Cell Membrane and Cell Organelles

Molecules -> Organelles -> cells -> ssues -> organ -> organism

Func on of cell membrane as a boundary

1. Separate cytosol from extracellular uid
2. Prevent mixing of molecules
3. Internal membranes can enclose individual organelles

Integral proteins
• Proteins that are directly inserted across the cell membrane

Peripheral proteins
• Proteins that are in contact with either inner or outer side

Amount of lipids and proteins varies between di erent membranes

Why does Golgi Apparatus have many proteins?

• Many metabolic reac ons take place in matrix and cristae-> high demand
of proteins

Characteris cs of Cell Membrane

1. Amphipathic
2. Phospholipids are held tgt by hydrophobic interac ons
3. Membrane asymmetry-> composi on of the two layers are di erent
(glycolipid and glycoprotein only face outer side)

Features of Mobility of lipid components in membranes

1. Phospholipid can rotate rapidly around the hydrophobic tail
2. Very slow transverse exchange (thermodynamic constraints -> no energy ->
cannot ip op)
3. Rapid lateral di usion (proteins also can move) -> so that can exchange
places with molecules in the same monolayer

Why is the cell membrane described as a uid?

• Lipids and proteins are able to move laterally

Factors that increase uidity

1. Increasing temperature (more kine c energy to break more bonds)
2. Shorter hydrophobic tails (weaker hydrophobic a rac on forces)
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 3. Increasing number of double bonds (tail will bend->irregular shape-
>phospholipids push against each other-> weak weak hydrophobic forces)
4. Less cholesterol (high uidity)

Why is the cell membrane described as mosaic?

• Membrane proteins are dispersed throughout the membrane

Func ons of membrane proteins

1. Protein receptors so cells can respond to neurotransmi ers, hormones…
etc (e.g. insulin receptors)
2. Adhesion molecules to anchor junc ons to connect neighbouring cells and
provide strength and support
3. Enzymes (e.g. glucose-6-phosphatase at sER to catalyse the rst step of
glycogen break down to increase BGL)
4. Allow transport of substances across cell membrane

If molecules cannot pass through the cell membrane, what can help?
1. Pump
2. Protein transporters
3. Ion channels

What will happen a er meals?

1. BGL increase and s mulate the release of insulin from pancreas
2. Insulin bind to insulin receptors and ac ve glucose transporters to increase
uptake of glucose from blood
3. BGL returns to normal

Func ons of Cell Membrane

1. Separates cell from extracellular uid
2. Gateway and barrier to regulate exchange of materials between the cell
and extracellular uid

Features of Nucleus
• Double membrane
• Have nuclear pores for exchange of materials
• Nucleoplasm contain gene c informa on

Where is ribosomes produced?

• At the nucleolus
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 Cytoplasm=> 唔包nucleus

Cytoplasm = Cytosol + Organelles

Cytosol: contain dissolved nutrients, ions, waste

All membranous except ribosomes and cytoskeleton

Func ons of sER

1. Synthesis of lipids e.g. phospholipids and cholesterol
2. Drug detoxi ca on in liver cells
3. Calcium storage (in muscle cells they are called sarcoplasmic re culum)
**it releases Ca ions out of sER during muscle contrac on (increase in Ca ions
level -> signal the muscle to contract)

Func ons of ribosomes

• Protein synthesis

Func ons of rER

• Produc on and modi ca on of proteins

Fate of newly synthesized proteins

• Released as vesicles from rER and transported to Golgi apparatus for
further modi ca on

**rER cannot make all types of proteins (cannot make mitochondrial proteins)**

Process of protein synthesis

1. mRNA is produced at the nucleus and di uses across the nuclear pores
into the cytoplasm
2. The mRNA and ribosomal subunits join to begin protein synthesis
3. A ribosome a ached to a receptor in the rER, the protein enters the lumen
of ER
4. Ribosomal subunits and mRNA breaks away -> protein reminas in rER and
folds to nal shape

Func on of Golgi apparatus

• Processing sta on that par cipates in protein and lipid matura on with
the help of enzymes, packs lipids and proteins in vesicles, and send newly
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 synthesised proteins to appropriate subcellular des na ons in the form of
transport vesicles by sor ng

Cis- Golgi network: side facing ER and receives transport vesicles

Proteins and lipid modi ca on occurs in lumen of Golgi apparatus (e.g. long
proteins cleaved into shorter ones, carbohydrates a ach to proteins to form
glycoproteins)

Trans- Golgi network: side which protein and lipids are released as vesicles

Lysosome
• One membrane only
• Contains enzymes to break down large molecules
• CAN ONLY WORK UNDER ACIDIC CONDITIONS CAUSED BY ACCUMULATION
OF H IONS (hv protein pump to pump H ions into the lysosomes)

Func ons of lysosome

• Recycle cellular material and digest worn out organelles by discarding
debris out of the cell

Processes that lysosome is involved with

1. Phagocytosis (phagosome fuses with lysosome-> enzymes in lysosome
digest bacteria to simple molecules-> phagolysosome)
2. Pinocytosis (func on: uptake of small molecules from external
environment) (endosome fuses with lysosome to form endolysosome->
enzymes in lysosome digest molecules to simple molecules)
3. Autophagocytosis (func on: get rid of old organelles/substances)
(cytoplasmic components are isolated and enclosed into a vesicle to form
autophagosome-> lysosome fuses with autophagosome to form
autophagolysosome-> enzymes in lysosome break down substances in
autophagolysosome to form autolysosome and simple molecules)

Func ons of mitochondria

1. ATP produc on to supply energy
2. Involve in cell death pathway

Structures of mitochondria
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Outer mitochondrial membrane-> have porin (integral protein) for forma on of
pores on surface of cell to allow molecules to pass through

Intermembrane space: contain cytochrome c, involves in energy produc on and

cell death pathway

If the cell is unhealthy-> cytochrome c will leak out due to produc on of large
holes-> signal to ini ate cell death pathway

Inner mitochondiral membrane-> invaginates to form a lot of foldings, have a lot

of membrane proteins, invovles in ATP produc on

Matrix-> site for Krebs' cycle, break down fa y acids for energy produc on

Mitochondrial dna (mtDNA)

• Produce proteins for energy produc on, maternal inherited (from lomo)
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