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Wireless Communication
(EC8652)

Department : ECE
Batch/Year : 2019-2023/III Year
Created by :
Mrs. S. Rosaline
Mr. K. Naresh Kumar Thapa

Date : 07.03.2022
 Table of Contents

S.No Contents Page

Number

1 Course Objectives 7

2 Pre Requisites 9

3 Syllabus 11

4 Course outcomes 13

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 15

6 Unit III – Digital Signaling for Fading Signal

6.1 Lecture Plan 18

6.2 Activity Based Learning 19

6.3 Lecture Notes 20

1. Structure of Wireless communication link 21

2 . Quadrature Phase Shift Keying 26

3. Principles of Offset QPSK 29

4. DQPSK 31

5. Minimum Shift Keying 34

6 . Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying 39

7. Error processing in Fading channel 42

8. OFDM 45
 Table of Contents
S.No Contents Page
Number

6.4 Assignment 51

6.5 Part A Questions & Answers 52

6.6 Part B Questions 56

6.7 Supportive online Certification courses 57

6.8 Real time Applications in day to day life and to 58

Industry

6.9 Contents beyond the Syllabus 60

7 Assessment Schedule 63

8 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 65

9 Mini Project suggestions 68

1. Course Objectives

Subject Name: Wireless Communication

Subject Code: EC8652

EC8652 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
COURSE OBJECTIVES

The student should be made:

To study the characteristic of wireless channel
To understand the design of a cellular system
To study the various digital signaling techniques and multipath
mitigation techniques
To understand the concepts of multiple antenna techniques
Pre Requisites

Subject Name: Wireless Communication

Subject Code: EC8652

Subject Name: Communication Theory
Subject Code : EC8491
Semester : 04
Reason : Students should be familiar with working of Basic
communication Modulation System

Subject Name: Digital Communication

Subject Code : EC8501
Semester : 05
Reason : to familiarize the Digital Modulation Schemes

Subject Name: Principles of Digital Signal Processing

Subject Code : EC8553
Semester : 05
Reason : To familiarize the transforms and signal
processing
 Syllabus
Subject Name: Wireless Communication
Subject Code: EC8652
 EC8652 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
LTPC
3003
UNIT I WIRELESS CHANNELS 9
Large scale path loss – Path loss models: Free Space and Two-Ray models -Link Budget
design – Small scale fading- Parameters of mobile multipath channels – Time dispersion
parameters- Coherence bandwidth – Doppler spread & Coherence time, Fading due to
Multipath time delay spread – flat fading – frequency selective fading – Fading due to
Doppler spread – fast fading – slow fading.

UNIT II CELLULAR ARCHITECTURES 9

Multiple Access techniques - FDMA, TDMA, CDMA – Capacity calculations–Cellular
concept- Frequency reuse - channel assignment- hand off- interference & system capacity-
trunking & grade of service – Coverage and capacity improvement.

UNIT III DIGITAL SIGNALING FOR FADING CHANNELS 9

Structure of a wireless communication link , Principles of Offset – QPSK , π/4- DQPSK ,
Minimum Shift Keying , Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying, Error performance in fading
channels ,OFDM principle – Cyclic prefix , Windowing , PAPR .
UNIT IV MULTIPATH MITIGATION TECHNIQUES 9
Equalization–Adaptive equalization, Linear and Non-Linear equalization, Zero forcing and
LMS Algorithms. Diversity–Micro and Macro diversity, Diversity combining techniques, Error
probability in fading channels with diversity reception, Rake receiver
UNIT V MULTIPLE ANTENNA TECHNIQUES 9
MIMO systems – spatial multiplexing -System model -Pre-coding - Beam forming -
transmitter diversity, receiver diversity- Channel state information-capacity in fading and
non-fading channels.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
 Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, the student should be able to:
Define a wireless channel
Explain the concepts of cellular system
Classify multiple access techniques
Design and implement various signaling schemes for fading channel
Compare multipath mitigation techniques and analyze their performance
Discuss various multiple antenna techniques
Course Outcomes and Blooms K Level

Course Statement Blooms

Outcomes K_Level

CO1 Define a wireless channel K2

CO2 Explain the concepts of cellular system K2

CO3 Classify multiple access techniques K3

CO4 Design and implement various signaling K3

schemes for fading channel
CO5 Compare multipath mitigation techniques and K3
analyze their performance
CO6 Discuss various multiple antenna techniques K2
CO-PO/PSO mapping
 Program Outcomes PSO

Course PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
Outcome
ADC
K3 K4 K5 K5 K3/K5 K3 K2 K3 K3 K3 K3 K2 K3 K3 K3

CO1 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3

CO2 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 3 3 3

CO3 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 3 3

CO4 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3

CO5 3 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 3
CO-PO/PSO mapping

CO6 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3

Average CO 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3
Mapping
 6. Unit -III
Digital Signaling for
Fading Channel
 6.1 LECTURE PLAN
UNIT III – Digital Signaling for Fading Channel

