rivul e ts ) an d th e tal ytri th e y ar e fo rm e d o f m em ,

a, ro str m ; b car ace ; b as e o f th e t ae; d b a s e f th e bd om ;

u ,
a 0, an enn ,
o a en
e, b s o f th li m bs f
a e e n hi ; g d o tte d li
, oi n ti g
ra c t th e i f ri o r e dg
aa , ne , n ou n e e
o f t h t p rti o
a o f t h ca r p ac whi c h co e rs t
n o e b ran chi
a ed w hi ch h v e ae, a n as
b ee re m o d i n thi s r p r ti o ; h e fi e t c l o f th e re s pi ra t i ; i ‘

al vul e ; j e t re mi ty o p
n ve e a a n ,
er n an a on ,

v , x the e ff e re n t o r e pi r a to ry c a l , x na .
44 0 ZOOLO GY .

b r an o u s v e sicl e s fi x e d to the bas e o f the limbs un d e r the ,

th o r ax ; a n d th e s e p e rfor m the fun cti on s o f bran chi ae Fi n ally .

,

1n the crustace a is o po d a r e spir ati on is a cc omplish e d by,

m ean s o f fals e a bd om i n al li mbs which ar e foli ace o us an d ,

m e mbra n o us .

é b e
a

42 9 .
—S q uil l

569 . v e ry sm all n umbe r o f th e se a n i m als

Th e r e ex ists a

which liv e i n ai r ; b u t th ey fo rm an e x ce pti on to wh at w e

h av e alre ady s aid r e l ati v e to the di ffe re n ce s o f str u ctu re o f
the r e spir at o ry app ar atus i n aq u atic an d t e rr e stri al an i m als
fo r i n pl ac e o f b e i n g fu rn ish e d with l un gs or trach eae th e y ,

bre ath e by bran chi ae li k e the first ; on ly th e s e o rgan s ar e dis

,

p o s e d i n s u ch a w ay as to m ai n ta i n th e ms e lve s i n a m o ist
st ate r e quir e d for the ex e rcis e o f th e ir fu n cti o n s The g e
, .

car ci n s o r l an d cr a bs ( Fig m e t with i n v a ri o u s re gi o n s of

.

the gl ob e but abou n din g e spe ci ally i n th e A n till e s wh e r e

, ,

th ey ar e k n o w n by the n am e of tou r l ou r ous pr e se n t a ,

r e m a rk abl e ex ampl e o f thi s an om aly I n pl ac e o f livi n g i n .

w a te r as the ord i n a ry cr u sta ce a th e y ar e te rr e stri al an d , ,

a lth o u gh th e y h a v e gills s o m e of th e m b e c om e asphyxi ate d

,

r apidly by subm e rsi on Th e ir re spir ati on is i n fa ct too

.
, ,

a ctiv e fo r th e sm a ll qu an tity o f o x yge n diss o l v ed i n w at e r

s u fli ci n fo r th e ir w an ts whilst i n the a i r th e y o f c o u rs e fi n d
g ,

this m a te ri a l i n abu n d an c e ; an d a disp o siti on an al o go us to

th at which w e h av e alr e ady m e t with i n fish e s ( Fig pe r .

mits th e m to r e m ai n ou t o f the w at e r witho ut th e ir b r an chi az

dryi n g up s o as to be co m e un fit for the pe rfo rm an c e of th e ir
y s t m ’ li m bs o f th e fi rst p ai r "
li m bs o f the t hre e
y e e ;
,
a n ean n, ; p , ; p ,

fo ll o wi g a i rs ;
n tho rac i c l i m bs o f the thre e l ast p ai rs ; p a fa l s e a bd o ,
.

m i n al li m s ; b b r a n chi az ; g c a u d al fi n
, , .
 CLA S S or
'
ca u s r x cs x . 44 1

fun cti on s So m e tim e s th e re e x ists at the bo tto m of the r e spi

.

r ator
y c avity a s o rt o f tr ou gh d e sti n e d to act as a r e s e rv oir ,

fo r the w a te r r e q u ir e d to m ain t ai n th e ir br an chi ae i n a m o ist

sta t e ; at o th e r tim e s w e fi n d on th e a rch o f this c avity a
,

sp on gy m e m bran e which s e e m s to s e rve the s am e purp o s e

, .

Mo st o f th e s e l an d cr abs live i n mo ist w oo ds con ce a li n g th e m ,

s e lv e s i n h ol e s which th e y dig i n th e s oi l b u t the l o ca liti e s

, ,

th ey pr e fe r v a ry a cco rdin g to the sp e ci e s ; s om e liv e i n

l o w m a rshy groun ds n e a r the s e a ; o th e rs pre fe r w ood e d
hi l ls far fro m the s e ash ore an d at c e rta in e po chs th e s e l a st ,

qu it th e ir us u al pl a ce of a bod e to r ea ch the s e a
The cl op o r te s ( Fig 4 1 9 ) a r e a ls o te rr e stri al crustace a
.
,

wh o s e a e r i en re spir ati o n is a ccom plish e d by m e an s of foli a ceou s

l am i u m situ at e d u n d e r the abdom en an d which i n oth e r , ,

a n i m a ls fo rm e d i n th e s am e w a p e rf r m th e fu n cti on s o f
y o ,

br an chi ae .

F i g 43 0
. .
-Ge car ci n , or L an d Crab .

57 0 The crusta c e a ar e al l o vip a ro u s an d the s ex e s

.
,

a l m o st a lw ays di sti n ct ; b u t s o m e a r e h e r m aphr o di t e The .

fe m a l e m ay i n ge n e r al b e distin g u ish e d fro m the m a l e by the

gr e at e r siz e o f the abd o m en an d a fte r h a vi n g l aid he r e ggs , ,

s he c a rri e s th e m d u rin g a c e rt a i n tim e suspe n d e d u n d e r th at

p a rt o f the body or e v en e n cl os e d i n a s o rt o f p ouch fo rm e d

,

o f a pp e n d ag e s b e l o n gi n g to the li m bs ; s o m e tim e s th e y o un g

ar e pr o duc e d i n this po u ch a n d r e m a in th e r e u n til th e y h a v e

,

p ass e d thr ough th e ir first m oul ti n g The y oun g i n ge n e r a l .

do n ot u n de rgo tru e m e t a m orph o s e s Som e ti m e s h o w e v e r .

, ,

S ch
u th ci rc m st
ar e c s whi ch r d r d i ffi c l t al l mi t e p p li c t i
e u an e en e u nu a a on
o f th l ws r e g l a t i g t h e stru ct r
e a u nd f
n cti s o f th w i st i g
u e a un on e no ex n
li iv n w rld t
o t h e re m i s w e fi d i
o p st g l g i c l p och
a n Th t n n a eo o
w hi chs
, a e s . a
ms q
ee ti c m y h a b
ua t rr stri l d i
a ave d No t th t
e en e e a ,
an v ce ner a . a
ana to m y i t ll d btf l w h f lly k ow b t th s ft st r c t r b i g
d e st ro ye d we w t a l a bl le m e t i th e i qui ry —
s a a ou u en u n n, u e o u u e e n

, an va u R K e e n n n . . .
44 2 zo o no o v .

th ey a cqu i re by the progres s of ag e a grea te r n umbe r o f limbs ,

an d th e r e ar e so m e w hich co m pl e te ly ch an ge th e ir for m
d u ri n g the ea rly pe r i ods o f life ; the l e r n eae o ffe r us an
e x a mpl e o f this tr an sfo r m ati o n ( Fig .

57 1 The cl a ss c r ustace a a m on gst which w e m ust

.
,

ar r an g e the ci r r ho oda pl ace d b y m a n y n a t u ra li sts but e rro

p , ,

n eo u s l a m n gst the m o l lusca i s divid e d in to fi ve p r in cipal

y , o ,

gr o u ps n a me ly
, ,

Th e po d ophthal m ar ia which h av e the e y e s carri e d on

,

m o v ea bl e p edu n cl e s the an te ri or po rti on o f th

,

n i s h e d with a ca r a p ace a mbul ato r y limbs the m o uth a rm e d

, ,

with j aws dispo s e d for m asticati on an d the o rg an s of r es pi ,

r ati on fo rm ed o f bran chi ae pro pe rly so cal l e d , .

Th e e d r i ophth al m i a wh o s e e y e s ar e n ot pe du n cula te d the

, ,

thor ax e x po s e d the a mbul ato ry limbs the m as ti cato ry b u cca l

, ,

a pp ar atus an d the b r an chi w r epl ace d by a p orti on of the

s e ri e s o f the li m bs .

Th e br an chi op od a i n which the li m bs ar e al l foli ace o us

, ,

a n d p e rfor m at th e s a m e ti m e th e fu n cti o n s o f fi n s an d

b ran chi w .

The e n to m ostraca i n which the l im bs ar e n at ato r y but

,

n ot br an chi al a n d i n which the m ou th is usu a lly o rgan iz e d

,

for suct i on F ina lly th e Xi pho sur i i n wh o m the m outh h as

.
, ,

n o a ppe n d ag e s which e sp e cia lly b e l on g to it b u t is sur ,

r ou n d e d with limbs , th e b a s e o f which p e rfo rms th e fu n cti o n s

o f j a ws .

Wh en I fir st m ad e the disco v e ry th at the v e n d ace , the h e r

r i n g an d m an y fi n e spe ci e s of the s al m on id ae li v e al m o st
, ,

e x clusiv e ly o n v a ri ous kin ds o f the e n to m o str aca , the vi e w

w as vi ol e n tly co n te ste d by n atu ra lists ; an d a lth ou gh the facts

submitte d to th e m a dmitte d of n o s ort o f d ou bt to this da y
I hav e n ot o v e rco m e th e ir prej u dice s The histo ry of my .

i n quiry was a fte rw a rds tak e n u p by my fo r m e r stud e n t an d

assista n t , M r H e n ry Good s i r ; an d his r e m a rks
. as th o s e o f ,

an h on e st an d ca re ful o bs e rv e r, m ay b e fo u n d a gr eea bl e to the

rea d e r .

’
H ear i n g fish er m en o fte n spe a k of s om e thi n g which
our
a bo u n d e d i n gr e a t qu an titi e s in th e F i rth o f F o rth d u ri n g th e

summ e r m on ths whi ch th ey ca ll e d M a i d r e an d o f whi ch

, ,

th e y n e ve r co uld giv e m e a cl e ar d e sc ripti on I d e te rm i n e d to ,

e xami n e it fo r mys e lf .

It was st a te d to m e th at this m a i d r e was ge n e rally fou n d

i n gr ea te st qu a n tity r o un d the Isl an d o f M ay o n l y d u ri n g ,
 cu s s o r CRU S T AC E A . 44 3

the summ e r m on ths an d e speci ally du rin g th e tim e of the

,

h er ri n g -fi sh i n g .

“
I fi n d h o w e v er th at m a i d r e m u st a bo un d durin g the
, ,

spri n g m on ths als o as the sto m achs o f the h e r ri n gs c aught

,

at pr e s e n t a r e i n m o st c a s e s fi ll e d with it .

I n fr e qu e n t e xcursi on s to th e Isl e o f M ay du ri n g l ast ,

ye ar I foun d th at the m a i d r e con siste d of on e imm en se con

,

ti n u ou s body o f mi n ute a n im als .

The a n i m als co m po s i n g t his imm e n s e body w e r e th os e

be l on g ing to the cirrip e ds cru sta c e an s an d aca l e ph a
, ,
.

Of th e s e the crusta ce an s e xist ed i n the gr e a te st n u m b er s ,

or 1 ath e r m a s s e s for it giv e s a fa in t id e a to spe a k o f n um

,

be rs The crust acea w e re a mphi po d a an d en to m o stra ca th e

.
,

for m e r of which w e re v e ry a bun dan t b u t the l att e r ( e n to m o s ,

tr aca ) fo rm e d th e greates t pro po rti on of thi s in n um e r abl e

bo dy o f a n i m als .

The aca l e ph a als o a bo un de d o f which th e diff er e n t spe

,

ci e s of he roes w e re s ee n i n gre ate st n umbe rs .

I r e m ar k e d th at th e m as s e s o f m a i d r e abo u n d ed m o st a t
the sh e lte re d sid e s of the isl an d On l oo kin g i n to th e w ate r
.
,

it w as fo un d to b e qu ite obsc u r ed by the m o vin g m a ss e s of

e n to m o str ac a which r e n d e r e d it i m p o ssibl e to s e e an ythi n g
, ,

e v e n a fe w i n ch e s b e l o w th e surfa ce .

“
But i f by ch an ce a cl e a r spo t 1 5 o bta in e d s o as to all o w ,

th e o bs e rv e r to g e t a vi e w o f the bo tto m i m m e n se sh oals o f ,

coa l fis h ar e s ee n s wi m m i n g l azily a bo ut a n d de v o u ri n g th e i r ,

m in ut e pr e y i n gr e a t q u an tit i e s Occ asi on ally sm all sh o als

.

o f h e rri n gs ar e se e n p u rs u i n g th e m w ith gr e at e r agi lity It .

is i n the d e e p ca v e rn s h o w e v e r i n the sid e s of the isl an d

, , ,

wh e re th e m a i d r e 1 3 fou n d 1 n gr e a te st a bu n d an ce ; an d accor d
i n g l y we fi n d th at al l th o s e an im als pur su i n g th e m ar e fo u n d
,

th e r e m gr e a te r abun dan ce al s o
.

Th e fish e rm e n duri n g th e e arli e r pe ri ods o f th e fish e ry

, ,

t ak e adv a n ta g e o f this an d sh oo ti n g th e ir n e ts acro ss the

, ,

m ou ths o f the ca v e s al arm the h e rrin gs i n th e m e ith e r by

, ,

thro wi n g l a rge sto n e s fr o m th e ir b oats or fr o m the t ops of

the ro cks an d i n this w ay s o m e ti m e s s u cce ed i n t akin g grea t
,

sh o ts .

Th e s e h ow e v e r ar e n ot the o nl y an i m als w hi ch prey on

, ,

th e i m m e n s e b odi e s of m a i d r e .

“
Gr eat n umbe rs o f ce ta ce a o fte n fre qu en t the n e i g hb o u r
h oo d o f the islan d at t hi s tim e ; dr o v e s o f dolphi n s an d po r
po is e s swimmin g abo ut wi th grea t activity a n d occa sion a lly
,
44 4 ZOOLOGY .

an i m m en s e rorqu al m ay b e s een r a isi n g his e n o rm ous back

a t i n t e rv a ls fro m th e w a te r a n d 1 s to b e o bs e rv e d co u r sin g
,

r o u n d a n d roun d the isl an d .

I h av e e x a mi n ed gre at n u m b e rs o f th e s e ce t aceo us an im als

( dolphin s a n d po rpo is e s ) withi n the l ast fe w yea rs an d n e v e r ,

h a v e s een an ythin g r e s e mbli n g the re m ai n s o f h e rrin gs o r ,

fish o f a n y o th e r kin d i n the sto m ach altho ugh the for m e r

, ,

fis h w as v e ry a bun d an t a t the s am e tim e i n the F i rth I .

m a ke n o d ou bt th e re fo r e th at the ce tace a on ly a cco mp an y

, ,

th e h e rr i n g i n p u rsuit o f th e ir co mm o n foo d viz e n to m o s , .

,

traca an d a c al e ph ae .

I h av e al re ady sta te d that it w as en to m o str aco us an im als

which fo r m e d th e gre at m a ss o f the m a i d r e A m on g th e se .

I obta i n e d a g re at n umb e r of n on de sc ript spe ci e s on e o f ,

which I shall n o w d e s crib e .

On o n e o f my o cc a si on a l vi si ts to the Isl e of May I ob ,

s e rv e d th at at a co n side rabl e distan c e fro m the i sl an d the se a

h ad a slightly r e d col o ur th a t this b ec am e d e ep e r an d d ee pe r
,

a s w e n e a r e d the isl a n d ; a n d a ls o th at th e su rf ac e o f the

w at e r pr e s en t e d a v e ry curi ous appe ar an ce as if a qu an tit of

I thou g ht a t fir
,

fi n e s an d w e r e co n sta n tly fa lli n g on i t st .

th at this l ast circumst an c e pro c e e de d fro m r a in but pre se n tly ,

I fou n d th at bo th ph en o m e n a w e r e c au s e d by a gre at n umbe r

o f s m all r ed e n to m o str aca which I h ad n e v e r b e for e o bs e r v e d
,

i n s u ch abu n d a n ce On furth e r o bse rv ati o n I fo un d th at it

.
,

b e l on ged to the ge n us Ce toch i l u s o f M Ro us e l d e Vau ze m e .

,

w ho has give n a d e t a il e d d e sc ripti on o f his spe ci e s ( C A us .

tr ali s ) the on ly o n e hith e rto k n o w n i n th e first v o l o f th e

, , .

A n n a l es d e s S ci e n ce s N a tu r e l l es This au tho r st ate s tha t

. ,

it is fo un d i n the P a cific Oce an an d i n the mi ddl e o f the ,

°
A tl an tic Oce an a b o u t 4 0 d e gr ee s s ou th l atitud e
, It fo rm s .
,

h e s ays v e ry e x te n siv e b an ks which i mp art a r ed col o u r to

, ,

th e w at e r an d whi ch fu rn ish a pl e n ti fu l supply of foo d to the

wh al e s fr eq u en ti n g th o s e s ea s —R K J
,

. . .

§ 5 7 2 . T h e divisi o n of
po d o h thal m a r i a com r is e s th e
p
gre ate r n u mb e r o f crust ace a an d is co mp o s ed 0 al l tho se
,

who s e o rgan iz a ti on is the m o st com pl e x an d the m o st pe rfe ct .

It is s u bdivide d i n to two o rd e rs the de cap od a an d the ,

s to m ap o d a .

57 3 . The o rd e r o f th e d e c ap od a c o mprise s the cra bs ,

l ob s te 1 s , a n d a l l th e o th e r crusta ce a i n wh o m th e b r an chi z
e

ar e i n te r n a l , a n d m wh om the li m bs ar e fi ve p airs in nu mbe r .

Th e h e ad a n d th e th orax of th e s e ani m als ar e co n fo u n de d

 CLA S S OF CRU S T AC E A .

i n to a m a ss co v e re d by a l ar ge c arap ace or c as e ( Fig .

this d o rs a l b u ckl e r adv an c e s i n gen e ra l m ore or l e ss i n fr on t ,

d e s cen ds on e ach sid e to the b as e o f the li m bs an d b ackw a rds ,

a s fa r as th e o rigi n o f th e abd o m e n ( Figs 4 1 8 It re sults.

,

fro m this a rr an ge m e n t th at w e ca n n o l on ge r r e co gn is e
thro u gh ou t a l l this p art of the b o dy an y tra ce o f a n an n u l a r
divisi on ; b u t b en ea th m o st of the ri n gs alth o u gh u n ite d
, ,

t o ge th e r a r e still reco gn is a bl e an d l e av e at th e ir po in ts of
, ,

j u n cti o n the l in e s o f s u tu re m or e o r l e ss disti n ct The ey e s

, .

are a lw ays ca rri e d o n th e e x tr e miti e s o f a p a ir o f m o v e a bl e

a pp e n d ag e s which S pri n g from the first s e gm e n t o f the h e a d ;

s o m e ti m es the l e n gth of th e ir p ed u n cl e is v e ry c on sid e ra bl e

Fig a n d i n g e n e r a l th ey m a b fo ld e d o r withdr a w n
( .
y e

i n t o the ca viti e s pe rfo rm i n g the o ffi c e o f o rbits an d which ar e ,

fo rm ed by the an te ri o r m a rgi n of the c arap ace sh e ll o r c as e , , .

The o rgan s o f l o co m o ti on ar e als o v e ry w e ll d e v e l op e d i n th e s e

crust a c ea ; s e v e ra l can r un with e x tre m e ra pidity o th e rs ,

swi m still m ore swiftly Th e ir li m bs as w e h av e a lre ady

.
,

s aid ar e fi ve p a irs i n n umbe r fi x e d to the fi ve l a st ri n gs o f

, ,

F 1 g 43 1
. .
—Cr b e T rt
a ou e au (C . P a gur us ) .

th e th or ax ; but i n ge n e r a l th o s e o f the fo u r l ast p airs al on e

s e rv e fo r l oco m oti on an d th o s e o f the first p air te rm in ati n g
,

i n a fo rce ps m o r e or l e ss p e rfe ct be co m e i n str u m e n ts of pr e

,

h e n s i on ( Fig . I n the d e ca po d a the b e st a d apte d for ,

swi m m i n g ( s u ch a s the cr a w -fi sh t he l o bste r the l an gou ste

, , ,

a n d the pal e m o n s ) th e b ody is e l on g at e d a n d th e a bd o m e n

, ,

t e r m i n ate d by a l arg e tran sv e rs e fi n ( Fig whilst i n .

44 6 ZOOLO G Y .

th o s e which ar e fo rm e d for r un n i n g the crabs for e x ampl e , , ,

the a bd o m e n is v e ry sh o rt has n o te rmin al fi n an d is cu rv ed

, ,

u n de r th e th o rax .

57 4 Th e sto m a po da h av e also th e ey e s c ar ri e d o n m ov e
.

a bl e pe dun cl e s th e tho r a x co v e re d e n tire ly o r p a rtly by a

,

c a rapac e an d the limbs cyli n drical ; b u t the ir b r an chi m ar e

,

n ot e n cl o s e d i n th e c a viti e s o f th e th o r a x but fl oat u n d e r th e ,

ab do m e n o r a r e a lto g e th e r w an ti n g
,
The squill a ( Fig . .

o f which w e h a v e alr e ad y sp o k en b el on gs to this o rd e r , .

F i g 43 2
. .
—A nil o cra . F i g 43 3 . .
— Li m n ad i a .
’

57 5 I n th e divisi o n e dr i o pth al m i a , th e h e a d is disti n ct

.

from the th o rax , an d this l as t p ar t o f the b o dy is co m po s e d

o f a s e ri e s o f s e v e n ri n gs , e a ch c ar ryi n g a p a ir o f li m bs .

Th u s , a s we hav e a lre a dy s a id , th e re i s n ot an y c a rap ace , the

e y e s ar e n o t p e d u n c u l a t e d , th e r e ar e n o br a n chi ae , pr o pe rly so

c all e d , b u t the r e spir ati on is p e rfo r m e d by m ean s o f v a ri o us

a pp e n d ag e s b o rr o w e d fr o m the l o c o m oto ry a pp a ra t u s Na .

t u ralists a rr an ge u n de r this gr ou p ,

1 The a m phip o d a which h a v e th e a bd om e n w e ll d e v e l o pe d

.
, ,

a n d c a rry u n d e r th e th o r a x a d o ubl e s e ri e s o f r e spira to r y

v e sicl e s fo rm e d by the i n te rn al br an chi ae o f the limbs The

, .

praw n s o f rivul e ts an d the ta l ytr i ( Fig 1 46 ) o ffe r u s th e s e .

ch a r a cte rs .

2 The l ce m od i po da which r e s e mbl e the pre c e di n g i n the

.
,

dispo siti on o f the o rgan s o f r e spir ati o n but which h a v e o n ly ,

a rudim e n ta ry a bd o m e n .

On e of th e l s o f the cara p ace

v a ve ha s b ee n re m o e dv .
 cu ss o r ca u sr x cs x . 447

3 . The
is opo da i n wh o m the abd o men is on the con tr a ry
, , ,

w e ll d e v e lo p e d an d c arri e s b e n eath a s e rie s o f fals e br an chi a l

,

li m bs The a n i l ocr a ( fig
. th e sph ae ro m a an d the cl a ss
.
,

cl op o r te ( on iscus be l on g to this o rd e r
) .

,
F i g 434
. .
—C yclo ps .

57 6 . Th e
br an chi o po d a a s w e h av e alrea dy s aid ar e , ,

s m a l cr u st a ce a wh o s e li m bs n o l o n ge r s e rv e fo r w a lkin g but
, ,

a ss u m e the fo rm o f fo li a c e o u s pl a te s c on stit u ti n g at on e an d ,

the s a m e t i m e o rg a n s o f n a ta ti on a n d r e spir ati on S uch a r e the .

l i m n ad i ae which h av e b e e n a lre a dy m en ti on e d ( Fig

, the .

a pis th e b r an ch i e s the d a p hn i aa It is to this gr o up th a t

, p , .

t he tr i l o b i te s s e e m to h a v e be l o n ge d : m a ri n e an i m a ls wh o s e ,

fo ssil r e m a i n s ar e fo un d i n the m o st an ci e n t str a ta o f the

gl obe b u t o f which th e r e ex ists n ot a t pr e s e n t an y livin g r e
,

pre s en t ativ e i n the s ea s .

577 The en to m o straca ar e als o fo rm e d on ly for

.

s wi m mi n g a n d i n y o uth th e y al l po ss e ss a ce rt ai n n umbe r o f
,

r igid d o u bl e -car e d limbs ; b u t i n th e ad ul t sta te th e y ar e

m ostly s e de n t ary an d th en th e bo dy be co m e s de fo r m e d in a
,

v e ry sin g u l ar m a n n e r ; i n ge n e r a l th ey h av e but a sin gl e eye ,

pl ac e d i n the m iddl e of th e fo re h e ad an d th e i r re s pir ation ,

s ee m s to ta k e pl ace o v e r the wh ol e s u rfac e of the bo dy .

57 8 So m e c all e d c o p e po d a a r e a lw ays v e ry activ e an d

.
, , ,

p o ss e ss l a rge an te n n ae an d a m asticato ry a pp aratus ; th e s e ar e

the cycl o ps o r m on o cle s ( Fig ,
.

