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R.M.D ENGINEERING COLLEGE

21EC401 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Department : ECE

Batch/Year : 2021-2025 / II year

Created By : Dr. N. Vini Antony Grace

Mr. M. Jyothi Prasad
Mrs. P. Santhoshini

Date : 18.03.2023
 Table of Contents

S.No Contents Page

Number

1 Course Objectives 7

2 Pre Requisites 8

3 Syllabus 9

4 Course outcomes 10

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 11

6 Unit 3 – NOISE CHARACTERIZATION

12
6.1 Lecture Plan
13
6.2 Activity based learning

6.3 Lecture Notes 14

 Noise sources 15
 Noise figure, noise temperature and noise 17
bandwidth
 Noise in cascaded systems 27

 Representation of Narrow band noise –In- 32

phase and quadrature components
 Representation of Narrow band noise – 35
Envelope and Phase components
 Hilbert Transform 37

 Pre-Envelope & Complex Envelope 42

5
S.No Contents Page
Number
55
6.4 Assignments
57
6.5 Part A Q & A
61
6.6 Part B Questions
63
6.7 Supportive online Certification courses
64
6.8 Real time Applications in day to day life
and to Industry
65
6.9 Content beyond the Syllabus
7 Assessment Schedule 68

8 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 69

9 Mini Project suggestions 70

6
 1. COURSE OBJECTIVES

To discuss the concepts of various analog modulation

schemes and their spectral characteristics.

To summarize various types of noises in

communication system.

To analyze the effect of noise in communication

systems.

To describe the concepts of sampling and

quantization.

To discuss the concepts of pulse modulation

techniques.
2. PRE REQUISITES

1. 21EC301 – SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

By learning this course the student will have deep insight in to

Fourier transform, Trigonometric identities, Sampling and
quantization.

2. EC8252 – ELECTRONIC DEVICES

By learning this course the student will understand the operation of

electronic devices such as diodes, Transistors, FET, etc

21EC401- COMMUNICATION Semester IV

SYSTEMS

EC8252- ELECTRONIC 21EC301 - SIGNALS

DEVICES AND SYSTEMS

Semester II Semester III

 3. SYLLABUS

21EC401 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS LTPC

3 003
UNIT I AMPLITUDE MODULATION 9

Amplitude Modulation- DSBSC, DSBFC, SSB, VSB - Modulation index, Spectra, Power
relations and Bandwidth – AM Generation – Square law and Switching modulator, AM
detection - Envelope detector, DSBSC Generation – Balanced and Ring Modulator, DSBSC
detection – Coherent detector, SSB Generation – Filter, Phase Shift and Third Methods, VSB
Generation – Filter Method –comparison of different AM techniques.

UNIT II ANGLE MODULATION 9

Phase and frequency modulation, Narrow Band and Wide band FM – Modulation index,
Spectra, Power relations and Transmission Bandwidth - FM modulation –Direct and Indirect
methods, FM Demodulation – FM to AM conversion, FM Discriminator - PLL as FM
Demodulator.

UNIT III NOISE CHARACTERIZATION 9

Noise sources – Noise figure, noise temperature and noise bandwidth – Noise in
cascaded systems. Hilbert Transform, Pre-envelope & complex envelope -
Representation of Narrow band noise –In- phase and quadrature components,
Envelope and Phase components.

UNIT IV NOISE PERFORMANCE IN AM AND FM SYSTEMS 9

AM Super heterodyne Receiver - Noise performance analysis in AM systems, AM Threshold

effect, FM Super heterodyne Receiver, Noise performance analysis in FM systems – FM
Threshold effect, Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis for FM, Comparison of noise performance
of AM and FM Systems.

UNIT V PULSE MODULATION TECHNIQUES 9

Baseband sampling – Aliasing-Quantization - Uniform & non-uniform quantization -

quantization noise - Logarithmic Companding – PAM, PPM, PWM, PCM – TDM, FDM.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
4. COURSE OUTCOMES

OUTCOMES:

On successful completion of this course, the student will be able to

CO1: Compare different Amplitude Modulation Schemes for their efficiency

and bandwidth

CO2: Summarize the concepts of Angle Modulation Systems

CO3: Explain different types of Noise in Communication Systems

CO4: Analyze the behaviour of a communication system in presence of

noise

CO5: Summarize the principles of Sampling and Quantization

CO6: Describe the concepts of Pulse modulation Techniques

5. CO- PO/PSO MAPPING

MAPPING OF COURSE OUTCOMES WITH PROGRAM OUTCOMES:

Program
Program Outcomes Specific
Lev
Course Outcomes
el
Outco K3,
of K3 K4 K4 K5 K5, A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2 K5 K5 K3
mes
CO K6
PO- PO- PO- PO PO PO PO PO PO PO- PO- PO PSO PSO PSO
1 2 3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 10 11 -12 -1 -2 -3
C212.
K2
1 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 2
C212.
K2
2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 2
C212.
K3
3 2 2 2 2 - - - - - - - - - 2 3
C212.
K3
4 3 2 2 2 - - - - - - - - - 2 3
C212.
K2
5 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 2
C212.
K3
6 3 2 2 2 - - - - - - - - - - 3

11
 6.1 LECTURE PLAN
UNIT I – BIOMEDICAL POTENTIAL GENERATION
AND ELECTRODE TYPES

Mode of Delivery
Taxonomy level
Proposed Date
No. of Periods

Pertaining CO
Actual Date

Reason for
Deviation
S.No

Topic

Black Board
1 Noise sources 1 06.03.2023 CO3 K2
Teaching
Black Board
2 Problems Solved 1 07.03.2023 CO3 K2
Teaching

Noise figure, noise

Black Board
3 temperature and 1 08.03.2023 CO3 K2
Teaching
noise bandwidth

Black Board
4 Problems Solved 1 10.03.2023 CO3 K2
Teaching

Noise in cascaded Black Board

5 1 11.03.2023 CO3 K2
systems Teaching

Problems Solved Black Board

6 1 14.03.2023 CO3 K2
Teaching

7 Hilberts Transform 1 15.03.2023 CO3 K2 PPT

Representation of
Narrow band noise –
8 1 16.03.2023 CO3 PPT
In-phase and K2
quadrature,

Representation of
9 1 18.03.2023 CO3 K2 PPT
Narrow band noise –
Envelope and Phase

Total No. of Periods : 9

12
6.2 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

1. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below

LIST I LIST II

A. Capture Effect 1. Johnson Noise

B. Thermal Noise 2. High Frequency Noise

𝑁𝑜 3. Flicker Noise
𝐶. 𝑆𝑤 (f) =
2

D. Low Frequency Noise 4. White Noise

E. Static Noise 5. Frequency Modulation

F. Transit time noise 6. Atmospheric Noise

Codes : A B C D E F
(a) 4 5 1 6 2 3
(b) 5 1 2 3 4 6
(c) 5 1 4 3 6 2
(d) 6 4 3 2 1 5

2. Simulate the transmission of AM signal using MATLAB.

3. Simulate the transmission of FM signals over a noisy channel and extract the
message signal using MATLAB code.

13
6.3 Lecture Notes
Unit – III NOISE CHARACTERIZATION

Noise sources – Noise figure, noise temperature and

noise bandwidth – Noise in cascaded systems.
Hilbert Transform, Pre-envelope & complex envelope
- Representation of Narrow band noise –In- phase
and quadrature components, Envelope and Phase
components.

