Textile science-2

Presented by Ishita
2020UFT9314
Unit-1
FIBRE: STRUCTURE AND
PROPERTIES

There are two types of polymers: synthetic

and natural. Synthetic polymers are derived
from petroleum oil, and made by scientists
and engineers. Examples of synthetic polymers
include nylon, polyethylene, polyester,
Teflon, and epoxy. Natural polymers occur in
nature and can be extracted. They are often
water-based. Examples of naturally occurring
polymers are silk, wool, DNA, cellulose, and
proteins.
 RUBBER CAN BE FOUND IN NATURE AND HARVESTED AS A LATEX (MILKY
LIQUID) FROM SEVERAL TYPES OF TREES. NATURAL RUBBER COMING FROM
TREE LATEX IS ESSENTIALLY A POLYMER MADE FROM ISOPRENE UNITS WITH
A SMALL PERCENTAGE OF IMPURITIES IN IT. RUBBER CAN ALSO BE MADE
(SYNTHESIZED) BY MAN. SYNTHETIC RUBBER CAN BE MADE FROM THE
POLYMERIZATION OF A VARIETY OF MONOMERS, INCLUDING ISOPRENE.

NATURAL RUBBER DOES NOT HANDLE EASILY (IT'S STICKY), NOR DOES IT
HAVE VERY GOOD PROPERTIES OR DURABILITY (IT ROTS). IT IS USUALLY
VULCANIZED, A PROCESS BY WHICH THE RUBBER IS HEATED IN THE
PRESENCE OF SULFUR, TO IMPROVE ITS RESILIENCE, ELASTICITY AND
DURABILITY. SYNTHETIC RUBBER IS PREFERABLE BECAUSE DIFFERENT
MONOMERS CAN BE MIXED IN VARIOUS PROPORTIONS RESULTING IN A WIDE
RANGE OF PHYSICAL, MECHANICAL, AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. THE
MONOMERS CAN BE PRODUCED PURE AND ADDITION OF IMPURITIES OR
ADDITIVES CAN BE CONTROLLED BY DESIGN TO GIVE OPTIMAL PROPERTIES.
 VULCANIZATION, ALSO CALLED CURING, IS THE CHEMICAL PROCESS USED IN
THE RUBBER INDUSTRY IN WHICH INDIVIDUAL POLYISOPRENE CHAINS ARE
LINKED TO OTHER POLYISOPRENE CHAINS BY CHEMICAL BONDS (SEE REACTION
SEQUENCE BELOW). THE ACTUAL CHEMICAL CROSS-LINKING IS USUALLY DONE
WITH SULFUR, BUT THERE ARE OTHER TECHNOLOGIES THAT CAN ALSO BE USED.
VULCANIZATION IS AN IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS, LIKE BAKING A CAKE. THE
NORMALLY SOFT AND SPRINGY RUBBER MOLECULES BECOME LOCKED TOGETHER
RESULTING IN A HARDER MATERIAL WITH GREATER DURABILITY AND CHEMICAL
RESISTANCE. VULCANIZATION CHANGES THE SURFACE OF THE MATERIAL FROM
VERY STICKY TO A SMOOTH, SOFT SURFACE WHICH DOES NOT ADHERE TO METAL
OR PLASTIC SUBSTRATES.
RECENT ADVANCES OF FIBRE
TECHNOLOGY
 UNIT-2
YARN:-Types, Structure and
Properties
 What is
YARN?
Yarn is a long continuous
length of interlocked
fibres, suitable for use in
the production of textiles,
sewing, crocheting,
knitting, weaving,
embroidery, or
ropemaking.
 Classification based on number of strands

Yarns can be described as single, or one-ply; ply, plied, or

folded; or as cord, including cable and hawser types.