Mode of Delivery
Taxonomy level
Proposed Date
No. of Periods

Pertaining CO
Actual Date

Reason for
Deviation
S.No

Topic

1 Structure of a -
K2
wireless 1 CO3
Understand
communication link

2 K1 -
Principles of Offset- CO3
1 Remember
QPSK

3 K1 -
CO3
pi/4-DQPSK 1 Remember

4 K3 -
Minimum Shift
1 CO3 Apply
Keying

5 K2 -
Gaussian Minimum
1 CO3 Understand
Shift Keying

6 K1 -
OFDM principle 1 CO3 Remember

7 K2 -
Cyclic prefix 1 CO3 Understand

8 K3 -
Windowing, PAPR 1 CO3 Apply

9 K2 -
5G Technology 1 CO3 Understand

Total No. of Periods : 9

 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

1. Fill the missing blocks

2. Find the constellation plot for QPSK signal.

 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

3. Identify the modulation technique

4.Abbreviate the problems in OFDM

 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

5. Identify the modulation technique

6. Identify the modulation technique

 6.2 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

Activity :

Name of the Activity : Compare and Contrast

Topic Name : OQPSK, PI/4 DQPSK, MSK and GMSK
Description : Students can form batches and write down
the features, specifications and formula of
each Modulation Technique.

They can compare all the modulation techniques and understand the
purpose of various modulation schemes in wireless communication
through this activity
6.3 Lecture Notes
 Unit – III
Digital Signalling for Fading Channel

Structure of a wireless Communication Link, principles of offset-QPSK, P/4-DQPSK,

Minimum shift keying Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying, Error performance in fading
channels OFDM principal- Cyclic prefix, Winding, PRPR.

1. Structure of Wireless Communication Link:

Fig: Block Diagram of Transmitter and Receiver

This fig shows functional block diagram of a communication link.
Goal: The of a wireless link is the transmission of information from an analog information
source.( Microphone, Video camera) via an analog wireless propagation channel to an
analog information sink(Loudspeaker, TV Screen,)
Tx
•The digitizing of information is done only in order to increase the reliability of the link.
Speed coding is the most common form of digitizing.
•Channel coder adds redundancy to the data is the form of forward error correction
•The modulator converts encoded data to output waveforms that can be transmitted.
•By using different access mechanisms, the waveforms are transmitted on specific
frequencies or specific times.
•The signal is the sent through the propagation channel which adds noise,
Rx
•The signals is received by one or more antennas
•The different users are separated.( by receiving signals only at a single frequency)
•Equalizers are used to remove inter symbol interference
•Afterwards, the signals is demodulated
•A Channel decoder eliminates the errors in the resulting bit stream.
•Source decoder converts bit stream to analog information the goes to the information
sink.

TRANSMITTER:

Fig: Block Diagram of Transmitter

Information source:
Tit provides an analog source signal which is given to the source ADC. This ADC
converts the signals into a stream of digital data.
Source coder:
It reduces redundancy in the source signal. This reduces the amount of source data to
be transmitted and the BW.
Channel coder:
It protects data against transmission error. This increases the data rate.
Signaling:
Signaling analog control information for establishing and ending of connections, for
associating info with correct users, synchronization etc. Signaling information is
strongly protected by correction codes.
Multiplexer:
It Combines user data and signaling information and also combines data from multiple
users.
Baseband Modulator:
The modulator assigns data bits to transmit symbols in the base band. Spectral
properties, interference are determined by this step.
The TX Digital to Analog Converter:
DAC generation a pair of analog, discrete amplitude voltages corresponding to real
and imaginary part of the transmit symbols.
The Up converter:
It converts the analog, filtered based band sign to a pass band signal by mixing it with
LO signal.
The RF TX Filter:
LPF removes out of based band components. But up converter adds some out of band
components which are remove by RF: TX Filter.
The (Analog) Propagation channel:
It attenuates the signal and leads to delay and frequency dispersion. The environment
adds noise and co-channel interference.
RECEIVER:
Fig. next pages shows thee block diagram of receiver. It includes
RX Filter:
It performs a rough selection of the received band
Low- noise amplifier:
It amplifies the signal so that the noise of the receiver has less effect on the signal to
Noise Ratio (SNR).
Rx LO:
It provides sinusoidal signals whose frequency is fine-tuned by a carrier recovery
algorithm. The L)s at TX and RX produce signals at same frequency.
RX down converter:
It converts the received signal into baseband.
RX LPF:
It provides a selection of desired frequency bands

Fig: Block Diagram of Receiver

Automatic Gain Control:
It amplifies the signal such that its level is well adjusted to the
quantization at subsequent ADC
Rx ADC:
It converts analog signal into values that are discrete in time and
amplitude.
Carrier Recovery: This algorithm determines the frequency and phase of the carrier
of the received signal.

Baseband demodulator:
It obtains soft-decision data from digitized baseband data and hands
them over to the coder.

Symbol-timing recovery:
It uses demodulated data to determine an estimate of the duration of
symbols and uses it to fine-tune sampling intervals.

Signaling Recovery:
It identifies the parts of the data that represent signaling information

Decoder:
It was soft estimates from the demodulator to find the original source
data

De multiplexer:
It separates user data and signaling information

Source Decoder:
It reconstructs the source signal from the rules of source coding.
Finally the data is given to the information sink in digital form.
2. QPSK{Quadrature Phase shift Keying}:

QPSK is an M-ary encoding scheme where N=2 and M=4. In the QPSK
the binary input data is combined into group of two bits called dibits. The four dibit
combinations are 00,01,10,11. Each dibit generates one of the four possible output
phases(+45 o,+135 o,-45 o &-135o )for each two bits, a single output change occurs, so
the rate of change at the output is one –half of input bit rate[ie, two bits produce one
phase.

