 For a calorically perfect gas undergoing an isentropic process, s2=s1

( )
γ−1
T2 p2 γ
=
T1 p1

( )
γ−1
T2 ρ2
=
T 1 ρ1

( )
γ
p 2 ρ2
=
p 1 ρ1

 For isentropic state change (frictionless, etc.):

( )
γ
p2 T2 γ−1
=
p1 T1

For v2=0, T2=Tt,2 :

( )
γ
pt T t γ−1
=
p T

 From M1=0 (stagnation conditions)

follows:

Tt γ−1 2
=1+ M
T 2

( )
γ
p2 T2 γ−1
For isentropic state change, = :
p1 T1

( )
pt γ −1 2 γ
= 1+ M γ −1
p 2
4. Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine
 Emphasis on engines that operate on so-called Brayton cycle (s=const., p=const.):
Turbojet, turboprop, turbofan, ramjet.
 Engine can be thought of as energy transfer mechanism that increases kinetic energy of
air
 First part of propulsion: Engine. Second part: Nacelle (duct)
 Nacelle drag, Dnac = forebody drag (front half of nacelle), Dw, & afterbody drag, Dnoz
 Most of additive drag, Dadd, can be offset by forebody portion of nacelle drag (Dw, a
negative drag or thrust), provided that the flow does not separate

a) Mo < Mdesign b) Mo = Mdesign c) Mo > Mdesign

4.4 Gas Turbine Engine Components

4.4.1 Inlets
• Inlet reduces velocity of air to a level that is suitable for the compressor
• Air pressure increases as a consequence of deceleration
4.4.1.1 Subsonic Inlet
• Typically a divergent duct
• Smooth lip to reduce/prevent flow separation during static operation
 • Performs best for one specific velocity (design point, typically cruise condition)
• For off-design conditions: Compression process is less efficient and inlet drag is higher
4.4.1.2 Supersonic Inlet
• Designed to obtain most efficient compression at minimum weight
• Normal shock wave is inefficient, oblique shock waves are more efficient (smaller total
pressure loss, two or more oblique waves for efficient compression)
• Typical are ramp (2D wedge) and centerbody (3D spike)
• Designed for specific Mach number
• Variable geometry inlet for improved efficiency over wider inlet Mach number range

4.4.2 Compressor
• Increases pressure of incoming air (so that combustion process and power extraction after
combustion can be carried out more efficiently)
• Density of air is increased: Reduced volume per mass (inverse of density); Combustion
of fuel/air mixture will occur in smaller volume
4.4.2.1 Centrifugal compressor
• Used on early jet engine (e.g., Sir Frank Whittle) and many of todays small gas turbines
• Main components:
o Impeller

o Diffusor (velocity decreases, pressure increases)

o Compressor manifold

4.4.2.2 Axial Compressors

• Air flows in axial direction through series of rotating rotor blades and stationary stator
vanes (that are concentric with the axis of rotation)
• Stage = one set of rotor blades and stator vanes
• Cross-sectional area of flow path decreases in streamwise direction (continuity equation:
mainly increase in density requires reduction in area)
• Pressure ratio per stage relatively small: e.g. 2.5:1
• Multiple stages for high compression ratios (e.g., 12:1)
• More compact and smaller frontal area compared to centrifugal compressors
 • For high compression ratios (e.g. 40:1): Dual axial compressor more efficient than single
shaft compressor (two spool compressors most common in modern engines): Low
pressure compressor (LPC), high pressure compressor (HPC)

4.4.3 Combustor or Burner

• Injection of fuel and efficient mixing with compressed air

• Combustion of fuel/air mixture
• Delivery of resulting gases to turbine at uniform temperature
• About one half of total volume of air entering combustor mixes with fuel and burns
• Remaining air (secondary air) cools combustion products and burner surfaces (and while
doing so is heated up); remaining air can be burned in afterburner
• Mixture ratio (air to fuel) varies between 30:1 to 60:1 by weight (average in new engine
designs is 40:1 but only 10 parts are used for burning: Stoichiometric conditions depend
on pressure)
• Most modern combustors are annular type