Single, or one-ply, yarns are single strands composed of

fibres held together by at least a small amount of twist; or
of filaments grouped together either with or without
twist; or of narrow strips of material; or of single
synthetic filaments extruded in sufficient thickness for
use alone as yarn (monofilaments). Single yarns of the
spun type, composed of many short fibres, require twist
to hold them together and may be made with either S-
twist or Z-twist. Single yarns are used to make the
greatest variety of fabrics.
Ply, plied, or folded, yarns are composed of two or more single yarns twisted together. Two-ply
yarn, for example, is composed of two single strands; three-ply yarn is composed of three
single strands. In making ply yarns from spun strands, the individual strands are usually each
twisted in one direction and are then combined and twisted in the opposite direction. When
both the single strands and the final ply yarns are twisted in the same direction, the fibre is
firmer, producing harder texture and reducing flexibility. Ply yarns provide strength for heavy
industrial fabrics and are also used for delicate-looking sheer fabrics.
 Cord yarns are produced by twisting ply yarns
together, with the final twist usually applied in
the opposite direction of the ply twist. Cable
cords may follow an SZS form, with S-twisted
singles made into Z-twisted plies that are then
combined with an S-twist, or may follow a ZSZ
form. Hawser cord may follow an SSZ or a ZZS
pattern. Cord yarns may be used as rope or
twine, may be made into very heavy industrial
fabrics, or may be composed of extremely fine
fibres that are made up into sheer dress fabrics.

 Blending, in yarn production, process of

combining fibres of different origins, length,
thickness, or colour to make yarn. Blending is
accomplished before spinning and is performed to
impart such desirable characteristics as strength
or durability, to reduce cost by combining
expensive fibres with less costly types, or to
achieve special colour or texture effects. Fabrics
made from such fibres are called blends. Blending
also refers to the process of combining small
amounts of the same fibre taken from different lots
to achieve a uniform result.
Unit-3
FABRIC CONSTRUCTION
 WEAVING
Weaving is a method of textile
production in which two distinct
sets of yarns or threads are
interlaced at right angles to form
a fabric or cloth. Other methods
are knitting, crocheting, felting,
and braiding or plaiting. ... The
way the warp and filling threads
interlace with each other is
called the weave.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF
LOOP
Hand Looms

The first and original loom was vertically twist-weighted

types, where threads are hung from a wooden piece or
branch or affixed to the floor or ground. The weft threads
are manually shoved into position or pushed through a rod
that also becomes the shuttle. Raising and lowering each
warp thread one by one is needed in the beginning. It is
done by inserting a piece of rod to create a shack, the gap
between warp threads in order for the woof to easily
traverse the whole warp right away.

 Ground Looms

Horizontal ground looms permit the warp threads to be

chained between a couple of rows of dowels. The weaver
needs to bend forward to perform the task easily. Thus, pit
looms with warp chained over a ditch are invented to let the
weaver have his or her legs positioned below and leveled
with the loom.

Back strap Looms

They are well recognized for their portability. The one end
of this loom type is secured around the waist of the weaver
and the other end is attached around a fixed thing like door,
stake, or tree. Pressure applied can be customized by just
bending back.

 Frame Looms

Frame looms almost have the similar mechanisms that ground looms
hold. The loom was made of rods and panels fastened at the right
angles to construct a form similar to a box to make it more handy
and manageable. This type of loom is being utilized even until now
due to its economy and portability.

Rigid Heddle Looms

These are the crisscross manifold loom types. The back strap looms
and frame looms fall under this type. This one normally features one
harness, with its heddles attached in the harness. The yarn or thread
goes in an alternate manner all the way through a heddle and in the
gap between the heddles. In this way, lifting the harness also lifts
half of the threads and letting down the harness also drops the same
threads. Strands leading through the gaps between the heddles stay
in position.
 KNITTING
Knitting is the process of using
two or more needles to loop yarn
into a series of interconnected
loops in order to create a
finished garment or some other
type of fabric. The word is
derived from the knot, thought
to originate from the Dutch verb
knutten, which is similar to the
Old English cnyttan, “to knot”.
PROCESS FLOW CHART FOR

Yarn in package form

↓
KNITTING Place the yarn package in the creel
↓
Feeding the yarn
↓
Set the m/c as per design & GSM
↓
Knitting
↓
Withdraw the roll fabric and weighting
↓
Roll marking
↓
Inspection
↓
Numbering
↓
Dispatching

 In this machine, yarn count basically dependent on the needle pitch. As the diameter of yarn is
proportional to its yarn count in the direct system, a relationship exists between the range of optimum
counts of yarn that could be knitted on a particular machine and the gauge of the machine. Machine gauge
could play an influential role in the choice of yarn count and can have an effect on fabric properties. Thus
it’s essential to obtain an optimal balance of yarn count and machine gauge in order to ensure the best
knitting performance for a specific machine gauge and structure, with a high machine efficiency and
minimum fabric fault rate.

