Section 4: The Rise of Napoleon and His Impact on France and Europe Chapter 17 The Impact of Napoleon’s Rule

le of France – Political Change

Chapter 17: The Impact of Napoleon’s Rule of France – Political

Change
What does the assassination attempt in December 1800 suggest about Napoleon’s popularity?
• On 24 December 1800, Napoleon was on his way to a gala performance when a wagon bearing a barrel filled
with gunpowder and shrapnel (to be known as the ‘infernal machine’) was set off as his carriage passed
• He was saved by the speed of his carriage and the poor quality of the gunpowder used
• Around 52 people were killed or wounded including Napoleon’s stepdaughter who was cut on the wrist by
flying metal. Several buildings were also destroyed
• It was a clear sign that Napoleon was not universally accepted and would have to take action if he was to
preserve and consolidate his power

How significant was the plebiscite of 1800?

• Napoleon appealed directly to the French people for ratification of the Constitution of the Year VIII in a
plebiscite
• It would make no difference to his position but it provided an opportunity for an apparent show of concern for
more representative government and a retrospective justification for the Coup of Brumaire
• It supplied Napoleon with the necessary confirmation of his position as First Consul to challenge politicians
who had spoken out against him
• The ballot was not secret – voters wrote yes or no against their names on a public list so manipulation and
intimidation affected the vote
• The vote in 1800 nearly backfired since few of the electorate chose to turn out to vote – an estimated 25%,
representing 1.5m people – suggesting that there was no immediate rush of enthusiasm for the regime. Fairly
low-level participation was not totally out of keeping with earlier plebiscites however
• Lucien, who had been appointed Minister o the Interior in December 1799, adjusted the statistics to suggest
that 46.26 per cent of the electorate had participated and that they overwhelmingly supported Napoleon’s
actions

Vote % of Votes Number of Votes

Yes 99.94 3 011 007
No 0.06 1562
Total 100 3 012 579

How did Napoleon consolidate his position?

• He behaved almost like a monarch by moving into the Tuileries Palace and having coins minted with his effigy
on them. On these he either appeared bar-headed or wearing a laurel wrath, recalling the ancient Roman
symbol of supreme authority
• He selected members of the Council of State over which he presided, awarding them various ministerial
positions e.g. Cambacérès with his first Minister for Justice and Fouche became Minister for Police
• He enjoyed ceremonial and entertained at ‘state banquets’
• He established prefects which strengthened central control

What continuities were there?