4.4.4 Turbine
• Extracts kinetic energy from expanding gases (originating from combustion chamber)
• Kinetic energy is converted to shaft power to drive the compressor (& fan) and
accessories
• Almost ¾ of energy available from combustion products is required to drive compressor
• Axial flow turbine consists of one or more stages: Each stage has a stator (stator vanes)
and a rotor (rotor blades)
 • Stator vanes (first row actively cooled) are set at an angle to form a series of small
nozzles that discharge gases onto the blades of the rotor (expansion, velocity increase).
Discharge allows kinetic energy to be transformed into mechanical shaft power
• Two spools for increased efficiency: High pressure turbine (HPT) and low pressure
turbine (LPT)
• Typically fewer turbine stages than compressor stages: Lower risk of airfoil stall in
expansion process (accelerated flow, favorable pressure gradient)
4.4.4.1 Impulse Turbine
• Rotor inlet and outlet (discharge) are the same (no change in pressure between rotor inlet
and outlet)
• Stator vanes are shaped to form passages that increase velocity and reduce pressure
4.4.4.1 Reaction Turbine
• Velocity increases in rotor (and pressure decreases)
• Stator vanes merely alter direction of the flow

4.4.5 Exhaust Nozzle

• Collects and straightens gas flow from turbine
• Increases exhaust velocity through expansion process that lowers pressure
• For large specific thrust exhaust velocity must be high
• Maximum thrust when exhaust pressure equals ambient pressure
4.4.5.1 Convergent Nozzle
• Convergent duct typically used on subsonic aircraft
• Low nozzle pressure ratios (less than about two)
4.4.5.2 Convergent-divergent nozzle
• Used for high nozzle pressure ratios
• Employed on supersonic aircraft with high-specific-thrust engines
• Also required for afterburner engines (to match change in flow conditions and produce
maximum available thrust)
• Convergent-divergent duct in its simplest form with critical (M=1) conditions at throat
• Typically, variable geometry

4.4.6 Thrust Augmentation

 4.4.6.1 Afterburning
• Afterburner is section of duct between turbine and exhaust nozzle that contains fuel
injectors and flame holders
• Additional fuel is burned in afterburner. This is possible because combustion in
combustion chamber is lean (more air than required for stoichiometric combustion)
• Afterburning raises temperature of exhaust gases and increases nozzle exit velocity
4.4.6.2 Water injection
• Water or water/alcohol mixture injection into compressor or combustion chamber
• Increase in mass flow rate
• Can increase takeoff thrust by 50% on hot day
• Used e.g. by Pegasus engine on Harrier – 500lb of distilled water for 90s of thrust
augmentation

4.5 Brayton Cycle

Model used for thermodynamic analysis of ideal gas turbine cycle:
1) Isentropic (=reversible and adiabatic) compression (2-3)
2) Constant pressure heat addition (3-4)
3) Isentropic expansion (4-9)
4) Constant pressure heat rejection (9-2) – outside the engine
For calorically perfect gas:
Ẇ c = ṁc p ( T 3 −T 2 )

Q̇¿ =ṁ c p ( T 4 −T 3 )

Ẇ t =ṁ c p ( T 4 −T 9 )

Q̇ out =ṁc p ( T 9−T 2)

Net work out:

net Ẇ out =Ẇ t−Ẇ c =ṁ c p ( (T 4−T 9 )−( T 3−T 2 ) )

For isentropic state change:

p3=p4 Identical
( ) ( )
γ −1 γ −1
p3 γ T3 p4 γ T4
= = = temperature ratios
p2 T2 p9 T9
p2=p9 but T4>T3, T9>T2

where
p3 p 4
PR= =
p2 p 9
is compressor pressure ratio.
Thermal efficiency of Brayton cycle:

( )
net Ẇ out 1 γ −1
ηT = =1− γ
Q̇¿ PR

 higher pressure ratio → higher thermal efficiency

 For fixed compressor inlet temperature, T2, and burner outlet temperature, T4:
Temperature ratio for maximum net work output per unit mass:

( )
T3
T2 max work
=
√ T4
T2

5. Parametric Cycle Analysis (PCA) of Ideal Engines

total pressure leaving component

π a=
total pressure entering component
total temperature leaving component
τ a=
total temperature entering component
with two exceptions:
1) Approach flow / freestream:
Tt 0 γ −1 2
τ r= =1+ M0
T0 2

( )
pt 0 γ −1 2 γ
π r = = 1+ M0 γ −1
p0 2

2) Burner:
ht burner exit ( c p T t )burner exit
τ λ= =
h0 ( c p T )0
Turbojet diagram:
1) Equation for uninstalled engine thrust:
F=ṁ 9 v 9− ṁ0 v 0 + A 9 ( p 9− p0 )

with ṁ9= ṁ0 + ṁf . From that

F
ṁ0
=a0
(
ṁ9 v 9
ṁ0 a0
−M 0 +
)
A 9 p9
ṁ0
1−
p0
p9 ( )
2) Velocity ratio

v 9 a9 v 9
=
a0 a0 a 9 √
γ R T
= 9 9 9 M9
γ 0 R0T 0

3) Exit Mach number

[( ) ]
γ−1
22 pt 9 γ
M = 9 −1
γ −1 p9

and
p t 9 p 0 p t 0 p t 2 pt 3 pt 4 p t 5 pt 7 pt 9 p0
= = π π π π π π π
p 9 p 9 p 0 p t 0 pt 2 pt 3 p t 4 pt 5 pt 7 p9 r d c b t AB n

4) Temperature ratio
Tt9 T t9
T9 T0 T0
= =

( )
γ−1
T0 T t 9 pt 9 γ
T9 p9

with
Tt 9 T t0 T t2 Tt 3 T t4 T t5 T t7 T t9
= =τ τ τ τ τ τ τ
T 0 T 0 T t 0 T t 2 Tt t 3 T t 4 T t 5 T t 7 r d c b t AB n

5.5 Assumptions of Ideal Cycle Analysis

1) Compression and expansion in diffusor (inlet), compressor, fan, turbine, and nozzle are
isentropic (reversible and adiabatic)
τ d=π d =1τ c =π (cγ −1)/ γ τ t=π (tγ−1 )/ γ τ n=π n=1

2) Constant pressure combustion (b=1) is idealized as heat interaction in combustor. Fuel

flow rate is assumed to be much less than airflow rate
ṁ f
≪ 1ṁ c + ṁ f ≅ ṁ c
ṁ c
 3) Working fluid is air that behaves as perfect gas with constant specific heats
4) Engine exhaust nozzle expands gas to ambient pressure (p9=p0)

5.6 Ideal Ramjet

5.6 Ideal Turbojet

• Ramjet thrust goes to zero for M0→0
• Problem can be overcome through addition of compressor-turbine to basic Brayton cycle
• Thermal efficiency:
T0 1
ηT =1− =1−
T t3 τr τc

• At M0=0, thermal efficiency is 0% for ramjet and 50% for ideal turbojet
 • For ideal turbojet:
• Ẇ t =Ẇ c

• T t 4 >T t 3

• pt 4 = p t 3

• Compressor-burner-turbine combination generates higher pressure and temperature

(compared to inflow) and is therefore called “gas generator”
• Gas may be expanded through a nozzle to form a turbojet and/or through a turbine to
drive a fan (turbofan), a propeller (turboprop), a helicopter rotor (gas turbine)

Total temperature rise in compressor is identical to total temperature drop in turbine

• Turbine total temperature ratio decreases (turbine does more work) with increasing
compressor pressure ratio and flight Mach number
• Overall increase in thermal, propulsive, and overall efficiency with increasing
compressor ratio and flight Mach number
• Low compression ratios for supersonic flight
• High compressor pressure ratio desirable for good thrust specific fuel consumption
• Decrease in fuel/air ratio with increasing flight Mach number and compressor ratio
• Flight Mach number has dominant influence on propulsive efficiency

For optimum turbojet:

T t 3=T 9
 • Also for optimum turbojet, for a fixed flight altitude and , as the flight Mach number is
varied, the cycle and its enclosed area remain the same in the T-s diagram
• The area in the T-s diagram is identical to the net work (kinetic energy change for
turbojet) of the cycle per unit mass flow
• Even though net work (output) is constant, specific thrust decreases as M0 increases

5.7 Ideal Turbojet with Afterburner

• Second combustion for increasing thrust
• Afterburner exhaust temperature can be very high because gas does not pass through
turbine
Afterburner increases specific thrust:
• increase of 22% for static thrust
• Increasing benefit as Mach number increases (for M0>3.8 thrust without AB is zero)
Afterburner increases thrust-specific fuel consumption:
• Up to M0=2 about 20-30% increased fuel flow with afterburner (ideal and real turbojet)
• Real turbojet: As thrust approaches zero, thrust specific fuel consumption increases past
value for afterburning turbojet

• Specific thrust decreases with increasing flight Mach number

• For low flight Mach numbers: specific thrust increases with compressor pressure ratio
• For high flight Mach numbers: maximum thrust and lowest thrust-specific fuel
consumption for low compressor pressure ratio
• For M0<2: Thrust-specific fuel consumption decreases with pressure ratio
• For M0<2: Trend is reversed
• For large M0: low compressor pressure ratio suffices because of ram-effect
• As compressor pressure ratio is increased: More fuel is consumed by afterburner and less
fuel is consumed by main burner
• Thermal and overall efficiency increases with compressor pressure ratio
• Propulsive efficiency decreases with compressor pressure ratio
• All efficiencies improve as flight Mach number is increased
Comparison simple turbojet and turbojet with afterburner:
1. Afterburning increases specific thrust and thrust specific fuel consumption
2. Afterburning turbojets with moderate pressure ratios give very good specific thrust at
high flight Mach numbers
3. The fuel/air ratio of the main burner is the same as for simple turbojet
4. Afterburner fuel/air ratio increases with Mach number and compressor pressure ratio
5. Total fuel/air ratio decreases with Mach number and is not a function of c
6. Thermal, propulsive, and overall efficiencies are reduced by afterburning

 pressure ratio for maximum specific thrust decreases with flight Mach number
 Optimum compressor pressure ratio is higher for afterburning engine
 Engine with compressor pressure ratio of 30 can operate near optimum conditions both
for
 subsonic flight with afterburner off: Less thrust required and available, good fuel
economy
 supersonic flight, M0=2, with afterburner lit
 Afterburning engine has higher specific thrust for all Mach numbers
 For M0>2.7, thrust-specific fuel consumption of afterburning engine with c=12 is lower
than for simple turbojet with c=1.5
 High pressure ratio afterburning engine is logical choice for cruise at M0=2.7 because
engine will be smaller and lighter than non-afterburning low-pressure-ratio engine (but
final choice will also depend on subsonic performance – next slide)
Comparison of c=12 and c=1.5 (non-afterburning) engine at subsonic flight speeds
• Higher pressure ratio non-afterburning engine has lower subsonic thrust-specific fuel
consumption
• Since supersonic plane will have to fly portion of mission subsonic, high pressure ratio
engine is better choice
• Afterburning high-pressure ratio (c=12) engine is proper choice for SST

5.8 Ideal Turbofan

• Portion of turbine power is used to drive fan (“ducted propeller”)
• Fan increases mass flow rate and reduces exit velocity (same thrust by accelerating more
air to a lower exit velocity=moving more air)
• This reduces “wasted” kinetic energy and improves propulsive efficiency
 1
Thrust is proportional to ṁ0 v 9, kinetic energy is proportional to ṁ0 v 29
2
• If ṁ0 is doubled, v 9 can be halved to maintain same thrust
• “Wasted” kinetic energy will then be diminished by factor 4
• Already small bypass will have large effect

• Total temperature drop in turbine is larger than total temperature rise in compressor
(since turbine has to drive fan)
• Fan total pressure and total temperature ratio are f & f
• Fan nozzle ratios are fn & fn
• Fan = Bypass Core
Mass flow through engine core: ṁ C