57 9 Oth e rs liv e as p a ra site s o n fish e s crust ac ea &c

.
, , ,

a n d h a v e th e m o uth e l on g a te d i n the fo r m o f a pr o bo scis or

b e ak a rm e d with styl e -fo r m e d appe n d a ge s a dapt e d to pi e rc e

,

th e i n te g u m e n ts o f th e an i m als wh o s e j uice s th e y s u ck Th e y .

The E n t o m o st a a p l a y a n i m p o rc rt t
an rt r
i n th e g e at e o no m y o f
pa c
n a tu er r
Th e fo m t h e e s p eci al fo o d
. o f m a n y v al u a bl e fish e s o f t he fa m i ly
s a l m o n i dae c u p e ad ze a n d co rre r
o n i ; a n d i t i s e vi d e n t , f o m t h e e m ai n s i nr
t h e li m e sto n e st ra t a tha t th e y ab
, ,

r
o u n d e d i n th e s e as a n d f e sh wa t e s o f th e r
a n c i e n t w o rld —R K
,

. . .
 ZOOLO G Y .

h a v e be e n divid e d i n to the siph on o sto m a an d th e l e rn ea ; the

first h av e alw ays swimmi n g limbs an d atta ch th e ms e lve s by ,

m e an s of l i mb -j aws h avi n g t he fo rm of h oo ks ; the s ec o n d on ,

r e achin g the ad ult ag e pre s e n t n o l on ge r an y trace s o f 1000

,

m oto ry o rgan s an d h av e o ft en bee n con fo un d e d with the

,

i n te s ti n al worm s fi“
580 It is a ls o i n this divisi on o f th e e n to m o strac a th at
.

w e must a r ran ge th e ci r r ho pod a which at fir st sight s e e m to ,

h a v e m an y an a logi e s with the m o llusc a m o re s o i n d e e d th an ,

with an i m als of the cl ass we n o w d e scribe ; b u t i n fact th ey

a r e o nl y cru stace a with the bo dy d e fo rm e d afte r th ey h av e

F i g 43 5
. .
-
An ati fae .

ce as e d to l e ad a w an d e ri n g life Wh e n y ou n g th e s e sm al l
.
,

b e i n gs which are al l m a ri n e swim fre e ly an d r e se mbl e

, , ,

e x tr e m e ly ce rtai n o rdi n a ry e n to m o str aca s uch as th e y o u n g ,

cycl o ps ( Fig . b u t s oo n a fte rw a rds th ey be co m e fix ed ,

A s peci s f l r
e o a tt c ks th e g i lls o f t h e s l m
e nes a d ri g i t r si d i
a on u n s e e n ce n
fr sh w t rs b t s m s t p ri sh w h t he fish r t r t o th
e a e , u ee o e en
—R K e u n e se a . . .
 CL AS S or ca u s u cm . 44 9

so l on g as th e ir life e n d u re s to s o m e s u bm ari n e bo dy an d , ,

c o m pl e te ly ch an ge th e ir form It is by the b ack th at the y .

th u s adhe r e a n d th e ir bo dy m o re o r l e ss pyri fo rm an d
, ,

cur v e d o n its e lf is e n cl o s e d i n wh o l e or i n the gr e a te r p a rt

, , ,

i n a ki n d o f sh e ll c o mpo s e d of s e v e r a l pi e c e s ( Fig
, .

Th e y h a v e n o e y e s an d th e ir m o u th i s fu r n ish e d with m an
,

d i b l e s an d j a ws h a vi n g the str on g e st r e s e m bl an c e with th o s e

o f c e rta i n cr u st ace a ; the a bd o min a l as p e ct o f th e ir bo dy is

o cc u pi e d by tw o r o ws o f fl e shy l o be s h avi n g e a ch l on g h o r n y ,

a pp e n d a g e s ,fur n ish e d with c i li a an d co m p o se d of a gre at ,

n u m b e r o f j o i n ts Th e s e ki n ds of a r m s or ci rr hi n u m b e rin g
.
,

tw e lv e p airs are curv e d on th e ms e lv e s an d the an im a l c o n

, ,
s

s tan tl r otm d e s an d with d ra ws th e m by th e op e n i n g o f its

yp
sh e ath o r ca s e A t the e x trem ity of this s e ri e s o f o rgan s is
.

fo u n d a ki n d o f tail h a vi n g t he fo r m o f a l o n g fl e shy te n t acl e

, ,

at the ba s e o f which i s th e a n u s Th e ir n e rv o u s syste m is

. .

c om po s ed o f a d oubl e ch ai n o f gan gli o n s disp o s e d e x actly as ,

i n the o th e r a rticul ate d an im als Th e y h a v e a h e art l odge d .

,

i n the d o rs a l p a rt o f th eir b o dy an d th e y br e ath e by br an chi ae ,

wh o s e fo r m v a ri e s .

Th e ci r r hi pod a ar e di vid e d i n to tw o fa mili e s — th e a n atifae

an d the b a l an i .

Th e An atifae ( Fig 4 3 5) ( c a ll ed a ls o l e p a s an a ti fe r a )
.

ar e en cl o s e d i n a ki n d o f c o m pr e ss e d m a n tl e Ope n o n on e sid e , ,

a n d s u sp en d e d by a l o n fl e shy p e d u n cl e ; s o m e tim e s this

g
m an tl e is a lm o st e n tir e ly c artil a gi n o u s : a t oth e r ti m e s it i s
c o ve r e d by fi v e t e sta c e o us pl ate s o f whi ch the tw o pri n cip a l ,

on e s he ar s o m e r e s e m bl an c e to th o s e o f a m u scl e Th e .

co m m o n an a tifa dw e ll s i n o u r s e a s a n d i s fr e q u en tly fo u n d ,

a tt a ch e d t o r o cks to th e k e e ls o f s hi ps a n d to pi e ce s o f
, ,
.

fl o ati n g timb e r It ha s b e e n the s ubj e ct o f m o st a bs u rd

.

fa bl e s ; s o m e co a rs e r e s e mbl a n c e o f its sh e l l
to a bird g a v e o rigin to th e silly ta l e th at
, ,

from th e s e an i m als c am e the g oo s e c a ll ed

b a rn acle.

Th e B al an i o r s e a gl an ds ( Fig 4 3 6 ) a b ou n d .

on th e r o cks o f o u r s e a s a n d a r e c o n ta i n e d ,

whol ly i n a ki n d o f sh e ll ge n e r ally c o n ica l , ,

an d v e ry sh o rt fi x e d by its b a s e
, a n d co m F i g 43 6 B l s , . .
- a anu

po s e d o f s e v e r a l l appe ts ar ticul at e d with ,

e a ch o th e r : t he Op e n i n g o f thi s t u b e is o cc u pi e d by two o r

fo u r m o v e abl e v a lv e s b e tw e e n which is fo un d a fiss u re de s

,

ti n e d to giv e p ass age to th e ci rr hi .

4 50 ZOOLOGY .

'

Fi n ally h e divisi o n o f crustace a c all e d xiph

§ 58 1 t
‘

.
,
o

s u ra i s co m po se d on ly o f a si n gl e ge n u s th at o f the limulus , ,

wh o s e stru ctur e i s m o st an o m al o u s Th e s e ar e l a rg e cr us .

tace a wh o s e bodi e s ar e divid e d i n to tw o p a rts

,
t he first ,

co v e r e d by a s e micir c u l a r buckl e r ,

h as ey e s an te n n as an d s i x p airs o f , ,

fe e t surr ou n di n g the m o uth which ,

s e rv e at the s am e tim e for w a lki n g .

an d for m a stica ti on ( Fig 1 2 1 ) th e .

s e co n d po rti on o f the b o dy c o v e re d ,

by an o th e r buckle r alm o st tri ,

a n gul a r c ar ri e s b e n e a th fi v e p a i rs , ,

o f swimmin g l imbs wh o s e po ste ri o r ,

a sp e ct is c o v e r e d with br an chi ae ;
an d it t e r mi n at e s with a l o n g
stylifo r m ta il Th e s e si n gu l a r an i .

m a ls i n h a bit the I n di an Oce a n an d

t he c o asts o f A m e ric a ; th e y ar e
k n o w n by the co mm on n am e o f
Mo l u cca cra bs .

A s th e r e is sca rce ly a s u bj e c t
m o re i n te re sti n g i n n at u r a l histo ry
th a n th at p a rt o f it which tre ats
o f the v ar i o u s m e t a m o rph o s e s which

a l l a n im a ls u n d e rg o i n th e i r
pr o
r e ss i v e gr o wth fr om t h e m
g e

F g 43 7 —L i m l s
1 . .
b ryon i c to the a d u lt c on di ti on
u u .
,

I h av e v e n tur e d to s u bj oi n the
o bs e rv a ti on s m a d e on this subj e ct by a fo r m e r m o st e stee m e d

st u d e n t o f m i n e an d a ca re ful ob s e r ver fi Th ey r e fe r n o
,
“
,

do ubt e sp eci ally to the cl a ss ci r r hi pe d s but m u ta ti a m u ta n d i s

, ,

a pply to a l l I n my l a te i n q u iri e s i n to the d e n titi on o f

.

the s a l m o n o th e r s i n gul a r facts h a v e co m e o u t pl ai nl y di s

, ,

provi n g the o pi n i o n of M V a l e n ci e n n e s th at N aturalists .

,
‘

’
h av e o n ly to d o with the adult fo r m s F o r al l th e s e ad ult .

fo r m s o r sp e ci e s a re i n clud e d i n the histo ry o f the y o un g ,

a s I h a v e pr o v e d with r e g a rd to the s a lm on id ae ; whilst a l l

tra n sce n de n ta lists si n c e the tim e of o e th e an d Ok e n h a v e G

k n ow n th at the l a rv a c o n dit i o n s o f m an y li v i n g sp e ci e s
t pify o r ar e type s o f a d u lt fo rm s o r sp eci e s n o w e x ti n ct ;
ty
, ,

at is o f the a dult fo rms o f th e

, fo ssil w o rld Th us i t .

is th at the histo ry o f the o rgan o -ge n e sis o f the m eta m or ,

Mr H ry Go d i i th E d i b rg h P hi l p hi l J o
. en o s r, n e l n u o so ca ur n a .
 cu ss O F . CRU S T AC E A . 4 51

phe s e s o f the y ou n g e lucid ate s the hist o ry o f the o rgan ic ,

w orld p a st an d pre s en t c on n e cti n g the m t og e th e r i n to on e

, ,

gr eat wh o l e the acco m plish m e n t o f o n e v ast d e sign The

, .

l a ws o f d e fo rm ati o n e v en i n m an ar e as ye t but littl e u n d e r

, ,

st oo d On e thi n g is c e rta i n ; n am ely th a t for the fu ture

.
,

z oo l o gy c an n o t b e b a s e d on an y e x clu siv e m e th o d or m o d e o f
r e s e a rch b u t must s e e k for its ill u str ati on s an d vi e ws i n th e
,

e n tir e r a n g e o f d e scriptiv e a n d phil o s o phic al a n a to m y to ,

which m u st b e s u p e r add e d the c a re fu l o bs e rv ati o n of e x te rn a l

’
c har act e rs H e re a r e M r Good s i r s r e m a rks
. .

Th e re is n o se t o f an im als which h as c au s e d gr e a te r an n oy
an ce to syst e m a tists th a n th e ci r r hi e d a
p .

Th ey w e r e first a rran ge d by Li n n ae u s al on g w ith the te s

tace ou s m o ll u sc a Cu vi e r a t fi r st fo ll o w e d thi s a rr an g e m e n t
.
-
,

b u t l att e rly pl ace d the m i n a disti n ct cl a ss by th e m s e lv e s

.
,

b e tw e e n th e m ollusc a an d articul at a L am a rck La tre ill e .

, ,

M Le ay an d o th e r au tho rs fo ll o w e d thi s l a tte r a rr an g e m e n t ;

‘
, ,

t he t wo l a st a u th o rs a ck n o wl e dgi n g at the s am e t i m e th e ir , ,

cl o s e r co n n e x i o n with the a rticul at a .

The de cisi on o f this i m p o rta n t que sti on h o w e v e r was l e ft , ,

to o u r co u n trym an M r J V Th o m ps o n This g e n tl e m an
, . . . .

h a vi n g o bta i n ed s om e mi n u te muss e l -lik e an i m als at first ,

co n sid e re d th e m to b e n on d e sc ripts be l o n gi n g to the cr u sta

c eaus b u t on a fu rth e r e x a m i n ation a n d by k e e pi n g a fe w o f
, ,

th e m aliv e i n gl a ss v e ss e ls of se a -w a te r he w as s oon e n abl e d ,

t o m a k e o u t th e i r n a t u r e a n d r e l a ti o n s s a tisfa cto rily To u s e .

»

’
Mr Th o mps on s o w n w o rds
. Th ey w e r e t ak e n on th e 1 st
o f M ay a n d o n th e n ight o f the e ighth the a uth o r h ad the
,

s atis facti on to fi n d th at two o f th e m had throw n off the ir

e x uvi a a n d w on d e rful to s ay w e r e fi r mly adh e ri n g to th e
, ,
’
bo tto m o f the v e ss e l an d ch an g e d in to y oun g bar n acl e s , .

Th e a b o v e m e n ti o n e d st a t e m e n ts s e t at r e st i n a gr e a t m e a
-
,

s u r e the pr e vi ou s disc u ssi on s as to the po sition o f the ci r r hi

,

p e ds i n the a ni m al ki n gd o m .

I n th e b e gi n n i n g o f M arch o f th e pr e s en t y ea r w hil e
r f
P o e o Re ss r id * 0 1 S t A n dr e ws a n d m ys e l f w e r e w atchi n g th e
.

m o v e m en ts of s o m e v e ry l a rg e ba l a n i ( B a l a n ces Ti n ti n n a
b u l u m ) w e obs e rv e d a fe w o f th e m ej e cti n g with c on side ra bl e
,

fo rc e a gre at qu an tity o f sm a l l gr an ul e s e v e ry ti m e the ci rr hi

w e r e r e tr acte d No gr e at att e n tion w as p a id to this a t the
.
.

tim e N e x t day h ow e ve r w e w e r e a ston ish e d to fi n d th e

.
, ,

Dr
ge n t a n a
. Rt eid w a s m y st u de n t an d a ss i st an t fo r s e ve ral y e ars ;
o m i st — R K. . .
h e wa s a di l i a

G G 2
.
4 52 ZOO LOGY .

b a si n i n which the bal an i w e r e con fi n ed sw a rmi n g with a n

i n n um e ra bl e n um be r o f e x t re m e ly m in ute but v e ry activ e
an im a ls wh e n it im m e di at e ly struck us th at th e se m u st h a v e
,

b ee n th e y ou n g which the ba l an i w e re thro wi n g o ff the day

b e fo re On pl a ci n g on e o f th e s e an im als un de r the micro
.

s cop e w e e x pe ct e d to fi n d on e of th o se musse l -lik e an im al s

,

de scrib e d by Th o mps o n ; but i n ste ad o f th at it ha d an alm o st ,

e x a ct r e s e mbl an c e to th e o u n g o f th e g e n us c cl op s
y T o .

m ak e s u r e th at th e re had en n o mista k e o n e o f the a d ult

b a l an i w as o pe n ed wh e n th e l arge ca vit o f the m an tl e w as
,
.
y ,

fo un d to b e fill e d with the gran u l e s wh i ch w e h ad fo rm e rly

s ee n ej e cte d A fe w w e re pl a ce d i n a w atch gl assfu l o f s e a
.
-

w at e r u n de r th e micr o sco pe Th ey w e re quite m oti on l e ss o f

.
,

a n o v o id sh ap e sh ar p e r at on e e xtremity th an the oth e r

, .

The eye o r r ath e r wh a t w as co n side re d to b e the eye

, ,

w as o bs e rv e d a littl e b e fo r e the middl e li n e a n d n e a r to ,

th e s u pe r i o r e dg e I n the co u rs e o f a sh o rt ti m e a fe w
.
,

b e gan t o m ak e s o m e e ff o rts to e sca pe A fte r th e y ha d d on e .

so ,
th e y w e re fo un d to re s e mbl e i n th e ir ex t e rn a l a ppe ar
,

an c e t h e y o u n g cycl o pi d e s all u d e d to a bo v e
,
A t fir st th e .
,

e ff o rts to e sc a pe w e r e fee bl e b u t l a tte rly th e y be ca m e m o re

,
-

vi o l e n t ; an d by m e an s of the t ail which w as s udd en ly an d ,

fo rcibly j e rk e d upw a rds an d do w n w ards the m e mbr an e s wh i ch ,

c on t a in e d th e m w e re bur st on the a bd o m in al surface upo n ,

which t he y o un g an im a l e sc ape d It w a s s om e ti m e how .

,

ever b e fo re the e x tr e m iti e s w e r e co m pl e te ly fre ed I n t he

, .

co u rs e o f te n or fifte e n m i n u t e s afte r th ey h ad b e e n t ak e n
fro m the b o dy of the m oth e r th e s e y oun g an i m a ls w e re a l l
,

fre e an d th e e m pty s a cs w e re lyi n g a m o n gst th e m Th e y

, .

h av e a striki n g re s e m bl a n c e i n th e ir e x te r n a l app e a ran ce to

, ,

th e l a rv a o f the cycl o ps ; an d if w e h a d n o t had th e c e rt a i n

e v id e n c e o f h a vi n g s e e n th e m ta k e n fr o m th e b o dy o f t he
m oth e r w e w o uld h a v e pron o u n ce d th e m youn g cycl o pi d e s
, .

Afte r m an y fruitl e ss e n d e a v o ur s w e fo u n d it impo ssibl e to

,

pre s e rv e th e m al i v e for an y l e n gth o f ti m e an d w e re th e re , ,

fo re dis appo i n te d i n o u r e x pe cta tio n s o f s eei n g th e m u n d e rgo

,

the ir m e ta m o rph o s e s W e w e re th e re fo r e u n ce rta in wh e th e r

.
, ,

th e y u n d e rw e n t a fir st a n d s e co n d m e ta m orp h o sis an d ch an ge d ,

first i n to the m u ss e l -lik e fo rm d e scribe d by Th o m ps on a n d ,

th e n i n to the p a re n t fo rm or w e re si m ply m e ta m o rph o s e d

,

i n to th e pa r e n t fo rm Se e i n g th a t this 1 8 a di sti n ct sp e ci e s
.

fro m th a t d e scribe d by M r Tho m ps o n it is i m p o ssibl e to

.
,

d e cide this q u e sti o n un til fa r th e r o bs e rv ati on s h a v e be e n

m ad e H a vi n g b e e n fo rt u n at e e n o ugh h o w e v e r i n m a ki n g
.
, ,
 CLA S S O F CRU S T AC E A .

a s e ri e s of o bs e rv ati on s of
s am e n at u re on th e yo un g o f
th e
the b a l a n a s b a l a n o i d es which ar e re c o rd e d a b o ve it will
, ,

n o w b e s e e n th a t this qu e sti o n is a lr e ady d e cid e d viz th at , .

,

the b al a n i must u n d e r g o two ch an ge s o f for m o r pe rh a ps ,

m o re b e fo r e a rr ivi n g a t a sta te o f m aturity

, .

‘
W e will n o w procee d to giv e a sh ort d e scri pti on of the
l arv a o f this spe ci e s .

Wh e n vi e we d fro m abo v e the b ody o f the an i m a l is fou n d ,

to b e pyri fo rm with th e an te ri o r e dg e r o u n d e d a n d th e po s
, ,

te r i or e xt re mity e n di n g by m e an s o f a p o i n t The wh o l e .

b o dy co n sists o f thr ee s egm e n ts : the first fo rms the gr e ate r

p a rt o f the b ody ; the two l ast a r e mi n ute Two l o n g u m .

a rtic ul a te d e x tr e miti e s pr oj e ct fro m th e an te ri o r e d g e o n e ith e r

side of th e m e si al li n e a risi n g app ar e n tly fro m th e a bdo m i n a l

, , ,

s u rface of the body Two sh o rt an te n n ae a ris e al s o fro m this

.

e d g e i m m e di a te ly o n e ach sid e o f the a b o v e -d e sc rib e d e x tr e

,

m i ti e s .

The eye is situ a te d a littl e be hin d th e an ter i o r edge , an d in

the m e si a l li n e o f the bo dy .

‘
Two ve ry stron g thick l e gs a ri s e fro m e ach sid e o f this
first s e gm e n t o f the b ody The s e ar e bipa rtite ea ch d i vi si on
.
,

a risi n g fr o m a p e dicl e c o mm on to b oth which co n sists of ,

thr ee s e gm e n ts The divisi o n s th e m s e lve s a r e app a re n tly n u

.

a rtic u l ate d b u t a r e a rm e d with a n u m b e r o f v e ry stro n g spi n e s

, .

‘
The s e con d s e g m e n t o f th e b ody is m i n u te The thi rd .

a n d l as t is als o mi n ut e an d p o i n te d an d i s a r m e d with thr ee ,

stro n g spi n e s which a r e b e n t to o n e sid e (the l e ft side ) th at

, ,

n e a re st the right sid e b e i n g th e sh o rte st .

A l l o f th e s e l a rv ae swi m a fte r th e m an n e r o f th e m o n o
culi by sh o rt an d s u dd e n j e rks Th ey pro pe l th e ms e lv e s by
, .

m e an s o f the t wo p air s o f spi n e d e x tr e m iti e s The ta i l is .

’
a ls o i n co n sta n t m o ti on -
H G i n E P J o ur n a l
. . .
, . . .

By the mi n ute an d pro l o n ge d study o f the m e tam o rph o s e s

i ls thus pr v th t th s -c al l d i m p rf ct f rms
o f an m a w e , o e a e e s o e e e o ,

o r fo r m s i n tr a n s i tu a r e th e p e rm an e n t fo rms o f adult e xti n ct

,

a n d r e ce n t a n im a l b e i n gs Th u s we upse t the th eo ry of th e
.

tran sm u t ati o n of sp e ci e s an d cre a ti o n o f n e w fo r m s ; for th e s e

,

fo rms ar e e m brac e d i n the e m bry on ic an d r equire b u t tim e ,

an d circ u m s ta n c e s for th e i r fu ll d ev e l o p m en t : n e v e rth e l e ss I ,

willi n gly co n ce d e to my e ste e m e d fri en d M V al en ci e n n e s , .

,

th at the n at u ra list is o n ly i n te re s te d i n a d u l t f o r ms th e s e ,

be i n g the high e st sp eci a liz ati o n s to which an i m als atta i n : it

h olds e v en i n m an —R K ]
R
. .

See my M l of A rti ti A n t omy

a n ua e ns ha w L o d o
s c a .
, n n .
451 ZOOLOGY .

TH E S E CO N D S UB -D I V I S I ON .

O F TH E A NN E LI D E S , O R A NN UL A TE D A N I MA L S .

TH E V E R M E S OR , WORM S .

58 2 . Inth e s e an im als the an n u l at ed divi si on o f the

b ody b e c om e s l e ss a n d l e ss m a rk e d ; e v e r stru ct u re b e co m es
a s i t w e r e d e gr a d e d rn pr o p o rti o n as w e le a v e th o s e m o st r e

s e mbli n g the a rtic u l a te d to th o s e a ppro achi n g th e z o o phyt e s ;

th e li m bs dis appe a r a n d the n e rv o u s syste m be co m e s l e ss an d
,

l e ss disti n ct or l o s e s its i m p ort an c e a n d the str u ct u re s s i m

, ,

p yl i f m o r e a n d more Th. e ir m o st r e m a rk a bl e fe a t u r e 1 s th e

e l on g a ti on o f th e ir bo di e s an d th e y fo rm fi v e disti n ct cl a ss e s ;
,

n am e l y , the an n e lid e s r o ta t o ri a turb e ll a ri a he l m i n thi d e s o r

, , ,

i n te st i n a l w o r ms
'

,a n d ce stoi ds .

OF TH E ANN E L I D E S .

58 3 . The
cl a ss is c o mp o s e d o f w o rm s h a vi n g a multi
an
g g ul a r n e rv o us syst e m an d a v a scu l a r a pp a r a t u
, fo r the s

circ ul a ti on o f th e bl ood .

Th e ir b o di e s ar e a lw ays e l on ga te d s o ft an d divi d e d by cir , ,

on l a r fo lds i n t o a gr e a t n umb e r o f ri n gs s o m e ti m es the h ead

i s distin ct s o m e tim e s it i s w an tin g ; an d gen e rally al o n g the
,

F i g 43 8
. .
—
Ner i s e .

sid e s o f the b o dy th e y h av e a l on g s e ri e s o f h airs m b u n dl e s ,

s u ppo rte d on fl e shy tube rcl e s ta kin g the pla ce o f fee t ( Fi g

,

E n to z o a .
 or TH E ANN E L I D E S . 4 55

Fr e qu en tly w e fi n d two o f th e s e o rgan s pl ac e d on e

a b o v e th e o th e r o n e ith e r sid e the di ffe r e n t ri n gs o f th e
,

bod y ( Fig at o th e r ti m e s th e s e bristl e -car ryi n

t u be rcl e s ar e r e un ite d a n d th e re is fo un d a t the b as e o f e a cfl
.

a l o n g s o ft cyli n dric al a ppe n di x c a ll e d

,

ci rrhus ( c Fig ,
s om e tim e s the
.

pl ace o f the f e e t is m a rk e d by m e rely

’ b
a fe w s ti fl h a irs whilst i n o th e rs al l
,

trac e s of li m bs h av e dis ap pe a re d .