Fig: QPSK Transmitter

QPSK Transmitter:

Two bits are given to the bit splitter. One it is given to the I channel and
other to the Q channel. Each channel uses a balanced modulator. In I channel
modulator the carrier is inphase with reference (sinWct) and in Q channel modulator,
the carrier is out of phase with the reference(Coswct) For a logic 1=+1 V and a logic
0=-v ,two phases are possible at the output I balanced modulator (±SinWct) and two
phases at the output of Q-Balanced modulator(±𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑊𝑐𝑡). The summer combine the
output of two modulators and gives four possible.
OUTPUT:

+ Sinwct+ Coswct=1.414Sin(Wc+45o)=11

+Sinwct- Coswct=1.414Sin(Wc-45o)=01

-Sinwct+ Coswct=1.414Sin(Wc+135o)=10

-Sinwct- Coswct=1.414Sin(Wc-135o)=00

Exapmle: input QPSK signal=-Sinwct+ Coswct

I Channel:

I= (-Sinwct- Coswct) (Sinwct)

= -Sinwct+Coswct+Sinwct

1
I= - 2 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑤𝑐 𝑡

1 1 1 1
= − + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛0
2 2 2 2

−1
= 𝑉 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐 0
2
 Fig: QPSK Constellation Diagram and Waveform

QPSK Receiver:

Fig: QPSK Receiver Block Diagram

3. Principles of Offset QPSK:
Why Offset:

The amplitude of a QPSK signal is ideally constant. When QPSK

signals are pulse shaped, they lose the constant envelope property. The phase shift
of radians due to input change from 00 to 11 or 01 to 10 cause the signal envelope
to pass through zero. Amplification of zero-crossings results in side lobes. To
prevent this, pulse shaped QPSK signals are amplified only using linear amplifiers
which are less efficient.
A modified form of QPSK called offset QPSK(OQPSK) or staggered
QPSK is less susceptible to these effects.

Principles:
In QPSK, the bit waveforms on the I and Q channels are offset (ie)
shifted in phase from each other by one-half of a bit time
Due to the time alignment of MI(t) and MQ(t) the phase change
occurs once every 2T in QP. So there will be a maximum phase shift is limited to
90. Thus OQPSK eliminates 180 phase transition and so OQPSK signals does not
cause the signal envelope to cross zero. This prevents the generation of side lobes
during amplification
Transmitter:

Fig: OQPSK Transmitter

Spectrum:
With OQPSK the spectrum is identical to that of QPSK. Both signals
occupy the same bandwidth. OQPSK retains its bandlimited nature even after non-
linear amplification, therefore it is very useful in mobile communication systems.
Further OQPSK signals perform better than QPSK signals in the presence of phase
jitter due to noisy reference signal at the receiver.
Receiver:

Fig: OQPSK Receiver

The transmitter and receiver of OQPSK are similar to that of QPSK,
except one-half bit delay in the I channel. This delay is included to provide offset
between the I channel and Q channel bits,. Thus orthogonality is achieved in the
output OQPSK wave.
OQPSK Waveform:
4. DQPSK[π/4 Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying]:

QPSK is a constant envelope modulation, but still it has amplitude dips at

bit transitions. The duration of dips is longer when pulses are used. This makes the
design of amplifiers difficult. This problem can be solved by π/4 Differential Quadrature
Phase Shift Keying. In π/4 QPSK the maximum phase change is I135. It is a compromise
between OQPSK(90) and QPSK(180). When π/4QPSK signals are differentially encoded
they are called as π/4DQPSK. Differential encoding make the detection of signals easier.

Principle:
The principle of π/4DQPSK can be understood from the signal space
diagram below:

Fig: Principle of DQPSK

There exist two sets of signal constellations:

I (0,90,180,270)
II(45,135,225,315)
All symbols with an even temporal index i ,are chosen from the I set and
symbols with odd index are chosen from second set. Thus the transmit phase is
increased by π/4 in addition to the change of phase due to transmit symbol.
Transmitter:

Fig: π/4 QPSK Transmitter

The input bit stream is partitioned by a serial-to-parallel(SP) converter into

two parallel data streams MI,K and MQ,K. The in-phase and quadrature phase pulses IK
and QK are produced at the output of the signal mapping circuit. IK and QK are then
separately modulated by two carriers CosWCt and SinWCt, to produce the π/4QPSK
waveform given by,

Receiver: Three types

1. Baseband differential detection
2. IF differential detection and
3. FM discriminator detection
1)Baseband differential detection:

Fig: Baseband differential detection

 The incoming π/4QPSK signal is demodulated using two local oscillator
signals 2CosWCt and 2SinWCt. The differential decoder works on the following rule,
The output of differential decoder is given to decision device which works as below,
SI=1 if xk>0 or SI=0 if xk<0
SQ =1 if yk>0 or SQ=0 if yk<0

2)IF differential detector:

Fig: IF differential detector

The received signal is differentially decoded using a delay line and two
mixers. BPF filter is used to remove noise and decision device determines whether
the output is a binary 1 or 0

3)FM discriminator:

Fig: FM Discriminator

BPF removes noise and limiter remove amplitude fluctuations. FM

discriminator extracts the instantaneous frequency deviation which is integrated to
get the phase change. The detector then gets the original signal from phase change.
Thus the space and mark frequency depends on the bit duration to achieve continuous
phase when signal changes from mark frequency to space frequency.