Circular knitting machines always produces a tube-shaped fabric. It exists in different sizes or diameters,
though it’s depending on the field of application. The needles & sinkers in the machine are arranged in a
circle. Circular Knitting Machines may divide into two different types. Depending on the number of sets of
needles are Single set: plain and Two sets: rib, interlock, spacer fabric.
 Both single set and double set machines have also existed as Jacquard
machines. Those needed for special designs. In these machines, the
movement of each needle could control by each cam. Common products that
might produce with circular knitted fabric are T-shirts. For production, nearly
every material could use. The form varies from the filament to staple fiber
yarn.
NONWOVEN
Nonwoven fabric is a fabric-
like material made from
staple fibre and long fibres,
bonded together by
chemical, mechanical, heat
or solvent treatment. The
term is used in the textile
manufacturing industry to
denote fabrics, such as felt,
which are neither woven nor
knitted.
 Different types of non-woven fabrics over-view
The non-woven fabrics can be divided into 8 types according to
different manufacturing processes:
Spunlace nonwovens
It is a non-woven cloth, it is the direct use of polymer slices, short
fibers or filaments into a network of fiber by air or mechanical,
spunlace, acupuncture, or hot-rolled reinforcement, and finally after
finishing the formation of spunlace nonwoven fabric.
Application: It is well-known for its great uses for facial mask
fabric, medical non-woven fabric, wet wipe fabric, non-woven filter
fabric and etc.
Heat-bonded nonwoven fabrics
This type of non-woven fabric is mainly manufactured in several
processes: adding fibrous or sticky reinforcement material into the
fiber network, and then reinforcing the network into cloth via
heating and cooling.

 Pulp air-laid nonwovens

Air-laid nonwovens can also be called the dustless paper or
dry paper nonwovens. It uses the air-laid technology to open
the wood pulp fiberboard into a single fiber state, then uses
the airflow method to make the fiber agglomerate on the net
curtain, and then consolidates the fiber web into cloth.

Wet-laid non-woven
The manufacturing process of wet nonwoven fabric goes like
this: open the fibrous raw material in the aqueous medium
into single fibers, meanwhile forming a fibrous suspension
slurry by mixing different fiber raw materials, then transport
the suspended slurry to a mesh-forming mechanism, and the
fibers are laid in a wet state to form a cloth.

 Spunbond nonwovens
Spunbond-type of nonwoven fabric is processed as follows:
extrude and stretch the polymer to form a continuous
filament, laid the filament into web, then process the web
into nonwoven fabric through their own bonding, thermal
bonding, chemical bonding or mechanical reinforcement
methods.

Meltblown nonwovens
Melt-blown nonwoven fabric is manufactured by extruding
melted polymer fiber through a linear die containing several
hundred small holes to form long thin fibers which are
stretched and cooled by passing hot air as they fall from the
linear die, then the resultant web is blown onto a collector
screen forming fined-filtered, self-bond nonwovens.
Usually, this type of nonwoven fabric is added to spunbond
in order to form SM or SMS webs.

UNIT-5
DYEING AND PRINTING
Classification of Dyes
Dyes are classified as Natural
and Synthetic dyes.

Natural Dyes

Natural dyes are taken from three sources namely plants, animals and minerals.

Vegetable Dyes : Around 4000 years back Egyptians have used Indigo dyes, that are
obtained from stems and leaves of a particular plant. Alizarin dyes are taken from roots of
madder plant. Logwood dyes are extracted from the trees which give black colour to silk and
cotton fabrics.

Animal Dyes : Cochineal dye was extracted from an insect - Coccus Cacti. The dye was
taken after killing the female insects. These dyes were used for imparting red and orange
colours in silk and wool fabrics. Tyrian purple dye was made out of shell fish.