Th e s e h airs o r bristl e s s e rv e as rn s tr u e h “

m e n ts o f d e fe n ce an d o f l o co m oti on ;
th ey a r e i n g e n e ral sh a rp an d cal cu ,

l a te d to a tt ach the a n i m a ls to a n y s o ft
b ody with which th ey co m e i n co n
ta ct. I n the an n e lid e s which h a v e Fi g , .

n o bristl e s th e re ex ist at the e x tr e

,

m i ti e s o f the bo dy suck e rs which an sw e r th e pur po s e

, .

584 Th e ir n e rv o u s syst e m c on sists o f a ch a i n si n gl e o r

.
,

d o uble of v e ry s m a ll gan gli on s e x te n d i ng from on e e x tre m ity

, ,

o f th e b o dy to th e oth e r M o st h a v e a fe w d a rk S po ts which
.
,

s ee m to b e the ey e s a n d th e h e ad is us u ally pro vid e d with a

,

n umbe r o f fil a m e n ts an a l o go us to th e ci r r hi o f th e fe e t a n d ,

c all e d an te n n a an d te n t acul a r ci r r h i ( Fig which s ee m to .

F i g 440 — e ad a n d
. . H Pro b o sci s F i g 44 1 . .
—H e ad , &c , .

o f a G l yce r a s r of a N r is
e e .

b e o rg an s of to uch Th e m o uth i s i n fe ri o r asp ect o f

. on the
th e h e ad , o r the a n te ri o r e x tr e m ity b ody wh en th e e o f th e ,
r

is n o disti n ct h ead it is o ft e n a rm e d with a pro tr actil e pr o

b osci s ( Fig an d with j a ws h a vi n g the fo r m o f h o rn
.

h o oks The i n te sti n e is straight simpl e or fu r n ish e d wit

.
, ,

F
d rs l
o a
t f a A eli d f th e g s E i c — t t i o s t be rcle ;
ee
h s
c rr
o
i i f ri o r
u
n
tr l ci rrh s b b r g
c
nn

,
n e
o
or ve n
e nu
a
un
u
e :

,
,
se
an e
er
'

l a .
u u e,

f q, te ri r p rt o f th b o dy ; t t h e h d ; t pro b o s ci s ; b b ucca l
an o a e ,
ea r , ,

cp e m n g ; m, j a ws .
4 56 z oo r o o x .

ca ca pl ac e d on e ithe r sid e ; the an u s i s at the ex tr e m ity o f

the b o dy .

The bl oo d is al m o st alw a ys r e d s om e tim e s it is gr ee n a n d ,

at o th e rs s ca rce ly c ol o u r e d it circul ate s in a c o m pl e x syste m

o f v e ss e ls v a ryi n g i n di ff e r e n t spe ci e s ; o f th e s e v e ss e ls s om e
, .

ar e c o n tractil e a n d p e rfo rm the ,

fun cti on o f a h e art ; o th e rs th o se

o f a rte ri e s an d v e i n s .

The r e spir a ti on o f th e se an im a ls
'

ge n e ra lly aeri an b u t s o m e tim es ,

aq u a tic a n d i n this ca s e it is e r
, p
fo rm e d by m e an s o f e x te r nal br an
chi a wh o se form an d a rran ge m e n t
,

v a ry m u ch ; s o m e ti m e s th ey r e
s e mbl e littl e tr ee s or l e a v e s an d ,

a r e fi x e d a b o v e the fe t o n e a ch
e
sid e o f the back as i n the ar en i ,

c o la ( Fig 4 7 at oth e r tim e s th e y .

r e s e mbl e bu n ch e s o f fe ath e rs an d ,

u n ite i n a c o r o n a a r o un d the es t r e

m ity o f th e b od y an a rr an ge m e n t ,

o f which w e h a v e a n e x a mpl e i n

th e s e rpul a ( Fig .

585 Mo st o f t he a n n e lid e s .

live i n the s ea an d s e v e ra l con st ruct ,

a s d we l l i n s a l o n g t u b e fo rm e d
F g 44 z
iaia
s e i pi z
f
il car eou s linatte r s se cre te d
,
l . i ' oup l O
r r e ith e r o f cz

by the ski n ( Fig 4 4 2) o r con sisti n g .

,

o f s a n d a n d fr agm e n ts o f sh e lls a g gluti n a te d by m e an s o f a

,

ge l a ti n o us s u bstan ce ; s e v e r al a s the ar en i co l a pl ru 1 g e d e e ply i n

, ,

th e s an d ( Fig o th e rs c on c e a l th e ms e lv e s u n d e r sto n e s ;
.

fi n ally th e r e a r e an n e lid e s as th e l ee ch which liv e i n fre sh

, ,

w at e rs s o als o d o e s the n ars which m o re r es e mbl e s the e a rth

,

w o rm an d th e s e l ast cal l e d by z ool o gi s ts l u m b r i ci ar e l an d

, ,

CLA S S OF TH E RO TI F E RA .

Th e s e b e i n gs which hav e b ee n o fte n co n fou n d e d with

58 6 .
,

th e i n fus o ri a ar e n e v e rth e l e ss quit e di sti n ct

, The ir stru cture .

is v e ry c o m pl e x an d w e o w e the dis co v e r y of this fa ct to the

,

micro sco p e a n d to the pro fo u n d r e s e a rch e s of M E hre n b e rg

,
.
,

o f B e rli n Be fo re his tim e th ey w e re th o ught to b e an i m a ls

.
 CLA S S OF TH E R O TI F E RA .

co mpose d o f a ni m ate d j e lly n o urish e d by imbibiti on ; n o w it ,

is n o l o n ge r the si m plicity o f th e ir struct u r e which su rpris e s

us but the c omplica ti o n o f th e ir o rg a n iz ati o n wh olly micr o
, ,

S GOpi c .

Th e s e a n im a lc u l e s a r e m e t
with i n sta g n an t w a te rs Th e ir .

bo dy i s se m i -tran sp a re n t a n d ,

p re s en ts trace s s u ffici e n tly dis

ti n ct o f a n n ul a r divisi on s The 6 .

m o u th o cc u pi e s th e an te ri o r e x
tr e m i ty a n d on e a ch sid e o r
, ,

e v e n a l l a ro u n d the o rific e m a
y ,

ge n e ra lly b e s ee n vibratil e cili a ,

th e r o t a t o ry m o v e m e n ts o f which
a r e e x tr e m e ly r e m a rk a bl e Al .

m o st al w ays the pha r yn x ( a r r i é r e

b o a che ) is furn i s h e d with p o w e r
f u l m u scl e s an d a r m e d with,

l a te r a l j a ws The dige stiv e c an a l

.

is straight ; i t e x t en ds fro m on e
e xtr e m ity o f the b o dy to a n oth e r ,

a n d h as g e n e r a lly t o w a rds t he

middl e an e n l arge m en t r e pr e ,

se n ti n g the sto m a ch o f th e s e
sm all be i n gs o fte n m ay b e s e e n
—
'

o n e ith e r sid e o f this tub e b o d F i g 4 43 Th H yd t ,

’
. e a i na .

app a r e n tly gl an d u l a r a n d a t its ,

p oste ri o r e x tre m ity a s ort o f cloa c a i n which t e r m i n at e the ,

o v id u cts A gre a t n u mb e r o f m u scl e s h a v e a ls o b ee n dis

.

c o v e re d i n th e s e an i m alcul e s a n d e v e n a g a n gli o n a ry n e rvo u s ,

syste m .

58 7 The r otife r a ( Fig

. o n e sp e ci e s o f which ha s .

b e c om e ce l e br at e d b y the e x p e ri m e n ts of S p al l an z an i on the
s u s pe n si on o f life which follo ws its dry i n g up may b e tak e n ,

a s a typ e o f the cl a ss Th e ir body is e l o n g ate d an d is te r

.
,

m i n ate d an t e ri o rly by tw o sm all c o ro n a o f cili a which a t the , ,

will o f the an im al ar e withdra w n i n t o th e i n t e ri o r o r e x pan d ed

,

e x te rn a lly an d which by th e ir vibr a ti on s pro duce the i m ag e o f

,

t wo sm all wh e e ls t u r n i n g ra pidly o n th e ir ax i s Th ey te r .

A t m y f th H y d ti n a m i cr scopi c ni m alc l e t th R ti f r
na o o e a a, o a u e n x e o e a :

a , vi b r t i l ci l i ; b fle shy m ss s rro
a e a d i g th e m th d m
,
g tha u un n ou an o v rn e

ja ws ;c, t h e st m c h ; d th e olo ; ath s ; f s li ry gl ds ; g

, c aca e, e an u , a va an ,

o va
'
ri a k the m scl e s
, u .
4 58 ZOO LOGY .

m i n a te i n bifurca te d a n d a rticul ate d ta il by which th e y

a ,

a tta ch th e mse lv e s to bo d i e s o n which th ey wish to re st ;

fi n ally two sm al l r e d po i n ts s ee m to re re s en t the ey es
, .

Th e s e an im c u l e s swim with :

the gr e ate st viva city a n d l ay ,

o v al e ggs .

588 Oth e r an im alcul es .

,

ca ll ed b ran chi on s re se mbl e ,

the ro tif e r a i n the ge n e ra l

m o d e o f the ir o r g an i zati on b u t ,

m e rit n otice by re a son o f a

so rt of c ar a p ace o r sh e ll with
which th e ir body i s c ov e red .

In s e v e ral o f th e s e sm a ll
be i n gs the sh e ll or co v er i n g i s
e v e n biv a lv e an d r e cals v e ry ,

m uch th a t o f ce rtai n cru sta

ce a such as the cypris an d ,

d u pl m i a .

CLA S S O F T UR B E LLAR I A .

Thi s cl ass ou h 58 9
to c o m pris e a ce rt a in n u mg r t
.

o f v er m e s wh o s e bod y m ore , ,

“ s u t —D ! ot “ o r l e ss co mpr e ss ed pr e s e n ts
(P w
a
l m Hep m )
o a a
,
‘

sc a rc e ly an y trace s of an n u
‘

l ati o n an d i s c o v e re d with e x tr e m e ly fi n e vibrati l e cili a

, .

I n g e n e r a l th e y h a v e n o an us a n d th e ir dig e stiv e a pp a r a tu s is
,

r a m ifi ed an d t e rmi n a te s i n a cu l d e s a c th e ir n e rv o u s syste m
,

is c o m po s e d of tw o l ate ral c o rds ter m m ati n g a n te r i o r l i n a

,

p a ir o f ce r e br o id g an gli on s a n d th e y h a v e di sti n ctly or m ed

,

b l ood v e s s e l s S o m e a s th e n e m e r tes an d the p l a n a r i a liv e

.
, ,

i n w a te r Oth e rs as th e d an ce ( F a sci ol a H e pa tica Fig

.
, , .

ar e p ara sit e s a n d l iv e i n th e i n t e ri o r o f o th e r an i m a ls
,
.

CLA S S OF H E LM I N T H E S , OB N E M A TOI D S .

590 .This divisi on is c omp o s e d o f a p a rt o f th o s e a n im als

s o m etim e s ca ll ed i n te s ti n a l w o r ms by rea s o n o f th e i r livi n g
,

ge n e ra lly as pa ra site s i n the i n te sti n a l can al o f m an an d o f

s e v e r a l o th e r v e r te brat a The h e m a to i ds fli e l m i n the s) h av e the
’

.
 ' '

CLA S S CE s r o i D s o a r azm o i n s
'
or . . 459

bo dy cyli n d rica l a n d a tte n u ate d

, ex tre m iti e s
te r i o r l y th e y gr ea tly r e s e m bl e
e arth -w o rms an d a ls o a s i n the
, ,

a n n e lid e s th e ir i n t e sti n a l c an a l
,

is si m pl e a n d e x te n d ed from
,

o n e e xtr e m ity o f the bo dy to the

o th e r ,but th e i r n e rv ou s syst e m
i s r u di m en t a ry an d th e ir b l oo d
,

is c o l o u rl e ss .

The pri n cipa l ge n e r a o f this

cl a ss a r e the a s ca rid e s ( Fig
, .

the str on gyli a n d the ,

fi l ar i a .

CLA S S OF C E S TO I D S OR

TE N I O I D S .

59 1 . The ce s t0 1 d s a r e a
l so
i n te sti na l w o r m s b u t t h ey ,
’

di ffe r fro m the n e m e toi d s ( fi e l

m i n tl ze s ) gre atly i n th e ir fo rm
a n d m od e of o rg a n i za ti o n an d ,

m o re r e s e m bl e the t u rbe ll a ri a .

Th ey h a v e the b ody fl atte n ed

'
,

much e l o n gate d a n d divid e d ,

i n to a gre at n u mbe r o f s e g
m e n ts which giv e s th e m the
,

a p pe a r an ce o f a l on g ribbo n
fo lde d tran sv e rs e ly Th e ir n e 1 .

v o u s syst e m is r u di m e n t ary ,

an d th e ir i n te sti n a l ca n a l a
p
p e a rs to b e r e pl a c e d by tw o
l o n gitu di n a l v e ss e ls occ u pyi n g
a

t he s i d e s o f the b ody Th ey ar e .

her m ap h r o d i te an d e ach ri n g
,

( s gm e t ) f the ir b od po s
s e ss e s a co mpl e t e r e pr odimto r y
e n o

F i g 445 —T ae . . ni a .

a pp a r atus . The tam i a o r so li

ta ry w o r m be l on gs to this divisi o n ( Fig .
416 0 ZOOLOGY .

D I V I S I ON OF TH E M OL L US CA , OR MA L A COZ OA R IA .

59 2 . The
divi si on o f the m ollusca 1 s co m po s ed as w e ,

h av e a lre ady s a id o f a co n sid e r a bl e n um be r o f an im als which

,

h a v e n e ith e r a ce r e b i o spi n al syste m n or an i n te r n al ske l e to n ,

a n d which r e s e m bl e l n th e s e r e spe cts the a rtic u l a te d an i m a l s ,

but n ot h avi n g a s th e s e h a v e the bo dy di vide d i n to r i n gs

, , ,

n o r th e g an gli on s n er v o u s r eu n ite d i n to a l on g m e di an ch a i n
( )
pl ace d o n the v e n tra l asp e ct o f the bo dy They ar e disti n .

g u i s h e d a ls o fr o m z oo phyte s by th e d i sp siti o n o t the o r a n s

o g
o i r e l a ti on b e i n g a rr an ge d m p a irs a n d m ge n e r a l th e y h a v e
,

the m o uth an d an us m o re or l e ss cl o s e to e ach o th e r M o re .

ove r th e y di ff e r much fro m e a ch oth e r an d ar e divid e d i n to

t wo p ri n cip a l s e ri e s n a m e ly —th e m o llusc a pro pe rly s o ca ll ed
, ,

, , ,
''

an d the m oll u s co l d e s o r tu n ic at a .

S UB -D I V I S I O N or TH E M OL L U S CA ,

m om e n t so CAL L E D .

59 3 I n this gro up th e n e r v ous syste m is a lw ays co m

.

p o s e d o f s e v e ral gan gli on s , re un ite d by m e d u ll a r co rds , so a s

to fo rm a s o rt o f d oubl e co l l a r , m o r e o r l e ss c o s e ly a ro un d l
th e g u ll e t , b u t n ot pr o l o n g e d po ste ri o rly lik e a sub -in te sti n a l
ch ai n , as i n the an n u l at e d an im als .

The g en e ra l fo r m of th e s e m ollusc a is e x tre m e ly v a ri abl e .

The ir bo dy is a lways s o ft, an d i n a sm al l n u mbe r on ly (the

s e pi a , fo r e x ampl e ) th e re e x ists i n the in te r i o r s o m e s olid
n o n -a rticul a te d pi e c e s , s e rvi n g r ath e r to pr o te ct the visc e ra

th an to fu rn ish to th e l oco m ot o ry a pp arat u s l e v e rs an d po i n ts

Of s u pp o rt The muscl e s a r e fix e d dir e ctl y i n to th e i n te g u
.

m e n ts , an d s e e m to act o n ly on the po i n t i n to which th ey a r e

i n s e rt e d ; an d thus the m o v e m e n ts o f the a n i m al ar e sl o w
a n d ill dir e cte d I n a s m a ll n umb e r o f th e s e be i n gs ( th e
.

se pi a , for e x a m pl e ) th e r e a 1 e fl e x ibl e an d e l o n gate app e n d ag e s d

( Fig . i n te n d e d for l o co m o ti on , b u t 1 n m o st in st an ce s th e
a n im a l c an n o t displ a ce itse lf b u t by s u cce ss i v e co n tr a cti o n s o f

v a ri ou s p oi n ts o f the l o w e r s urfa ce of i ts body ; a n d e v e n

wh e n th e re e x ist limbs , th e s e o r g an s a r e r e u n ite d i n a gr ou p
a t on e e x tr e mity o f the bo dy y , an d n e v e r dispo s e d m a s ym
m e tric al s e ri e s , as i n the v e rte br ate an d a rticul ate a n i m al s .
 S UB - D I V I S I ON or TH E MOLLU S CA . 46 1

The ski n o f the m ollusca al wa ys s oft an d visc ous ofte n

, ,

for ms folds which e n v e l op e m o r e o r l e ss c o m pl e te ly the bo dy ;

an d this d ispo siti on h as i n d u c e d z oo l o gists to giv e the n a m e

o f m a n tl e to th at p o rti o n o f the i n te g u m e n t ge n er a lly fu r

n i s hi n g th es e e x p an si o n s This m an tl e is o fte n e n tire ly fre e

.
,

fo r m i n g t wo l arge v e ils o r co ve r i n g s c on ce al i n g al l the r es t

o f th e a n im a l o r th e s e two l a m i n ae u n it e s o a s to fo rm a
,

t u be ; b u t at oth e r tim e s it co n sists on ly o f a ki n d o f d o rs a l

disc o f which the e dge s a l o n e ar e fr e e or s u rro u n d the bo dy
,

m o re e x actly u n de r the fo rm o f a sa c .

59 4 I n gen e r a l this s o ft ski n is pr o t e ct e d by a ki n d o f

.

st on y o r h a rd c u ira ss c a lle d she l l It is a tissu e which has

,
.

s o m e an a l o gy with th at of the e pide rmis which co n stitu t e s ,

this e n v e l o pe The fo lli cl e s l odge d ge n e ra lly i n the e dg e s o f

.

the m an tl e d e p o sit o n its surfac e a h a lf-h o rn y m att e r m i x e d

, ,

with c a rb on a t e o f li m e i n gre ate r o r l e ss pro po rti o n s an d is ,

m o u lde d o v e r th e subj ac e n t p a rts an d n e x t s olidifie s The , .

l am i n a th u s fo r m e d thick e n s an d gr o ws by the su cc e ssiv e

d e pos it of n e w m att e r Its surface i s n ot sto n y b u t re s e m bl e s
.
,

a ki n d o f e pid e rmis a n d is k n o w n by th e n am e o f d r ap m a r i a
, ,

or s e a cl o th ; s o m e tim e s it pre s e r v e s a h o r n y c o n sist e n c e

-

thr o u gh o u t its wh o l e thick n e ss but i n ge n e r al the pro p o rti o n

,

o f c ar b o n a te o f li m e which it e n cl o s e s giv e s to it a st o n y

h a rdne ss Its i nn e r s u r fa c e is fre qu e n tly m o r e d e n s e th an

.

th e r e st an d pr e s e n ts a pe c u li a r str u ct u re re n d e ri n g it gl a ssy
, ,

lustro u s an d pe arly S o m e ti m e s the sh e l l r e m a i n s a lw ays

, .

e n cl o s e d i n th e thick n e ss o f the ski n o f the a ni m a l ; but g e

n e r a l l y it is e x t e rn a l a n d e v en p a ss e s b e y on d the e dge s of t he
,

m an tl e s o as to fu rn ish to th e an im a l pe rfe ct sh e lte r Th e

, .

n a m e o f n a k e d m o ll u sc a h as b e e n giv e n to th o s e which a r e
‘

with o u t sh e l ls o r which h a v e o n ly an in te ri o r on e an d the

, ,

n am e o f c o n chife r a to th os e i n which t he sh e ll is visibl e

e x t e rn a lly .

The m a n n e r i n wh i ch this sh e ll gro ws m ay b e r e a dily n u

d e r s to o d I f w e e x ami n e th e sh e ll o f a n oyste r for e x a m pl e
.
, ,

it will b e fo u n d to b e co mp o s e d o f a n u m b e r o f s u p e ri m p o s e d
l am i n ae which can b e s e p a ra t e d by m e a n s o f h eat Th e s e
, .

pl at e s h a v e be e n fo rm e d s u cce ssi v e ly by the m a n tl e o f the

a n i m al which th e y c o v e r a n d c on s e q u e n tly th e m o st e x t e rn a l
‘

, ,

i s the o ld e st o r first form e d a n d th e s m a ll e st ; e a ch n e w

pl at e d e p o site d p a ss e s b ey on d th e pl ate sit ua te d a b o v e it ;

s o th a t the sh e ll as it gr o ws i n thick n e ss a ls o e n l a rg e s r a pidly .

I n g e n e r a l th e disti n cti o n o f l a m i n ae whilst fo rmi n g is

,
46 2 . ZOOLOG Y .

l es s m a rk e d an d the n e w m atte rs a r e o ft en d e po site d on ly on

,

the ed g e o f the sh e ll a n d i n such a w ay th at th e ir m o l e c ul e s

,

co rr e spo n d e x actly to the m o l e c u l es o f the pa rt a lr eady co n

so lid a te d ; this giv e s to the wh ol e a fibro us struct u re Co l o urs .

th e m o st v a ri e d an d m o st a gre e a bly dispos e d o r n am e n t th e se

sh e lls a n d o fte n v ary with ag e Ve ry g e n e rally th ey ar e
, .

a lto g e th e r supe rfici a l a n d s ee m to d e p e n d o n a s o rt o f d e i n

, y
r o ce ss pr o d u ce d by the ski n of th e a n im a l which is a in
p
m a m an n e r co rre s po n di n g to its e n v e l o pe The cop
,

cu ri n g .

m atte r app e a rs to b e d e p o site d on th e sh e ll at the m o m e n t o f

i ts fo rm ati o n ; it is a ls o m o r e liv e ly a s t he sh e ll is y o un ge r ;
it is pr o d u ce d by the e dg e o f the m an tl e I n fa ct if a sh e ll .
,

b e bro k e n an d the an i m al h a ppe n s to r e p air this a ccid en t the

, ,

p a rt n e wly fo rm e d is al ways white wh e r e it ha s n ot be en i n

c on ta ct with the e dg e o f the m an tl e ; an d if it co rr e spo n ds
with this e dge it a sum e s the col o ur which this pre s en ts a t
,
s

the p o i n t o f c on t act Thus wh e n the e dge is spo tte d co rre

.
,

s o n di n
p g spo ts ar e fo u n d up on the e dg e o f the sh e ll ; an d a s
this el o n ga te s th e s e sp ots be c o m e c o n fo u n d e d with tho se
,
'

a lr e ady fo rm e d an d pr oduc e li n e s p e r p e n di cul a r to the str i ae

,

o f in crea s e or d o n ot u n ite with th e m a n d r e m ai n i n sul a te d

, , ,

a cco rdi n g a s th e m an tl e r e m a i n s i m m o v a bl e pr e s e rvi n g wit h ,

the m a rgi n of the sh e ll the s a m e r e l ati on s ; o r on th e o th e r ,

“

h an d tha t by the m o ve m e n ts o f th e an im al it ofte n ch an

, ,

its po sition S o m e tim e s the s e cre ti o n o f co l o u ri n g m atte r

.

v a ri e s with ag e an d accid e n tal circumst an ce s m ay e qua lly

,

m odify it L igh t for e x a mpl e e x e rcis e s o ve r the ph e n o m e n o n

.
, ,

a v e ry r e m a rk a bl e in flu e n c e an d h o t on ly the sh e lls which a r e

,

th e m o st e x p o s e d to the acti on o f this physica l a ge n t are ,

g e n e ra lly the m o st bril l i an tly c o l o u r ed but w h e n the m o l ,

l u s c liv e s fix e d 0 1 1 a r o ck o r p a rtly co n c e ale d un d e r a spo n g e

,

o r s o m e o th e r o a qu e b ody the p o rti on o f t he sh e ll thus

p ,

pl ace d i n o b scu mty i s a lw ays p a le r a n d d ul l e r th an th at

’
e x po s e d to the co n t a ct o f the s un s r ays .

59 5 Th e dige stiv e a pp a ratus o f th es e an im als is stro n gly

.

d e v e l o pe d Th e re e x i s ts a lw ays a l a rge liv e r an d o fte n w e

.
,

fi n d s a liv a ry gla n ds an d o rg an s of m a s t ic ati on ; b u t th e i n te s

ti n e s a r e n e ve r s u ppo rte d by a m e s e n t e ry Th e ir bl oo d is .

c o l o url e ss or slightl bl u ish a n d circ u l ate s i n a v e ry c o m pl e x

,

a r a t u s comp o se d a rtly o f a rt e rie s a n d o f v e i n s an d pa rtly

,

a
p , p ,

o n y o f l a c u n ae A h e a rt fo rm e d o f a v e n tri cl e an d o f o n e o r o f
.
, ,

t wo a u ricl e s is fo u n d i n the c o u rs e o f the ar t e ri a l bl oo d

, ,

tran smitti n g this liq u id i n to a l l p a rts o f the bo d y fro m wh en ce ,

 CLA S S OF TH E C E P HALOPODA .

it re turn s to th e o rg a n o f r e spi r ati on b y c an als mo r e or l e s s

’

i n co m pl e te W e s o m e ti m e s a ls o m e e t with a t the b a s e of the

.
,

v e ss e ls e n te ri n g th e o rg a n o f r e spira ti on c on tr a ctil e v e n ous ,

r e se r vo i 1 s c all e d u l mo n a r h a r ts
p y e .