2) MSK can also be considered as a special form of offset QAM(OQAM is which sinusoidal
half-waves with a duration 2T is used.
MSK is a binary modulation format, it transmits only one bit per symbol
duration as a result it has lower spectral efficiency, but performs reasonably when
considering the 99% energy BW.

Properties of MSK:
 Constant envelope
 Good BER performance
 Self- synchronizing capability

𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓:

Fig:

Fig: MSK Transmitter

 2𝐸𝑏 𝜋𝑡
𝑆𝑀𝑆𝐾 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 𝑚𝐼 𝑡 𝑚2 𝑡 + ∅𝑘
𝑇𝑏 2𝑇𝑏

Fig Shows a MSK modulator. Multiplying a carrier signal with Cos 𝜋𝑡Τ
2𝑇 produces two
1 1
phase coherent signals at𝑓𝑐 + 4𝑇 and 𝑓𝑐 − 4𝑇. These two FSK signals are separated using

two narrow band BPF and combined to form x(t) and y(t). These carriers are multiplied
with odd and even bit streams mI(t) to produce MSK signal.

Receiver:

Fig:
The received signal SMSK(t) is multiplied by the respective in phase and
quadrature carriers x(t) and y(t). The output multipliers are integrated and given to a
decision circuit. Based on the signal level the decision circuit( threshold device)
decides whether the signal is a o or 1 . The output data streams mI(t) and m2(t) are
combined to obtain the demodulated signal.

Fig: MSK Receiver

Different Interpretations of MSK Receiver:
1.Frequency discriminator detection: Since MSK is a type of FSK, instantaneous frequency
can be calculated to get the demodulated signal.
2. Differential detection: Here the receiver determines the phase at times iT and (i+1) T to
make a decision about the symbols.
3. Matched filter reception: This method can be used which MSK is considered as DQPSK.

MSK power Spectrum:

Fig: Power Spectra of MSK

MSK has lower side lobes. The main lobe of MSK is wider than that of QPSK.
The fig. shows a comparison of power spectrum of MSK and QPSK. Since modulation index
is o.5 is MSK, the frequency separation that is BS is minimum, hence the name minimum
shift keying. This implies orthogonality between two FSK signals that is

VL(t) and VH(t)----FSK signals

Fig: MSK Signal Waveforms:
Disadvantages of MSK:
 Less spectral efficiency
 Side lobes

Advantages of MSK:
 Continuous phase
 Smooth signal
 Constant envelope

6. GMSK(Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying)

While MSK has many advantages, its spectral efficiency is very low and it
also has side lobes. This drawback id eliminated by GMSK.
Principal of GMSK:
GMSK is also a special form of CPFSK with modulation index 0.5. The
difference between MSK and GMSK is the use of Gaussian pulses to represent the data.
Gaussian pulse one achieved by passing a non return to zero(NRZ) binary data stream
through a baseband pulse shaping filter. This filter has a impulse response defined by a
Gaussian function.
The impulse response is given by,

𝜋 −𝜋 2 2
ℎ𝐺 𝑡 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑡
∞ ∞2

0.588
∝=
𝐵
∝−−→ 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
B----- BW
The Gaussian filter introduces 𝑠 in the transmitted signal but its effect is
not severe if the Bandwidth (B) and duration(T) product BT is greater than 0.5. Thus
GMSK can be completely defined by its BT product.
GMSK Bit error rate.
The bit error probability for GMSK is given by,

. Y------Constant related to BT

Transmitter:

Fig: GMSK Transmitter

To generate a GMSK signal, a NRZ message bit stream is passed
through a Gaussian Baseband filter following by an FM modulator.

Power Spectrum:

Fig: Power Spectrum

 From fig. it is clear that the side lobe level falls off rapidly when the BT
product values decreases. However reducing BT, increases the irreducible error rate
produced by the filter due to ISI. In mobile communication, the radio channels induce
an irreducible error due to mobile velocity. SO, if the GMSK irreducible error is less
than that produced by mobile channel then there is no problem in using GMSK.

Receiver:

Fig: GMSK Receiver

GMSK signals can be demodulated by using orthogonal coherent

detectors as in fig carrier recovery is done by a method suggested by de Buda.
7. Error Performance in Fading Channels:
As we know, all the mobile radio channels are characterized by fading. In
order to study the effectiveness of any modulation scheme in a mobile environment, it is
required to evaluated the performance of modulation scheme over such channels.

Bit error rate evolution gives a good indication of the performance of a

particular modulation but it does not provide information about the types of errors. In a
fading channel, transmitted signal suffer deep fades which lead to outage as completed
loss of signal, Evaluating the probability of outage is another means to check the
effectiveness of modulation scheme. BER and probability of outage for various modulation
schemes can be evaluated by simple analytical methods or by computer simulations .