Mineral Dyes : Natural minerals yield certain varieties of dyes for example Iron Buff.
Synthetic Dyes

Synthetic dyes were first derived from coal tar in 1856. Later innumerable dye compounds were made from
coal tar, and are constantly being improved as to beauty of colour and colourfastness. They are as follows :

Direct Dye or Salt Dye : Direct dye can be applied to animal as well as vegetable fabrics but are generally
applied to cotton and are known as direct cotton dye. These dyes are soluble in water and are chiefly
composed of amines and phenols. Because a little salt is added to the solution while dyeing with direct
dyes, these are also called salt dyes. A further treatment with acetic acid and sodium dichromate is
necessary to make them fast to washing. The dye colours often have only fair fastness to light, poor
fastness to washing and are not very bright.

Basic Dyes :The first coal-tar dye was a so-called basic dye. Basic dyes are salts of organic colour bases. It
was developed to give many bright shades of silk and wool. Basic dyes are otherwise known as cationic
dyes, the same are used with a mordant, Tannic acid, for cotton, linen, acetate, nylon, polyester and
acrylics. This dye gives beautiful colour but is not fast to sunlight, washing and perspiration.

Acid (Anionic) Dyes : Acid dyes are the sodium or calcium salts of colour organic acids. They are used
mostly on wool and silk. Acid dyes are inexpensive and fairly fast to light, but they are not fast to washing.
Soap containing alkali if used will change the colour.
Mordant or Chrome Dyes : Sodium or Potassium
dichromate mordant is added in the dye bath. This mordant
along with dyes will penetrate into the fabric. These are
used to dye wool and also for printing cotton. These are
fast to light, washing and perspiration.

Developed Dyes : This process requires a base to be

dyed on the goods. This is followed by a diazotizing
process, whereby the dye is chemically changed and
treated with a fresh set of chemicals, called developers,
that form the completed dye. Developed dyes are fairly
fast to washing because they have been literally built into
the fibre.

Sulphur Dyes : Sulphur dyes, first made in 1879, are used

for cotton and linen. Sulphur dyes are insoluble in water and
must be made soluble with the aid of caustic soda and
sodium sulphide. These dyes are fast to washing, light and
perspiration, but excessive chlorine will strip the colour.
Vat Dyes : The first vat dye was an Indigo created in 1879.
Vat dyes are the fastest dyes for cotton, linen and rayon.
Vat dyes are resistant to light, acids, alkali as well as to
oxidizing bleaches. Vat dyes are insoluble pigments, but
are made soluble in water by the use of a strong reducing
agent, such as hydrosulphite developed in the alkali
sodium hydroxide. The fabric is immersed in this solution.
Subsequent exposure to air or immersion in an oxidizing
bath (bichromate) restores the dye to its insoluble form as
a part of the fibre.

Reactive Dyes : Reactive dyes were developed in 1957.