With r e gard to the a rr an g e m e n t o f the o rg an s of r e spir a

ti on it v a ri e s to o m u ch to a ll o w o f us d e scribi n g it i n this
,

pl ac e W e sh a l l th e re fo r e on ly s ay th at th ey h a v e s om e ti m e s
.

t he fo r m o f l u n gs a t o th e rs th a t o f bra n chi ae or gills

, .

59 6 I n lik e m a n n e r w e ca n n o t s ay a n ythi n g g e n e r a lly

.
,

o f the str u ct u r e o f the o rg a n s o f s e n s e which h o w e v e r a r e ,

a lw ays l e ss c o m pl e te th an i n v e rt e brate an i m als C e rt a i n .

m o ll u sc a s ee m to b e gifte d o n ly w ith the s e n s e s of t ou ch a n d

ta s t e ; b u t a gre a t n u m b e r h a v e ey e s wh o s e str u cture v arie s , ,

a n d m m an y o f th e m th e r e e v e n e x is ts a n a pp a r a tu s fo r h e a r

i n g ; b u t n o n e h a v e ye t b e e n f ou n d p o ss e ssi n g a sp e ci a l o 1 g an
for sm e ll .

Th e m o l l u sca spri n g fro m e ggs a nd n e v e r m u ltiply by ,

'

gran u l ati o n s as h a ppe n s i n m ost o f the m ol l u s coi de s but

, ,

s o m e ti m e s th e s e eggs a r e h a tch e d e x te r n ally s o m e ti m e s i n

o ,

t he i n te ri o r o f th e bo dy o f th e ir p a re n t which m ay th e n b e ,

s aid to b e o v o vivipa ro us .

59 7 The s u b divisi o n o f the m o ll u scs pr ope rly s o c all e d

.
, ,

i s c o m p o s e d of f our pri n cip a l gro u ps o r cl a ss e s c al l e d the ,

ce ph al op od a ga st e ro po da pte ro po da an d ac e ph a l a W e sh all
, , , .

n o w m a k e k n o w n th e i r m o r e pr o min e n t ch ar a cte rs .

CLA S S OF TH E C E PHALOPODA .

598This cl ass is c o m p os e d o f m o ll u sca o f a n e xtre m e ly

.

o dd fo rm fo r th e ir h e ad is pl ac e d be tw e e n th e tru n k an d the
,

fe e t or te n t acul a s e rvi n g fo r l oc om o tio n ; an d wh e n th e y

, -

w alk it is with the body upw ards an d the h e a d d o wn w a rds

,

th a t th ey dra w th e m s elve s a lon g the s o il ( Fig i n fa ct .

,

it is on t he h e a d a ro u n d th e m o uth th a t th e ir fe e t a r e i n
, ,

s e r te d ; an d h e n c e th e ir n am e o f c e ph al o p o d a The tr u n k o f .

th e s e a n i m a ls 1 8 c o v e re d by the m a n tl e w h1 ch ha s the fo1 m o f ,

a s ac s o m e ti m e s a l m o st S ph e ric al
, a t o th e rs e l o n g a te d Ope n
, ,

i n fron t o n ly a n d e n cl o si n g al l the visc e r a ( Fig 4 4 7 o ) The

, .
, .

h e ad pr oj e cts throug h thi s o p e n i n g ; it 1 s ro u n d a n d 1 8 g e n e ,

r a lly fur n ished with two l a rge e y e s ( Fig o f a s tr u ctu 1 e .

v e ry an a l o go us to th a t o f t h e e y e s o f v e rt e bra te a n i m a ls The .

m o u th o cc u pi e s the middl e a n d is a rm e d with two j a ws , .

Fi n al ly ar o un d this o pe n i n g is a co r o n a o f fle x ibl e fl e shy

,
 o
z o Lo s x .

'
appe n d ag e s (Fig . n am e d i n di fi er en tl y ar ms or fee t
, , , an d

which m e rit e qu ally both n am e s for th ey ar e at on ce , th e

m s tr u m e n ts o f pre h en si on an d o f l oco m oti on

F i g 4 46 . .
—Co m m o n C al m a r ( th e Lo li go
S a gi t l a r i us ) .

§ 599 . The c e ph al op od a ar e e ss en ti ally aqu atic an im als

'
,

an d the y in con s e qu e n ce bre ath e by gills Th e se o rgan s ar e .

F i g 44 1
.
— G i lls of th e P o l peu

fo u n d co n ce a l e d i n th e m a n tl e u n de r a p a rtic u l a r c avity ( Fig

, .

wh os e w al ls dil ate an d c on tract a lte rn ate ly a n d who s e ,

The b o dy o f an c p r r
O t o u s , a s s e e n o n i ts i nf e i o s u face t he m a n tl e i s r
l a i d o p e n i n th e m e di a n li n e a n d o n o n e si d e , a n d i s t u rnc o u t wa ds to r
r r r r r c —
sh o w t h e i n t e i o o f t h e e s p i a to y av i ty ) a b ase o f t h e h e a d t , th e
e
,

c
t u b e by w h i h t h e w a t e r r r r c
l e a v e s th e e s pi a to y a vi t a , o n e o f th e two
r c r r
l a t e a l o p e n i n gs h y w i n h th e wa t e p e n e t a t e s i n t o t i s a vi ty ; one of c
th e h r a n ch i w o r gi lls .
 CLA S S OF TH E C E PHALOPODA .

i n te ri or co mmun ic at e s with the e xte ri o r by two ope n i n gs .

The on e ( o) i n th e fo rm o f a fissur e s e rvi n g for th e e n tr an ce

o f the w a te r ; th e o th e r prol on g e d i n to a tub e o r fu n n e l ( t)
, ,

s e rvin g for the e sc ape of th e w at e r an d o f the r e sidu e o f the

foo d E ach g il l ( b ) ha s the sh ap e of an e l on g at e d pyramid
.
,

an d is c o mp o s e d o f a gr e a t n umb e r o f m e mbr a n o us l am e ll ae ,

DC (1 8

448 .
—Or ga n s o f Rs
e pi ra ti o n an d C i rc ul a ti on .
’

pl ace d tran sv e rs ely an d fix e d on e ith e r sid e of the m e di an

,

sta lk Th e n umb e r o f gills v ar i e s an d this di ffe r en c e i s

.
,

ch a r acte ristic o f th e two gre at n a t u r a l divisi on s of which the

c, the r ti c h e r t
ao a , s u p e r i o r e x tre m i ty o f w hi ch i s co n t i n u ou s wi th
the
th e s up e o ri r o rt a as ) di st ri b u t i n g th e blo o d t o t h e h e a d & c b t he
b ra n ch e s o f thi s v e ss e( a t h e i nf e ri o r ao rt a p r e se n ti n a b ulb a t i t s o ri gi n
a , , .
,

, , ,

a n d s oo n di vi d i n g i n to t w o b r a n ch e s ( on ) ; vc e n a ca v a w o se w al l s ar e co v e re d
,
v ,

b th e s n gy b o di e s ( cs ) vv v e i n s o f th e vi sc e ra p roce e di n g t o ope n i n to
,

t e t wo ran ch e s o f th e e n a ca v a ; cp v e n o u s sm u s e s o r b ra n chi a l h e art s ;

v ,

8 e n l a r g e m e n t o f t h e b a s e o f t h e b r n c hi a l a rt e ri e s ; br
,
a gi lls b b ran c hi al
, a ,

ar t e r v b b r a n c h i a l v e i n ; b u b u lb o f t h e b r a n c h i a l e i n s s i t u t e d n e ar t h e
v a
y , ,

t e rm i n a t i o n o f th e v e ss e ls i n t h e h e a rt a n d co n sti t u t i n g t h e a uri cle s )

,

E H
 4 66 ZOOLOGY .

cl a s is co m po s ed I n the o cto p u s the s e pi a an d the l oligo

s .
, , ,

th e re e x ists on ly a si n gl e p a ir ; b u t i n the n a utili th e r e a r e

tw o p a irs .

6 00 The h e a rt is sit u a te d be tw e e n the gills i n the m e

.
,

di an li n e o f the bod an d is for m e d o f a si n gl e v e n tricl e

( Fig 4 4 8 c ) The b oo d r e a ch e s it fro m the br an chi a: by the
.
, .

bran chi al v e i n s ( v b ) wh o s e Ope n i n gs ar e pro vid e d with val

,

v ul e s a n d thus p e n e tr a te s in to the a r te ri e s which spri n g fr o m

,

the o rg an a n d a r e distribut e d to the bo dy

, This liquid .

pass e s a fte rw ards i n to a v e n ous syst e m c o m po s e d p ar tly o f ,

v e ss e ls pro pe rly so c a ll e d an d p a rtly i n to c aviti e s wi th out

,

pr o pe r w a lls h oll o w e d ou t be tw ee n the o rg an s ; thus the sp ace

,

co m pris e d a ro u n d the an te ri o r p o rti o n o f the digesti v e app a

r at u s p e rfo rm s the offi c e o f a v e n o us si n us an d the pri n ci pa l ,

n e rv o u s g an gli on s a s w e ll as v a ri o us gl an ds ar e b ath e d i n
, ,

th e bl oo d .

Fi n a lly the n ouri shin g fl u id which th u s r e turn s fro m the

,

di ff e r e n t p arts o f the b ody trav e rsi n g the vis ce ra l c a vity or

, ,

pa ssi n g i n v e i n s pro p e rly s o c all e d re a ch e s at l a st a l a rge

, ,

m edi an tr un k wh o s e br an ch e s proc e e d to th e o r g a n s of re spi

,

r ati on but ge n e rally en etr ate first in to a co n tra ctil e re s e r

,

v o ir situ a te d at the as e of e a ch of th e s e o rg an s Th e s e .

re s e rv oi r s p u sh the bl ood i n t o the bran chi al v e sse ls an d co n ,

s e q u e n tly th e r e ar e i n th e s e an im al s two pul m on a ry h e a rts as

w e ll as an a rt e ri al ; but this a rr an ge m e n t whi ch e x ists i n al l ,

the c e ph al op od a with two gi l ls is w an tin g i n t he te tra -bran

,

chial c e ph al o po d a .

601 Th e d ig e stiv e app a ra tus is v e ry c o mpl e x

. The .

m o uth is surro u n d e d with a circ u l a r l i p a n d with two m an

d i b l e s pl a ce d v e rtical ly on e o v e r the oth e r
, Th e y r e s e mbl e .

stron gly the bi l l of a p a rroqu e t an d ar e m o v e d by po w e rfu l ,

muscl e s Th e re ar e s aliv a ry gl an ds highly d e v e l ope d s e v e ra l

.
, ,

sto m achs an d a l ar ge liv e r The i n te sti n e t e rm i n ate s i n the

, .

br an chi al ca vity at the b as e o f the fu n n e l by which the w ate r ,

is e xpir ed an d c ommu n i ca te s with a v e ry si n gu l a r s e cr eti n g

,

o rg an which i n t he ce ph al o pod e s with tw o gills produ ce s a n

,

a b un da n ce o f a bl a ck liq u id to which th e n a m e o f i n k ha s
,

bee n giv en The e xcre to r y c a n al of this gl an d o pe n s n e a r the

.

a n u s ; an d wh e n the a n im a l is i n d an g e r it ej e cts by the ,

fun n e l a s u ffici e n cy o f th e d a rk flui d to co l o u r the su r r o u n din g

w ate r an d thus e s ca pe fro m the sight o f its e n e m i e s It
,
.

is the i n k o f o n e o f tho s e ce pha l Opod e s the s ep ta which i s , ,

e mpl oy e d i n p a i n ti n g un d e r the n a m e o f s e pi a ; an d s e v e r al
 CLA S S O F TH E C E PHALOPODA .

auth o rs thi n k th at Chi n a i n k i s an ana l o go us s ub s tan ce fi“

The t e tra br an chi a t e ce ph al opo d e s h a v e n o such o rg an .

F i g : 4 L3 .
- Th e Argon t ( Argonau t ) i i ts sh ll
au a ,
n e .

It wo u ld see m, h owe ve r th t th c l ri g m tt r e m p lo y e d
,
a e o ou n a e i n th e
fa b ri ca t C hi o th i g b t c r b n m m t l y d id d
.

i on o f na i nk i s n n u a o , u e i v e .
4 68 ZOOLO G Y .

§ 602 . W e h a v e s aid
b o v e th a t the m ol lus ca h av e n o
a

s o lid articul ate d fr am e w o rk c om p ara bl e to th e sk e l e to n of the

v e rte br at a N e v erth e l e ss i n the ce ph al opoda we sti l l fi n d
.
,

F i g 450 —N au ti l u s
. . .
‘

v e stige s o f s ome thin g an a logo us ; for th e re i s i n the h e ad a

c a rtil ag e which n ot on ly pro tects the bra i n b u t als o spre ads ,

o u t i n di ffe re n t di re cti on s fu rn i shi n g po i ts o f i n s e rti on to

,
n
the di ffe r e n t muscl e s o f the an i m a l It i s als o to b e oh .

se rv e d th at the a bd o m e n o f th e s e an i m al s 1 8 i n g e n e ra l sup
,

rt d b a s o rt o f i n te rn a l sh e ll which i n the l o ligo i s h or n y

e , ,

u t m t e s e p i a is o f a c a l ca r eo us n atur e an d 1 s cal l ed the ,

b on e o f the se pi a .

§ 60 3 T h.e disp o siti o n o f the o rg a s o f l o co m oti on an d

n
pre h e n si o n fi x e d a ro un d the m o uth v a r i e s i n th e s e m o llu sc a
, , .

I n th e dibra n chi ate ce ph al opod e s th e r e is a c oron a o f l a rge

fl e shy te n tacul a wh o s e i n te r n a l s u r fa c e is pro vid e d with
,

I th i s fig r t h sh ll i s r p r s t d
n u e e e e — t th t
e e nt ul ; th
e 0 en ,
e e n ac a e, e
fun l ; p t h fo o t ;
ne , e a p r ti of t h m
o t ; th y
on e th e syp h o
an e o, e e e , a, n .
 cu s s o r TH E C E PHALOPODA . 4 69

suck er s by m e an s o f which th e y atta ch th ems e lv e s with

,

much force to the bodi e s th e y l ay h o ld o f ( Fig I n th e .

F i g 451
. .
—N e rvo u s Syste m o f th e ch e ( S e p i )
Sei a .

a, r s c ll r s rro
th e n e vo u o a u undi g th e gul l e t the co u rs o f w hi ch i di
n ,
e 18 n
c te d b a b ri tl e ( s ; th r o s m ss s i t t e d b fo re t he g l l t d
a
)s c, e ne v u a ua e u e , an
g r y c ll e d b r
ene a a it s p ai n : s u ri r s rf c e s rm o t d wi th
e o u a i s u ry l rg e
un e a ve a
co rdi f rm t b e rc l
o u d th r
u e , an e e p ro c d fr m i t
ee ot ri o r p rt r e s w hi c h
s an e a , ne v ,

s o t rm i t i a ci rc l r
on e na e n u a gl i o
an w hi c h i
n, i t t r gi e s o ri gi
n s to
u n v n

a o th r p i r o f n e r e s w hi c h
n e a v e e d
sc n d e r t h e m o uth so s to e m brace
un a
4 70 ZOOLOGY .

po u lpe ( o c to p u s ) th e re are e ight of th e se a pp e n d ag e s an d i n ,

the s e pi a te n ; so m e tim e s two of th e s e e n l a rg e lik e car s o r

m e mbr an ous v e ils as i n the a rgo n au t ( Fig ,
or e l o n .

g ate s o a s to be c o m e fi l i for m a s i n the c al m a r ( Fig ,

.

a n d e spe ci a lly i n the cal m a r e t ( Fig I n th e te tr ab r an .

chi ate ceph al Opo de s th e s e app en d age s ar e al l sl e n d e r with out ,

suck e rs an d e x tre m e ly n u m e rous ( Fi

,

604 Mo st o f the m ol l u sca o f t is cl a ss ar e re m a rk a bl e

.

for the d e v el op m en t an d pe rfe cti on o f th e i r ey e s which ,

gr e atly r e s e mbl e th o s e Of v e rt e brat a Se v e r al h a v e als o an .

a udito ry a pp a r atus but this o rg an i s re duce d to a sm all

,

m e m bran o us s ac r e c e ivi n g a n e rv e
, .

Fi n ally the n e rvo us syste m of th e s e an im als i s m or e com

,

pl e x th an i n the oth e r m oll u sc a an d the v a ri ous gan li on s , g

groupe d arou n d the gull e t h a v e a te n d en cy to co a l e sc e i n to a
si n gl e m ass The m e d u ll a ry c oll ar s o fo r m e d i s compo s e d of
.

a p air o f ce ph a lic g an gli o n s wh e n c e a ris e th e Optic n e rv es , ,

&c of a p a ir o f g an g l i on s situ at e d m o r e fo rw a rd but u n d e r

.
, ,

th e gu ll e t an d furn ishi n g the n e rv e s o f the te n ta c u l a ( Fig

,
.

fi n ally of a p a i r o f th or acic gan gli on s giv i n g ori gi n

, ,

to th e n e r v e s o f the m an tl e a n d to tw o c o rds w h ich pro c e ed , ,

i n g backw ar ds fo rm on e ach sid e of th e a bdo m en a g an gli on

, , ,

fro m wh en ce a ris e the b ran ch e s d e st in e d for the h eart g ills , ,

dx .

605 Al l th e ce ph al opod e s ar e m a ri n e ; th e y are v e

.

v o raci o us , an d liv e chi e fly on crusta cea an d fish e s , whi o

th e y s eiz e wi th th e i r suppl e an d vigo ro u s ar m s , an d wh os e
fl e sh th ey eas il y d e v our by m ean s of th e ir sh arp m an dibl e s .

So m e of th e s e an i m als a r e l odg e d i n sh e l ls tu rn e d on th e m
se lv e s : such ar e th e a rgo n aut an d the n au tilu s ; but s om e
n a tur alists thi n k th at the fir st d oe s n o t its el f fo rm the cal

ca r e o u s co v e ri n g , but liv e s a s a p a r asite i n th e sh e l l o f an oth e r

m o llusc .

This cl ass c ompris e s the oct opu s ( Fig . th e a rgon a ut

( Fig . the s e pi a the c a lm a r ( Fig , . the ca l m ar e t

t he r r r r
l i s t an e w , a n d to fo m th e e a s m all a n t e i o g a n gl i o n , w h e n e a i s e c r
th e gz r r
bi al n e ve s ; b , te n tacul a ga n gli o n s , wh e n e a i s e t he n e ve s o f th ec r r
r
a ms o , O p ti c r r r r r
n e v e s , a i s i n g f o m t h e l a t e al p a ts o f t h e b a i n , a n d so o n r
r rc
s we l li n g i n to a l a ge ga n gli o n ; t, s m a l l v e n o u s t u be le s , s i t u at e d o n t h e
r
o i gi n o f t h e o p t i c r
n e v e s ; 9 , aaso h a e a ] o r v e n t a l g a n gh o u ; r
0, g e at r
r r
vi sc e a l n e v e , o n e o f th e b a n h e s o r c g
w i ch h a s o n i t a n e l o n a te d ga n gh o u
r
( r ) , an d pe n e t a t e s i n to th e r c r
ls ; m , n e ve s w hi h a i se also ro m the po st g
ms o pha g e al gan g l i o n s , an d w ch h a v e o n th e i r p a ssa g e a l a ge st a -sh a pe d
'

r r
r
gan gli o n ( e ) , who se b a nch e s o ce e d to th e m a n tle pr .
 CL ASS O F TH E G A S T E ROPODA .

( Fig . the utilus ( Figna & c With th e s e a r e a rran g ed

. .

the a mm on it e sh e lls wh ich h a v e s o m e a n al o gy with th o s e o f

,

the n auti l us but a r e fou n d o n ly i n a fo ssil st ate

, .

F i g 45 2
. .
—Th A mme on i et .

C L AS S OF TH E GA S T E ROPODA .

606 . The
gas te rop od a ar e m o lluscs which h av e a h ead ,

an d m o v e by m e an s o f a fl es hy disc o r fo o t pl ac e d u n d e r th e

be lly ( F ig . o r o f a fin fo rm e d by the s a m e p a rt o f th e

bo dy ( Fig . this cl as s which h as as its type the s n a il

, ,

i s v e ry n ume ro u s an d is co mp o s e d chi e fly o f a n i m als l odge d

,

i n a si n gl e sh e ll h a vi n g g en e r ally th e fo rm of a c on e o r
, ,

r oll e d i n to a spir a l ; s om e sp e ci e s ar e o n the co n tr ary en , ,

t i r e l y n ak e d as the slug
, The b o dy is e l on g ate d an d te r
. ,

m i n ated an te ri o rly by a h e ad m o re o r l e ss d e v e l op e d i n which ,

Fi g 453 4
. . asqu e .

is the m o uth , pr ovid e d with fl e s hy te n ta cl e s , v a ryi n g i n n u m

b e r tro m tw o to six ; the b ack is c o v e re d with a m an tl e pr o
l on ged m o re o r l e ss backw a rd s , u n d e r the fo rm of a m e m
b r an ou s s ac, and which s ec re te s the s h ell ; fi n ally , the be lly
 4 72 ZOOLO G Y .

is cov ere d un d ern eath by the fl e shy m as s of the foo t The .

visc e ra l od g e d o n the ba ck o ccupy the uppe r p a r t o f th e

, ,

buckl e r o r con e fo rm e d b the sh e ll an d r e m ai n alw ays e n

cl o s e d i n it ; but the b e ar? an d foo t proj e ct e xte rn ally wh e n
,

th e a n im a l u n folds its e lf fo r p ro gre ssi on an d r e -e n te r i n t o ,

the l a st tu rn o f the spir e wh e n th e y co n tr act th e ms e lv e s ;

vb a b ob on

Fi g . 4 54 —An a to m y o f a P e c ti n i b ra n chi a te Ga st e ro po d ou s M o ll u sc
.
’
.

thus the siz e of this l a st p a rt of the sh e ll an d the fo rm o f the

,

o pe n i n g ar e i n r e l ati on with the siz e o f the foo t I n m o st .

a q u a ti c g ast e r o p od o us m o llusca i n which th e sh e ll i s spir al ,

th e re e x ists a h o rn y or ca lca reo us disc n am e d Ope rculum ,

( Fig 4 54
. which is fi x e d to th e pos t e ri or pa rt o f the foo t
, ,

A at om y o f th e T rb P i c
n u sh o w the arra n g e m e n t o f the re spi ra to ry
o a, to
cavi ty -p th e fo o t o f the a ni m a l ; 0 o pe rcu l u m ; t t he pr o bo sci s ; ta the
, , , ,

t e n tacl e s ; y th e e y e s ; m t h e m a n tl cle ft lo n gi tu di n al ly so as to o p e n t he
, ,
e, ,

re s pi ra to ry c av i t f a n t e ri o r dg e o f th e m a n tl e w hi ch i n the n at u ra l
p o s i ti o n co v e rs t fl
,
e , ,

, e b ack a n d l e a v e s a n 0 e n i n g o r l a r ge fi ss u re by w h i c h t h e
,

wa t e r r e ac h e s th e g i lls ; b t h e gi l ls ; vb t e b ra n c hi a l ve i n ro ce e di n g to the
, ,
p
h e a rt ab t he b ra n c hi a l a rt e ry ; a t h e a n u s ; i t h e i n te st i n e ; c s to
, , , ,

m ach a n d li v e r ; on t he o vi d u c t A b o v e th e u ch a i s th e ce ph a li c n e rv u s
li o n a n d th e sa l i a ry gla n ds —d fri n ge d m e m b ra n e bo rd e ri n g u n de r
, . n o

ga v ,
.

ne at the l e f t s i d e o f th e o pe ni n g o f t h e re s p i ra to ry ca vi ty .
 cnx s s o r TH E GA S T E R OPODA . 4 73

an d which cl o s e s the e n tran ce o f the sh e ll wh e n th e an im a l

r e ti re s withi n it .

607 The h e art is alw ays ao rtic an d is co mpo s ed o f a

.
,

v e n tricl e an d an au ricl e ; it is fo un d n ear the b ack o f the

an im al o n the Oppo sit e sid e to th a t o ccupi e d by the r e pr o
,

d u cti v e o rg an s The art e ri a l syste m is i n ge n e r al w el l de

.

v e l o e d ( Fig but th e v e n o us syste m is a lw ays m or e o r

p .

l e ss i n co mpl e te an d s o m e ti m e s is a lto ge th e r w an ti n g so th at
, ,

the bloo d r e tur n s fr o m th e di ffe r e n t p a rts o f the body to w ar ds

the r e spirat o ry o rgan s o n ly by tra v e rsin g the l acu n ae or
sp ace s e x isti n g be twee n the o rgan s It i s als o to be obs e rv e d .
,

th at th e a bd o min a l c a vity i n which ar e lodg ed al l the vi sce r a

, ,

is a lw ays thus tra v e rs e d by the v e n ous bl oo d .

The o rg an s o f r e spira ti on ar e fo rm e d s o m e ti m e s for an

ae r i an r e spi r ati o n s o m e tim e s fo r an aq u atic l i fe
, I n the fir st .