Performance of Digital modulation is slow Flat fading Channels:

Flat fading channels cause a multiplication(gain) variation in the transmitted
signal S(t). Slow flat fading channels change much slower than the applied modulation, So
the received signal becomes a follows,
𝑟 𝑡 =∝ 𝑡 exp(−𝐽𝜃 𝑡 𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑛 𝑡 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
𝛼 𝑡 → 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜃 𝑡 → 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙
𝑛 𝑡 → 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
Probability of error is slow flat fading channels can be obtained by aberaging the error is
AWGN channels over the fading probability density function So. We get,

𝑃𝑒=‫𝑃 ∝׬‬ 𝑥𝑋 𝑃 𝑋 𝑑𝑥−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(2)

0 𝑒

Pe x → Probability of error for a mdulation scheme at specific SNK at X

∝2 𝐸𝑏
X= 𝑁0

Eb→average energy per bit

N0→ Noise power density
P(X) →Probability density function
∝2 → Randam variable representing the instantaneous power values of the fading channel.
The probability density function is given by

1 −𝑋
𝑃 𝑥 = exp ; 𝑋 ≥ 0 −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− −(3)
Γ 𝛤

𝐸𝑏 2
Γ −→ 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 𝛼ത
𝑁0
By using equation (3) and (2) probability of error of a particular modulation
scheme is a slow flat fading channel can be evaluated. Thus we get,

1 Γ
𝑃𝑒,𝑃𝑆𝐾 = 1− ; 𝐶𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝑃𝑆𝐾
2 1+Γ

1 Γ
𝑃𝑒,𝐹𝑆𝐾 = 1− ; 𝐶𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝐹𝑆𝐾
2 2+Γ

1
𝑃𝑒,𝐷𝑃𝑆𝐾 = ; 𝐷𝑃𝑆𝐾
2(1 + Γ)

1
𝑃𝑒,𝑁𝐶𝐹𝑆𝐾 = ; 𝑁𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑆𝐾
2+Γ

1 𝛿Γ
𝑃𝑒,𝐺𝑀𝑆𝐾 = (1 − ); 𝐶𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐺𝑀𝑆𝐾
2 𝛿Γ + 1

𝐸𝑏
For large values of 𝑁0
, the error probability is modified as below

1
𝑃𝑒,𝑃𝑆𝐾 = ; 𝐶𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝑃𝑆𝐾
4Γ
1
𝑃𝑒,𝐹𝑆𝐾 = ; 𝐶𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑆𝐾
2Γ
1
𝑃𝑒,𝐷𝑃𝑆𝐾 = ; 𝐷𝑃𝑆𝐾
2Γ
1
𝑃𝑒,𝑁𝐶𝐹𝑆𝐾 = ; 𝑁𝑜𝑛 − 𝐶𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑆𝐾
Γ
1
𝑃𝑒,𝐺𝑀𝑆𝐾 = ; 𝐶𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐺𝑀𝑆𝐾
4𝛿Γ
Fig: Below shows how BER for various modulations changes s a function of

Thus the error performance when the instantaneous BFR become as low as
0.5. To improve BER, diversity techniques and error control coding can be
used.

Digital modulation is frequency selection coding channels:

Frequency selective fading causesintersymbol interference which results is an
irreducible BER flour for mobile systems. This BER interferes with the signal
components at the receiver sampling instants. This errors are very bursty in
nature. Among various modulation schemes, BPSK is the best due to absence
of symbol offset interference [cross- rail interference]
 8. OFDM(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)
OFDM is a multicarrier modulation scheme for high-data rate transmission in delay-
dispersive environments. OFDM is used for digital Audio Broadcasting, Digital video
broadcasting (DVB and wireless LAN. It will also be used in fourth generation cellular
systems.
WHY OFDM:
Traditional modulation methods are not suitable for very high data rates. As the data
rate increases the symbol duration TS becomes very small and BW becomes very large. IF
the symbols duration decreases, the impulse response becomes very long is terms of symbol
durations and needs a long equalizer. The computation effort for a long equalizer is very
large and it increases the probability of instabilities.

EX: IEEE 801.11 with data rate 55Mbits/Sec uses 20 MHZ BW and if 1maximum
excess delay is caused then an equalizer with no taps is reduced. So, if OFDM is applied, it
increases the symbol very simple equalizer.
Principle:
In OFDM, a high-rate data stream is divided into N parallel streams. Each
stream is modulated using N distinct carriers and then transmitted. These distinct carriers
are called as subcarriers or tones. Symbol duration of each subcarrier is large by a factor of
N. These subcarriers must be orthogonal to each other so that the data carried by the
carriers can be easily detected at the receiver side.
The modulation performed on each of the subcarrier is pulse amplitude
modulation(PAM) with rectangular basic pulses.
Due to rectangular shape of pulses, the spectrum of each modulated signal has a shape.
The OFDM concept can also be achieved from conventional FDMA with large
spacing between carriers. However this castes precious spectrum. In OFDM much narrower
spacing of sub carriers can be achieved, Let such carriers be at frequencies fn= nW/n
Where n -Integer.
Transceivers:
OFDM can be interpreted in two ways:
1. Analog interpretation
2. Digital interpretation

i)Analog interpretation:

The original data stream is split into N parallel data streams with lower data
rate. Many local oscillators are used each oscillates at a frequency f n=

Where n=0,1,2,3,4,5…N-1, Each parallel data stream modulates one of the

carrier. This is represented in the fig. Below,

Fig: Block Diagram of Analog Interpretation

ii) Digital Interpretation:
It first divides data into blocks of N symbols. Each black is then subject to
Inverse fast Fourier transform(IFFT) and then transmitted.

Fig: Block Diagram of Analog Interpretation

 Cyclic Prefix:
When OFDM is used is frequency- selective channel, delay dispersion occurs which
leads to loss of ISI orthogonality between sub carriers. This results in inter carrier
interference ISI similar to ISI.