14
Noise
The term noise is used to designate unwanted waves that tend to disturb the
transmission and processing of signals in communication systems.
Ex: In a TV receiver, noise may appear in the picture tube as white or black
spots which get imposed on the picture.

Fig 4.1 Example of noise

CLASSIFICATION OF NOISE

EXTERNAL NOISE
It is defined as noise whose sources are external to the receiver or
communication system.
External noise may be classified into three categories
Atmospheric Noise:
These are electrical disturbances occurring in the atmosphere due to
lightning discharges.
These occur in the form of impulses and they spread over the entire radio
frequency spectrum.
These disturbances are called as static noise and the actual amount of noise
added depends on the bandwidth of a receiver.
Thus these noises would be avoided if the bandwidth of the receiver is
limited.
Extraterrestrial Noise:
Extraterrestrial noise comes from sources in space, which are further divided into Solar
noise and Cosmic noise.

Solar noise:

Primary source of solar noise is sun.

The sun radiates a wide range of signals in a broad noise spectrum

which includes the frequencies that are used for communication.

These noise radiations produced by sun, vary with time.

During the peak of the cycle, there occurs radio interference due to
which communication at many frequencies become impractical.

Cosmic noise:

Noise is also generated by stars.

Noise from the stars is generally known as cosmic noise, and its level
is not as great because of the distance between the stars and earth.

However, it is an important source of noise which has to be

considered.

It has impact on communication in the frequency range ranging from

15MHz to 150 MHz.
Man – made noise
This result from the radiation produced by electrical machinery,
automotive ignition systems, etc which produce sparks.

Electrical equipment when abruptly switched ON or OFF produces

transients’ that create noise.

Industrial noise being man made noise, can be minimized by

controlling it.
Internal Noise
Noise created by various components used in processing the
received signal and is completely internal to the system.

These noises arise from spontaneous fluctuations of current or

voltage in electrical circuits.

This type of noise represents a basic limitation on the transmission

or detection of signals in communication systems involving the use
of electronic devices.

Electronic components such as resistors, diodes and transistors

produce noise.
 Although this is a low level noise, it can interfere with weak signal.

The two most common examples of spontaneous fluctuations in electrical

circuits are shot noise and thermal noise.

Shot noise:

Shot noise arises in electronic devices such as diodes and transistors

because of the discrete nature of current flow in these devices.

Shot noise is a random fluctuation that accompanies any direct current

crossing a potential barrier.

The effect occurs because the carriers (holes and electrons) do not cross the
barrier simultaneously, but rather with a random distribution in the timing for
each carrier, which gives rise to a random component of current
superimposed on the steady current.

Shot noise is not normally observed during measurement of direct current

because it is small compared to the dc value; however, it does contribute
significantly to the noise in the amplifier.

The mean-square noise component is proportional to the dc flowing, and for most
devices the mean-square, shot noise current is given by
𝑖𝑛 2 = 2𝑒𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐵

𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑒𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐵 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟
Where in = rms shot noise current
e = charge of an electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C
Idc = direct current in amperes
B = equivalent noise bandwidth in hertz
Thermal Noise:
The free electrons within an electrical conductor possess kinetic energy as
a result of heat exchange between the conductor and its surroundings.

The kinetic energy means that the electrons are in motion, and this

motion in turn is randomized through collisions with imperfections in the

structure of the conductor.

As a result, the electron density throughout the conductor varies randomly,

giving rise to a randomly varying voltage across the ends of the conductor.

Such a voltage may sometimes be observed in the flickering of a very

sensitive voltmeter.

Since the noise arises from thermal causes, it is referred to as thermal

noise or Johnson noise.

Fig 4.2 Instantaneous noise voltage

The average or mean noise voltage across the conductor is zero, but the
root-mean-square value is finite and can be measured.

The mean-square value of the noise voltage is proportional to the resistance

of the conductor, to its absolute temperature, and to the frequency
bandwidth.

The noise power generated by a resistor is proportional to its absolute

temperature, in addition to being proportional to the bandwidth over which
the noise is to be measured.
 Pn α TBn

Pn = kTBn

Where Pn = Maximum noise power output of resistor

T = Absolute temperature, Kelvin

B = noise bandwidth, hertz

K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K

𝟐
𝑬𝒏
𝑬𝟐 𝑬𝟐 𝑬𝒏 𝟐
𝑷𝒏 = = = 𝟐 =
𝑹𝟏 𝑹 𝑹 𝟒𝑹

𝑬𝒏 𝟐 = 𝟒𝑹𝑷𝒏

𝑬𝒏 𝟐 = 𝟒𝑹𝑲𝑻𝑩
The rms noise voltage is given by
𝑬𝒏 = 𝟒𝑲𝑻𝑹𝑩
where
En = root-mean-square noise voltage, volts
R = resistance of the conductor, ohms
T = conductor temperature, Kelvin
Bn = noise bandwidth, hertz
K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
Partition Noise:

Partition Noise is generated in a circuit when a current has to divide between

two or more paths.

This means that the partition noise results from the random fluctuations in
the division

Low frequency Noise or Flicker Noise:

At low frequencies (below few KHz), there exists a particular type of noise
appears with Power Spectral Density (PSD) increasing as frequency
decreases.

This noise is known as flicker noise or 1/f noise

High frequency Noise or Transit Time Noise:

It is generally observed in semiconductor devices

Transit time noise is the noise caused due to increase in conductance with
increase in frequency.

This causes the increase in power spectral density of the signal.

Eg: If the time taken by the electrons to travel from emitter to collector in a
transistor becomes comparable to the period of the signal being amplified,
that is, at frequencies above VHF and beyond, the transit-time effect takes
place and noise input impedance of the transistor decreases.
 White Noise:

The noise which has Gaussian distribution and has flat spectral
density over a wide range of frequencies is called white noise.