F i g 455
. .
—Th e Pl e u r o b r a n ch us ’ .

c as e th e y con sist i n a c avity on th e w alls of which the bl oo d

, ,

v e ss e ls fo r m a co mplic ate d n e tw o rk i n to the i n t e ri o r o f ,

w hich the a i r pe n etra te s fr o m with o u t by an o p e n i n g u n de r

the e x te rn al e dg e o f th e m an tl e This ki n d o f l u n g ( F i g 1 4 4 )
. .

is situ ate d o n the b ack o f the an im a l an d i s l odge d i n the l ast ,

tur n o f the spire of the sh e ll wh e n the m o ll u sc i s pro vide d

w it h such a co ve r i n g I n t he ga ste r o pod a d e st i n e d to br e ath e
.

i n w ate r the dis po siti o n o f th e gill v a ri e s ; th e s e o rg an s ar e

,

o fte n e n cl o s e d i n a ca vity an al o g o us to th at c on stituti n g th e

lun g i n the pre c e di n g ( Fig 4 54 ) b u t at o th e r tim e s th e y ar e
.

l o dge d be tw e en the m an tl e an d the foo t o r e ve n o n the b a ck ,

of th e an i m a l so as to fl o a t fre e ly i n the s u rr o u n di n g li qu id :
,

as a n e x a mpl e o f the p u l m on a ry g as te r o po de s w e m ay m e n
g
ti on the slu an d s n ail which liv e o n the l an d ; the l ym n mus
,
,

o r h e lix ( F i g the pl an o rbis (h e l i x v o rte x ) an d the

.
,

tl r s d u
m , th e m an e ai e to sho w the gi ll ( br ) ; a , an us ; b, m o u th an d

p ro b sc s
o l t
i ; v , t h e v e i ; t, e te n t acle s p t he foo t
, .
4 74 zo o r o e v .

phys a (the h e lix fon ti n alis ) which l iv e i n stagn an t w a te r s an d

, ,

a s ce n d to the surfa c e to br e a th e th e r e q u isit e a i r A m o n gst .

the g as te r opod e s pro v id e d with gills e n cl o s e d i n a d o rs a l

c avity m ay b e o bs e rv e d t he v o l u t e s the b u cci n u r e s the po r ce
, , ,

l ai n e s ( Fig .the he l i oti d e s &c The pate l l az an d the

, .

F i g 456. .
—E o li s .

pl e uro -b r an chi ze ( Fig 4 55) c arry th e s e organ s i n the fu rr ow

.

s e p ar ati n g th e foo t fro m the m an tl e ; an d i n the d or is an d

th e e o lis ( Fig . &c th e y c o n sist i n bu n ch e s an d in str ap s
or l e a sh e s fix e d o n th e d o rs a l a sp e ct o f th e bo dy .

608 The m o uth of th e g aste r opod e s i s s u rro u n d e d by co n

.

F i g 4 57
. .
—ca ra m el .
“

t ractil e lips an d s o m e ti m e s a rm e d w ith h o rn y te e th occu pyi n g

,

th e p al ate I n s e v e ra l o th e r an i m a ls o f this cl a ss the a n te r i o r

.

p art of the g u ll e t is v e ry fl e shy an d m ay b e ca rri e d o utw ar ds

,

t t cl s
b , m o n th ; t , e n a e ; y , t he e e ; y s st o m a ch ; f li ve r ;
c, ,
a
,
an u s ;

c sh ll
e lls
br , g i ; p ,
f t
t h e o o ; e , v e n to u e s ( cu p pm g gla ss ca vi ty
- - ai r h l
o e )
i t u a te d un e
,
s d r dg
th e e f
e o f th e oo t .
 CLA S S O F TH E P T E ROPODA .

'

so a s to fo rm a prob oscis S om etim e s th e st om ach is als o fu r

.

h ish e d with c a rtil agi n o u s or o ss e o u s i n stru m e n ts a da pt e d to

di vid e the food ; th e i n te sti n e is t u rn e d on its e lf an d is l od ge d ,

be tw e e n the liv e r an d the o v ary ; fi n ally the an us ( a Fig , , .

4 54 ) is a l m o st a lw ays situ a te d on th e right sid e o f the b ody ,

an d is o fte n fo u n d cl o s e to the h e a d .

6 09 In this cl ass th e o rg an s Of s e n sibility ar e l e ss

.

d e v e lop e d th an i n the ce phal opo de s ; the t e n t acl e s which m o st

g a ste r opo d e s c a rry on th e i r fo r e h e a d s e rv e on ly for t o u ch ,

an d p e rh aps for s m e ll The ir a u dito ry o rg an s c on sist on ly i n

.

a p a i r o f sm al l m e mbr an ous v e sicl e s a n d th e e y e s which ar e , ,

s om e tim e s w an tin g ar e v e ry sm all an d o f a v e r y sim pl e

, ,

structure ; th e y ar e s o m e tim e s adh e r en t to the h e ad s om e ,

tim e s c a rri e d o n the b as e th e sid e o r the po i n t o f th e te n tacl e s

, ,
.

F in ally the n e rv o us syste m i s l e ss d e v e l op e d th an i n th e pr e

,

ce d i n g cl as s an d is c ompo s e d p rin cipa lly o f a c eph alic g an gli on

, ,

a n d o f a th o r a cic g an gli on r e -u n ite d li k e a c o ll a r ar o u n d th e

gul l e t A m on gst th e s e an im a ls s om e ar e te rre stri al oth e rs

.
, ,

liv e i n fr e sh w a te r s but m ost ar e m ari n e I n ge n e ra l th e y

, .

ar e fo rm e d to cr e e p a s th e sl u g th e l y m n eae ( Fig
, the
, .

p o rc e l ai n e ( Fig &c ; but s o m e ti m e s th e y ar e i n t e n d e d

. .

o n ly to swim a s for e x a mpl e th e c a ri n a ri a Fig

, ( .

OF P T E ROPODA
“

cu ss TH E .

6 1 0 The pte r o pod a ar e

. sm al l m o ll u scs h avi ng a dis ti n ct
he fo rm ed fo r fl oati n g an d s wi m m i n g by m e an s Of tw o fi n s
pl ace d lik e wi n gs on e ith er sid e of the n e ck ( Fig So m e .

ar e n a k e d a n d o th e rs h a v e a sh e ll b u t th e ir histo ry i s n o t o f
, ,

su ffici en t i n t e re st to i n d u c e u s to dw e ll l on ge r on it .

CLA S S O F TH E AC E PHALA .

61 1 . The m o lluscs which w e h a v e hith e rto b een con s i

d e ri n g h av e al l a disti n ct h e ad ; th o s e
which r e m ai n to be
spo k e n of ar e with ou t it an d sh o w a gre at e r simplicity i n,

th e ir wh o l e o r an iz ati on Th e i r b ody is e n tire ly e n v e l ope d

by the m an tl e g
.

i ke a boo k i n its co v e r th e ski n o f th e b a ck

, ,

i n fact i s adh e r e n t o n ly i n the middl e an d fo rm s on each

, , .

side a l arge fold co v e ri n g al l the o th e r pa rt Of the an im a l

,

( Fig . a n d s o m e ti m e s e v e n is so un ite d to its fe ll o w o f

the o th e r sid e a s to l e a v e Op e n i n gs on l y b e hi n d a n d b e fo r e
, ,

an d to fo rm t w o l on g tube s for the w a t e r n e c e ss a ry for r e spi

r ati on .A sh e ll co mpo s e d of two v alv e s c o v er s this m an tl e i n

, ,
4 76 ZOOLO G Y .

wh o l e or i n p a rt pr e se n ti n supperi or l a hin ge pro vid ed with

by tge pl ay 0 which the v alv e s ar e
, ,

a n e l a sti c li g a m e n t ,

o e n e d wh en e v e r the muscl e s e x te n di n g fr o m on e to th e oth e r

p , ,

F i g 4 58
. .
—An a t om y o f th e Oyste r .
‘

ce as e to act The visce ra ar e coll ecte d in to a sm a ll m as s

.
,

u n d e r the dor sa l pa rt of the m an tl e an d the v en tral po rti o n of ,

the body is ge n e r al ly prol on ge d s o as to fo rm a fl es hy foo t ,

h avi n g so m e an al o gy with the gas te r opode s but n ot so w e ll ,

F i g 459. .
—T llie ne ( T e lli n a )

for m ed for l oco m o ti on So m e tim e s it is the i n n e r su rface Of

.

the m an tl e as i n the te re b ra t u l as which ta k e s the pla ce O f

, ,

th e re spir a to ry o rg an an d for t his p u rpo s e sh o ws a h i ghly

,

one o t f h e v a l v e s o f t h e sh e ll v
' t h e hi n g e on, o n e O f th e l o be s O f th e
; ,

m a n l e ; m po ti o n o f t h e o th e l o be , l ai d u p w ar d s ; c, m uscl e s o f th e sh e l l
t ' r r
r
b r , th e gi ll s ; b , t h e m o u th ; I, l a b i a l t e n ta cl e s f , th e l i v e ; 5, the i n te sti n e
a , th e a n u s co , th e h e a t r .
 cm ss O F TH E C E P H A L E . 4 77

d ev e l op e d v ascu l a r n e tw o rk ; b u t i n gen e r a l th e re e xists a

v e ry w e ll d e v el op e d br an chi a l app a ratus co mpo se d of two ,

p ai rs o f l a rge m e mbran o us pl a te s fi n e ly stri at e d an d fl o ati n g

, ,

b e tw e en the foo t an d the m an tl e ( Fig Th e m o uth i s

.

a ls o c on c e al e d b e tw e en the folds Of the m an tl e a n d is fo un d at ,

on e o f the ex tr e miti e s a t the ba s e o f th e abd o m e n ; it has

n e v e r an t e e th b u t is fu r n ish e d l at e r a lly with tw o p a irs o f
y ,

l abi al prolon gati on s c on stituti n g l a mi n at e d te n ta cl e s The

, .

F i g 46 0
. .
-
Aro de
n P er l i cr e . F i g 46 1 . .
—B u cca r d e .

F ig . 46 2 .
—Sh ell of th e F i g 463
. .
—Th e A n i m al of th e
T e re b ra t ul a . T e re b ra t u l a .

st om ach i s s u ffici en tly d e v el op e d an d the i n t e sti n e fo rm s

,

a r o u n d th e liv e r cir cumv ol u ti o n s b e fo re r eachin g the po s

te r i o r e dg e o f the b a s e o f th e a bd om e n wh e r e it ter ,

m i n ate s . The h e a rt i s gen e r ally situ at e d a bo v e the visc e r a l

m a ss thus fo rm e d ( Fig a n d is c o m o s e d of an ao rtic
.

p
v e n tricl e an d o f o n e o r tw o au r i cl e s d e s t i n e d to r e c e iv e the
, ,

b l oo d fr o m th e gills
'
I n g e n e ra l this v e n tricl e i s fusifo rm
.
,

a n d pr e s e n ts a r e m a rk a bl e p e cul i a rity its c a vity b e i n g tr a

,
 4 78 ZOOLOGY .

v e rs ed b the re ctum Fi n ally the n e rvo us syste mc on sists

.
,

chi e fly 0 two p a irs o f sm all gan gli on s r e u n ite d by co rds but ,

-
,

v e ry di st an t fro m e ach o th e r an d pl ace d the o n e abo v e the

,

m ou th the o th e r u n de r the e x tr e mity o f the in te s t i n e The

, .

fu n cti ons o f r e l a ti on ar e e x tre m e ly li m ite d an d m o st o f th e s e ,

m o lluscs can with d i ffi culty di spl ac e th e ms e lv e s by pushi n g '

with the foo t o r r apidly sh u tti n g th e i r she l l to e e ct the w a te r

,

e n cl o s e d b e tw e e n the v a lv e s which giv e s to t e i r bo dy th e

,

r e t u rn i n g sh o ck ; i n gen e r a l they liv e at t he botto m o f the

w ate rs or b u ri e d i n the s an d an d s o m e fix th e m s e l v e s to
, ,

r o cks by m e a n s o f a bu n dl e Of h o r n y o r silky fil am e n ts which ,

spr i n g from th e fo ot an d is c all e d the byss u s

, .

6 1 2 This cl a ss is divid e d acc o rdi n g to the pr e s e n c e o r

.
,

a bs e n c e o f l am e l l ate d b r an ch i ae i n t o t w o o rd e rs
' , The l a m e l l i .

br an chi at a which co m pris e oyste r s m u s cl e s pe a rl oyst e rs ( F i g

, , , .

th e p e ct e n s th e m actr e ( F ig
,
th e b u cca r d e s ( Fi g
. .

th e s o l e n s or k n i fe h an dl e s t he t e r e d o & c , The b r a , .

chi o pod a o w e th e ir n a m e s to tw o ki n ds of fl e shy a rm s which ,

r e pl ace the foo t ; the t e re br atu l ae ( Figs 4 6 2 a n d 4 6 3 ) pr e .

Q s n t this ki n d o f struct u r e
e .

S UB -D I V I S I O N

OF TH E M OLL US C OID E S , OR T UN I CA TA .

613 . The
im als which w e r e -u n ite h e re ar e c o n sid e red
an

by m o st z oo l o gists as e n titl e d to b e a rr an ge d s o m e a m o n gst ,

the m oll u scs o th e rs a m o n gst th e z oo phyte s ; b u t this Opi n i on

,

s e em s to d e pe n d o n th e i m pe rfe cti on o f the k n o wl ed ge pr e

v i o u sl h ad o f the str u ctur e O f th e s e be i n gs b u t n o w t h a t
y ,

a n a t o my a n d physi o l o gy ar e b e tte r k n o w n a n d h a v e be e n be tt e r ,

st u di e d it m ay b e s e e n th at th ey a r e al l fo rm e d o n the s am e
,

ge n e ra l an a n d th a t th ey e sta blish i n s o m e m e a s u r e the

l
p ass a g e pe twee n the m o ll u sca p ro pe rly s o c a ll e d a n d t he
,

, ,

zoo phyte s Th ey a l l h a v e a d i s ti n ct dige stiv e tube t u r n e d o n

.
,

its e lf a n d o pe n a t bo th e xtre m iti e s a n d h a v e a v e ry w e ll d e ve

, ,

l o pe d bran c h i al appa ratu s ( Fig 46 5) m o st of th e m a ls o pr e

.

s e n t v e stig e s o f a n e rv ous syste m b ut h av e n o ga n gli o n a ry ,

ri n g lik e the m o ll u sc a pro pe rly s o ca ll e d ; fi n ally a l m o st a l l

, ,

m u ltiply by gr a n u l a ti o n s as w e ll a s by o va a n d th u s fo r m ,

a ggre g a ti o n s o f i n di v id u als m o r e o r l e ss co mpl e te ly c o n fo u n d e d

w ith e a ch o th e r .

The se a n i m als a r e a l l a q u atic a n d a r e fo rm e d o n two pri n

,
 OF TH E M OLLUS C O I D E S , O R T UN I CA T A .

ci pa l type —
s th
e t u n ic a ta pr o pe rly s o c a ll ed an d the b r ozo :
, y ,

a ri a o r cili a t e d po lypi .

6 1 4 Th e tu n ica ta pro p e rly s o c a ll e d a r e pro vid e d with

.
, , ,

a v e ry l a rg e m an tl e i n th e fo r m O f a s ac ( Fig
, which co n .

s ti tu te s i n fr on t o f t he a bd om e n or vi sc e r a l m a ss a r e spir at o ry

c avity e n cl o si n g bran chi ae v a ri o usly a rran g ed Th ey h av e

, , .

a h e a rt a n d b l o od ve s s e l s i n wh i ch th e n o u rishi n g liq u id cir

, ,

e n l a t e s i n a v e ry si n g u l a r m an n e r for the curr e n t ch an g e s ,

F i g 416 4
. .
—
Pl um a e t ll a .
*

its dir e cti on pe ri o dic ally so th a t i n the sp ace o f s om e mi n u t e s

,

t he s a m e can a l pe rf o rm s th e fun cti o n o f a n a rt e ry a n d a v e i n .

I n this cl a ss ar e ar r an g e d th e b i ph or e s ( F i g the pyr o .

s o m a an d the a scidi ae ( Fig

, disti n g u ish e d i n t o si m pl e
.

a n d a ggr e g a t e d Th e s e l a st h a v e o ft e n a ph yt o id appe a ra n c e
. .

Th e histo ry o f the b i ph o r e s pr e s e n ts a v e ry r e m a rk a bl e
pe c u li arity S u cc e ssiv e g e n e r a ti o n s d o n ot r e s e mbl e e a ch
.

o th e r b u t a r e co mpo s e d a lt e r n ate ly o f aggr e g a t e d an d s olit a ry

,

i n di v id u a ls The fi rst ar e h e rm a phrod it e an d pr oduc e e ach

.
,

a y ou n g o n e which liv e s is o l at e d
, but which ha s n o re pro ,

d ucti ve o rg an s an d giv e s bi rt h by gran u l ati on to a s o r t o f

, , ,

a ,
gro up o f th e pl u m at e ll as o f the n a t u ra l s i ze ; b o th e rs , , m a gn i fi e d , an d

s ee n i n di ff e re n t p o mti o n s c t e r m i n a t i n o f th e i n t e sti n e
, .
 ZOOLO G Y .

ch ai n o f aggre gate d i n dividuals Th e s e si n gula r . an im als ar e

su ffici e n tly co mm o n i n the Medite rran ean .

b
F i g 4 85
. .
— Bi p h or e

6 1 5 The b r i o zo ar i a ,
. whi ch e v e n v e ry l ate ly h a v e bee n
con fou n d e d with the m o r e simpl e po lypi h a v e the m an tl e l e ss
,

b , mou th ; s; m mu s c la r b ds s urro din the gre t p h ar yn

i s c e ral m ss i n gu d n g th sto m ach
a , an u ,
u an un a
cal o r r e s i ra t o ry c a vi ty bf gil ls ; e, v a c i e
p , , ,

i e r &c
v , . c th e h e a r t
, .
 TH E Z OOP H Y TE S
’

d e v e lope d an d the gills e x p o s e d The o rgan s c on sist i n a

, .

cro w n o f t e n ta cl e s which s u r ro u n d the m o u th an d which h a v e

, ,

l a te r a lly vibr a til e cili a ( Fig Th e an u s is n e a r th e

.

m an tl e a n d the bl o o d a rriv e s b e tw ee n the vi sc e r a an d the

,

m o u th a s w e ll as i n the i n t e ri o r o f the t e n ta cl e s b u t is n ot
, ,

s e t i n m o ti o n by a h e a rt Fi n a lly the i n fe ri o r p ortio n of

.
,

m a n tl e is ge n e rally h a rd en e d so a s to fo rm a t u be or c e llul e
, ,

s o m etim e s h o rn y s o m e tim e s c alc ar e ous i n to which the an i m als

, ,

m ay r e tire a lt o ge th e r I n g e n e r a l th e s e b e i n gs s o s m a ll a s
.
,

to b e a lm o s t micr o sc o pic liv e r e u n it e d i n m a ss e s m o r e o r l e ss

,

co n sid e rabl e M o st o f th e m dw e ll i n the sea but s om e liv e

.
,

in fre sh w a te rs A m o n gst th e s e l as t w e m ay m e n ti on th e
.

a l c on e l l ae the pl u m a t e ll a ( Fig c o m m on e n o u gh i n o u r
y , .

s t a g nan t w a t e rs ; a n d a m o n gst the first the flu s tr a the , ,

r e te p o ra an d the ve sicul a ri a .

P R I M A R Y D I V I S I ON .

TH E Z O O P H Y TE S .

61 6 I n this
.
, th e fo u rth an d l a st prim a ry divisi on o f the
an im al ki n gd om , the o rg a n iz ati on is m u ch l e ss c ompl e t e th an

F i g 4 66
. .
—
Ou rs i n ( th e E ch i nu s ,
or Se a

O n th e l e ft s i d e the s p i n e s h av e b e e n re m ov e d to sho w the she ll .

I I
 ZOOLOGY .

in m o st o th e r an im als ; an d the di ffe ren t p arts o f the ec on omy ,

i n ste ad o f be i n g dispo s e d i n p a irs on e ach sid e of a l o n gitudi n al

pl an e ar e g r o u pe d a rou n d a n ax is o r c e n tr a l po i n t s o a s to
, ,

giv e to the wh ol e O f the bo dy a r adi a te d or sph e ric al fo rm .

F i g 46 7
. .
—E n cri n e s ( E n cri n us ) .

The n e o rv u s syst e m is e ith e r rudim e n t a ry o r w a n ti n g ; a n d

th e r e a r e n o sp e ci a l o rg an s o f s e n s e u n l e ss it b e c e rt a i n s m a ll
,

c o l o u re d sp o ts b e a ri n g s om e an al o gy to the ey e s o f the
,

m ollusc a I n str u ct u r e th e s e an im als diffe r wide ly fro m e ach

. ,
 CLA S S OF TH E E CH I NOD E RMA T A .

o th e r ; an d e x te rn ally so m e m o re r e s e mbl e pl an ts th an
Th ey h a v e be e n divid e d i n to fi ve cl ass e s—the
, ,

a n im als .

e chi n o d er m a ta the a ca l ep ha the p o l yp s th e i nf u s or i a

, , ,

ol
p yg a s tr i a , an d the sp o ng e s .

CLA S S O F TH E E CH I NOD E RMA T A .

6 1 7 The . chi n o de rm at a ( Fi gs 1 3 6 an d 1 63 ) ar e r adi at e d

e .

ani m a ls wh o s e ski n is thick a n d oft en supp o rte d by a s o lid

,

sk e l e to n ( Fi g .with a v e ry co m pl e x i n te r n al str u ctu re .

Th e y ar e fo rm e d to cree p al on g th e b otto m Of the w at e rs ,

a n d a r e i n g e n e r a l pr o vi d e d with a n u m b e r o f sm a ll r e tr actil e

t e n t acul a which p ass thr ough po r e s i n th e in te gum e n ts an d

, ,

act by th e ir e x tr e miti e s lik e suck e rs I n m o st z oo phyt e s .

,

F i g 468 . .
-
H l th uri a
o o .

the urchin an d h ol o thuri a for e x a mpl e the dige stiv e

s ea ,

c avity has the form o f a t u be Ope n at its tw o e x tre miti e s ; an d

,

i n o th e rs (th e s e a st a rs ) it c on sists o n ly of a s ac fu r n ish e d ,

al l ar o u n d with a n u mbe r o f a pp e n d a g e s m o r e o r l e ss br an ch e d , ,

with a si n gl e ap e rtu r e co mmu n icatin g e x t e rn ally Th e e chi n o .

d e rm at a h av e a cir cu l at ory a pp a r at u s su ffici en tly d e v e l op e d ;

an d o f al l th e z oophyte s ar e th o s e wh o s e o rg a n iz ati on IS m o st

co mpl e x an d m o st p e r fe ct Th e y liv e i n the s ea an d wh e n

.
,

y o un g un d e rgo s o m e r e m ark abl e m e t am o rph o s e s The e chi n o

d e rm at a fo r m thr e e pri n cipal grou ps—the h ol oth u ri a ( Fig
.

th e e chi n us ( Fig a n d th e a ste ri a o r s ea st a r ( Fi g

. .

Som e sp e ci e s of this l a st fa mily att a ch th e ms e lv e s by

I I 9
 ZOOLOGY .

a s o rt o f st alk
‘
S u ch ar e o r r ath e r w e r e the e n cri n id ae
.
, ,

( Fig . n o w r a r e ly m e t with b u t which on c e e x is t e d i n

,

gre at n umb e r s i n the s e as o f v ari ous geol o gica l e hs The .

h o l oth uri a ar e re m ark abl e fo r the d i spo siti on of t e i r re spir a

t o ry appa ratus compo s e d of m e mbran ou s t u be s r am ifi e d lik e
,

a tree , a n d r e c e ivi n g w a te r i n to the i n t e ri o r t h r o ugh th e

i n te rm edi u m Of a cl oac a or an u s .

CLA S S OF TH E ACAL E PH E .

§ 618 Th
. e a c al e ph ae ar e s o ft a n im als of a , ge l ati n o u s
c o n sist en ce al w ays fl o ati n g i n the s e a an d fo rm e d
, , e ss e n ti a lly

F i g 46 9
. .
— M e du se P e la gi e ( Se a Bl u bb e r M e d u s a P e la g i a )
, .

fo r swim m i n g Th e ir o rg a n iz ati o n is v e ry si m pl e ; the ski n

.

is n o t disti n ct fro m t he s u bj ac e n t p a rts an d th e i r i n t e r n al ,

o rg an s a r e r e d u c e d to a c a v ity o r st o m a ch c o m m u n ic a ti n g ,

with the e x te ri o r by a si n gl e Op e n i n g a n d gi v i n g ris e to ,

c a n als e x t e n di n g i n to the di ffe re n t p a rts o f t he bo dy a n d ,

 CLA S S or TH E C O B A LS , oa POLYP I . 4 85

th e r e r a m i fyi n g so as to give a re s e m bl an ce to a v as c u l a r
,

syste m .

The fa mily o f this cl a ss which is b e st k n o w n is th at of the

m e d u s ae a m o n gst which ar e th e rhiz o st o m e s (r hi zosto m atid ae )
, ,

which a b o u n d o n the c oa st an d which a r e r e m ark abl e for the

,

si n gul a r disp o siti o n o f the dige sti v e app a r atus the sto m a ch ,

c o m m u n ic ati n g e x te rn ally by a gre at n u m b e r o f s m all c an a ls ,

te rm i n ate d by p or e s a t th e fr e e ex tre m ity o f the t e n t acl e s .