This effect an be eliminated by a special type of guard interval called the cyclic
perfix(CP)
Let us consider a function gn(t) with carrier spacing W/N and =N/W. The
symbol duration Ts=+Tcp. During the time 0<t< the normal OFDM is transmitted and
during the time - a copy of the last part of the symbol is transmitted. Thus the last of
part symbol is added to the first part of the symbol. This pretended part of the signal is
called the “cyclic prefix” When cyclic prefix is used, the linear convolution of the channel is
converted to cyclic convolution. Thus the interference includes normal ISI.
Normal can be removed by discarding the received signal during the time
That is cyclic prefix is removed.
Cyclical effects can be removed by filters and integrator.
Thus cyclic prefix removes and recovers the orthogonality of the subcarriers

Fig: OFDM with Cyclic Prefix

The above diagram sh0ws block diagram of OFDM with cyclic prefic. The orginal data
stream is S/P converted. Each block of N data symbols is subjected to IFFT and the last
NTcp/Ts Samples are preceded. The resulting signal is modulated and transmitted over a
channel in which noise is added. At the receiver, the signal is divided into block. For
each block, the cyclic prefix is removed and then subjected to FFT. The resulting
samples are equalized and P/S converted to get the original data PAPR:
PAPR---------- Peak—to—Average power Ratio.

One major problem of OFDM is that the peak amplitude of the emitted
signal is considerdly higher than the average amplitude. This is because the OFDM
signal is superposition of N sinusoidal signals on different subcarriers.
These subcarriers add up constructively so that amplitude of OFDM signal
is proportional to N and power is proportional to N2.
There are three methods to deal PAPR:
Put a power amplifier into the transmitter that can linearly amplify the
transmit signal. But this required expensive and power consuming class A amplifiers.
2) Use non- linear amplifier, but this leads to distortion is the output
3) Use PARR reduction techniques.

I. PAPR Reduction techniques:

Coding for PAR reduction: (Code words for OFDM Symbol) It includes
three steps is OFDS transmission
1. Divide the incoming bits into blocks of length K
2. Select a code word of length N
3. Transmit this code word via the OFDM modulator.
Thus the coding scheme guarantee a reduction in PAPR but increases the
overhead and throughput.
II. Phase adjustments:
This scheme uses phase adjustment vectors that are known to both the
transmitter and receiver. The transmitter multiplies the OFDM symbol by the phase
vectors and then transmitted. The receiver undo the phase adjustment and
demodulated the OFDM symbol. This method gives the lowest PAPR, but cannot give a
guaranteed performance.
III. Correction by multiplicative function:

In this approach, the OFDM signal is multiplied by a time- dependent

function when ever the peak value is high. If the signal attains a level SR>A0, then it is
multiplied by a factor A0/SK

Correction by additive function :

This is simple to above method ,is which an additive function is used

instead of a multiplicative function . However this method increases BER.
Thus there is no single “best” technique to reduce PAPR. Depending on the environment
and performance needed , any one of the method can be selected.
Windowing :
Windowing technique is used in OFDM to improve the BER performance
which is degraded by PAPR and ICI (Inter carrier interference)

Input bit stream

The binary input bits are given to the mapping unit and mapped to
symbols. The mapped symbols are S/P converted and processed in a IFFT section. The
o/p is p/s converted and guard interval is added. Now the signal is given to the
windowing unit.
 Links to videos and e-book references

1. Introduction to Wireless Communication

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/106/106106167/

2. Modulation Formats - OQPSK, Pi by 4 QPSK, DQPSK | Wireless Communication

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zLpTVw2B-18

3. Minimum Shift Keying (MSK), Gaussian MSK | Wireless Communication

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TKILsVgLTss

4. OFDM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pUzurHbPpqQ
 6.4 ASSIGNMENT

K
S.NO Question level
CO

Find the 3-dB bandwidth for a Gaussian low pass filter used
to produce 0.25 GMSK with a channel data rate of Rb = 270 K3
1. CO3
kbps. What is the 90% power bandwidth in the 1W
channel? Specify the Gaussian filter parameter a.

K3
2. Compare QPSK Constellation with QAM CO3

K3
3. OFDM in LTE System CO3
 6.5 PART A – QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

K
S. NO. QUESTIONS LEVE CO
L
Define modulation.
It is defined as the process by which some parameters of a
1 high frequency signal termed as carrier, is varied in K1 CO3
accordance with the signal to be transmitted.

Write the advantages of digital over analog

modulation.

2 Greater noise immunity, Robustness to channel impairments, K1 CO3

Easier multiplexing of various forms of information, Greater
security

What is meant by Amplitude shift keying?

3 If amplitude of the carrier is varied depending on the K1 CO3

incoming digital signal, then it is called Amplitude shift keying.

What is meant by Frequency shift keying?

If the frequency of the sinusoidal carrier frequency is varied

4 depending on the incoming digital signal, then it is called K1 CO3
Frequency shift keying.
What is meant by Phase shift keying?

What is demodulation?

5 It is the process of recovering the original modulating signal K1 CO3

from a modulated signal.
 6.5 PART A – QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

K
S. NO. QUESTIONS LEVE CO
L

What is meant by Phase shift keying?

If phase of the carrier is varied depending on the input digital
6 K1 CO3
signal, then it is called phase shift keying.

Define M-ary transmission system,

Indigital modulation instead of transmitting one bit at a time,
7 two or more bits are transmitted simultaneously. This is called K1 CO3
M-ary transmission.

What is Quadrature modulation?

Sometimes two or more Quadrature carriers are used for
8 K1 CO3
modulation. It is called Quadrature modulation.