• There was no further attempts to raise is status immediately
• The constitution had provided for come continuity of personnel between the Directory and the new Tribunate
and Legislative Body
• The structure of the government remained much the same, with most civil servants continuing in their posts –
ensuring stability
• New innovations were introduced however - in particular the establishment of prefects – simply strengthened
central control within the existing framework. Prefects were similar to the intendents and the representatives-
en-mission
• Napoleon could claim that he had responded to the people’s and the country/s needs by supplying strong and
effective government from a ruler whose decisions were taken ‘in the people’s best interests’
Section 4: The Rise of Napoleon and His Impact on France and Europe
How did Napoleon deal with political opponents?
Jacobins - Those who supported popular democracy
Threat
• It was strong in the lower ranks of the army and
among the lower classes in towns
• It was not tolerated and Napoleon instructed the
police to be vigilant for it
• He wanted to avoid another Terror and didn’t
like the unpredictability of them
• Some Jacobins were behind failed ‘dagger
conspiracy’ to assassinate Napoleon in October
1800
• They were wrongly blamed for the abortive
bomb plot in the ‘infernal machine’ in
December 1800; this was actually perpetrated
by royalists, who were also found and
guillotined
Royalists
• Some initially entertained the false hope that Napoleon would quickly place the comte de Provence (who had
styled himself Louis XVIII) on the throne, while a few thought he would advance Louis-Philippe d’Orleans
Threat
• There was a royalist demonstration in Paris on
the anniversary of Lousi XVI’s execution (21
January 1800) when the façade of the church of
Sainte-Madelein was covered in black and the
king’s will posted on the door. A senator was
kidnapped and a constitutional bishop was
assassinated.
• The ‘opera plot’, a spy ring and the Cadoudal
conspiracy all involved royalists; following the
Cadoudal conspiracy in 1804, 18 aristocrats
were condemned to death but reprieved. They
remained in 1814. The ‘common’ conspirators
were guillotined
• There were various royalist disturbances in the
capital between 1800 and at least two royalist
assassination attempts against Napoleon, in
which the army commander Jean-Charles
• Pichegru and the Chouan military leader George
Cadoudal were implicated
• By 1804, it seemed that Bonaparte’s patience
had run out when his spy network (wrongly)
reported news that a Bourbon prince was
involved in these conspiracies
• Suspicions fell on the Bourbon prince, the duc
d’Enghien, who was living 15km from the
French border in Baden and was said to have
been in touch with emigres and royalists
Liberals
• While Napoleon was generally accepted by ‘moderates’ some were critical of what they saw as emerging
‘dictatorship’ and enacted a constitution that guaranteed rights such as freedom speech and freedom of the
press
Chapter 17 The Impact of Napoleon’s Rule of France – Political Change
How was it dealt with it?
• Spies were used to infiltrate potential Jacobin
groups and leaders made an example of
• In 1801, 129 Jacobin leaders were arrested and
deported to the Seychelles or Guiana
• Civil servants thought to be Jacobin
sympathisers were also dismissed
How was it dealt with?
• In September 1800, Napoleon responded to a
letter from the comte de Provence making his
position clear ‘You should not hope to return to
France. It would be better for you to march over
one hundred thousand corpses’
• He dealt firmly with outbreaks of royalist revolt
and associated protests against conscription and
general banditry in western France, continuing
the use of military tribunals to deal with rebel
leaders
• General Brune, fresh from success in Holland,
was sent to deal with those who refused
Napoleon’s offer of a truce
• In Brittany, 6000 Chouan prisoners were taken
and 750 shot in 1800
• Napoleon also extended the remit of the police
and used his prefects to report on incidences of
trouble, thus ensuring that any further disorder
was localised and firmly addressed
• A plot was hatched to kidnap the duc d’Enghien
and he was taken to Strasbourg and accused of
bearing arms against the Republic, receiving
funds from England and plotting
• He admitted to the first two and was found
guilty and summarily shot in the ditch of the
Chateau de Vincennes in 1804
• Royalist gave Napoleon little trouble afterwards
Section 4: The Rise of Napoleon and His Impact on France and Europe Chapter 17 The Impact of Napoleon’s Rule of France – Political Change

Threat How was it dealt with?

• One such was Madame de Stael, a respected
writer and thinker with views on ‘liberal
government’ that she sought to share with
Napoleon. Her salon where her lover, Benjamin
Constant, and his friends met formed the
nucleus of the liberal resistance group
• Madame de Stael’s group so irritated Napoleon
that in 1893 he ordered that both Constant and
Madame de Stael be banished to a distance of
64km from Paris

How were newspapers and other publications controlled?

Newspapers

• The press was expected to act as the unquestioning mouthpiece of the government
• In January 1800, he reduced the number of Parisian newspapers from 73 to 13. By the end of the year this had
been further reduced to nine. By 180, only 4 were still allowed to publish
• Owners and editors of newspapers retained by the present decree had to present themselves to the Minister of
Police in order to prove their qualifications as French citizens and their residence and they had to promise
loyalty to the constitution
• All newspapers which included articles contrary to the social order, to the sovereignty of the people and to the
glory of the armies, or which publish abuse against governments and nations friendly to or allied with the
Republic, were be suppressed immediately
• All newspapers were subject to police supervision
• Censors were appointed to each paper from 1809 and no paper was allowed to discuss controversial topics;
only official news (as issued by Napoleon’s ministers) and military bulletins (written by Napoloen himself)
could be published
• Military bulletins were published regularly from the front, partly to boost the morale of the army and
dishearten the enemy, but they also served to maintain acclaim at home. Officers were also sent back to
Paris to report on achievements and any bad news was kept out of the press
• Provincial papers were reduced to one per département in 1810
• The government published its own paper, Le Moniteur