I n this cl a s s a r e i n cl u d e d the be roe s ( o f the cl a ss ci l i og r ad a )

which r e s e m bl e sm all ball oo n s ; the ce stid ae which h a v e the ,

fo r m o f a l o n g g e l a ti n o u s ribb on ; a n d the phys0 pho r i d ae ,

which h v e t a h e a n f
pp ea ra ce o a ga rl an d o f fl o w rs a
e n d f ru i t fi
s “

Th e m e d u s ae pr o du c e e ggs lik e m o st an i m at e d b e i n gs b u t ,

t he y o un g which spri n g fr o m th e s e i n n o sh a p e r e s e mbl e the

m othe r ; th ey ar e sm a ll o vo id bodi e s h a v i n g th e ir s u rface ,

pr o v id e d wit h vibratil e cili a an d whic h s oon ar e fi x e d an d

, ,

as th e y be co m e d e v e l o p e d fo rm z oo phyt e s a lr e ady k n o w n to ,

n a tur a lists by th e n a m e o f h d r ai d po lypi t l id f

y ( s e r u a r ae or

e x a m pl e ) th e s e multiply by gr an u l ati on s so a s to con st i t u te ,

co l o n i e s o f a ggre ga t e d an im als ; an d the di ffe r e n t i n dividu als

o f the n e w g e n e ra ti o n thus pr o d u c e d b e c o m e fr e e as th e y ar e

d e v el op e d an d m et a m o rpho s e d i n t o m e d u sae Th i s succ e ssi on

, .

o f i n dividu als o f t w o ki n ds which a lt e r n a te ly succe e d e a ch

,

o th e r a n d pr e s en t the s a m e fo rms o n ly a t the s e co n d g e

n e r a ti o n has b e e n c a ll e d m e tag e n esi s or alte r n ati n g ge n e
, ,

r ati on .

C LAS S OF TH E COR A L S OR PO LYP I , P R O P E R LY SO CALL E D .

'
619 S o m e c o n fo u n d u n d e r the n am e o f p o lypi , the
.

b ryo zo a r i a o f which w e h a v e al re ady s po k e n i n tre ati n g o f the

,

m o l l u s cm d s an d th e c o r a ls o r p o lyps , pr o p e rly so

ca ll e d , which h a v e a struct u r e e n tir e ly d iff e r e n t an d m uch

l e ss co mpl e te Th e s e a re a n im a ls wit h a cyli n dric a l body ,
.

s o ft, an d pi e rc e d at o n e e xtre m ity by a c e n tra l m o uth , sur

r ou n d e d with t e n ta cl e s an d with o ut vibratil e cili a ( as Fig
, .

4 70 i.

Tl i s o rific e h ol d s the pl ace o f an us an d l e ads dir e ctl y o r , ,

by the i n te r m ediu m o f a m e mb rano u s tub e i n to a l ar ge ,

c avity o cc u pyi n g al l the b ody e xte n di n g sup e ri o rly i n to the

,

te n t acl e s an d l odgi n g the o v ari a suspe n de d to its w alls The

, .

fa m i ly i n cl u di n g th e phys al e d ze th e b o dy i s flo a t e d b y ai r c e lls
’

I n th i s , , ,

a n d l o co mo t i o n p e rfo rme d by p ar t s ex po se d to t he W l n d - R K . . .
 Z OOLO G Y .

i n fe ri o r e x tr e mity o f th e polyp is co n tracted so as to adh e r e ,

to fo re ign bodi e s o n which t he an i m a l i s d e sti n e d to liv e

,

fix ed to th e m ; its ski n ge n e ra ll y h arde n s to a l ar g e e x te n t ,

s o as to fo rm a h o rn y o r ca lc a r eo us e n v e l o pe an al o go us to ,

the c e llul e s o f which w e h a v e alr e ady spo k e n i n d e scribi n g

the b ryo zoar i a The po lyps pro p e rly so c al l e d r e s e mbl e al so
.
, ,

the m o ll u sc oi ds by th e ir m od e o f multipl ica ti on ; for m o st o f

th e m n ot o n l y r e pr o d u ce by m e an s o f e ggs but al so by m e an s
.
,

o f gr a n ul a ti o n s which spri n g fr o m d i ffe r e n t p arts o f th e sur

,

fac e of th e ir b odi e s an d n e v e r be c o m e d e ta ch e d ; s o that

di ffe ren t g e n e r ati o n s r e m a in en grafte d as it w e re on e ach
o th e r
, an d fo r m l a rg e r or sm all e r m a sse s i n which al l the ,

i n dividu als o f the s am e r ace ar e i n clude d a n d liv e up to a , ,

ce rt ai n p o i n t a c o mm on life
, .

F i g 4 70 . . P lyp o f the g e n u s A str d e s

- o oi .

Th e r ti on , in
s om e m e a sur e o s s i fi ed o f the t e gum e n ta ry
,

tun ic 0 th e s e p olyp s pre s en ts v a ri ed fo rms an d con sti t u tes

, ,

so m e tim e s t u be s s o m e tim e s ce l lul e s F o r a l on g pe rio d this

, .

w as co n sid e re d m e re ly as the dw e lli n g o f the po lyps which

fo rm it an d it is to it th at the n am e o f 1 90 1p has be e n
g ,

iv e n S o m e tim e s e ach po lyp has a di sti n ct p o lyp i e r but

.
,

i n g e n e r a l it i s th e co mm on po rti o n o f a m ass o f a ggr e gate d

po lypi which pre s en t s the ch a rac te r s pe cul i a r to the se bodi e s ,

an d thus th e s e fo rm a gr e ga te d o l p i er s t h v lum of
g p y e o e ,

which m ay be co m e v e ry con sid e r abl e a ltho u gh e ach of i ts ,

co n stitu e n t p arts has dim e ns i on s which ar e v e ry sm a ll .

 CLA SS OF TH E CORAL S , OR POLYP I .

§ 6 20 . It is i n this way th at p ol yps with b o di e s on ly

s o m e i n ch e s l o n g r ais e i n s ea s adjoi n i n g th e tr opics r e e fs an d ,

isl an ds Wh e n th ey ar e pl ace d i n circu m st an ce s fa v o u rabl e

.

for th e ir d e ve l op m en t c e rt ai n an i m als o f this cl a ss m u ltiply

,

s o a s to c o v e r ch a i n s o f r o cks o r imm e n s e s u b m a ri n e b a n ks ,

a n d to fo r m with t he r o cky m a ss e s o f th e ir o l p i e r s h e ap e d
, p y
to ge th e r o n e a bo v e the oth e r m a ss e s o f which th e e x t e n t
,

i n cr e a s e s u n c e a sin gly by the birth o f n e w i n divid u als a bov e ,

th o s e a lr e a dy e x isti n g The s olid c o v e ri n g o f e ach c ol o n y o f

.

p o lyps r e m ai n s u n t o u ch e d a fte r its fr ail archite cts h a v e pe

r i sh e d
, a n d s e rv e s as a b a s e fo r th e d e v e l o pm e n t o f o th e r

p o lyp i e r s u n til the livi n g r e e f r e ach e s th e s u rfa c e o f th e

,

F i g 4 71
. . F i g 472
. .

w at er s ; fo r th e n th e s e an i m als can n o l on ge r live an d the

’
,

s o il fo rm e d by th e ir d e b r i s c e a s e s to ris e But s oo n the .

surfac e o f th e s e m a ss e s o f p o l yp i e r s e x po s e d to the a cti on

,

o f th e atm o sph e r e b e c o m e s th e s e at o f a n e w s e ri e s o f ph e
,

n o m e n a ; gr a i n s d e p o site d by the wi n ds or fl o at e d thith e r by ,

th e w a v e s g e r m i n at e a n d c o v e r the m a ss with a rich v e g e

, ,

ta ti o n,
u n til a t l a st th e s e v a st c h a r n e l -h o u s s o f Z oo ph t e s
e y

a l m o st m icro sc opic b e c o m e h a bit a bl e isl an ds

, I n th e P ac ific .

Oce an a n u mbe r o f r e e fs an d isl an ds h a v e n o o th e r o rigi n .

I n ge n e r a l th ey s e e m to h a v e for th e i r ba s e s om e cr a te r o f a n
e x ti n ct v olc a n o fo r th e y h a v e a lm o st a l ways a circul a r fo r m
, ,

an d p re s e n t i n th e c e n tr e a l a go on c o mmu n ic ati n g e xt e r n ally

 Z O O LO G Y .

by a s ni gl e ch an n e l ; s om e a r e k n o w n to b e m o re th an te n
l e ag u e s i n di a m e te r
.

6 2 1 A l m o st a l l c o ra l an i m a ls i n h a bit the se a n e v e r
.

th e l e s s s o m e ar e fo u n d i n fr e sh
w at e rs . Th o s e which h a v e the
‘

co ra l c as e si m ply fl e shy o r h o rn y ,

a r e spr e a d o v e r a l l cli m a te s ; b u t

it is o n l y i n the s e as o f ho t clim at e s ,

o r n e a rly so th at w e fi n d an
,

a b u n d a n c e o f t he c o r a l p o lyp with

a r o ck y c o v e ri n g o r c o r a l c a e s
.

S o m e tim e s th e s e a ggre g ate d

p olyps d e p osit i n the i n t e ri o r o f
t he c o mm o n tissu e by which th e y
ar e u n ite d a h o r n y o r c a lc ar eo u s
,

m att e r c on stit u ti n g a s o rt o f i a
,

te r i o r sta lk which br a n ch e s ou t
,

lik e a tre e i n pro po rti on a s the

,

a n i m a te d m a s s s e n ds fo rth n e w
bran ch e s It i s i n this w ay th a t
the c o ra l o f co m m e rc e i s fo r m e d
( Fig 1 66 ) o f which s u ch u s e is
.

m a d e i n th e fa bric ati o n o f o r n a
m e n ts th e re i s an a ctiv e fish e ry
.

fo r this substa n ce on t he c o a st o f
A l g e ri a .

The a cti n i ae b el o n g to this divi

si on o f t he a n i m a l ki n g d o m ; th ey
ar e al s o c a ll e d s e a a n e m on e s
( Fig . th e y h av e a fl e shy
b o dy an d a r e fo u n d i n gre a t n um
,

b e rs on the ro cks o f o u r c o ast ;

th e ca r
y o h
p yl l i an d t he as t r e z
e ,

which , m o re t h a n
th e rs a ssist al l o .

i n t he fo rm ati o n o f c o ra l r e e fs
( Fig the c o r al a n i m a l its e lf
'p
.

gg ; figgj
R a s
a ( F i g . t he v é r é t i l l i ( Fig .

wh i ch d o n ot a dh e re to the s ml ,

b u t ar e si m ply buri e d i n the s an d by o n e o f t he e x tre m iti e s

o f th e c o m m o n st a lk b e l o n g to this di v isi o n
, M o s t zo o l o .

gis t s a ls o cl as s with th e m the hy d ra o f which we h a v e ,

alre a dy sp o k e n
 OF TH E CLA S S I N F U S OR I A .

OF TH E CLA S S I N F U S OR I A PROP R LY , E SO L
CA L E D f ’
f

Th os e a n i m alc u l e s which can on ly b e d e t e cte d by

6 22 .

th e m icro sc o p e or which e v e n to a l a te p e ri o d h a v e b e e n co n
, , ,

fo u n d e d wit h the r ot at o ri a b u t wh o s e str u ct u r e is

v e ry di ffe re n t ar e de v e lop e d i n a bu n d an c e i n w ate r c o n t a i n i n g
,

th e r e m ai n s o f o rgan iz e d b o di e s Th e ir b ody s o m e ti m e s .
,

r o u n d e d s o m e ti m e s e l o n gat e d is o fte n co v e r e d wit h s m a l l

, ,

cili a an d off e rs i n its i n te ri o r a n u m be r ge n e r ally v e ry con

, ,

s id e r ab l e o f s m a ll c a v iti e s which s ee m to p e r fo r m th e fu n c
, ,

ti o n s o f st om achs I n s o m e the s e littl e e n l a rge m e n ts s ee m

.
,

to b e gro u pe d a r o u n d a c a n al which o p e n s e x te r n ally by

t wo e x tr e m i ti e s ( Fig b u t a t o th e r tim e s th e y s e e m to
.

b e a lto ge th e r is ol ate d ; an d p e rs o n s w ho h a v e m ad e th e s e
littl e b ei n gs the o bj e ct of a sp e ci a l st u dy a r e n ot a gr e e d a s to ,

th e e x ist e n c e o f a dir e ct c o m m u n ic a ti o n b e tw ee n this c a v ity

a n d t he e x t e ri o r The m o de o f pr o p a g ati o n o f the i n fu s o ri a h a s
.

b e e n th e o bj e ct o f m u ch re s e a rch an d a gre at m an y n at u ralists ,

th i n k th a t th ey m ay b e fo r m e d dire ctly by the disi n t e gr ati on

of th e m atte rs o f which l e a v e s fl e sh an d oth e r o rgan i ze d , ,

b odi e s a r e c ompo s e d ; b u t this spon t an eo u s g e n e rati on is far

fro m be i n g s u ffici e n tly de m o n str a t e d an d it is k n o w n th at , ,

i n c e r ta i n c a s e s at l e a st th e y spri n g fr o m e ach o th e r M o re
, .

o v e r th e ir m od e o f pr o p a g a ti o n i s q u it e i n a cc o rd an c e with
,

th e simplicity o f th e ir str u ctur e : it is by the sp on t an eo u s

di v isi o n o f th e ir b o dy i n to t wo o r m o r e fr ag m e n ts e a ch of ,

which c on ti n u e s to liv e an d s oo n b e c o m e s a n e w i n divid u al , ,

r e s e mbli n g th e first ; thus it is th a t th e s e si n g u l a r b e i n gs i n

g e n e r a l multiply .

Th e ir fo rms a r e v e ry v ari ed an d th y h a v e b e e n divid e d ,

e

i n t o s e v e r a l ge n e ra a m o n gst which w e m ay m e n ti on th e
,

e n che l i d e s ( I I I Fig which h a v e an o bl o n g bo dy ; the

‘

. .

v o l v oce s which a r e gl o b u l a r a n d c o n ti n u ally t u r n o n th e m

, ,

se lv e s ; an d the m on ad e s ( I Fig which r e s e mbl e s m all . .

po i n ts whirli n g i n the w at e r i n which th ey swi m It is o wi n g .

to th e pr e s e n c e o f m yri ads o f a p a r tic u l a r sp e ci e s o f th e s e

s m all m o n ads wh o s e bodi e s ar e col o u re d r e d th at s alt st ag
, ,

n an t w a t e rs o r ditch e s a cquir e a s an g u i n ol e n t co l o u r .

M y f th s m ll b i gs whi ch o l gi sts pl i thi s gro p p p r

an o e a e n z o o ace n u a ea
r th r to b l g t th l i m ll s th to th t f
a e e on o p hyt s ; b t
e l S O Il o u ca an a o zo o e u
th i r t r l ff i ti s h
e na u a t as y t b
a i ns cl rly st bl i sh d t
e bl
ave n o e ee n o ea e a e as o ena e
us t di s c ss th i s q
o st i h r
u ue on e e .
4 90 ZOOLOGY .

CLA SS OF TH E S P O N G I A B I A .

6 23 The sp on ge s ( Fig 1 6 8 ) an d the o th e r bodi e s o f an an a

. .

l o gon s stru ctur e on ly pr e s e n t the m o re prom i n en t ch ara ct e r s o f

,

a n im ality d u ri n g th e e a rly pe ri od o f th e ir life a n d r e s e mbl e ,

l ate r r ath e r u n fo rm ed v e ge ta bl e s th a n o rdi n a ry an im al s A t .

t he tim e o f bi rth th e s e si n gul a r be i n gs s u ffici e n tly r e s e m bl e

,

c e rta in i n fu s o ri a ; th e ir b ody i s o v al an d pro vid e d a l l o v e r ,

with vibr atil e cili a by m e an s of which th e y swim i n the

,

w at e rs ; i n this r e spe ct th ey b ear a r e s e m bl an ce to th e l a rv ae

o f di ffe r e n t p o lyps a t the m o m e n t wh e n th e y l ea v e th e e g g ;

but s oon the y o u n g sp o n ge s a tta ch th e m s e lv e s to s o m e

fo r e ign b ody b e c o m e alm o st imm o v a bl e giv e n o l o n ger an y
, ,

sign s of s e n sibility or of con tra ctility an d as th ey gro w b e , ,

c om e c ompl e te ly d e fo rm e d The g e l ati n o us s u bst an c e o f

.

th e ir bodi e s be c o m e s pi e rc e d with h o l e s an d c an a ls tr av e rs ed ,

u n c eas i n gly by th e w at e rs a n d th e r e i s d e v e l o p e d i n th e ir i n
,

te r i or a n u m b e r o f h o rn y fil am e n ts an d s pi cu l m s o m e tim es ,

c alc ar e ou s s o m e ti m e s silic e ous which disp o s e d i n cr o ss b u n

, , ,

dl e s co n stitute a ki n d of s olid fram e w o rk Fi n ally at ce r

, .
,

tai n e pochs o f the y e a r th e re ar e d e v e l o pe d i n the substa n ce

o f th e s e sh a p e l e ss m a ss e s o v o id or sph e ric a l c o rp u scl e s which
, ,

fa ll i n to th e c a n als alr ea dy m en ti o n e d an d whi ch dr aw n o ut , ,

w ards by th e cu rr en t by which the spo n ge is con st an tly tr a

v e rs e d c on stitute sp e ci e s o f l a rv ae or r e pr o d u ctiv e bo di e s eu
, ,

d ow e d with th e l oc om o tiv e facu lty m e n ti on e d a bo v e .

A gr e at n u m b e r of th e s e spo n g es o r s po n g i ar i a ar e kn o wn , ,

to n atur alists m o st o f th e m b e l on g to th e s e a s o f w arm

r e gi on s b u t s e v e r a l liv e on th e r o cks o f o u r c oa st
, Th o se .

u s e d s o a bu n d a ntly i n d o m e stic e c o n om y a r e disti n gui sh e d by

t h e p u r e ly h o rn y n a t u r e a n d by th e e l a sticity o f th e fil am e n ts
o f which th e ir s o lid fram e w o rk is c om p o s ed ; on e o f the
spe ci e s the c om m on spo n g e is fo u n d i n gr e at abu n d an c e i n
, ,

the M e dit e rran e an ; an oth e r ca ll ed u su a l be l o n gs to the

, ,

A m e rican s e a s Th e s e bodi e s ar e the o bj e ct o f an i m po rta n t

.

c om m e rce an d to prep ar e th e m fo r the u s e s t o which the

,

a r e d e sti n e d it i s suffici e n t to w a sh th e m w e ll so a s to d e tac ,

fro m th e ir h orn y sk e l e ton t he a n im a l m att e r with which

it is n aturally co v e re d .
 OF TH E GEOGR AP H I CA L D I ST R I B UT I ON
OF A N I MA L S .

6 24 To fo rm a g e n e r a l id e a of the an im a l ki n gd om , it
.

i s n ot s u ffici e n t m e re ly to k n o w the pri n cip a l ph e n om e n a by

which l i fe m an ife sts its e lf i n an im a te d b e i n gs , an d to h av e
studi e d the stru ct u r e of th e ir bo di e s an d the m e ch an ism o f
th e ir fu n cti o n s it is als o n e c e ss a ry to t ak e a co mpr e h e n siv e
a n d g e ne r a l vi e w of th e m an n e r i n which a n i m al s ar e spr ea d

o v e r th e s u rfa c e o f th e gl o be , an d to e n d e a v o u r to a ppr e ci at e

th e i n fl u e n ce e x e rcis ed , o r which m ay b e e x e rcis e d , o v e r th e m

by the v ari ous c i rcu mst an c e s i n the m idst o f which th ey a r e
d e sti n e d to liv e .

6 25 Wh e n w e dir e ct our att e n ti on to th e m an n e r i n

.

which an i m als a r e distrib u te d a rou n d u s on the gl obe , w e ar e

-

a t first str u ck with the di ffe r e n c e of the m e di a i n which th e y

liv e. So m e a s e v e ry on e k n ow s , liv e a lw ays u n d e r the

,

w at e rs , an d di e spe e dily wh en th ey ar e r e m o v e d from this

liquid ; oth e rs can li v e on ly i n ai r , an d pe rish so s oon as th ey
a r e i m m e rg e d . S o m e , i n fa ct a r e d e sti n e d to pe o pl e the
,

w at e rs , o the rs to liv e on l an d ; an d wh e n w e c om pa r e , physi o

l ogic ally a n d an ato mi ca lly , th e s e aq u atic an d t e rr e stri a l
a n i m a l s , w e disc o v e r , at l e a st i n p art , t he c a us e s o f th e s e di f

fe r e n ce s i n th e ir m od e of e x iste n c e .

I n st u dyi n g r e spir a ti on , w e h av e poi n t e d ou t a con stan t

r e l ati on b etw e e n th e i n t e n sity o f this fu n cti on an d the vit al
e n e rgy . A n i m als w e h av e s a id , con s u m e i n a giv e n ti m e an
,

a m o u n t o r q u an tity o f ox yg e n a lw ays th e m o r e c on sid e r a bl e

th at th e ir m o v e m e n ts ar e m o re liv e ly an d th e ir n u triti on m o r e
r apid No w , th e y can on ly obta i n thi s ox yge n i n the fl u ids
.

with which th e ir b odi e s ar e b a th e d , an d i n a l i tr e o f ai r

6 07 7 3 p i n ts ) th e r e e x ist 208 c u bic ce n ti m e tr e s ( eighty cubic
i n ch e s , n e arly ) of this viv i fyi n g pri n cipl e ; whilst i n a litr e o f
w at e r th e r e e x ist diss o lv e d m e rely abou t thirte e n c e n ti m etre s
cubic i n ch e s ) It is e v id e n t, th e n , that th e d e gr ee o f a ctivity
( fi v e .

i n th e r e spir ato ry fu n cti o n , i n dispe n sa bl e to the e x e rci se o f

th e fac u lti e s p e c u li a r to the sup e ri o r an im al s , o ught to b e
m u ch m o r e e a sily attai n e d i n ai r th an i n wa te r , an d th at by
r e as on of this di ffe ren ce al on e a st ay o r re sid e n c e i n this
l att e r fl u id m u st b e an d is i n te rdicte d to al l the m o re e l e v at e d
b e i n gs i n the an im al sc al e It i s r e adily co m pre h en de d , i n
.

fact , th at an an im a l which , i n ord er to liv e , r e quir e s to

4 92 zo o r o o v .

a ppr o pri at e to its e l f at e v e ry i n stan t a co n sid e ra bl e qu an tity

o f o x yge n ca n n o t fi n d it i n s u ffi ci e n t pro po rti o n wh e n
, l un ge d
u n d e r w a t e r an d th at th e n it m ust p e r ish a sphy x i at e
, But
a t first vi e w it s ee ms l e ss e asy to e x pl a i n the c a us e s by which
,

a n aq u atic a n im a l c an n o t c o n ti n u e to liv e wh e n withdr a wn

fro m the w at e r a n d pl ace d i n a i r for it is th e n fur n ish e d with

,

a liq u id rich e r i n o x yg e n th an w as the liq u id th e vi vifyi n g ,

ac ti on o f which su ffi ce d fo r a l l its w an ts Th e re a r e ho w .
,

e v e r v a ri o us circu m st an c e s which to a c e rt a i n po i n t e x pl ai n
, , ,

this ph e n om e n o n Th u s w e l e a rn by physics (n atural phil o

.

so phy ) th at a b o dy w e igh e d su cc e ssiv e ly i n a i r a n d w at e r i s

, ,

lighte r i n this l atte r th an i n the fo r m e r an d th at to m ai n tai n ,

it i n e quilibriu m a w e ight equiv al e n t to th at which r e pre

,

s en te d its w e ight i n ai r l e ss th a t o f the m ass o f w ate r it ha s

displ ac ed is th e n su ffici e n t Fr o m this it r e sults th at an i
, .

m al s wh o s e tiss u e s ar e too s oft to supp o rt th e m s e lv e s i n the

ai r an d which c oll a ps e to such a d e gr e e as to b e co m e u n fit to
,

p e rfo r m th e ir fu n cti o n s i n th e o rgan ism m ay ye t liv e w ell i n ,

the bo s om o f the w at e rs wh e r e th e s e s a m e tissu e s be i n g ,

s c a rce ly d e n s e r th an th e s u rr o u n di n g fl u id h av e o cc a si on to ,

o ff e r m e r e ly a fee bl e r e si sta n c e to pr e s e rv e th e i r fo rms a n d to ,

pre s er v e the di ffe re n t p arts o f the b ody fr om c oll a psi n g o n

th e ms e l v e s This si n gl e co n sid e ra ti o n su ffice s to e x pl a i n
.

why ge l ati n ou s an i m als such as the i n fu s o ri a an d m e d u s ae

, ,

ar e n e c e ss a rily c on fi n e d to th e w at e rs for wh e n w e o bs e r v e
o n e o f th e s e d e lic ate b ei n gs still pl u n ge d i n this liq u id we ,

s ee th at al l its p a rts e v e n th e m o st sl e n d e r o r d e lica t e s u

, p ,

p o rt th e ms e lv e s i n th e ir n o rm a l po siti o n an d fl o at with e a s e ,

i n the surro u n di n g m e diu m ; but s o s oo n a s w e withdr a w ,

th e m fro m it th e ir wh ol e b ody c oll aps e s an d pre s e n ts to the

. ,

e y e m e r e ly a sh a p e l e ss a n d co n fu s e d m a ss The i n fl u e n c e o f .

