163

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTS)

for silicon and 9.5 V
Typical base-t0-emiter and P-N-P transistors are 0.7 V
voltages for both N-P-N
Iypcal colector-to-base voltages might be anything between 3 V and 20
V for most types
for
of
germanium.
transistors. although in many cases the collector-to-base voltage may excced 20 vols eve
convention.
The voltages across the terminals of a transistor follow the usual double subscript voltage
to 0./ V it means
For example VBE epresents the voltage of base with respect to the emitter. If VaE is equal
the base is 0.7
V more positive.
the emiter
In FR biasing the transistor is in active region and the collector current I, depends upon
cument lp. Generally transistor is operated in this region for amplification.
be remembere.
For connecting the transistor circuits the following scheme may
batferTes properly in
as the letter of the
emitter and base
The battery polarities to the emitter and base are the same terminal, and the
designations. Thus, in the P-N-P type, the emitter receives the P (positive)
impurity receives the N (negative)
base receives the N (negative)
terminal. Similarly, in N-P-N type, the emitter
base receives the P terminal. The
(positive) collector receives a battery polarity opposite
terminal, the terminal of the battery
designation. Thus P-type collector receives the N (negative)
to its impurity type
terminal.
and the N-type collector receives the P (positive)
2. Forward-Forward Biasing. In this biasing, WPN PNP
biased,
forward illus-
both collector and emitter
are as

in saturation
trated in Fig. 5.8. The transistor operates Vcs
the collector current becomes VEB VcB VEB
region. In this region,
current. Thus the transistor
independent of the base
acts like a close switch. Region
Fig. 5.8. Saturation
biasing,
In this both
3. Reverse-Reverse Biasing. transistor has practically zero
current because the
emitter
biased. In this biasing, the collector except a few
the junctions are reverse cariers are collected by the
into the base and no charge
does not emit charge carriers open switch.
cariers. Thus, the transistor acts like an

thermally generated minority biased while the collector

In this biasing, the emitter junction is reverse
4. Reverse-Forward Biasing. extent as the emitter is doped,
therefore,
not doped to the
is forward biased. As the collector is
junction carriers to the base. So, in
this region, the NPN
it cannot inject the majority charge
of little importance.
action of transistor is poor. This region is
active mode, is the one used
also called forward
The active mode which is VES VCB
as an amplifier.
Switching operations (e.g., logic
if the transistor is to operate The reverse
the saturation mode.
utilize both the cutoff mode and
circuits) limited application but is conceptually
inverse active) mode has very Fig. 5.9. Cut-off Region
active (or
significant.
REGARDING WORKING
OF TRANSISTORS
5.5. IMPORTANT POINTS
transistors are summarized below.
working of
The noteworthy points regarding flow will be in
electrons and the conventional current
N-P-N transistor is by
1. Current conduction in in P-N-P ransistor is by
holes but in external leads, the
Current conduction
the opposite direction. of electrons.
Current conduction
will be by flow
than emitter current Ig, being the difference of emitter current

2. The collector current I is always less

g and base current lg: small fraction (usually 5%)

of emitter current.
3. The base current is only a
considered to be positive.
standard convention,
all the currents entering into the transistor are that if the actual
4. As a taken to be negative. It means

Conversely currents that

flow out of the transistor are
outward airection, a negative sign is included along with its
flows in the
conventional current
 A Textbook of Electronies Engineering
(164 De taken negative because it flows
the cmifter
curreni
SO
magnitude. Thus in N PN transistor,
an the Dase current and collector currentnt g
while hoth
(h) and 5.7 (a)| P-N-P transistor t
Out of the transistor |Figs.
5.3 in a
the t r a n s i s t o r . Similarly
because they
flow into are to be taken negative
a r e to be taken positive current
and colector current

IS to be taken positive
and both base actual d i r e c t i o n
of flow current is indicatedd of
confusion, the
However, to avoid
5.7(h)1.
IFigs 5.5 and
is always reverse biased
in the diagrams.
and collector-base junction
forward biased
.Emitter-base junction is always
for active region of operation. forward bias, offers low resistance and
because of
emitter-base junction), The output circuit (ie
circuit (i.e.. and 0.3 V for Ge).
. The input 0.7 V for Si needs much
small bias (approximately r e s i s t a n c e and, therefore,
needs usually very offers high
because of r e v e r s e bias,
collector-base junction),
bias (3 to 20 V). resistance circuit, therefore
higher
from a low resistance
circuit to a high
Transistor transfers the input signal
(TRANSISTOR).
TRANsfer reSlISTOR in current flow thrOuoh
it is called the electrons) are involved
carriers (holes as well as
the bipolar junction
charge sometimes called
8. Since both of the devices are
P-N-P or N-P-N), these
a (may be either
transistor
D2
D
ransistors (BJTs). ww-K
is a device
with two PN diodes
that transistor
9. Although. it is said
a
two discrete
not mean that
connected back to back, but it does work VEB
in Fig. 5.10, can