Thus white noise has all frequency components in equal proportion.

White is used in the sense that white light contains equal amounts
of all frequencies within the visible band of electromagnetic
radiation.

The power spectral density of a white noise is denoted as

𝐍𝐨
𝐒𝐖 𝐟 =
𝟐
Thus the power spectral density of white noise is independent of
frequency, and is No/2 for all frequencies

The parameter NO is defined as

NO = kTe
Where k = Boltzmann’s constant

T e = equivalent noise temperature of the receiver

Fig. 4.3 Power spectral density of white noise

 Noise temperature is one way of expressing the level of available noise
power introduced by a component or source.

The power spectral density of the noise is expressed in terms of the

temperature (in kelvins) that would produce that level of noise

The autocorrelation function and the power spectral density forms a

Fourier transform pair. The autocorrelation function is the inverse Fourier
transform of the power spectral density.

R (τ) ↔ S (f)

i.e FT { R (τ) } = S (f)

or R (τ) = IFT { S (f)}

Let us define the autocorrelation function of white noise as

RW (τ) = IFT { SW (f)}

𝑵𝒐
= 𝐈𝐅𝐓
𝟐
𝑵𝒐
𝑹𝑾 𝝉 = 𝜹(𝝉)
𝟐
Thus the autocorrelation function of a white noise is delta function weighted by
a factor No/2 at τ = 0

Fig. 4.4 Autocorrelation function of white noise

 RW (τ) is zero for τ ≠ 0.
Accordingly, any two different samples of white noise, no matter
how closely together in time they are taken are uncorrelated.
If the white noise w (t) is also Gaussian, then the two samples
are independent.
Thus the white noise is totally random.
The noise analysis of the communication system uses white noise
as the reference. Thus the white noise is used as the tool for the
noise analysis

Signal-to-Noise ratio (SNR)

SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power,
often expressed in decibels.

𝑺𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝑺𝑵𝑹 =
𝑵𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
Signal to Noise Ratio at the input (SNR) I

𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐦𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧𝐚𝐥

(𝐒𝐍𝐑)𝐈 𝐨𝐫 (𝐒𝐍𝐑)𝐂 =
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐧𝐨𝐢𝐬𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐁𝐖

Signal to Noise Ratio at the output (SNR) O:

𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐞𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐭 𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐞𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭

(𝐒𝐍𝐑)𝐎 =
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐧𝐨𝐢𝐬𝐞 𝐚𝐭 𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐞𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭

Figure of Merit (FOM)

(𝐒𝐍𝐑)𝑶 (𝐒𝐍𝐑)𝑶
𝐅𝐎𝐌 = 𝐎𝐑
(𝐒𝐍𝐑)𝑰 (𝐒𝐍𝐑)𝑪
 Noise Factor:
Noise Factor is the measure of degradation of the signal to noise
ratio in a device.

It is the ratio of the Signal to Noise Ratio at the input to the

Signal to Noise Ratio at the output.

Since the signal to noise ratio at the output will always be lower
than the Signal to Noise ratio at the input, the Noise Factor is
always less than 1.

The Lower Noise Factors results in better performance of devices.

(SNR)I (SNR)C
Noise Factor = OR
(SNR)O (SNR)O
Noise Figure:
The Noise Figure is noise factor expressed in decibels (dB). It can
be calculated by the following equation:

FdB=10 log (F)

The Noise Figure is the parameter that is widely used to represent

the noise level in RF systems and devices. Since it is represented
in a logarithmic scale it is easier to use than the Noise Factor.

Noise Figure for Amplifier:

Consider a signal source at room temperature T = 290K providing input to an
amplifier.

Fig. 4.5 Noise Figure for Amplifier

Let the signal power available from such the source is Psi

Noise power available (Pni) from such a source is

Pni=KTB (1)

The available SNR (SNR)I from the source is

(SNR)I = Psi/P ni

= Psi/KTB (2)

Let the available power gain of Amplifier is G

Let the available output signal power of Amplifier is Pso

Pso=GPsi (3)

It is known that all real amplifiers contribute noise. Let the available
noise power at the output of Amplifier is Pno

(SNR)O = Pso/Pno

= GPsi/ Pno (4)

Noise Factor

F= (SNR)I/(SNR)O

= Pno/GKTB (5)

The available output noise power is

Pno=FGKTB ------ (6)

Amplifier input noise in terms of Noise Figure,F
Amplifier noise is generated in many components throughout the
amplifier.

It proves convenient to imagine that it originate from some

equivalent power source at the input of the amplifier
We know that the output noise power is
Pno=FGKTB ------(7)
Total available input noise power is
Pni =Pno /G
=FGKTB/G
=FKTB ------ (8)

Source contributes an available noise power

Pns= KTB ------ (9)

Amplifier contributes an available noise power

Pna= FKTB- KTB

= (F-1) KTB (10)

NOISE IN CASCADED SYSTEMS or FRII’S FORMULA
Friis's formula is used to calculate the total noise factor of a cascade of
stages, each with its own noise factor and power gain (assuming that the
impedances are matched at each stage). The total noise factor can then be
used to calculate the total noise figure.

Fig. 4.6 Noise in Cascaded Systems

The Total or Overall noise factor (Ftotal) is given as

Fi and Gi is the noise factor and available power gain respectively of the i-th
stage and n is the number of stages. Both magnitudes are expressed as
ratios, not in decibels.

Cascaded Noise figure (dB) = 10 log (F total)

DERIVATION OF FRII’S FORMULA

consider the case of two cascaded amplifiers (n=2) in the figure below.

Fig. 4.7 2-port network to analyze noise in Cascaded Systems

The available noise power at the output of Amplifier 1 is
Pno1=F1G1KTB ------ (1)
 The own noise power at the input of Amplifier 2 is

(F2-1)KTB (2)

The available noise power at the input of Amplifier 2 is.

Pni2= Pno1+(F2-1)KTB

= F1G1KTB +(F2-1)KTB (3)

The available noise power at the output of Amplifier 2 is

Pno2= G2 Pni2

=G2[F1G1KTB +(F2-1)KTB] ------ (4)

The overall power gain of Amplifiers in cascade

G= G1G2

Let the overall noise factor be ‘F’

Then the output noise power can also be expressed as

Pno=FGKTB ------ (5)

Equating the two expressions for output noise

Pno2= Pno ------ (6)

G2(F1G1KTB +(F2-1)KTB) = FGKTB

G1G2F1KTB +(F2-1)G2KTB = FGKTB

KTB(G1G2F1 +(F2-1)G2 )= FGKTB

KTB(G1G2F1 +(F2-1)G2 )= FG KTB

(G1G2F1 +(F2-1)G2 )= FG

(𝑭𝟐 − 𝟏)𝑮𝟐
𝑭 = 𝑭𝟏 +
𝑮

(𝑭𝟐 −𝟏)𝑮𝟐
= 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐
 (𝑭𝟐 − 𝟏)
𝑭 = 𝑭𝟏 +
𝑮𝟏

The argument is easily extended for additional N amplifiers to

give

(𝑭𝟐 −𝟏) (𝑭𝟑 −𝟏)

𝑭 = 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑮𝟏
+ 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐
+ −−− −

This is known as Frii’s Formula

Noise temperature:

The noise temperature is the temperature of a resistor that has noise power
equal to that of the device or circuit.