th e d e n sity o f the s u rr o u n di n g m e di u m on the m e ch an ic a l

pl ay o f the i n str u m e n ts o f li fe m ak e s its e lf als o fe lt o n an i
m a ls wh o s e structur e is m o r e p e rfe ct b u t i n which h o w e v e r , , ,

r e spira ti o n is pe rfo r m e d by r am i fi e d m e mbran o us appe n d a g e s ,

lik e little b u sh e s o r bu n ch e s o f fe ath e rs Th u s i n the an n e .

lid e s o r e v e n i n fish e s the bran chi ae o r gills ar e c o m po s e d o f

, ,

fl e x ibl e fil am en ts which supp o rt th e m s e lv e s e a ily i n the

,
s

m idst o f w a te r an d i n this way pe rmit th e r e spi r a b l e fl u id to

,

r e a ch a n d to b e re n e w e d at al l po i n ts o f th e ir s u rfa c e b ut i n
,

the a i r th e s e s a m e m e m br an o u s fil a m e n ts c oll a ps e by t he
e ff e ct o f th e ir o wn w e ight fall on e ach o th e r an d by th a t
, ,

a l o n e e x cl u d e the oxyg e n fro m t he gr e a te r p art o f t he r e spir a

 G E OGRAPH I CAL D I S T R IB U TI ON OF AN I MAL S .

t o ry app a ratus F ro m this it r e s u lts th at this fu n cti o n i s

.

th e n sh a ckl e d an d th a t the a n i m a l m ay d i e a sphyxi at e d i n

,

the a i r whilst he fo u n d i n w at e r th a t which h e r e qu ir e d to

,

bre ath e fre e ly To b e c on v i n c e d of th e i m po rt an c e o f th e se

.

v ari ati on s i n the physic a l c on dition o f o rgan s pl aced i n ai r or

i n w at e r it i s s u ffi ci e n t to r e c a l wh at t a k e s pl a c e i n o u r pr a e
,
"
tic a l o r diss e cti n g -r oom s A n an a to m ist d e sir o u s o f st u dy
.

i n g th e stru ctu r e o f a de lic ate p art w o uld a tta i n his o bj e ct

,

with di fli cu l ty if he m ad e his diss e cti on with the p art e x po s e d

,

si m ply to the a i r ; but by pl aci n g un d e r w at e r the o bj e ct o f

his study he is th e r e by e n abl e d to disti n g u ish m uch m or e
,

r e ad i ly al l its p a rts ; for th e s e p a rts s u ppo rt e d i n s om e m e a

,

s ur e by the liqu id pr e s e rv e the n th e ir n at u r a l re l ati on s a s if

,

th e y h ad a r igid an d c o n siste n t tissu e A n oth e r circu m .

st an c e which h a s an e qu a l i n fl u e n c e o v e r th e p o ssibility o f
life i n ai r or i n w at e r is the e v a po r ati on which a lw ays t a ke s
,

pl ac e fr om th e surfac e o f the o rgan iz e d b odi e s wh e n pl ac e d i n

a i r b u t which d o e s n o t h a pp e n i n w at e r
,
A c er ta i n d e gr ee
.

o f d e sicc ati o n c a u s e s a ll o rg an ic tissu e s to l o s e th e ir disti n

ui shi n g physic a l pr o p e rti e s a n d w e c o n st a n tly o bs e rv e th a t

g ,

l o ss e s by e v a po rati on c a u s e the d e a th of a n i m a ls wh e n it g oe s
b ey on d c e rt ai n limits It r e s u lts from this th at b e i n gs
.
,

wh o s e o rgan iz ati o n i s n ot c alc ul at e d so a s to pr e e rv e th e m s

from the i nj uri o us e ffe cts of s u ch an e v a po r a ti on can liv e ,

o n ly i n w at e r a n d p e rish pr o m ptly i n th e ai r
, Now the .

an i m a l e c o n o my ca n o n ly m e e t this e x ig e n cy by m e an s of a

gre at c omplic ati on i n its str u ctu re I n fa ct i t the r e spir a

.
,

ti on m u st be activ e it b eco m e s n e c e ss a ry th at the r e spira t o r y

,

s u rfa c e b e th e n l odge d pr o fo un dly i n s o m e i n t e rn a l c avity

wh e r e the ai r can on ly b e r e n e w e d i n the q uan titi e s n e c e ss ary
fo r th e supp or t of life To s e c ur e this r e n e w al it is e ss e n ti a l
.
,

th a t the re spirat o ry ap p a ra tus b e c o m plic a t e d with m ot o r

o rg a n s pr op e r to s e c u r e it to pr e v e n t the d e sicca ti o n o f a n y
p o rti o n o f the s u rfac e o f the b ody it b e c om e s n e c e ss a ry als o
,

th at the distrib u ti on o f the liquids i n the v a ri o u s p a rts of th e

b ody b e a cc o m plish e d e asily a n d th at th e r e e x ist an a ctiv e
,

circ u l ati o n or o th e rwis e th at this sur fac e b e cl o th e d with a

,

t u n ic sca rce ly p e r m e able This is s o tr u e th at e v e n i n fish e s

.
, ,

i n wh ich th e circ u l a ti on i s so c o m pl et e but t a k e s pl a c e ,

sl o wly an d i n which the c apill a ry n e tw o rk i s n o t v e ry cl o s e

, ,

d e ath t a k e s pl ac e r apidly a s a n e c e ss ary c o n s e q u e n c e o f

,

h
t e d e sicc a ti o n o f a p a rt o f t h e b o dy — o f t he p o st e ri o r
po r
ti o n for e x ampl e—e v e n wh e n this p o rti on a l on e b e e x p o e d
, s
4 94 ZOOLOGY .

to th e ai r , al l the r e st of the an im a l r e m ai n i n g plu n ged u n d e r

w a te r .

W e might al so ad d th a t i n w a t e r , lim e n tatio n is po ssibl e , a

w ith i n strum e n ts o f pr e h e n si o n an d o f m oti o n l e ss pe rfe ct

th an in air i n which the tra n spo rt of fo re ign m atte rs r e
,

qu ire d by the an im a l is m o re di ffic u lt to accom plish Thus .

,

un d e r al l i ts m o r e e ss e n ti a l r e l ati o n s life is i n s o m e m e asure , , ,

e a si e r t o susta in i n the bo s o m o f the w a te rs th an o n the sur

fa ce o f th e dry l an d ; it n e c e ssitat e s i n the at m o sph e re phy

s i o l o g i cal i n str u m e n ts m or e co mpl e x an d m o r e p e rfe ct
th e re fo r e th e w ate rs a r e the n atural e l e m e n t o f the an im al s
pl ac ed l o w e r i n t he scal e of the z o o l ogica l s e ri e s ; an d if the
r o ducti on s of th e cr eati on h a v e s u cc e e d e d e ach o th e r i n th e
p
s a m e o rd e r of the t ran sito ry co n diti on s thro ugh which e ach
a n im a l p a ss e s duri n g the p e ri o d o f its d e v e l o p m e n t w e m ay ,

co n clude th at it w as i n the middl e o f the w at e rs th at ani

m ate d b e in gs a ppe ar e d fir st a r e sult which a cco rds with the ,

o bs e r v ati on s of g eol o gists a n d the ass e r ti o n s o f sc r iptur e The .

physi ol o gi st m ay i n this m ann e r giv e an acc o u n t o f the actu a l

m od e o f distributi on of an i m als b e tw ee n the tw o g eo lo gic al
e l e m e n ts which divid e th e surface o f t h e gl o be l a n d an d ,

w ate r : but th e s e fun da m en tal diffe ren ce s ar e n ot th e on ly

o n e s which w e o bs e rv e i n the ge o gra phic al dist r ibuti o n of

a n im a te d b e i n gs If a n aturali st famil i a r with the faun a of

.
,

this co u n try visit dista n t re gi on s he s e e s i n pro po rti on a s he

, , ,

adv an c e s th e e arth p e opl e d with an im a ls n e w to hi m

, an d ,

th e s e spe ci e s n e x t d is app e a r i n th e ir turn to m ak e r oo m fo r

oth e r sp e ci es e q u ally u n kn o w n to him If q u ittin g Fr an c e .

h e l an ds i n So u th A fric a h e will fin d b u t a v e ry s m all n u m

,

b e r o f an im als simi l a r to th o s e he ha d s ee n i n E u ro pe an d he ,

w i l l o bs e rv e e sp e ci ally the l a rg e -e a r e d e l e ph an t the h i ppo po

, , ,

tam u s the d o u bl e -h o rn e d rhi n o ce ro s the g i r a fle i n n u m e r a

, , ,

b l e fl o cks o f a n te l o pe s th e z e br a ; the Ca pe b uffal o wh o s e h o rn s

, ,

co v e r by th e ir l a rge b a s e al l th e fo r e h e a d ; the bl ack -m an e d

lion ; th e chimp an z e e which o f al l an i m a ls m o st r e s e m bl e s
, , ,

m a n ; the cy n o ce ph a lus o r dog -fac e d a pe ; pe c u li a r spe ci e s of

,

v u ltu re s ; a n umbe r o f bri ght -plum ag e d bir ds stran g e rs to ,

E ur o pe ; i n s e cts e q u a lly di ff e re n t fro m th o s e of the n o rth th e ,

fatal te r m i te s fo r e x a m pl e which liv e i n n u m e ro u s s o ci e ti e s

, , ,

a n d build o f t he s o il h a bit ati on s o f c o n sid e r a bl e e l e v ati o n

an d m o st si n g u l a r c o n str u cti o n

G
.

6 2 6 If o u r z oo l o gist quits th e Ca p e o f ood H o pe a n d

.

p e n e tr a te s i n to the l a rge isl a n d o f Mad a gasc ar he wi l l th e r e ,

 G E O G RAPH I CAL D I S T R I B U T I ON OF AN I MAL S .

fi n d a still d i ffe r e n t fa u n a . Th e r e he wi l l n o l on ge r o bs e rv e
the l ar g e qu a dr up e ds h e fo u n d 1 u A fric a , an d the fa mily o f
th e a p e s will b e re pl a c e d by o th e r m a m m al s e qu a lly w e ll
,

fo rm e d to climb tre e s , b u t m or e r e s e m bli n g th e ca rn iv o r a,

a n d ca ll e d by n at u r a lists t he M a k i s : h e w ill m e e t with th e

A y e -ay e , anya n i m al o f th e m o st si n g ul a r n atur e , which s e e ms

to b e t he o bj e ct o f a s o rt o f v e n e r ati o n o n th e p a rt o f the i h
h abit an ts , an d which p art ak e s at the s a m e tim e o f th e n at u re of
the squirr e l a n d o f the m on k e y the t e n r e cs , sm all i n s e ctiv o r o us
-

m a m m al s , which h a v e the b ack pr o te ct e d with sp i n e s or

qu i ll s , lik e o u r h e dge ho gs , b ut which ye t d o n ot r o ll th e m
s e lve s u p i n to a ba ll ; the cl e ft n o s e d ch a m e l e on , an d s e v e r a l
cu1 i o u s r e ptil e s n o t fo u n d e l s e wh e 1 e a s w e ll as 1i n s e cts n o l e ss
,

ch a r a cte ristic o f thi s r e g i on .

6 2 7 S till tr a v e lli n g on w a rds an d ar r l v m g 1 1 1 I n di a o u r

.
,

tr ave ll e r will fi n d an e le ph a n t disti n ct from th a t o f A fric a ;

o x e n , be a rs , rhi n o ce r o s e s , a n te l o e s ; S t a gs , e qu a lly diffe 1 e n t
p o
g
fro m th o s e o f E ur op e an d of A frica ; th e o u ra n ou t an g, an d
a n umb e r o f o th e r a pe s p e c u li ar to th e s e c o u n tr i e s , th e r oy a l

ti ge r , the arg u s , th e p eac o ck , th e ph e as an t , an d a n a l m ost

i n n um e ra bl e m ultitud e of birds , r e ptil e s , an d i n s e cts u n k n ow n
e ls e wh e r e .

6 28 S h o uld h e a fte rw a rds visit Ne w H o ll an d , still

.

e v e rythin g will b e n e w to h i m , a n d the a sp e ct o f this fa u n a

will appe a r to hi m still m o r e stran g e th a n th at o f the v ari ou s

z oolo gic al po pu l ati on s h e had alre ady p a ss e d i n r e vi e w H e .

wil l th e n n o l o n ge r fi n d an im als an a l ogo us to 0 m ox en ,

h o rs e s , be ar s , an d to a gre at n umb e r o f o ur l a rge ca1 n i vo r a :
t he qu adr u p e ds o f gre at st atur e will b e fo u n d t o tal ly w an ti n g ,

a n d h e wi ll di sc o v e r the k an g a r oo , the flyi n g ph a l an g e r , an d

th e o rn ith o rhy n chus .

6 29 Fi n a lly , if ou r tr a v e ll e r , i n o rd e r to r e turn to his

.

n ativ e co u n try , s h o u ld ti a v e r s e the v a st c on ti n e n t o f A m e ric a ,

h e will disco v e r th e r e a fa u n a an al o g o u s to th a t o f the Ol d

W o rld , b u t co m po s e d a l m o st e n tire ly o f diffe r e n t S pe ci e s : h e
w ill tl ie 1 e fi n d a pe s with pre h e n sile ta ils l a rge car n iv o r a,
s u ffici e n tly re s e m blin g ou r li on s a n d tige rs , bis o n s , l a m as ,
ta to us fi n ally , birds , r e ptil e s , an d i n s e cts , e qu al ly r e m ar k a bl e ,
a n d e q u a lly n e w to him .

6 3 0 D i ffe r e n c e s n o l e ss strikin g i n th e sp e ci e s o f an i
.

m als p e c uli a r to d iffe re n t r e gion s of the gl ob e , a r e o bs e rv a bl e ,

wh e n , i n st e ad of c on fin i n g o ur o bs e rv a ti o n to the i n h abit an ts
o f the l an d , we e x a mi n e the myri ads o f livi n g b e i n gs which
 4 96 ZOOLOGY .

liv e in the m idst o f the w a te rs I n p a ssi n g from the c oa st o f

.

E u ro pe i n to the I n di an Oc ea n a n d fr o m this l a st i n t o the

,

s eas o f A m e ric a w e m e e t with fish e s m o lluscs cr u sta c e a an d

, , , ,

z oophyt e s p e culi a r to e a ch o f th e s e p a rts o f the s ea This .

l oc a liz ati on o f sp e ci e s wh e th e r a qu atic or te rre stri a l is so w e ll

, ,

m a rk ed th at a n at u r a list a littl e e x p e ri en ce d ca n n ot mist ak e

a t the v e ry first sight t h e o rig i n o f z oo l ogic a l c o ll e cti on s m a d e

i n o n e o r oth e r o f th e gr ea t ge o gr aphic al divisi on s o f t he

gl o be which m ay b e sub m itt e d to his e x a mi n ati on The fau n a .

o f e ach o f th e s e di visi on s pr e s e n t s a p e c u li a r a S e ct d m
p a n a
y ,

.b e e a sily ch a r a ct e riz e d by the pr e s e n c e o f ce rt ai n spe ci e s ,

m o r e or l e ss r e m ark abl e .

§ 6 3 1
. N a t u r alists h a v e im agi n e d s e v e r a l hyp oth e s e s to

e x pl a i n this m o d e o f distrib u ti o n o f a n i m a ls o n t he s u r fa c e o f

the gl o b e ; b u t i n the a ct u al st a te o f sci e n c e it is i m p o ssibl e

to giv e a s atisfacto ry e x pl an ati on u n l e ss w e a d m it th a t fro m
,

the b e gi n n i n g o f th e a ct u a l g eol o gi ca l p e ri o d the v a ri o u s

spe ci e s h av e be e n distribu te d i n th e diffe r en t re gi o n s an d th at ,

b y d e gr ee s th e y h av e a ft e rw a rds spr e ad to a dist a n c e s o as to ,

o cc u py a m o r e o r l e ss c o n sid e r a bl e po rti o n o f the surfa c e o f

the gl o b e . I n t he actu a l c on diti on of the gl o b e it is i m po s ,

sibl e for u s to disc o v e r al l the z oo l ogic al fo cus e s ; for o n e m ay

i m a gi n e the p o ssibility of e x ch an ge s o m u ltipli e d b e tw e e n
tw o r e gio n s th e fau n ae o f w hich w e r e pri m itiv e ly disti n ct
, ,

th a t th ey can o n ly n o w offe r at the pr es e n t m o m e n t sp e ci es

co m m on to b oth an d thus n o thi n g can r e v e al to the ey e s o f
,

t he n a t u r alist th e ir o rigi n a l s e p ar ati on ; but wh e n a c o un try

i s fo u n d to b e p e opl e d with a con sid e r abl e n u m be r of sp e ci e s
.

n o t to b e fo u n d e ls e wh e r e e v e n wh e r e th e l o c al ci r c u m st an c e s
,

m o st re s e m bl e w e sh all b e a uth o riz e d to thi n k th at s u ch a

,

p o rti on o f the gl o b e h as a lw ays b een a disti n ct z oo l ogi ca l

r e gi o n .

W h a t the n atur a list o u ght to i n quir e i n to is n ot how it ,

h app e n s th at the v a ri o u s p o i n t s of th e gl o b e ar e i n h a bit e d at

t he pr e s e n t d ay by di ffe r e n t sp e ci e s b u t r a th e r ho w th es e
,

a n i m a ls h a v e b e e n a bl e to spr e a d th e m s e lv e s to a dista n ce

o v e r t h e s u rfa c e o f the gl o b e an d ho w n a tu r e h as se t to th is
,

di ff u si o n v ari a bl e limits a cc o rdi n g to the S pe ci e s This l ast

,
.

q u e sti on e spe ci a ll y pr e s e n ts its e lf to the mi n d wh e n w e o b ,

s e rv e ho w u n e qu al is the e x t e n t o f the d o m ai n o cc upi e d by

'
di fle r e n t an i m a ls T h.e o u r a n g -o u t a n g fo r e x a m pl e c on fin e d
, ,

to the Isl a n d o f B o r n e o a n d the n e igh b o u ri n g t e rri to ri e s ; t he

 G E O G RAPH I CAL D I S T R I B U TI ON OF A N I MAL S .

m u sk -ox , li m i t e d to the m o st n o r th e rn p a rts o f A m e ric a ,

a n d the ll a m a to th e e l e v a t e d r e gi o n s o f P e ru a n d o f C hili ;
.

whilst the wild d u ck is fou n d e v e rywh e r e , fr o m Lapl an d to

G
the Ca p e o f oo d H o p e , a n d fr o m the Un ite d St a t e s o f A m e
ric a to Chi n a an d J a p an .

The circ u mst a n c e s which fa v o u r the diss e m i n ati on o f s pe

ci e s a r e o f two ki n ds The first is c on n e ct e d or d e p e n d e n t on
.

the n a tu r e o f th e a n i m a l its e lf ; the s e co n d , with ca u s e s fo r e ign

to it . I n the n u m b e r o f th e fi r st , th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e
l oc o m otiv e po w e r h o lds an i m po rtan t pl ace Al l thi n gs b e i n g
.

e q u al , the sp e ci e s which liv e fi x e d to th e s o il , o r which p o ss e ss

b u t impe rfe ct i n stru m e n ts fo r l o c o m o ti on , o cc u py but a r e

s tr i cted po rt i o n o f th e s ur fa c e o f the gl o b e , c o m p a re d with

spe ci e s wh o s e m o v e m e n ts o f tr an sl ati on a r e r a pid a n d e n e r

g e tic Th u s , a m o n gst te rr e stri a l an i m a ls , birds o ffe r u s m o st
.

'
e x a m pl e s o f c o s m o po li t an sp e ci e s ; a n d a m o n gst the a q u atic

a n i m als , c e t a c e a a n d fish e s R e ptil e s , o n the c o n tra ry , ar e

.

g e n e ra lly ca n t o n e d on n arr o w li m its ; an d the s am e m ay b e

s a id o f m o st o f th e m o ll u scs an d o f th e cr u st a c e a The i n
.

s ti n ct which l e ads c e rt a i n a n i m a ls pe ri o dica lly to ch a n g e th e ir

clim a t e , c on trib u t e s a ls o to c au s e the diss e m i n ati o n of spe ci e s ;

a n d this i n s ti n ct , as w e h a v e a lr e a dy s e e n , e x ists i n a gr e a t

n u m b e r o f th e s e b e i n gs . A m on gst the circ u m sta n ce s fo r e ig n

to the a n im al , a n d i n s o m e m e a sure a ccid e n t a l , co n c u rri n g to
bri n g ab o ut the s am e re s u lt , the i n fl u e n c e o f m an m ay b e
pl a c e d fo r e m o st ; an d to giv e o f t h is an e x act id e a , it will b e
s u ffi c ien t to m e n ti o n a fe w sp e ci e s . Th e h o rs e o rigi n ally
b e l on ge d to th e ste pp e s o f Ce n tr a l A si a ; an d at the e p o ch o f
th e disc o v e ry o f A m e ric a , th e re did n o t e x ist i n the Ne w
W o rld a n i n di v id u a l o f the sp e ci e s The Spa n i a rds tr a n s
.

p o rte d the h o rs e with th e m at an e po ch which d oe s n o t

a s c e n d b e y o n d thr e e a g e s ; a n d i n o u r d ay , n o t o n ly th e i n
’
h a bit an ts o f this v a st c o n ti n e n t , fro m H u ds on s Bay to th e
l an d o f Fir e , p o ss e ss h o rs e s i n a bu n d an c e , b u t th e s e an im als
h a v e e v e n r e c o v e r e d th e ir wild co n diti o n , an d ar e fo u n d i n
tr 00 ps al m o st i n n um e ra bl e It is the s am e with ou r dom e sti c
.

ox . Ca rr i e d fr o m the Ol d to the Ne w W o rld , th ey h a v e i n

cre a s e d to s u ch an e x te n t , th at i n s o m e p a rts o f So u th A m e ric a
th ey ar e hu n t e d s o l e ly with a vi e w to o bta i n the hid e s fo r the
m ar u factu r e o f l e ath e r . The dog a ls o ha s be e n e v e rywh e re
the c omp an i o n o f m a n ; a n d w e m ay ad d to th e n u m be r o f
a n i m a ls b e c o m e c o sm o po lit an i n o u r ti m e , the r a t, which

K K
4 98 zo o LOG Y .

s ee ms o rigi n ally to h av e be e n A m e r ic a n which en t e r ed E uro pe ,

i n th e m iddl e a g e s an d m ay n o w b e fo u n d e v e n i n th e isl e s
'

o f Oc e an ica .

I n s o m e i nst a n c e s a n im als h a v e b e e n a bl e to b u rst n atura l

b arr i e rs s e e m i n gly i n s u rm o u n tabl e a n d to spr e a d th e m s e lv e s
,

o v e r a m o r e o r l e ss c o n sid e r a bl e po rti o n o f the s u rfa c e o f th e

glo b e by m ean s of circum st an c e s which at first sight s e em

ex tr e m e ly u n i m p o r t a n t — su ch as the m o v e m e n t o f a fra gm e n t
,

o f i ce o r of a m o rs e l o f w oo d sw e pt a l o n g b y curr e n ts t o dis
,

t an c e s oft e n v e ry c on sid e r a bl e : thus n othi n g is m o r e co m m on

th an to m e e t at s e a a t a di st a n c e o f hu n dr e ds o f l e agu e s from a l l
,

l an d fuci fl oati n g on the surfa c e o f the w at e r s u pp o rti n g s m all

, ,

cr u st ac e a i n c a p a bl e by th e m s elv e s o f r e m o vi n g by swi m m i n g
to a n y gr e at dist an c e fr o m the co a sts wh e r e th e y w e r e pr o duc e d .

The gr e a t m a riti m e c u rr e n t which l e a vi n g the Gulf o f M e x ic o

, ,

c o a sts a l o n g N o rth A m e ric a as high a s N e wfou n dl an d th e n ,

dire cts its e l f t ow a rds Ic e l an d an d Ir e l an d a n d r e d e sce n ds ,

to w a rds t h e A z o r e s o ft e n c a rri e s with it e v e n to th e c oa ts o f

, ,
s

E u r o p e tr u n ks o f tr e e s which the M ississippi h a s t or n a w ay

, ,

fr o m p a rts the m o st r em o t e o f the Ne w Wo rld an d c a r ri e d to ,

the s e a . No w th e s e ti m b e rs a r e o fte n b ore d by the l a rv ae o f

i n s e cts a n d m ay g iv e att achm e n t to the e ggs of m ollusca
, ,

i n s e cts & c Fi n ally e v e n birds c on tribut e to th e dispe rsi o n

,
.
,

o f livi n g b e i n gs o v e r th e s u rfa c e o f th e gl o b e a n d th at i n a ,

m o st si n g u l a r m an n e r ; th e s e a n im a ls o ft e n do n o t dig e st
th e e ggs th e y sw all o w an d disch a rgi n g th e m a t c on sid e r a bl e
, ,

dist an c e s fr o m the pl ac e wh e re the y h ad fo un d th em tran sp o rt ,

to a dist a n ce the g e rms o f a r a c e u n k n ow n to th a t ti m e i n

th e c ou n tri e s wh e r e th e y h a v e b ee n d e p o sit e d N o tw i th .

s t a n di n g th e s e m e an s o f tr an sp o rt a n d of o th e r circ u mst a n c e s
,

e q u a lly c a lc u l a te d to fa v o u r th e di ss e m i n ati o n o f sp e ci es ,

th e r e ar e r e ally v e ry fe w an i m als co sm o po lita n an d m o st ,

o f th e s e be i n g s ar e c a n to n e d i n r e gi o n s s u ffi ci e n tly li m it e d .

