Section A

Vision is the result of light shrinking the retina after it enters through the cornea and passes
through the lens.

The retina contains many photosensitive cells called cones and rods which are connected to the
optic nerve

Cones are concentrated in the center of the retina in a slight depression known as the phobia
the cones gradually diminish and I replaced by rods as the distance from the phobia increases
cones function well in bright light in our sensitive to colors

Night vision: the roads which Are concentrated outside the foveal area react to low light but not
to colors. It is estimated that after adapting to darkness the rods are 10,000 times more
sensitive to light then the cones which makes them the primary receptors for night vision

Dark adaption colon rods are able to detect images in the dark because they create a chemical
called rhodopsin. As visual purple is formed the rides can take up to 30 minutes to fully adapt to
the dark.

Visual illusions:
Auto kinesis: if you stare at a single point of light against a dark background such as a ground
light or bright star for more than just a few seconds the light appears to move.

False horizons: occurs when the natural horizon is obscured or not readily apparent for example
when flying over a slope and cloud deck you might try to align the aircraft with the cloud
formation

Landing illusions:
Can be caused by a wide variety of factors including runway with sloping runways and to rain
and weather conditions that reduce invisibility

Flickr vertigo: he lights flickering at a frequency of 4 to 20 flashes per second can produce
flicker vertical and although rare it can lead to conversions nausea or unconsciousness. Can
occur when you are looking through a slow moving propeller toward the sun or when the sun is
behind you reflecting off the propeller.

Disorientation: is an incorrect image of your position, attitude or movement in relation to what is

actually happening to your craft. This state of temporary confusion can be caused by miss
leading information being sent to the brain by your body's sensory organs.

Kinesthetic sense is the term used to describe an awareness of position obtained from the
nerves in your skin joints and muscles using the sense is sometimes called flying by the seat of
your pants.
Spatial disorientation, when other sensory inputs are contradictory or confusing the brain
realizes primarily upon sight to determine orientation. Spatial disorientation can occur when
there is a conflict between the information relayed by your central vision scanning the
instruments and your peripheral vision which has virtually no reference with which to establish
orientation.

Vestibular disorientation located in the inner ear the vestibular system consist of the vestibule
and the semicircular canals .Movement of the vestibule causes the otoliths to shift which in turn
causes hair cells to send out nerve impulses to the brain for interpretation.

Illusions leading to disorientation:

Motion sickness because the vestibular disorientation can produce severe and intense feelings
of instability it often causes motion sickness.

Respiration: is the exchange of gases between an organism and it’s environment the function of
respiration in the bodies to get auction into the body and deliver it to the cells and to take carbon
dioxide from the sales and remove it from the body.

I pox you is when the tissues in the body do not receive enough oxygen for symptoms of
hypoxia very within the visual hypoxia can be caused by several factors including an insufficient
supply of oxygen, In adequate transportation of oxygen, or the ability of the body tissues to use
oxygen

Hypoxic hypoxia: Although the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere is constant it’s partial
pressure decreases proportionally as atmospheric pressure decreases. As you send or inflate
the percentage of each gas in the atmosphere remains the same but there are fewer molecules
available at the pressure required for them to pass between the membranes in the respiratory
system.
Hypemic hypoxia: when your blood is not able to carry a sufficient amount of oxygen to the cells
in your body, this type of hypoxia is a result of deficiency in the blood rather than the lack of
inhaled oxygen and can be caused by a variety of factors.

Carbon monoxide: since carbon monoxide attaches itself to the hemoglobin about 200 times
more easily than does oxygen, carbon monoxide prevents the hemoglobin from carrying oxygen
to the cells.

Blood donation appointment hypoxia also can be caused by the loss that occurs during a blood
donation your blood can take several weeks to return to normal following a donation

Stagnant hypoxia: stagnant hypoxia is an oxygen deficiency in the blood due to the poor
circulation of the blood.

Histotoxic hypoxia :the inability of the cells to effectively use oxygen as defined as Histo toxic
hypoxia