Specifically, the noise temperature is defined by

T = N/kB
Where, N = Noise power
B = Bandwidth
k = 1.38 × 10-23J K-1 is Boltzmann's constant
Equivalent noise temperature:
The equivalent noise temperature of a system is defined as the
temperature at which the noise resistor has to be maintained so that by
connecting this resistor to the input of a noiseless version of the system; it
will produce the same amount of noise power at the system output as that
produced by the actual system

The noise figure power due to amplifier having a noise factor F

Pna= (F-1) KTB ----- (1)

If Terepresents equivalent noise temperature then by definition

Pna= KTeB ----- (2)

Equating eq (1) and (2)

 KTeB = (F-1) KTB

Te = (F-1)T ----- (3)

Equivalent Noise temperature Te is an alternative way of

representing noise factor

Frii’s formula

(𝑭𝟐 − 𝟏) (𝑭𝟑 − 𝟏)
𝑭 = 𝑭𝟏 + + + −−− −
𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐

Both sides (-1) added

(𝑭𝟐 − 𝟏) (𝑭𝟑 − 𝟏)
𝑭 − 𝟏 = 𝑭𝟏 − 𝟏 + + + −−− −
𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐

𝑻𝒆 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟑
= + + + − − − −
𝑻 𝑻 𝐓𝑮𝟏 𝐓𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐

𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟑
𝑻𝒆 = 𝑻𝟏 + + + − − − −
𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐

Noise bandwidth (BN):

The noise bandwidth BN is defined as the bandwidth of

the ideal (rectangular) filter which passes the same noise
power as the real filter when each is driven by stationary
random noise.

Equivalent noise bandwidth (ENBW):

Equivalent noise bandwidth (ENBW) is defined as the

bandwidth of a ideal (rectangular or brick wall) filter
which produce same integrated noise power as that of an
actual filter. This is also referred to as noise bandwidth or
effective noise bandwidth.
 The average noise power for practical filter is
𝝅
𝑷𝒏𝒐 = 𝑵 𝒇 −−− −(𝟏)
𝟐 𝟎 𝒄

The average noise power for ideal filter is

𝑷𝒏𝒐 = 𝑵𝟎 𝑩𝑵 −−− −(𝟐)

Equating eq (1) & (2)

𝝅
𝑵𝟎 𝑩𝑵 = 𝑵 𝒇
𝟐 𝟎 𝒄
𝝅
𝑩𝑵 = 𝒇
𝟐 𝒄

Where fc = cut-off frequency

Narrow Band Noise

Filter at the receiver have enough bandwidth to pass the desired

signal but not too big to pass excess noise.

Narrowband – center frequency is much bigger that the

bandwidth

Noise at the output of such filters are called narrowband noise

Narrowband noise has spectral concentrated about some mid-

band frequency ±fc

The sample function of such Narrowband noise n(t) appears as a

sine wave of frequency fc which modulates slowly in amplitude
and phase

𝑵𝟎 𝟐
𝑺𝑵 𝒇 = 𝑯(𝒇)
𝟐

Fig. 4.8 Power spectral density of Narrow band noise

The canonical representation of Narrow band noise is given by
𝒏 𝒕 = 𝒏𝑰 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 − 𝒏𝑸 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 −−− − (𝟏)
𝒏𝑰 𝒕 = 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒏𝑸 𝒕 = 𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕

Let us consider loop 1 ,

The product modulator output

𝑺 𝒕 = 𝒏 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 −−− −(𝟐)

Eq (1) in (2)
𝑺 𝒕 = [𝒏𝑰 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 − 𝒏𝑸 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 ] 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕

= 𝒏𝑰 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕) − 𝒏𝑸 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕

𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕

= 𝒏𝑰 𝒕 + − 𝒏𝑸 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝒏𝑰 𝒕 𝒏𝑰 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕

𝑺 𝒕 = + − 𝒏𝑸 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

After LPF,

𝐧𝐈 𝐭
𝐒 𝐭 =
𝟐

lllly To find out Quadrature component in Loop 2 ,

𝑺 𝒕 = 𝒏 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 −−− −(𝟑)

Eq (1) in (3)
𝑺 𝒕 = [𝒏𝑰 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 − 𝒏𝑸 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄𝒕 ] 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄𝒕
= 𝒏𝑰 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 − 𝒏𝑸 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕

𝒏𝑰 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕

= − 𝒏𝑸 𝒕 −
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
 𝒏𝑰 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 𝒏𝑸 𝒕 𝒏𝑸 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕
𝑺 𝒕 = − +
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒏𝑸 𝒕
After LPF,𝑺 𝒕 = −
𝟐

Properties of In-phase and Quadrature Component in Narrow Band Noise

nI(t) and nQ(t) have Zero mean

n(t) is Gaussian, then nI(t) and nQ(t) are jointly Gaussian

n(t) is Stationary, then nI(t) and nQ(t) are jointly Stationary

Both nI(t) and nQ(t) have same power spectral density

𝑺𝑵 𝒇 + 𝒇 𝒄 + 𝑺𝑵 𝒇 − 𝒇 𝒄 −𝑩 ≤𝒇≤𝑩
𝑺 𝑵𝑰 𝒇 = 𝑺 𝑵𝑸 𝒇 = ቊ
𝟎 𝑶𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆

nI(t) and nQ(t) have the same Variance as n(t)

The Cross-spectral density of the nI(t) and nQ(t) is purely imaginary

𝑺 𝑵𝑰 𝑵𝑸 𝒇 = − 𝑺 𝑵𝑰 𝑵𝑸 𝒇

𝒋 𝑺𝑵 𝒇 + 𝒇 𝒄 − 𝑺𝑵 𝒇 − 𝒇 𝒄 ; −𝑩 ≤ 𝒇 ≤ 𝑩
=ቊ
𝟎 𝑶𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆

If n(t) is Gaussian and its power spectral density SN(t) is symmetric

about the mid-band frequency fc , then nI(t) and nQ(t) are statistically
independent
Representation of Narrowband Noise in terms of Envelope and
Phase Components

Let n(t) in terms of envelope and phase components

𝒏 𝒕 = 𝒓 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝝋(𝒕) −−− −(𝟏)
𝟏/𝟐
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆, 𝒓 𝒕 = 𝒏𝑰 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝒏𝑸 𝟐 𝒕 −− −(𝟐)

𝒏𝑸 (𝒕)
𝝋 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒏𝑰 (𝒕)
−−− −(𝟑)

𝒓 𝒕 = 𝒆𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒏(𝒕)
𝝋 𝒕 = 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒏(𝒕)

The probability distributions of r(t) and φ(t) may be obtained from those of
nI(t) and nQ(t) as follows

Let NI and NQ denote the random variables obtained by

the sample functions nI(t) and nQ(t), respectively,

Then, NI and NQ are independent Gaussian random

variables of zero mean and variance σ 2

The Joint probability density function is

𝟏 𝒏𝑰 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝒏𝑸 𝟐 𝒕
𝒇 𝑵𝑰 𝑵𝑸 𝒏 𝑰 , 𝒏 𝑸 = 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − −−− −(𝟒)
𝟐𝝅𝝈𝟐 𝟐𝝈𝟐
Assume probability of nI lies between nIand nI + dnI
nα lies between nQ and nQ + dnQ

𝒇𝑵𝑰𝑵𝑸 𝒏𝑰 , 𝒏𝑸 𝒅𝒏𝑰𝒅𝒏𝑸
𝟏 𝒏𝑰 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝒏𝑸 𝟐 𝒕
= 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − 𝒅𝒏𝑰 𝒅𝒏𝑸 −−− −(𝟓)
𝟐𝝅𝝈𝟐 𝟐𝝈𝟐
𝒏𝑰 = 𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 −−− −(𝟔)

𝒏𝑸 = 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 −−− −(𝟕)

By equating α incremental areas

𝒅𝒏𝑰 𝒅𝒏𝑸 = 𝒓𝒅𝒓𝒅𝝋 −−− −(𝟖)

Sub eq (6), (7) & (8) in (5)

𝒓 𝟐
𝟏 − 𝟐
𝒇𝑹,𝝋 (𝒓, 𝝋) = 𝒆 𝟐𝝈 𝒓𝒅𝒓𝒅𝝋
𝟐𝝅𝝈𝟐

𝒓 𝟐
𝒓 − 𝟐
𝒇𝑹,𝝋 𝒓, 𝝋 = 𝒆 𝟐𝝈 𝒅𝒓𝒅𝝋 −−− −(𝟗)
𝟐𝝅𝝈𝟐

Since R and φ are statistically independent

𝒇𝑹,𝝋 𝒓, 𝝋 = 𝒇𝑹 𝒓 𝒇𝝋 𝝋 −−− −(𝟏𝟎)

𝒓𝟐
𝒓 − 𝟏
(9) & (10) 𝒇𝑹 𝒓 𝒇𝝋 𝝋 = 𝒆 𝟐𝝈𝟐 𝒅𝒓 𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝝋
𝝈𝟐

𝒓𝟐
𝒓 − 𝟐
Where, 𝒇𝑹 𝒓 = 𝒆 𝟐𝝈 𝒅𝒓 −−− −(𝟏𝟏)
𝝈𝟐

𝟏
𝒇𝝋 𝝋 = 𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝝋 −−− −(𝟏𝟐)

Eq(11) represent Rayleigh distribution

Therefore, Envelope component is Rayleigh distributed
Eq(12) represent Uniform distribution
Therefore, Phase component is Uniformly distributed
Hilbert transform
Summary:
Hilbert transform of a signal x(t) is defined as the
transform in which phase angle of all components of
the signal is shifted by ±90o Hilbert transform of x(t)
is represented with x^(t) shown in the below figure it
is given by,
Problems:

1. Thermal noise from a resistor is measured as 4 x 10-17W for a

given bandwidth and at a temperature of 200c. What will be the
noise power when temperature is changed to (i) 500c (ii) 700c
?

Solution:

Given, Pn = 4 x 10-17 W at T = 200c

Let T = 20 + 273 = 2930K

Pn = KTB

4 x 10-17= 1.38 x 10-23x 293 x B

B = 9892.66 Hz

Pn when T = 500c

Pn = KTB

= 1.38 x 10-23x (50+273) x 9892.66

Pn = 4.4 x 10-17 W

Pn when T = 700c

Pn = KTB

= 1.38 x 10-23x (70+273) x 9892.66

Pn = 9.56 x 10-18 W
2.Two resistors 20 KΩ and 50 KΩ are at room temperature.
Calculate for a bandwidth of 100 KHz, the thermal noise
voltage
i. For each resistor
ii. For two resistor in series
iii. For two resistor in parallel
Solution:
Given, R1 = 20 KΩ , R2 = 50 KΩ
T = 27 +273 = 3000 K
B = 100 KHz
K = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
i. Thermal noise voltage for each resistors

R1 = 20 KΩ , 𝑬𝒏𝟏 = 𝟒𝑲𝑻𝑩𝑹𝟏
𝑬𝒏𝟏 = 𝟒 × 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 × 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝑬𝒏𝟏 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟓𝟓 𝝁𝑽
R2= 50 KΩ , 𝑬𝒏𝟏 = 𝟒𝑲𝑻𝑩𝑹𝟐
𝑬𝒏𝟏 = 𝟒 × 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 × 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝑬𝒏𝟏 = 𝟗. 𝟏 𝝁𝑽
ii. Thermal noise voltage for two resistors in series

R = R1 + R2 = 20 +50 = 70 KΩ
𝑬𝒏 = 𝟒𝑲𝑻𝑩𝑹
𝑬𝒏 = 𝟒 × 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 × 𝟕𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝑬𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟕 𝝁𝑽
iii. Thermal noise voltage for two resistors in parallel
R = R1 R2 / R1 + R2 = (20 K x 50 K) / (20 K + 50 K) = 14.285 KΩ
𝑬𝒏 = 𝟒𝑲𝑻𝑩𝑹
𝑬𝒏 = 𝟒 × 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 × 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝑬𝒏 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟔𝟒 𝝁𝑽
3. An Amplifier 1 has a noise figure of 9 dB and power gain of

15 dB. It is connected in cascade to the other amplifier 2 with

noise figure of 20 dB. Calculate the overall noise figure for this

cascade connection.