Other Publications

• A decree of 1808 reduced the number of publishing houses in Paris from nearly 200 to 60. The remaining 60
publishers had to obtain licences from the police; the same applied to provincial publishers
• Police were given powers to search a publisher’s shop and seize books; a fine of 2000 francs (later raised to
3000 francs) could be given for possessing illegal works
• All publishers were required to forward 2 copies of every book to police headquarters prior to publication
• Publishers were forced to swear an oath of loyalty to the government
• A decree of January 1810 set up a new censorship board (a branch of the Ministry of the Interior) to approve or
reject books for publication
• Official reports were also made on all plays, lectures and posters appearing in Paris in an attempt to contain the
spread of politically unacceptable material Some authors and playwrights fled abroad, while theatres could
only operate under licence and many were closed
• Napoleon employed all types of media to project the image he wanted people to see or hear. The
revolutionaries had, of course, done much the same, but whereas revolutionary art and writings had tended to
exalt abstract concepts such as liberty, equality and fraternity, Napoleon’s image-making was far more
personal and had a strong element of self-glorification
• Napoleon wanted to be portrayed as the an who was bringing order out of the chaos – a chaos that had been the
product of too much liberty. He was saving France from the excesses of the revolution
• Napoleon commissioned artists, architects, sculptors and writers to honour his achievements
• Jacques-Louis David was initially made responsible for paintings and was required to judge the suitability of
all subject matter. He produced the official painting of the Imperial coronation, with the Pope’s hand raised in
blessing, and the work The Distribution of the Eagle Standards (Napoleon distributed eagles three days after
his coronation to the various regiments raised by the départements of France. They were intended to instil
pride and loyalty among the troops, who were exhorted to defend the standards with their lives) in December
1804. However, David’s painting of Leonidas of Sparta, awaiting a battle in which he would die, offended
Napoleon and his favour moved to Antoine-Jean Gros, painter of the bridge at Arcola
Section 4: The Rise of Napoleon and His Impact on France and Europe Chapter 17 The Impact of Napoleon’s Rule of France – Political Change

• Napoleon also embarked on a programme of rebuilding and public works in Paris, helping to create a positive
image. Some was functional (e.g. new roads, abattoirs, markets, a new water-supply and fountains), but new
buildings provided an opportunity for reliefs and carvings and fountains for sculptures and statues.
Furthermore, showpieces like the Arc du Carousel, Arc de Triomphe, the Vendome Column and the rebuilding
of the old Church of La Madeleine as the Temple of Glory all helped glorify the regime

How was the state’s relationship with the Church changed?

• In December 1799, Napoleon decreed that churched could be open any day of the week and in July 1800 he
once again authorised that Sunday should be a day of rest, moving away from the revolutionary decadi, or
tenth day holiday
• The accession of anew Pope, Pius VII, in 1800 provided an excuse for a reconciliation
• Negotiations led to an agreement in July 1801, although the terms were not published until Easter Sunday 1802
(Napoleon hoped to conclude the Peace of Amiens beforehand hoping the temporary break from war would
reduce lingering support for the Jacobins who would oppose the matter)
• Given the strong position of the French Army in Italy, Napoleon was able to extract some favourable terms
from the Pope
• The Concordat of 15 July 1801 stated that:
• The Pope was recognised as the ‘head of the Catholic Church’
• Catholicism was recognised as the ‘religion of the majority’
• Catholic worship was to become freely available
• The Pope recognised the new regime in France and promised not to attempt to reclaim Church lands
• Bishops and clergy continued to be nominated by the First Consul (although consecrated by the Pope), and
paid as civil servants. They also continued to take an oath of loyalty
• The publication of the Concordat in April 1802 was accompanied by the ‘Organic Articles’ which Napoleon
issed without any reference to the Pope. These stated that government approval had to be given before any
Papal legate (envoy) entered France or any Papal document was published there. Furthermore, it stated that all
teachers in the seminaries which trained priests had to be Frenchmen and that these institutions would be
government-regulated
• The Organic Articles also guaranteed religious toleration to the nearly 700 000 Protestants and 40 000 Jews
living in France. Protestant ministers were to take an oath of loyalty and be paid by the state in the same way
as Catholic priests
• Napoleon sought assimilation for French Jews, who, despite the 1790 edict of toleration in France, had
suffered during the Terror and were often victimised and excluded from doing business
• In 1804 Napoleon decreed freedom of conscience for all and in 1807 he convened a meeting with 45 rabbis to
discuss proposals for great assimilation
• It maintained the Church’s land and tax had been lost forever
• Following the Concordat, refractory priests came out of hiding, churches reopened and the revolutionary
calendar was abandoned. France moved back to the Gregorian calendar in January 1806
• Churchmen began to take a more prominent role in education and a degree of harmony was restored