diodes connected back to back, as shown

each diode has two equally doped
transistor. In such a case,
as a
overall circuit has
four equally doped Two Diodes Connected
regions. so that the Fig. 5.10.
base region is not the same
Back to Back
not work as
regions. This would
in transistor. emitter
as a
base between the heavily doped ad

the transistor action is the lightly doped thin

The key 1o
moderately doped collector
have
electrons passing through the
base to the collector region
the free
In an N-P-N transistor, collector. But in cas
the base is thin, the free electrons can reach the
a short lifetime.
As long as
instead of three am
back to back connected diodes there are four doped regions
of two discrete collector.
an emitter and a
that resembles a thin base region between
there is nothing
a transistor.
Hence two discrele diodes
connected back to back can never work as
carriers are elecut
transistor is made more often because majority charge
10. The choice of N-P-N
whose mobility is much more (almost double)
than that of holes.

5.6. TRANSISTOR CURRENT COMPONENTS

The various current components which flow

P E N c
across the forward-biased emitter junction and
reverse biased collector junction are indicated in
E E
Fig. 5.11. The current flowing into the emitter is nco
referred to as the emitler current and designated
as I. The enitter curent Consists of two con-
VEB eCo
stiuents (holes current E due to crOssing of holes
from emitter into the base and elecron cuTent 1
due to crossing of electrons from base into the
emitter).
Fig. 5.11. Current Components in a PNP Transt
ie., =lyE +le .5.1) a Forward Biased Emitter Junction and a kev
Collector Junction
 165
oolar Junction
Transisto (BJTTs)
doped and,
In a transistor the emitter is heavily doped and the base is very lightly
commereial
entire emitter
efore. electron current
herefo
1s
negligibly snall in comparison to hole current I. Thus the
base. It is to be noted that
Tent in a P-N- ansistor is due to flow of holes from emitter to the
direction of l external to the transistor is the conventional current direction.
the indicatled

All the holes crossing the emitter junction J do not reach the collector junction Jc because some
f them combine with the electrons in the N-type base. If I , is the hole current at collector junction J
here must be a bulk recombination current I less I leaving the base, as shown in Fig. .11. 1In act

enter the been lost

electrons base region through the base lead to replenish those electrons which have
hy recombination with the holes injected into the base across the emitter junction Jp: The holes on
reaching the collector junction c cross this junction and enter the collector P-region.

If the emitterwere open circuited, Ip Would have been zero and then I also would have been zero. Under
conditions, the base
these collector would act as a reverse biased
and diode and the collector current be
Iwould
eal to that reverse saturation current (or lceo simply Ieo).
When the emitter circuit is closed i.e., when Ip # 0, then from Fig. 5.11
Collector current, Ic =hc+ lco ..(5.2)
For a P-N-P transistor Ico consists of holes moving across junction J from base region to collector
region and electrons croSsing junction Jc in the opposite direction.
Thus Ico Ico+ co ..(5.3)
In the active region operation with emitter junction Jp forward biased, the collector current is given as
(5.4)
where a is the fraction of the total current Ip which constitutes I
It is to be noted that the indicated direction of emitter current Ip external to the transistor is the
conventional current direction. Base current I_ and collector current Ic are also shown external to the
transistor conventional current direction. According to the Kirchhoffs first law total current flowing into
the transistor must be equal to the total current flowing out of it. So emitter current IE is equal to the sumn
of collector and base currents l and lB
ie., I =lc+l .(5.5)*
Let us now define different parameters which relate the current components discussed above.

Emitter Efñciency. The emitter or injection efficiency denoted by y is defined as the ratio of curent
t injected cariers at Jp to the total emitter curent

i.e., Y CurrentTotal
ofinjected carriers at JE = E = E
emitter current IHE+IeE E
(5.6)

emitter junction and is the injected electron

where E is the injected hole diffusion current at le
iffusion current at emitter junction.
is defined the ratio of injected carrier current
ransport Factor. Transport factor, denoted by B, as

aching Jc to the injected carrier current at E

Injected carrier current reaching Jc hc 5.7)
ie., B = Injected carrier current at Jg IhE
term a, has already been
defined above. However, a can

Large Signal Current Gain a. The a may be defined as the ratio of

collector current
From Eq. (5.4)
Cmatively be defined from Eq. (5.4). and the emitter current increment from
cutoff value (Ip 0) =

ment from cutoff value (I I )

to I =

E Thus, we may write

convention, write this equation
as Ig = -

(lc +I)
oOme authors taking standard transistor
 ...(5.8)
166
a is
C c o l c = I c o

transistor. The parameter

base with
of a
common
constant,
but varies
E-0 gain that o is not to 0.99.
ointed here 0.95
current

signal be poini lies in the range

called the larg. It is
to Typically a
Term a is theory. and
ature.
the temperatu
transistor
important in
extremely collector voltage VCB hE=
Ip. Eq (5.6)
B and from
current
emitter have
we