Solution: For amp 2, Noise Figure = 20 dB

20 dB = 10 log [F2]

F2 = 100

For amp 1, Noise Figure = 9 dB

9 dB = 10 log [F1]

F1 = 7.94328

Power gain G is 15 dB

15 dB = 10 log [G1]

G1 = 31.6227

Using Frill’s formula,

𝑭𝟐 −𝟏
Overall Noise Factor, 𝐅 = 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑮𝟏

𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝟏
= 𝟕. 𝟗𝟖𝟒𝟑𝟐𝟖 + 𝟑𝟏.𝟔𝟐𝟐𝟕

𝐅 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟗𝟒

Overall Noise Figure,

Noise Figure = 10 log [F]

= 10 log [11.07394]

Noise Figure = 10.443 dB

4. A receiver connected to an antenna of resistance of 50 KΩ has an
equivalent noise resistance of 30 Ω. Find the receiver noise figure.

Solution:

Given, Ra = 50Ω , Req= 30Ω

𝑹𝒆𝒒
Noise Figure, 𝐅 = 𝟏 + 𝑹𝒂

𝟑𝟎
= 𝟏 + 𝟓𝟎

𝐅 = 𝟏. 𝟔

5. A receiver has an input signal power of l.2µW. The noise power is

0.80µW. The signal to noise ratio is ----------

Solution :

Signal Power = l.2µW , Noise Power = 0.80µW

(SNR)dB = 10 log (Signal Power / Noise Power)

(SNR)dB = 10 log (1.2/0.8)

= 10 log 1.5

= 10 (0.176)

(SNR)dB = 1.76 dB
6. Determine the rms value of shot noise current in the case of PN
Junction carrying 10 mA of average current. If operating temperature is
2900K and BW = 10KHz
Solution :
e = 1.67 x 10-19 c
Idc = 10 mA
B = 10 KHz
T = 2900K
 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝟐𝒆𝑰𝒅𝒄 𝑩𝑻

𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝟐 × 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 × 𝟐𝟗𝟎

𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑨𝒎𝒑

7. The circuit through diode is 10 mA. Determine the rms value of the shot
current in 20 KHz BW.

Solution:

e = 1.67 x 10-19 c

Idc = 10 mA

B = 10 KHz

𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝟐𝒆𝑰𝒅𝒄 𝑩

𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝟐 × 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑

𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝟖. 𝟏𝟕𝟑 𝒏𝑨𝒎𝒑

8. Calculate the noise equivalent bandwidth of LPF with the bandwidth of

2MHz.

Solution :

fc = 2 MHz
𝝅
𝑩𝑵 = 𝒇
𝟐 𝒄
𝝅
= × 𝟐 𝑴𝑯𝒛
𝟐
𝑩𝑵 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝑴𝑯𝒛
6.4 ASSIGNMENTS

1. A frequency modulator is having frequency sensitivity 𝐾𝑓 = 1 kHz/volt.

If the modulator is used modulate a single-tone signal of m(t) = 10
cos(4,000πt) and the modulated signal is demodulated at receiver by
using frequency discriminator, Find the figure of merit of receiver.

2. A video signal of having bandwidth of 100 MHz, power of 1mw is

transmitted through a channel. Power loss of the channel is given by
40db. Noise PSD is given by 10−20 𝑤/𝐻𝑧, Find SNR at the input of the
receiver.

𝑃𝐿 = 40 dB
TX RX

3. Audio Signal Bandlimited to 15 KHz is transmitted through a channel

after modulation. Power loss in the channel is given as 50 dB. Two
sided Noise power spectral density is 10−10 𝑤/𝐻𝑧 . 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 transmitted
power required to get (S/N)𝑂/𝑃 of 40 dB. If the modulation scheme

used is

a) DSB

b) AM with 𝜇 = 1

c) FM with 𝛽 = 5

4. Radio receiver with equivalent bandwidth of 10 Khz has a noise

figure of 20 dB .If input SNR to receiver is 40 dB, determine the
output SNR. what is the equivalent Noise temperature ,if ambient
temperature is 300k.
5. The noise output of a resistor is amplified by a noiseless amplifier
having a gain of 60 dB and bandwidth of 20 kHz. A meter connected
at the output of amplifier reads 1 mV.

(i) Case (a) : If the bandwidth of the amplifier is reduced to 5

kHz and it remains constant. What does the voltmeter read?

(ii) Case (b) : If the resistor is operated at 80°C, What is the

equivalent resistance?

6. A front end of TV receiver having a bandwidth of 7 MHz and

operating at t temperature of 27 °C. Consists of an amplifier having
a gain of 15 followed by a mixer having a gain of 20. The amplifier
has a 300Ω, Input resistor and noise equivalent resistance of 500 Ω.
For the converter these values are 2.2 K Ω and 13.5 K Ω
respectively. The load resistance for the mixer is 470 K Ω. Calculate
the equivalent resistor for this television.

500 Ω 13.5 KΩ
Amplifier Mixer
A=15 A=20 470 KΩ

2.2 KΩ
300 Ω

Vn
6.5 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.No PART A CO’S Blooms

Level
Define noise.
Noise is defined as any unwanted form of energy, which tends to
1. interfere with proper reception and reproduction of wanted CO3 K1
signal.
Give the classification of noise. CO3 K1
Noise is broadly classified into two types. They are
2. (i)External noise
(ii)Internal noise.
What are the types of External noise? CO3 K1
External noise can be classified into
3. 1. Atmospheric noise
2. Extraterrestrial noises
3. Man –made noises or industrial noises
What are types of internal noise? CO3 K1
Internal noise can be classified into
1. Thermal noise
2. Shot noise
4.
3. Transit time noise
4. Partition noise
5. Flicker noise

What are the types of extraterrestrial noise and write their CO3 K1
origin?
The two type of extraterrestrial noise are solar noise and cosmic
5.
noise Solar noise is the electrical noise emanating from the sun.
Cosmic noise is the noise received from the center part of our
galaxy, other distant galaxies and other virtual point sources.
Define transit time of a transistor. CO3 K1
6. Transit time is defined as the time taken by the electron to travel
from emitter to the collector.
Define flicker noise. CO3 K1
Flicker noise is the one appearing in transistors operating at low
7. audio frequencies. Flicker noise is proportional to the emitter
current and junction temperature and inversely proportional to
the frequency.