Explain the following terms a) Baud rate b) Bit rate

Baud rate: Speed at which symbols are transmitted in a
digital communication system, i.e. no of symbols/second.
Bit rate: Speed at which data bits is transmitted in a digital
9 K1 CO3
communication system, i.e. no of

bits/sec.

What is QAM?
At high bit rates, a combination of ASK and PSK is employed
10 in order to minimize the errors in the received data. This K1 CO3
method is known as Quadrature amplitude modulation.
 6.5 PART A – QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

S.
QUESTIONS K LEVEL CO
NO.

What is meant by QPSK?

QPSK is a multi-level modulation in which four phase shifts are
11 K1 CO3
used for representing four different symbols.

What is linear modulation?

In linear modulation technique, the amplitude of the
transmitted (carrier) signal varies linearly with the modulating
12 K1 CO3
digital signal. In general, linear modulation does not have a
constant envelope.

Write the merits of linear modulation.

Bandwidth efficient, Very attractive for use in wireless
13 communication systems, Accommodate more and more users K1 CO3
within a limited spectrum.

What is nonlinear modulation?

In nonlinear modulation, the amplitude of the carrier is
14 K1 CO3
constant regardless of the variation in the modulating signal.

Mention the merits and demerits of nonlinear

modulation.
Merits:
Lower efficient class c amplifiers can be used without
introducing degradation in the spectrumoccupancy of the
15 transmitted signal. K1 CO3
Low out of band radiation of the order of -60dB to -70dB can
be achieved.
Limiter-discriminator detection can be used, which simplifies
receiver design and provides highimmunity against random FM
noise and signal fluctuations due to Rayleigh fading.
 6.5 PART A – QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

K
S. NO. QUESTIONS LEVE CO
L
What is the advantage of MSK over QPSK?
In QPSK the phase changes by 90 or 180 degrees. This
creates abrupt amplitude variations in the waveform.
16 Therefore bandwidth requirement of QPSK is more. MSK K2 CO3
overcomes this problem. In MSK, the output waveform is
continuous in phase hence there are no abrupt changes in
amplitude.

Why MSK is called as fast FSK?

17 MSK is called fast FSK, as the frequency spacng used is only K2 CO3
half as much as that used in conventional non-coherent FSK.

Mention some merits of MSK.

Constant envelope, Spectral efficiency, Good BER
18 K2 CO3
performance, Self-synchronizing capability

Why MSK cannot be directly used in multi user

communications?
The main lobe of MSK is wide. This makes MSK unsuitable for
the applications where extremely narrow bandwidths and
19 sharp cut-offs are required. K2 CO3
Slow decay of MSK power spectral density curve creates
adjacent channel interference. Hence MSKcannot be used for
multiuser communications.

What is the need of Gaussian filter? (Dec 13)

Gaussian filters used before the modulator to reduce the
20 transmitted bandwidth of the signal. It uses less bandwidth K2 CO3
than conventional FSK.
 6.6 PART B – QUESTIONS

K
S.
Question leve CO
No
l

1 Draw and explain the structure of wireless communication link. K1 CO3

Explain the generation, detection and bit error probability of QPSK

2 K1 CO3
technique.

3 What are the salient features of Offset QPSK? K1 CO3

Explain the principle and operation of Differential QPSK

4 K2 CO3
transmission and reception.

What is BFSK? Derive the bit error probability of BFSK and also
5 K2 CO3
explain the constellation diagram of it.

Explain the generation, detection and constellation diagram of MSK

6 K1 CO3
scheme.

Enumerate on Gaussian MSK. Why we prefer it for wireless

7 K2 CO3
communication?

Discuss about the error performance of various modulation

8 K2 CO3
techniques in fading channels.

Prove that the OFDM system converts the delay spread channel into
9 K3 CO3
a set of parallel fading channels using the concept cyclic prefix

55
 6.7 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION
COURSES

Course Name: 5G and Wireless Communication for Beginners

Certification : Infosys Spring Board
Course Link :
https://infyspringboard.onwingspan.com/en/app/toc/lex_auth_01330128
73426862083588_shared/overview

Course Name: Wireless Communications for Everybody

Certification : Infosys Spring Board
Course Link:
https://infyspringboard.onwingspan.com/en/app/toc/lex_auth_01326770
9683736576568/overview
6.8 REAL TIME APPLICATIONS IN DAY TO DAY
LIFE

Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) technology is a multi-

carrier digital modulation technology developed with the maturity of digital signal
processing (DSP) technology. Compared with other multi-carrier multiplexing
technologies, OFDM signals satisfy orthogonality in both time and frequency
domains, and have higher spectral efficiency and anti-multipath interference ability.
It is easy to generate and demodulate OFDM signals with the help of DSP chips.
Channel equalization and other operations are also relatively simple. Therefore,
OFDM technology has been widely used in wireless, wired and broadcasting
communications. As a special multi-carrier transmission technology, OFDM
technology can be seen as either a modulation technology or a multiplexing
technology. The principle of OFDM is similar to that of traditional frequency division
multiplexing (FDM).
 It uses DSP for inverse Fast Fourier transform (IFFT) in order to generate
a set of orthogonal subcarriers for parallel transmission of low-rate digital signals,
which could achieve the transmission of high-speed digital signals. In optical fiber
communication systems, the validity and reliability of data transmission depends not
only on the performance of optical transmitter and receiver, but also on the influence
of chromatic dispersion and polarization mode dispersion (PMD) of optical fiber links.
With the development of communication technology and the continuous
improvement of communication requirements, the data rate of single channel
transmission in optical communication increases greatly, reaching 100 Gb/s.