How did this help Napoleon consolidate his political power?

• No government that hoped to attract the popular support could ignore the need for revival of the Catholic
Church
• Reconciliation with the church would help the polices of amalgame and ralliement
• It would also give Napoleon another means of control, through cooperative priests whose teachings would
encourage acceptance and obedience
• Religion could also help preserve social order- something Napoleon wanted
• Catholic worship had started to become more open in the time of the Directory in reaction against the
dechristianisation of the Terror
• The Concordat helped to win over uncertain royalists, drawing Catholics away from their Bourbon alliance,
and did much to reassure the notables with its promises that the biens nationaux were safe and new-won wealth
would not be lost
• Retaining authority over the appointed bishops and clergy was also a coup for the Emperor, since it provided
him with a useful network of loyal clerics who could spread state propaganda and curb subversive behaviour –
and just to be sure, all clergy were carefully watched by the local prefects and police
Section 4: The Rise of Napoleon and His Impact on France and Europe Chapter 17 The Impact of Napoleon’s Rule of France – Political Change

• By standardising the church catechisms, he was able to turn a necessary Church reform to his own political
ends

How did Napoleon’s relationship with the Church deteriorate?

• However, Napoleon’s relationship with the Pope steadily deteriorated. This was partly because of French
ambitions in Italy but also because of the wat Napoleon treated the pontiff
• He was humiliated at Napoleon’s coronation in 1804. He was also ignored when, in 1806, Napoleon issued a
new ‘official’ Catholic Church catechism to be taught in schools. This included statements of duty, love,
respect, obedience and loyalty towards Napoleon, and referred to the Emperor as the agent of God’s power and
‘his image on earth’
• He angered the Pope by ordering that the Empire should celebrate 16 August as St. Napoleon’s day
• 2 years later, in 1808, French troops occupied Rome and in 1809 Napoleon imprisoned the Pope and annexed
the Papal States to his new Kingdom of Italy causing the old tensions to resurface
• In January 1813, Napoleon forced the Pope to sign the Concordat of Fontainebleau which made arrangements
for the future appointment of archbishops and bishops in the Empire and the Kingdom of Italy and proposed
that the Pope should reside in Paris. But it was never put into effect
• By the final years of Napoleon’s rule, little remained of the reconciliation of 1802

In addition to his policies towards the Church, how did Napoleon attempt to win over opponents?
• He was aiming for stability to guarantee his position
• He offered opportunities of reconciliation e.g. offering a generous amnesty to rebels in the west who were
prepared to lay down their arms and give their support
• This helped to win over some of the key royalist leaders, particularly when Napoleon promised to protect the
Catholic religion
• He also made overtures to emigres and refractory priests and offered rewards and posts to those prepared to
support him
• Napoleon’s policies, speech-making and propaganda were above all designed to win bourgeoise support
• He was particularly anxious to reassure purchasers of the biens nationaux. These people also had a keen
interest in maintaining stability and preventing any reversion to earlier times
• Changes to the vote gave them more political influence and they were encouraged by pronouncements that
there would be no attempt to restore émigré of church lands

Explain ‘amalgame’ and ‘ralliement’

• Napoleon spoke of ‘amalgame’ – ending the social divisions of the Ancien Regime by reconciling the old
nobility and new ruling elites
• And of ‘ralliement’ – rallying all, from nobles to Jacobin, around the regime
• Some of this was just talk, but as the regime became more secure and successful, there were success,
particularly as members of the old nobility accepted positions in the state

How did foreign policy success influence Napoleon’s domestic popularity?