M o r e o v e r w e c o m pr e h e n d w hy it sh ou ld b e s o i n st u dyi n g
,

the circ u m st an c e s which m ay o pp o s e th e ir pr o gre ss Bu t .

this st u dy is far fro m fu r n ishi n g u s with a s u ffici e n t e xpl a n a

ti o n o f the li m it e d c ir cum s cripti on of a S pe ci e s a n d it is often ,

imp o ssibl e for u s to di v i n e why c e rt ai n an im al s re m a i n co n

fi n e d to a l o c ality wh e n th e r e s e e m s to b e n o thi n g oppo s ed to
th e ir pr o pa gati o n i n n e ighbo uri n g districts .

6 3 2 H o w e v e r this m ay b e the o bst a cl e s to t he g eo

. ,

graphic a l diss e m i n ati on o f sp e ci e s ar e s o m e ti m e s alto g eth e r

m e ch a n ic al at oth e r tim e s physi o l o gic al ; an d a m o n gst the
,
 G E OGRAPH I CAL D I S T R I B U TI ON OF AN I MAL S .

first w e m ay m e n ti on s ea s an d high ch a i n s o f m ou n t a i n s .

F or te rr e stri a l an ima ls i n fa ct s e a s o f a c e rta i n e x te n t fo r m i n

, ,

g en e ral an i n s u rm o u n t a bl e b arri e r ; an d w e s ee th at a l l thi n gs ,

b e i n g e qu al i n oth e r re sp e cts the mi x t u re o f tw o disti n ct

,

fa u n as is alw ays th e m o r e i n tim at e th a t th e r e gi o n s to which

th ey be l on g a r e m o re ge ographically a ppr ox im at e d o r a r e ,

pl ac ed i n c o m mu n ic ati o n by i n t er m e di a te l a n ds T hu s the .

A tl an tic Oce an pr e v e n ts th e sp e ci e s pr o pe r to Tr o pic a l A rn e

ric a fro m spre adi n g i n to A fric a E ur op e an d A si a ; a n d the, ,

fa u n a o f the Ne w W o rld is c om pl e te ly disti n ct fro m th at o f

the Ol d u n l e ss it b e i n the m o r e e l e v a te d l atit ud e s to w ards
,

t he n o rth e r n p o l e ; but th e r e th e l an ds appr o a ch : A m e ric a is

o n ly s e p a r a te d fr o m A si a by th e str a its o f Be hri n g a n d h o lds

r e l ati o n s with the n o rth o f E u r o p e thr o u gh ree n l an d a n d G ,

Ic e l an d ; th u s z ool ogic a l e x ch an ge s c ou ld t a k e pl ace m u ch

m o re ea sily a n d it is th e re i n fa ct th a t w e fi n d the sp e ci e s
c o mm on to the t wo w o rlds —s u ch a s the white be a r the r e i n
, , ,

, ,

d e e r the b e a v e r th e e r m i n e the pe l e ri n e fa lco n the whit e

, , , ,

h e ad e d e agl e &c L o fty ch ai n s o f m o u n t ai n s con stit u te als o

, .

n a tu ra l b a rri e rs which o fte n a rr e st the disp e rsi on o f sp e ci e s ,

a n d pr e v e n t th e fu si o n o f fau n ee p e c u li a r to n e ighbo uri n g

z oo l o gic a l r e gi o n s Th u s th e tw o s 10 pe s o f the Co rdill e r a s o f
.

the A n d e s a r e i n h a bit e d by sp e ci e s g e n e r a lly disti n ct ; an d

t h e i n s e cts o f Br azil fo r e x a m pl e ar e a lm o st a l l disti n ct fr o m
,

th o s e w e m ee t with i n P e ru or i n Ne w r an ad a The dis

,

G .

e r s i o n o f m a ri n e a n i m a ls livi n g n e a r th e c oast i s sh a ckl e d

p
i n th e s a m e w ay by the g e o gra phic a l c o n fi g u r a ti on o f t h e
gl o b e ; b u t h e re it is s o m e ti m e s a l on g c on tigu ity o f l an d ,

s om e ti m e s a v a st e x t e n t o f the d e e p s e a which o pp o s e s its e lf ,

to t he diss e m i n ati o n o f sp e ci e s Thus m o st o f t he an im als

.

o f th e BI e d i te r r a n e a n a r e a ls o fou n d i n th e Eu r o p e a n p o rt i o n

o f th e A tl an tic b u t h a v e n o t b e e n a bl e to r e a ch th e I n di an
,

e a s fr o m which th e M e dit e rr a n e an is s e p a r ate d by the isthm u s

,

o f S ue z n o r to tr a v e rs e the A tl a n tic Oc e a n to spr e ad th e m ,

s e lv e s o n the c oa sts o f the Ne w Wo rld .

6 3 3 The phy i ol o gi ca l circ u m st an c e s which t e n d to

. s

limit the di ffe r e n t fa un as a r e m o r e n u m e ro u s ; b u t th a t which

pre s e n ts its e lf i n the fir st pl a c e i s u n qu e sti on ably the u n e qu a l
t e mp e r at u re o f th e di ffe re n t re gi on s o f t he gl o b e Th e r e ar e .

sp e ci e s which can suppo rt e qu ally w e ll a n i n t e n s e co ld an d

tro pica l h e at ; m an an d the dog fo r e x a m pl e ; b u t th e re ,

ar e oth e rs which i n this r e sp e ct a r e l e ss fa v o u r e d by n a tur e ,

a n d which d o n ot pr o sp e r o r e v e n c an n o t e xist but u n d e r th e

, ,
500 ZOOLOGY .

i n fl u e n ce o f a fix e d t e m p e rat u r e Th u s the ap e s which cro wd

.

th e tro pic a l r e gi o n s a l m o st alw ays di e o f phthisis ( p u l m o

n a ry co n su m pti o n wh th y p s d h c o ld a n d
) e n e a r e e x o e to t e

h u midity o f o u r cli m at e whilst the re i n d ee r fo rm e d to su ppo rt ,

th e rig o rs o f a l o n g an d r u d e L a pl an d wi n te r s u ffe rs fr o m ,

h e a t at S t P e t e rsburg an d i n ge n e ra l si n ks q u ickly u n d e r
.
,

th e i n flu e n c e o f a t e m p e ra t e cli m a t e F ro m this it re s u lts

.

th at i n a gre a t n u m be r o f ca s e s di ffe r e n c e s i n cli m ate al on e

, ,

a r e fo u n d to b e s u fli ci e n t to a rr e st the m a rch o f sp e ci e s fr o m

high l a tit u d e s t o w a rds the e qu at o r or fro m e qu ato ri al r e gi o n s

,

to w ards the po l e s The i n fl u e n ce o f te m p e r at u re o n the an i

.

m al e c o n om y e x pl a i n s t o u s a ls o why c e rt a i n spe ci e s r e m a i n
can ton e d i n a ch a i n o f m ou n t ai n s with o u t b e i n g a b l e to spre a d
a br o a d i n to a n al o go u s l o c a liti e s W e k n o w i n fact th at the
.
, ,

te mp e ra tur e d e cre a s e s by r ea s on o f t he e l e vati on o f the so i l ,

a n d th at i n c on s e qu en c e an im als which liv e a t c o n sid e ra bl e

e l e v a ti o n s c o uld n o t d e sc e n d i n to the l o w pl a i n s to r e a ch

o th e r m o u n t a i n s with o u t tr a v e rsi n g c ou n tri e s wh e re th e te m

,

pe r a tu r e i s m u ch s u p e ri o r to th a t o f th e ir o rdi n a ry h abit a
ti o n Th e ll am a for e x a m pl e a b o un ds i n the gra ssy c o un
.
, ,

tri e s o f P e ru a n d o f Chili sit u ate d a t a n e l e v ati o n of fo u r o r

,

fi v e th o u s an d m e tr e s ( fr o m fo u r to fi ve th o u s a n d y a rd s )
a b o v e the l e v e l o f th e s e a a n d e x te n di n g to the s o u th a s fa r
, ,

a s th e e x tr e m ity o f P a t a go n i a but it is to he fo u n d n e ith e r i n

Brazil n o r Me x ic o b e c au s e it c o uld n ot a rriv e th e re with o ut
,

d e sc e n di n g i n to r e g i on s to o hot fo r its c o n stit u ti o n .

The n at u r e o f the v e g e t a ti o n a n d o f the pr e e x isti n g faun a -

i n a r e gi o n o f th e gl o b e e q u ally i n fl u e n c e s its a ppro pri a ti on by

e x otic sp e ci e s .Th u s the disp e rsion o f the silkw or m is
li m i te d by the dis app eara n c e o f the m ulbe rry ab o v e a c e rt ai n
d e gre e o f l atit ud e ; t he c o chi n e a l c an n o t spr e a d its e lf b ey o n d
a r e gi on wh e r e gr o ws the c a ct u s ; a n d th e l a rg e c a r n iv o r a ,

u n l e ss th e y liv e o n fish c an n o t e x ist i n th e p o l a r r e gi o n s

, ,

wh e r e the v e ge t abl e producti o n s a r e too sc an t to supp o rt a

con sid e ra bl e n u m b e r o f h e rbiv o r o us q u a dr u p e ds .

6 3 4 It w e r e e a sy for u s to m u ltiply e x a m pl e s o f th e s e
.

n e c e ss a ry r e l a ti o n s b e tw e e n the e x ist e n c e o f a n a n i m a l sp e ci e s

i n a giv e n l o c a lity a n d the e x iste n c e o f c e rt a i n cl i m a te r i c

, ,

phyt o l o gic al o r z oo l o gica l c o n di ti o n s ; b u t w e w an t sp ac e fo r

,

s u ch d e t a ils a n d the c o n sid e r ati o n s w e h a v e j u st giv e n a p pe a r

,

to u s s u ffici e n t to giv e a n id e a o f th e m a n n e r b y which n a t u r e

h a s a cc o m plish e d t he r e p a rtiti o n o f an i m a l sp e ci e s o v e r dif
fe re n t po i n ts o f th e surfa c e o f t he gl o be ; a n d to att ai n the
 G E OGRAPH I CAL D I S T R IB U T I ON OF AN I MAL S .

en d we prop o s e d i n t o u chi ng o n thi s s u bj e ct it o n ly r e m ai n s

,
’
fo r u s to t ak e a vi e w ( co up d cr i l ) o f th e r e s u lts br o u ght a b o ut
by the di ffe r e n t circu m st an c e s of which w e h av e j ust spok e n ,

th a t is to s ay o f th e a ct u a l c o n diti on of the ge o gr aphic dis

,

tr i b u ti on o f an i m at e d b e i n gs Wh e n w e c o m par e th e v a ri o us
.

r e gi o n s o f th e gl o b e with e ach o th e r i n the r e l ati on o f th e ir

z oo l ogic a l p opul ati o n o n e is str u ck at first w ith the e x tre m e
,

i n e q ua lity o bs e rv a bl e i n th e n u m be r o f sp e ci e s I n a c e rt ai n .

co u n try fo r e x am pl e w e m e e t with an e x tre m e div e rsity i n

, ,

the fo rm s an d the struct u r e o f th e an i m a ls co m p o si n g i ts

fa u n a whilst el s e wh e r e th e r e r e ig n s i n this r e sp e ct a gr e a t
,

u n i fo rmity ; a n d it is e asy to o bs e r ve a ce rt ai n r e l ati o n b e

tw e e n th e di ffe r e n t d e gr e e s o f z o ol ogic a l rich n e ss an d the
e l e v ati o n m o r e o r l e ss c o n sid e r a bl e o f th e t e mp e r a t u r e
, ,
In .

fact th e n u m b e r o f s pe ci e s a s w e ll m a ri n e as t e rr e s tr i al au g
, , ,

m e n ts i n ge n e ra l i n pr op o rti on a s w e d e sc en d fro m th e p ol e s
tow ards t h e e q u at o r The m o re r e m o t e p o l a r r e gion s offe r to
.

th e tra v e ll e r o n ly a fe w i n s e cts a n d i n its icy s ea s the fish e s

,

a n d th e m o ll u sc a th e m s e lv e s a r e b u t littl e v a ri e d ; i n te m

p e r a te cli m at e s the fa u n a b e com e s m o r e n u m e r ou s i n sp e ci es ;

but it is i n the tropical r e gi on s th a t n at u re sh ows h e rs e l f
m o st pro dig a l i n this r e sp e ct an d the z ool o gist c an n o t s ee
,

with o ut a st o n ish m e n t th e e n dl e ss div e rsity o f an i m als which

a r e a cc u m u l at e d th e r e .

It is r e m ark abl e a ls o th a t th e r e e x ists a si n g u l a r c o i n

ci d e n ce b e tw e e n the e l e v a ti on o f th e te m p e r at u r e i n di ff e r e n t

z o o l ogic a l r e gi o n s a n d th e d e gr e e o f o rg an ic p e rfe cti o n o f the

,

a n i m a l s i n h a biti n g th e m It is i n the h o tt e s t cli m at e s th at

.

w e fi n d t he a n im a ls which m o st a ppr o a ch m a n a n d th o s e ,

which i n e ach gr e at z o o l o gic a l divisi o n p o ss e ss the o rga

n i za ti o n t he m o st c o m pl e x an d th e fa c u lti e s m o st d e v e l o p e d ;
,

whilst i n th e p ol a r r e gi on s w e m e e t o n ly with b e i n gs occu

pyi n g a r an k b u t littl e e l e v a t e d i n th e z o o l o gic a l s e ri e s The .

ape s ,
fo r e x a mpl e ar e li m ite d to t he h o tt e st p a rts o f the
,

tw o c o n ti n e n ts ; it i s the s a m e with th e p a rr o q u e ts a m on gst

birds ; the cro co dil e s an d the t ort u e s ( t u rtl e s an d t o rt o is e s )
a m on gst r e ptil e s a n d o f l a n d cr a bs a m o n gst th e c ru st ac e a
,
-
,

a l l a n i m a ls t h e m o st p e rfe ct i n th e ir r e sp e c t iv e cl a ss e s .

It is als o i n ho t c ou n tri e s th a t w e fi n d the t e rre stri a l the

m o st r e m ark abl e fo r th e b e au ty o f th e ir c ol our s the siz e o f ,

th e ir b odi e s an d the si n g u l arity o f th e ir fo r m s

, .

Fi n ally th e r e s e e m s to e x ist a c e rt a i n r e l a ti o n b e tw e e n the

,

clim at e a n d the te n de n cv o f n at u re to pr o duc e s u ch o r s u ch

502 Z OO LOG Y .

an an i m al fo rm Th u s w e o bs e rv e a gre at re s e mbl an c e b e
.

tw ee n m o st o f the an i m a ls i n h a biti n g the Bo re a l an d A u stra l

r e g i on s ; the fau n a: o f the te m pe ra te r e gi on s o f E u r o pe A si a , ,

a n d N o r th A m e rica o ffe r a g r e a t an a l o gy i n th e ir g e n e ra l
23

a sp e ct ; a n d m th e tro pic a l c o u n t ri e s o f t h e t w o w o rlds w e

s e e p r e d om i n a ti n g s i mil a r fo rms It is n o t th at w e fi n d
.

id e n tic a l sp e ci e s i n r e gi on s disti n ct an d n e a rly i s oth e rm al ,

b u t sp e ci e s m o r e o r l e ss n e ighb ouri n g an d which s ee m to be ,

th e re pr e s e n t ati v e s o f on e an d the s am e typ e Th u s the a pe s .

,

o f I n di a an d o f Ce n tr l A fri c a ar e r e pr e s e n te d i n tro pi ca l
a
A m e ric a by o th e r a p e s e a sily disti n guish e d fro m the first ; to
,

t he li o n t he tige r an d the p an th e r o f th e Ol d Co n ti n e n t
, , ,

co r r e sp on d i n the Ne w W o rld th e c o ug u ar the j agu a r an d , ,

t h e oc e l o t Th e m ou n ta i n s o f E u ro p e o f A si a a n d o f
.
, ,

N o rth e rn A m e ri c a n o u rish be a rs of d ifle r en t sp e ci e s b u t st i l l ,

pre s e n ti n g but slight di ffe r e n c e s Se als a bo u n d e sp e ci ally i n

.

the n e ighb ou rh o od o f th e t w o p ol a r circl e s ; a n d if w e wish

to l o o k for proo fs o f this t e n d e n cy n o t i n the m o r e e l e ,

v a te d cl a ss e s o f th e an im al ki n gd o m b u t a m o n gs t th e i n fe ri o r
,

b e i n gs w e s hal l fi n d th e m n o l e ss e vid e n t ; the ém e vi s s e s

,
~

( c r a w fish a n d l o bst e r ) & c fo r e x a mpl e a pp e ar to b e c on fi n e d

.
, ,

to th e t e mp e r a t e r e gi on s o f the gl o b e a n d ar e fou n d sp r e ad ,

a br o ad th r o u gh out th e gr e a t e st p ar t o f Eu r o pe by the sp e ci e s ,

s o c o m m on i n o u r riv u l e ts m th e s o u th o f R u ssi a b a di f
, y
fe r e n t sp e ci e s i n N o rth e r n A m e rica by tw o o th e r sp e ci e s
,

equ a lly di s ti n ct fr o m th e pr e c e di n g i n C hili by a f o u rth ,

sp e ci e s to the s ou th of Ne w H o ll an d by a fifth i n Mad a

,

ga s e a r b v a si x th a n d at the Cape o f ood H e pe by a

, G ,

se v e n th .

The c om p aris o n o f th e fau n as p e culi a r to th e di ffe r e n t zoo

l o gic al r e gi o n s o f the gl o be c on d u cts to oth e r 1 e s u l ts of whi ch
, ,

it is m or e di ffic u lt to giv e a n e xpl an ati on Thus wh e n w e .

,

e x ami n e succ e ssiv e ly t he wh ol e o f the sp e ci e s i n h a bi ti n g

A si a A fric a an d A m e ric a th e re m ay b e o bs e rv e d i n the
, , ,

fa u n a o f the Ne w Wo rld a ch a r acte r o f i n fe ri o rity which did

n o t e sc a p e th e c e l e br at e d Buff o n I n fa ct th e r e d o n o t e x ist
.
,

i n the Ne w Wo rld m am m a ls s o l a rg e a s i n th e o l d c o n ti n e n ts ;
w e fi n d i n d e e d i n N o rth e r n A m e ri c a a c o n sid e r a bl e n u m ber
o f ap e s , b u t a m on gst th e s e an i m a l s th e re a r e n o n e e q u a l to
the o u r an an d chimp an z é ; an d it i s r a th e r the rod e n ts a n d
t?

th e e d e n t a t a which a bo u n d the m o st th a t is to s ay o f a l l , ,

o r di n ar m a m m a ls t he l ea st i n t e llig e n t Fi n a lly i t is i n
y .
,

A m e ric a th a t w e m e e t with the s a rig u e s ( o po ss u m s ) a n im a ls ,

 G E OGRAPH I CAL D I S T R IB U TI ON OF AN I MAL S .

which be l on g to an i n fe ri o r typ e o f o rdin ary m a m m als an d ,

whi ch h a v e n o r e p r e s e n ta tive s 1 n E u ro pe A s i a o r A fric a I t

, ,
.

s a fte r w a rds fro m the Ne w Wo rld to A u st r a li a a still ,

n e w e r r e gi o n w e fi n d a fa u n a th e i n fe ri o rity o f which i s still

,

m o re e v id e n t fo r the cl a ss o f m a m m a ls i s th e r e sc a rc e ly r e
,

p re s e n t e d by the m arsu pi ali a a n d t he m on o tre m e s .

W i th r e ga rd to the d e li m ita tio n o f the di ffe re n t z o o lo gic al

r e gi on s which divid e th e gl o b e an d to the c omp o siti o n o f the
,

fa u n a p e c u li a r to e a ch o f th e m w e c an n o t tre at o f it h e re
,

wi th ou t p a ssi n g bey on d the li m its pre scribe d by this c o u r s e o f

i n str u cti on a n d w e the l e ss re gre t thi s n e ce s s ity s e ei n g th a t
,

i n t he ac tu a l st at e o f th e sci e n c e th e s e q u e sti on s a r e fa r fro m

b e i n g s olv e d .

W e sh all e v e n cl o s e h e r e o u r z o ol o gic a l st u di e s fo r the

0 ,

o bj e ct w e h a d p r o p o s e d to o u r s e l v e s w a s n ot t he a r ti cu l ar d e
p
scripti o n of e ach an i m al n o r the e n u m e r ati o n o f the ch a rac
,

te rs by which th e y m ight b e k n o wn or gro u pe d m e th o dica lly

.

w e o n ly wish to giv e i n this c o u rs e id e a s o n th e n at u r e a n d

pro pe r ti e s o f th e s e b e i n gs to sk e tch r a pidly the p r i n cip a l
,

tra its o f th e ir histo ry an d to fu rn ish to o u r y o u n g r e ad e rs

,

th e g e n e r a l k no wl e d g e th e m o st u s e fu l to a l l a n d i n d i s pe n
,

s a bl e to th o s e w h o wish to st u dy m o r e d e e ply this br an ch o f

th e sci e n c e s o f o bs e rv ati o n .

TH E END .
u v ru . A w a rm s ,
N D ran - P
C O V E NT G u
r s
an c e a

ms "
,

.
c n a n no s t
s r e a m ,
 H O O P 1 NO C O U C H , w i th i ts Tre atm e n t b y a
’

A F R E A T rs E O N
R e m e dy . By G e o rg e D G i b b , M D F c ap c lo th Pr i . . . . .

TH E D 1 S E A S E S
F c a p 8 vo . .
O E TH E
c l o th .
F <E T US 1 N
P r i ce 58 .
UTE R O . By H en ry M ad g e ,

ON TH B E PI D EMIC
B r ys o n , M D
‘
E V E RS OP
1 2 m o c lo th . .
F . .
S rE R R A L E O
P ri c e 4 3 .
N E . By A l e x

F R O R IE P O N
l a te d b y Dr
TH E
. La
PwrP Ic A I N
A
an
L C
e .
T O
8 vo .
OP E L E CT R O -MA G
c l o th P ri c e 53 . .
N ET 1

ON THE
T 10 N .
N
P R I C IP L E S , N AT U R E, A N D TR EA T M E
S e c o n d E d i ti o n By J J am e s 8 v o . . H . .
N cl t
.
T
o
OF

ON I Nr c AMM I N
P i
F L
e 68 .
AT O OF TH E V EI N S . By H en ry Le e . 8y o .

L A NN
E EC ON D rS E A-S E S o r T H E C H E ST, A N D ON
r sl t
T an a e d b y J F o rb e s , M D 8 vo b o a rd s
. . . . .

O UT L rN r s
clo th
H
rc
M A
.
OP
P i
U
e 1 83
N P A T H O LO G Y
.
. By Hr e b e r t M ayo , F .

A TR E A T i S E O N S v P H rL r s
rc
P i e 53 6 d . .
. By Hr e b e r t M a yo , F R S . . . 8v

O N I ND I G E ST i O N A N D
M D 8 vo b o a rd s
. . . .
I TS

P i rc
NCO
e
S EQ U E
63 6d .
N
.
CES . By A . P . W . ]

ON TH ELA ws OF TH E V i T A L F UNCTrO Ns . By A
. . P . W .

M D 8v o . c l o th . P ri c e 1 28 .

ND
. .

ON TH E NA T U R E OP SLE E P A D E A TH . B yA . P . W
M D 8 v0 b o a rd s P ri c e 83 . .

N
. . .

O N M I U T E D OS E S OF MER C U RY . By A P W . . . P hi l i p ,
S e c o n d E di t i o n . 1 2 1n o b o a d . r s . Pr i c e 3 3 6 d . .

A TR E AT IS E ON TH E OB S C U R E A P P E C T i O NS O R T H E B R A D
A P .
W . P hi l i p, M D .1 2 m o c l o th
. P ri c e 4 8 . . .

M
.

O N M E R C U R Y , B L U E P rL L , A N D C A LO E L ; T H E 1 R US E A ND

By G G S i g m o n d , M D . F c ap c l o t h
.
. . . . P ri c e 4 5 .

TH E P H A R M A C O P tE rA O F T H E R O Y A L C O L L E G E O P P H Y S I C I A
1 8 51 Tr a n s l a t e d b y a P h ys i c i a n 2 4 m o s e w e d P r i c e
ND
. . .
.

O N V A R r C O S E V E rNs A V A R I C O SE UL C E R S . By T . W .

'

P o s t 8 v o c l o th P ri c e 2 8 6 d

N MMs tA I Nc l t
. . .
.

I F LA T O OP TH E B R E AST , A N D M r L K A B S C E S S By T W . . .

Po 8 vo o h P ri c e 2 3 6 d
D D
. .
. .

G UI M ED i CA r
’ ’
W rn L 1 N S ST U E NT S E T o TH E ll os e r r A L s A N D

T UT ro Ns O F PA R IS 1 8m o c l o th Pri c e 3 s
N P N N
. . .
.

M EC H A P CO I or
IM F ry ST R U CT O
‘

A uTO M A T rC IS M A s A L 1 E D To T H E
P IC I A L L B S. By G a W i th Ca s s e 8vo cl o th .

M r ND t
. . .
.

'
ME C O LL m E
Bo w n u s

3 .
ORA
Th i d E d i i o n
A POR
.
E XA M l NA TI O N A T
By M W i ll e . . H s .
TH E
3 2m o s e we d . .
 ’
MR . R E NS H A W S PU BL I CA T I ON S .

D O NO T

R EMO V E

CA RD

FR O M

THIS

PO C KET

A cm e Li b ra r y C a r d P o ck e t
Un d e r P a t .
“
R e f I n d ex
. F ile ”

M ad e b y L I BR AR Y BUR EA U