57
S.No PART A CO’S Blooms
Level

Define signal to noise ratio. CO3 K1

8. Signal to noise ratio is the ratio of signal power to the noise
power at the same point in a system.

Define thermal noise. CO3 K1

electrons in a conductor possess varying amounts of energy. A
9. small fluctuation in this energy produces small noise voltages in
the conductor. These random fluctuations produced by thermal
agitation of the electrons is called thermal noise.
Give the expression for the thermal noise voltage across a CO3 K1
resistor.
𝐄𝐧 = 𝟒𝐊𝐓𝐑𝐁
Where En = root-mean-square noise voltage, volts
10. R = resistance of the conductor, ohms
T = conductor temperature, Kelvin
B = noise bandwidth, hertz
K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K

Define noise temperature. CO3 K1

The available noise power is directly proportional to temperature
and it is independent of value of resistance. This power specified
11. in terms of temperature is called as noise temperature. It is
denoted by Te . It is given as, Te = (F −1 )T

What is shot noise? CO3 K1

When current flows in electronic device, the fluctuations number
12. of electrons or holes generates the noise. It is called shot noise.
Shot noise also depends upon operating conditions of the
device.

58
S.No PART A CO’S Blooms
Level
What is narrowband noise? CO3 K1
The receiver of a communication system usually includes some
provision for preprocessing the received signal. The
preprocessing may take the form of a narrowband filter whose
13. bandwidth is large enough to pass modulated component of the
received signal essentially undistorted but not so large as to
admit excessive noise through the receiver. The noise process
appearing at the output of such filter is called narrow band
noise.
Define noise equivalent bandwidth. CO3 K1
The noise equivalent bandwidth of the filter is defined as the
14.
bandwidth of an ideal filter at which the noise power passed by
real filter and ideal filter is same.
Define noise factor. CO3 K1
Noise factor (F) is defined as the ratio of signal to noise power
15.
ratio at the input to signal to noise power ratio at the output

Give the characteristics of shot noise. CO3 K1

(i) Shot noise is generated due to fluctuations in the number
of electrons or holes.
(ii) Shot noise has uniform spectral density.
16.
(iii) Mean square noise current depends upon direct
component of current.
(iv) Shot noise depends upon operating conditions of the
device.
What is FM threshold effect? CO3 K1
As the carrier to noise ratio is reduced, clicks are heard in the
receiver output. As the carrier to noise ratio reduces further,
crackling, or sputtering sound appears at the receiver output.
17.
Near
the breaking point, the theoretically calculated output signal to
noise ratio becomes large, but its actual value is very small. This
phenomenon is called threshold effect.

59
S.No PART A CO’S Blooms
Level

What is meant by figure of merit of a receiver? CO3 K1

18. The ratio of output signals to noise ratio to channel signal to
noise ratio is called figure of merit.

60
6.6 Part B Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.No PART B CO’S Blooms

Level
(i) How thermal noise is generated? Derive the CO3
expression for thermal noise voltage.
1. (ii) How shot noise is generated? Write the expression for K1
PSD of shot noise and also derive.

Summaries the characteristics of various noise found a CO3

2. K2
communication channel.
3. Define noise. Explain the various types of internal noise. CO3 K1
4. Derive the Frii’s formula for noise in cascaded circuit. CO3 K2
5. Determine the noise figure for cascaded stage amplifiers. CO3 K2
Derive the representation of narrowband noise. Write the CO3
6. properties of narrow band noise. K2

Give the representation of narrowband noise in terms of CO3

7. envelope and phase components. Write the properties of K2
narrow band noise.

61
6.6 Part B Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.No PART B CO’S Blooms

Level
For a cascaded two stage amplifier, the first stage has a CO3
noise figure of 2db and a power gain of 12db. The second
14. stage has a noise figure of 6db and a power gain of K3
10db.Find the overall noise figure in db

Three amplifier 1,2 and 3 have the following characteristics CO3

F1 =9 dB, G1 = 50 dB; F2 = 6 dB, G2 = 30 dB; F3 =4 dB, G3
15. = 20 dB. K3
Three amplifiers are connected in tandem. Determine
which combination gives the lowest noise figure.
A mixer stage has a noise figure of 20db.This mixer stage is CO3
preceded by an amplifier which has a noise figure of 9db
16. and an available power gain of 15db.Find the overall noise K3
figure referred to the input.

(i) Two resistor 20 k and 50 k are at room temperature. CO3

Calculate for a bandwidth of 200 KHz; the thermal noise
voltage.
(a) For each resistor, (b) For two resistor in series, (c) For
17. two resistor in parallel. K3
(ii) Thermal noise from a resistor is measured as 4 x 10-17
W, for a given bandwidth and at a temperature of 200 C.
What will be the noise power when temperature is changed
to (a) 500 C (b)700 K
The First stage of a two stage RF amplifier has an output CO3
resistance of 20Kohm and a voltage gain of 10 the input
resistance and noise resistance are 500 ohm and 2Kohm
respectively. The second stage has an output resistance of
18. 400Kohm, voltage gain of 20, an input resistance of 80Kohm K3
and noise resistance of 10Kohm.Compute equivalent noise
resistance of the two stage amplifier and its noise figure.
The amplifier is driven by a generator whose output
impedance is 40ohm

62
6.7 Supportive online Certification courses (NPTEL,
Swayam, Coursera, Udemy, etc.,)

ONLINE COURSE NPTEL:

https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc21_ee30/preview

Principles of Digital Communications

By Prof. Abhishek Dixit | IIT Delhi

This course covers introduction to digital communications: Interfaces and

channels for digital communications , Geometric representation of signals, Gram-
Schmidt orthogonalization, Geometric interpretation of signals, Review of random
variables: Introduction to random variables, joint probability density function,
characteristic functions, derived distributions, Review of random process:
Introduction to random processes, Gaussian process, Linear functional of random
process, Stationary and wide sense stationary random process, Power spectral
density, White Gaussian noise

ONLINE COURSE COURSERA:

https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc21_ee11/preview

Modern digital communication techniques

By Prof. Suvra Sekhar Das | IIT Kharagpur

The course is covers the practical basics of digital communication systems, Source
Coding, Characterization of Communication Signals & Systems, Signal space
Representation, Representation of Memory less Modulation Methods, Nonlinear
modulation methods, Probability of error of different modulation schemes,
Fundamentals of estimation and detection theory used in digital communication,
Carrier phase and symbol timing synchronization techniques, Channel estimation
and equalization techniques, Power Adaptation methods for colored noise channel

63
6.8 Real time Applications in day to day life and to
Industry

Applications of Frequency Modulation Receiver:

Telemetry, radar and seismic prospecting, EEG monitoring of new-
born’s etc. also use the technique of frequency modulation.
Frequency modulation can be used for the broadcasting of FM radio.
This helps in larger signal to noise ratio.
It is also used in music synthesis, some systems that use video-
transmission and also for magnetic tape-recording systems.
FM Radar
FM radar using passive transponders
In the classic FM technique, the microwave source sweeps in
frequency over time, usually with a linear ramp. By mixing the received
signal with the outgoing signal, the difference frequency is proportional
to the range at which the reflection occurred. By using this method to
illuminate a co-operative target, i.e. a passive transponder, the range
to the transponder is uniquely determined in a high-resolution
measurement which is essentially free of clutter, since the receiver is
locked onto the modulation code of the transponder.
Application areas include radio navigation and tracking and control
systems such as covert avionic landing aids. In particular, a maritime
range finder and tracking system is undergoing development.
Medical applications of shortwave FM radar: remote monitoring of
cardiac and respiratory motion
AM Receiver
AM is used for broadcasting in long wave or medium wave or short
wave bands.
The Very High Frequency (VHF) transmission is processed by AM.
Radio communication uses VHF.
An special type of AM is Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM). It is
used for data transmission from short range transmission to cellular
communications.