• Both foreign policy success and a brief prospect of peace also made reconciliation easier in the early years
• A success against Austrian forces at Marengo (in Piedmont) in 1800 provided a new opportunity for the
propagandist exultation of Napoleon’s military heroism
• The 1802 Peace of Amiens with Britain offered some respite from constant war for the first time in 10 years
and was popular with those members of the bourgeoisie whose internets were in trade and peacetime
occupations
• By giving those with influence what they wanted, Napoleon won over some who had felt doubts in 1799

Outline how the Constitution of Year X and the Constitution of Year XII progressively altered
Napoleon’s position in France p.150
• In 1802, the Senate offered Napoleon the position of Consul for Life and the right to name his heir
• The Constitution of the Year X was, according to official announcement, a gesture of national gratitude to
Napoleon and issued in the interests of stability, confidence and the deterring of enemies
• It was accompanied by another plebiscite which apparently showed stronger support for the regime than that of
1800. This time 50.55% voted (although it is not known if the official statistics reflect the true opinion)
Section 4: The Rise of Napoleon and His Impact on France and Europe Chapter 17 The Impact of Napoleon’s Rule of France – Political Change

Vote % of Vote Number of Votes

Yes 99.76 3 568 885
No 0.24 8374
Total 100 3 577,259
• In 1804, Napoleon went a step further. According to the declaration, the move was made in response to the
‘pressure of public opinion’ and the advice of ‘prudent counsellors’
• The resumption of war in 1803 had revived fears that Napoleon could be killed on the battlefield, while
royalists’ plots and the so called ‘conspiracy of the duc d’Enghien’ in February/March 1804 seemed to show
him he was surrounded by enemies that had to be put down. The threats provided a good excuse for extending
his power
• The constitution of the Year XII established the first French Empire with Napoleon as Emperor with hereditary
succession for the House of Bonaparte
• The electoral process was changed by the constitution so that those on the departmental list could only be
appointed from the 600 leading taxpayers in each department. Furthermore, the First Consul was to nominate
up to 10 members himself from among the 30 highest taxpayers
• Again, these were presented to the people in a plebiscite. The turnout was 47.2% the official result showed
virtually unanimous support for Napoleon’s change of status

Vote % of Vote Number of Votes

Yes 99.93 3 521 675
No 0.07 2579
Total 100 3 524 254
• Napoleon was consecrated as Emperor with great pomp and splendour in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris on 2
December 1804
• Napoleon paid for Pope Pius VII to travel to France for the occasion, but would not allow the Pope to crown
him
• He placed the crown on his own head and proclaimed Josephine Empress
• Napoleon crowned himself again on 26 May 1805 in Milan Cathedral, with the iron crown of Lombardy,
symbolising his rule as King of Italy

How did Napoleon use senatus consultum to get what he wanted?

• From as early as January 1801, he began to block the wishes of the Tribunate and the Legislative body using
senatus consultum
• He found the Senate a useful ally in his consolidation of power
• As its membership increased, he was able to fill it with his own supporters and he had little trouble from a
body where substantial salaries and gifts of and went with the job

How did Napoleon further ensure his political control over France?
• Between January and March 1802, when faced with criticism and opposition to his laws, Bonaparte purged the
Senate, Tribunate and Legislative Body
• He removed 20 from the Tribunate and 60 from the Legislative Body, and the Tribunate was split into 3
• He also changed the voting qualifications in the Constitution of Year X to give more political power and
prestige to those well-off notables on whom the regime relied
• In 1810, the Tribunate was abolished altogether
• The last meeting of the Legislative Body took place in 1813, after a period of a decreasing number of sessions
per year
• He also attempted a radical change of the constitution in 1815 in a final bid to retain power

Chart the changes in political control in France from Monarchy to Empire

1774 Absolute monarchy under Louis XVI
1789 Constitutional Monarchy
1793 16 (then 10) Committee of Public Safety
1795 5 Directors
1799 3 Consuls
1802 3 Consuls – 1st for Life
1804 1 Emperor