However, when the data rate reaches 100 Gb/s, the traditional optical fiber
compensation becomes expensive and time-consuming, and it is difficult to
accurately compensate the dispersion. Owing to the good computational
characteristics of OFDM, it can be achieved by complex operation in frequency
domain. As the dispersion of optical fibers is compensated effectively, OFDM
technology is considered to be used in optical communication, namely, optical
OFDM(O-OFDM).
 6.9 CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS
MODULATION IN 5G
5G modulation considerations
Within the 5G communications system, these are variants of phase shift keying
and quadrature amplitude modulation.
There are several considerations when using the different modulation
formats:
Peak to average power ratio, PAPR: The peak to average power ratio is
one aspect of performance that needs to be considered for any 5G communications
modulation scheme. The peak to average ratio has a major impact on the efficiency
of the power amplifiers. For 2G GSM, the signal level was constant and as a result it
was possible to run the final RF amplifier in compression to obtain a high level of
efficiency and maximise the battery life.

With the advent of 3G, then it's HSPA enhancements and then 4G LTE, the
modulation schemes and waveforms have meant that the signals have become
progressively more 'peaky' with higher levels of peak to average power ratio. This has
meant that the final RF amplifiers cannot be run in compression and as the PAPR has
increased, so the efficiency of the RF amplifiers has fallen and this is one factor that
has shortened battery life.

Spectral efficiency: One of the key issues with any form of 5G modulation
scheme is the spectral efficiency. With spectrum being at a premium, especially in
frequencies below 3 GHz, it is essential that any modulation scheme adopted for 5G is
able to provide a high level of spectral efficiency.

There is often a balance between higher orders of modulation like 64QAM as

opposed to 16QAM for example and noise performance. Thus higher order
modulation schemes tend to be only used when there is a good signal to noise ratio.
6.9 CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS
5G modulation: PSK & QAM

A variety of different modulation formats are used for 5G technology.

Phase shift keying: 5G technology implements quadrature phase

shift keying, QPSK as the lowest order modulation format. Although
this will provide the slowest data throughput it will also provide the
most robust link and as such it can be used when signal levels are low
or when interference is high.

Another form of PSK called π/2BPSK is used in conjunction with DFT-s-

OFDM on the up link.

Note on PSK - Phase Shift Keying:

Phase shift Keying, PSK is a form of modulation used particularly for

data transmissions. If offers an effective way of transmitting data. By
altering the number of different phase states which can be adopted,
the data speeds that can be achieved within a given channel can be
increased, but at the cost of lower resilience to noise an interference.

Quadrature amplitude modulation: Quadrature amplitude

modulation enables the data throughput to be increased. Formats
used within 5G mobile communications system include 16QAM,
64QAM and 256QAM.
6.9 CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS
The higher the order of modulation, the greater the throughput,
although the penalty is the noise resilience. Therefore 256AM is only
used when link quality is good, and it reduces to 64QAM and then
16QAM etc, as the link deteriorates. It is a balance between data
throughput and resilience.

Note on QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation:

Quadrature amplitude modulation, QAM is widely used for data

transmission as it enables better levels of spectral efficiency than
other forms of modulation. QAM uses two carriers on the same
frequency shifted by 90° which are modulated by two data streams - I
or Inphase and Q - Quadrature elements.

The waveform and modulation types used with 5G technology has

been chosen to provide spectral efficiency, data throughput and
resilience needed for the new mobile communications system.

5G mobile communications is able to provide very high data

throughput, and therefore the waveforms and modulation need to be
able to support this and provide reliable service for the users.
8. Prescribed Text
Books
&
Reference Books
PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOK AND REFERENCES:

TEXT BOOK:
1. Rappaport,T.S ―Wireless communications, Pearson Education,
Second Edition,2010.(UNIT I, II, IV)
2. Andreas.F. Molisch ―Wireless Communications, John Wiley – India,
2006. (UNITIII,V)
REFERENCES:
1. Wireless Communication – Andrea Goldsmith, Cambridge University
Press, 2011
2. Van Nee, R. and Ramji Prasad, ― OFDM for wireless multimedia
communications,Artech House, 2000
3. David Tse and Pramod Viswanath, ― Fundamentals of Wireless
Communication,Cambridge University Press, 2005.
4. Upena Dalal, ― Wireless Communication, Oxford University Press,
2009
9. Mini Project
Suggestions
 9. MINI PROJECT
SUGGESTIONS

Sl. NO Title Link

Project demonstration: Acoustic https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nk5gP

1. communication with OFDM H7fjR4

AIS GMSK Modulator - Scicos

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wt7Ai
2. Simulation
Dszdpo

How to make Gaussian

Minimum Shift Key (GMSK) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CzND
3.
Modulation using GNU Radio duTWz4E

Simulink Model for Zigbee

Transceiver Using OQPSK
Modulation under Fading https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rppc
4.
Channels AbtKHBU

RC Range Experiment
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P5f7B
5.
g6bxsk
 9. MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

Sl. No TITLE

1. Simulation of Offset QPSK using MATLAB

Performance Analysis of MSK and GMSK using

2.
MATLAB
 Thank you

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