64
6.9 Contents beyond the Syllabus
PHASE NOISE

Phase noise is commonly used to describe the performance of oscillators and

is a measure of the power spectral density of the phase angle. Noise in the phase
angle of a sinusoid is visible on the power spectral density of the carrier sinusoid as
a spread of the true carrier tone. Phase noise in the frequency domain is equivalent
to jitter in the time domain. In this application note, we will refer to phase noise
power integrated over a bandwidth as phase jitter. Phase jitter, when calculated
from phase noise, is an RMS quantity. In addition to noise, there are other
repeating phenomena that generate additional tones, usually much lower than the
carrier. Such tones are labeled as "spurs." The word "spur" comes from the word
"spurious", which means "not the original" Spurs are signals close to the
primary/carrier frequency but that are not the primary signal. Such signals can be
problematic for some applications but may have no effect on other systems.
Typically, the term "spurs" refers to those that are not harmonics of the carrier
signal; so, many devices specify non-harmonic spurious power separately. Spurs
require additional consideration when calculating the integrated jitter.

Figure.1 Phase noise Phasor diagram

A phasor with amplitude A can have any value of phase from 0 to 360
degrees as represented by the phasor rotating around the origin. Including the
phase component gives a phasor of value Asin(2πft) . Noise contains components
at many frequencies, so its phase with respect to the main carrier is random, and
its amplitude is also random. Noise can only be described in statistical terms
because its voltage is constantly and randomly changing, but it does have an
average amplitude that can be expressed in RMS volts. Figure 2 shows noise added
to the carrier phasor, with the noise represented as a fuzzy, uncertain region in
which the sum phasor wanders randomly.

65
Figure 2 Phase noise added to a carrier. The phasor of figure 1 can also have a
smaller phasor added to it due to noise. This additional random noise phasor will
cause a ‘circle’ of random values which is phase noise added to the carrier.

The phase of the noise is uniformly random – no direction is more likely than
any other – but the instantaneous magnitude of the noise obeys a probability
distribution as shown. 2 How phase noise effects a system. In transmitters
local oscillator noise is amplified by the subsequent amplifier stages and is
eventually fed to the antenna together with the wanted signal. The wanted
signal is therefore surrounded by a band of noise originating from the phase
noise of the local oscillator. Therefore the noise generated can spread over
several kHz masking nearby lower power stations as shown in figure 3

Figure 3 Transmitter spectrum for a clean and noisy local oscillator source. The lower
diagram shows how a noisy local oscillator can raise the noise floor, swamping low
power signals close to carrier.

The situation is more complicated with receivers and results in reciprocal

mixing in the mixer. If we modulate a RF signal and mix it with a clean LO
source a modulated IF signal will be the result. If, on the over hand, we mix a
clean RF signal with a modulated LO source then again a modulated IF will be
the result.

66
This amounts to a scrambling of these other weaker frequencies into the noise. It is
for the reasons given that phase noise is a key design parameter for such
applications as satellite repeaters, sensitive communication receivers and mobile
phone base stations.
3 Limits on phase noise performance - Leeson’s Oscillator Model

An oscillator can be considered as an amplifier with positive feedback

and initially the contribution of the amplifier noise specified by its Noise factor can
be considered. Noise factor F is defined as follows

(𝑆/𝑁) 𝑁𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑁𝑂𝑈𝑇

F= 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 (𝑆/𝑁) 𝐼𝑁 = =
𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝐺 𝑁𝐼𝑁 𝐺𝐾𝑇𝐵

𝑁𝑂𝑈𝑇 = FGKTB
𝑁𝐼𝑁 = KTB where 𝑁𝐼𝑁 is the total input noise power to a noise – free amplifier.

The phase-noise can be modelled by a noise-free amplifier and a phase detector at

the input, as shown below in figure 4.

Figure 4 Representation of oscillator noise.

The close to carrier noise with a slope of 9dB/octave is due to the flicker noise of the
active device and has a cut-off at the flicker corner frequency of 1/f. The 6dB/octave
section is due to phase noise according to Leeson’s equation and is a function of
loaded Q, noise factor, power, temperature. Above carrier offsets of fo/(2QL) noise is
broad-band noise as defined by FkTB/(Pavs).

67
 7. Assessment Schedule

Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit 1 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 1

Unit 2 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 1 27.02.2023
Retest for IA 1

Unit 3 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 2

Unit 4 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 2 18.04.2023
Retest for IA 2

Unit 5 Assignment
Assessment
Revision Test 1

Revision Test 2

Model Exam 11.05.2023

Remodel Exam

University Exam

68
8. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOK

J.G.Proakis, M.Salehi, ―Fundamentals of Communication Systems‖, Pearson

Education 2014. (UNIT I-IV)

Simon Haykin, ―Communication Systems‖, 4th Edition, Wiley, 2014.(UNIT I-

V) T3. Shibu. K.V, “Introduction to Embedded Systems”, 2e, Mc graw Hill,
2017.

REFERENCES

B.P.Lathi, - Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems‖, 3rd Edition,

Oxford University Press, 2007.

D.Roody, J.Coolen, ―Electronic Communications, 4th edition PHI 2006.

A.Papoulis, ―Probability, Random variables and Processes, McGraw Hill, 3rd

edition, 1991.

B.Sklar, Digital Communications Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd Edition

Pearson Education 2007

H P Hsu, Schaum Outline Series - ―Analog and Digital Communications

TMH 2006

69
9. Mini Project suggestions

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS MINI PROJECTS LIST

S.No Name of The Project

1 AM Receiver

2 FM Radio Receiver

3 Two Transistor AM Radio Receiver

4 Sensitive FM Radio Tuner circuit

5 Superheterodyne Receiver using MATLAB

6 FM Transmitter

7 IR Music transmitter and Receiver

8 PC Based GPS Receiver

70
 Thank you

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