From Eqs. (5.2)

and (5.8)
..(5.9)
:
From Eq. (6.7) should be due
=C= CxE =BY near unity
ur ie, the
emitter current
current (B=)
collector
TE IhE and y to
be very participate
in the
would
like ß should
eventually

which represents
the emitter-to

nsistor w e holes ratio, unit

than
of the injected
efficient lesser
For an current gan since a is
to holes (y =
1) and most
o,
called the these currents,
for amplification
the factor a m p l i f i c a t i o n
between
mostly promising
defined as is more

The product By is There

n o real
is current
and base
current

equals IA.
This
approximately
amplification. collector a
collector current
relation
between
comparison
to
c and is
denoted by a
hand, the small in transistor
other
On the negligibly base (CB)
Gain. If I i s the
common

.(5.10)
gain of
Current
DC current

to as the dc
referred
is

Thus dc in
and less
than unity. defined a s the ratio of change
positive is
is always current gain ac
dc Small signal
Current
Gain aa
Small Signal emitter
current
5.11)
current to change in
collector

voltage VCB
collector-base
and temperature
Cfor constant varies with IE, VCR
i.e., ac AlE close to unity). It also
but less than unity (very current flows across a

ais always positive

reverse
small
We know that
a
Collector Current. the barrier potential
Expression For carriers that are propelled by voltages
reverse-bias
generated minority
Generalized
For moderate
diode due to thermmally increases slightly.
P-N junction
r e v e r s e biased,
this r e v e r s e current
the collector-base
junction of a transista
is Because this "reverse
When the junction saturation value, (or I). I carriers. Of course
attains its generated
the r e v e r s e
current
r e v e r s e current
due to thermally flowing throug
r e v e r s e biased,
there is likewise a direction as the main
(collector) current
is
context of a transistor,
is in the same
total collector
current is,
therefore, u
current, in, the carriers into the base. The can
the device due to
the injection of minority generated minority
minority carriers and the thermally
these two components:
the injected
sum of
ie, Ic = + Ico aced b
with o replacto ta
the volt-ampere relationship of Eq. (2.20)
The reverse current ICBO is given by from the P-STuc
drop across junction J.
where symbol Vc represents the voltage
Lco and V by Vc for collector current be written as I may
N-side and the complete expression
c 0Zg +lcol echVr-

duces
Eq. (5.12)
If Vc is negative and is of large magnitude in comparison with that of V
Eq. (5.4). Colle

The physical interpretation of Eq. (5.12) is that the P-N junction diode current crossing u
junction Jc is supplemented by a fraction a of the current Ip flowing in the emitter.

Example 5.1. For a transistor if Ig = 1 mA and a = 0.98, determine the value of Iy

Solution Emitter current, I = 1 mA
Current amplification factor, a = 0.98
 167
Bipoler Junetton Transistors (BJTs)

Collector current. =
al= 0.98 x I mA =0.98 mA
Base current. In = I = 1.0 0.98 =0.02 mA Ans.

=4 mA.
Exemple 5.2. 1. Given an of0.998, determine Ic ifI
2. Determine if I = 2.8 mA and In = 20 pA
3. Find I if = 40 uA and ade 0.98.
Semester 2010-II|
G.B. Technical Univ. Electronics Engineering First

0.998 4 3.992 mA Ans.

Solution: 1.Collector current I =
alp = x

2.8 0.02 =2.78 mA

2. Collector current. I= I -

IR =

ae
de
2.78 0.993 Ans.
2.8

0.98=49
3. B a1-0.98
1) 40 uA 2 mA
(B+ 1)p =(49
=
+ x
Emitter current, Ip =

5.7. CURRENT AMPLIFICATION FACTORS

below
amplification factors, the alpha factor (a) and the beta factor (B)
defined
There are two current
The alpha factor (a) is also called the current amplification factor and is the ratio of collector
current (1) to emitter current (p).

In general, a = VCB remaining constant ..(5.13)

The beta factor (B) is the current gain factor (also called the transport factor) of a common emitter
circuit and is defined as the ratio of collector current (1) and base current (Tg).

In general, B =l c .(5.14)
AlB
5.8. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN a AND B

As defined above B= Alc

and O
Alc Alc Alg AlB *Ac
Al Ac +Alp
or Alc +Alg =| + B = 1.
lc Alc
.(5.15)
Hence a 1+B and B =
1-a

Thus, if a = 0.98 0.98=49

0.02

and if a = 0.99
0.99 99
0.01
ie, a small variation in a corresponds to a large variation in 5. t is, therefore, better to determine B
experimentally and calculate therefrom the corresponding value of a by means of expression

1+
...(5.16)