These dyes react with fibre molecules to form a chemical
compound. These dyes were first designed for cellulose
fibres, now available for wool, silk, nylon, acrylics and
blends of these fibres. Advantages of reactive dyes are
their excellent fastness to light and washing. They give very
deep and brilliant colours.
FABRIC PRINTING
There are many different types of fabric printing methods, and they all yield different results. The type of
textile printing used is often based on a number of considerations, from print runs, to durability. We have
pulled together some of the most popular, or most commonly used methods, and explained them below.
1. Stamp Printing
This one is pretty much what it says it is. A stamp is created, and that is then used to imprint onto the
fabric. Similar to making potato stamps when you were a child, to create beautiful paintings. Your design
is cut into the stamp, which is then dipped into the ink and using even pressure, you transfer this from the
stamp onto your textile. Although we’ve come a long way from potato stamping, the level of detail that
you can get from stamp printing is limited, so this is not suitable for the more intricate designs.
Pros
No need for machines
Design is always exact
Great for small runs
Cost effective
Cons
Not very detailed
Can’t make large quantities
Only one design per stamp
Quality is inconsistent
2. Transfer Printing
Another method is using transfer paper. This is a specialist paper which can be bought from most
stationers, as well as craft shops and even some supermarkets. You can use a standard household printer
to print your design onto the transfer paper, which you can then print onto your chosen fabric by using a
standard, household steam iron. This can be upscaled and done professionally on larger runs however it
will leave a shiny film or surface texture on your fabric. It is not a permanent method of fabric printing as it
can crack and peel with multiple washes, and often fades.
Pros
Can print with standard printer
No specialist equipment needed
Great for small runs
Easy to print and transfer
Cons
Leaves a surface texture/film
Transfers are single use
Peels, cracks and fades
Can suffer from low resolutions
3. Screen Printing
As we move towards the other end of the scale, we start to see methods which are used more and more
commonly within the professional world of textile printing. Silkscreen printing is most common within the
business. This method of printing uses a stencil and a nylon mesh to create the print design. A material
which is waterproof will be used to block out the spaces that you want your design to appear on, and then
those blocked out spaces are flooded with ink. Due to the way that this method is carried out, you can
only use one colour for each screen, however, it does produce fantastic replications.
Pros
Amazing image reproductions
Long lasting
Ideal for sharp edges and solid blocks of colour
Cost effective for large runs
Cons
One colour per screen – not ideal for multi-coloured designs
Very labour intensive, impractical for small runs
Not great for photos/graduating colours
Creates a lot of waste
4. Dye Sublimation
This is a multi-step process which produces some of the best results of all the fabric printing methods.
Designs are printed onto a thermal transfer paper, known as dye sublimation paper. This is then used to
create the print on the fabric. Both heat and pressure are used to permanently bond the inks to the fibres
of the fabric. This leaves your fabric as soft as it was before it was printed on. The deep infusion
technique penetrates specialist water-based inks deep into the textile, which makes your print permanent.
Perfect for intricate details as well as colours.
Pros
Amazing image reproduction that is permanent
Leaves no texture or residue on the fabric at all
Eco-friendly, water based inks dont fade or peel
Suitable for all size print runs
Cons
Not for use on natural fabrics, only on poly textiles
Requires specialist equipment and dyes
More expensive printing method
Requires in-depth knowledge and experience
5. Pigment Printing
Pigment printing is one of the most popular printing techniques for use on cellulose fibres, making them
ideal for use on natural fabrics. It is one of the fabric printing methods which can be used on synthetic
materials as well, which makes it pretty versatile. It is a localised technique which involves applying the
dyes to the part of the fabric that you want your design to be seen. This is done over and over and slowly
builds up the colour.
Pros
Bright printing with permanent colour
Easy to do, good colour matching
Cost effective, no high end machinery
High-speed printing technique
Cons
Not applied directly to the fabric
Uses binders whcih leave a coating on the textile
Colour lessens when repeatedly used over the same material
Dye sits on top of the fibres rather than embeds
6. Reactive Printing
Reactive printing is another of the heat activated fabric printing methods. It is done by pre-coating the
fabrics and then and using a binder (similar to that of pigment printing) and a printing additive. It prints a
dye or wax onto the fabric, and the heat reaction permanently bonds the image to the textile. Put simply,
it is similar to coating the fabric with the design and then steaming it to create a reaction which bonds the
design to the material.
Pros
Creates a chemical bond between the ink and fabric fibres
Works amazingly well on natural textiles
Wash-fast and rub-fast
Outstanding colour vibrancy
Cons
Requires pre-treatment
Also requires post-treatment
Not particularly easy to carry out
Not the most cost-effective printing method
 UNIT-5
FABRIC PROPERTIES AND
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
 FABRIC DEFECTS

A fabric defect corresponds to a flaw on the manufactured

fabric surface. There are numerous fabric defects, and most of
them are caused by machine or process malfunctions. Apart
from this, defects are caused by faulty yarns or machine spoils.
Each factor has different effects and greatly reduces the sale
and serviceability of textiles.
 DEFECTS CLASSIFICATION

Defects Classification
Defects are broadly classified as minor, major, and critical defects. Minor defects include small faults which have no
influence on the purchase of the product. Major defects are those which when exposed, are likely to affect the purchase of
the product and are hence categorized as seconds. Critical defects would cause an entire roll to be rated as a second or
worse.

In terms of quality standards, the defects on the fabric surface are categorized into two: surface colour change and local
texture irregularity. Further, the defects can be classified as:
1. Yarn Defects
2. Weaving Defects
3. Isolated Defects
4. Pattern Defects
5. Wet Processing Defects
6. Raising Defects
7. Milling Defects