Mass flow through fan (bypass): ṁB

ṁ B
Bypass ratio: α=
ṁ C

Total mass flow: ṁC + ṁB =( 1+ α ) ṁC

Assumptions for analysis of ideal turbofan engine:
• Fuel flow rate much less than air flow rate through engine core, ṁf ≪ ṁC

• Both engine core and fan nozzle expand to ambient pressure, p9= p 19=p 0

Fan pressure ratio, f, held constant

• Specific thrust almost constant for 10<c<30

• Specific thrust decreases with increasing bypass ratio

• Thrust-specific fuel consumption decreases with compressor pressure ratio, c, and bypass ratio

• Thermal efficiency (not a function of α) increases with compressor pressure ratio, c

• Propulsive efficiency increases with bypass ratio, , and varies very little with c

• Overall efficiency increases with both  and c

Bypass ratio, , held constant

• Specific thrust has maximum with respect to fan pressure ratio, f

• Thrust-specific fuel consumption decreases with compressor pressure ratio, c

• Minimum with respect to fan pressure ratio, f

• Propulsive efficiency increases up to fan pressure ratio, f, of 2.5 (fan pressure ratio that
gives optimum propulsive efficiency) and then decreases
• P is constant for c>15
• Largest overall efficiency for fan pressure ratio, f, of about 3.5
FC
ṁC
• Thrust ratio, FR= , decreases with fan pressure ratio, f
FB
ṁB

• Little variation with compressor pressure ratio for c>15

Compressor pressure ratio, c, held constant
• Turbine must produce energy to power compressor and fan
• Minimum power corresponds to that of a turbojet, α=0
• Maximum power extracted when v9=v0
 • There are combinations of f and α that give low thrust-specific fuel consumption
• For f=1.6, S decreases with increasing α up to about 13 (blue line)
• For α=9, S decreases with increasing f up to about 1.8 (dashed blue)
• Specific thrust and thrust-specific fuel consumption decrease with α

5.9 Optimum Bypass Ratio

Minimum fuel consumption, S, is desirable for subsonic aircraft
Given set of flight conditions, T0, M0
Design limit,  (turbine inlet temperature limitation)
Three design variables, c, f, 

• By increasing the compressor pressure ratio, c, the specific thrust, F / ṁ0 , is increased
and the thrust-specific fuel consumption, S, is decreased
• No noticeable improvement for c>20
• Optimum fan pressure ratio, f, exists that gives minimum thrust-specific fuel
consumption and maximum propulsive efficiency and
• An optimum bypass ratio exists that minimizes thrust specific fuel consumption
• Optimum bypass ratio increases with compressor pressure ratio up to about c=15
• Optimum bypass ratio decreases with fan pressure ratio, f
c=24
• Optimum bypass ratio decreases with Mach number
• Lower optimum * for higher fan pressure ratio, f
• For M0=3 and fan pressure ratio, f, of 3, optimum engine is turbojet!
Recap:
Optimum bypass turbofan:
• Has lowest thrust-specific fuel consumption for given c and f
• Gives maximum propulsive efficiency (thermal efficiency not affected by )
• Gives maximum overall efficiency

5.10 Ideal Turbofan with Optimum Fan Pressure Ratio

Optimum fan pressure ratio for minimum thrust specific fuel consumption
• Sharp reduction in S (and specific thrust!) as α increases from 0
• Decreasing benefit for very large α
• But engine weight is insignificant compared to fuel weight
5.10.2 Effect of Bypass Ratio on Specific Thrust and Fuel Consumption
• Specific thrust and specific fuel consumption of fighter much larger than respective
values for transport
5.10.3 Comparison of Optimum Ideal Turbofans
• Optimum fan pressure ratio gives maximum specific thrust and minimum thrust-specific
fuel consumption for fixed α
• Optimum bypass ratio gives minimum thrust-specific fuel consumption for fixed πf
• Optimum fan pressure ratio corresponds to lower power extraction than optimum bypass
ratio
• For α=10.8 optimum πf is 1.7
5.12 Ideal Turboprop Engine
• Large specific thrust is misleading because ṁ0 is mass flow through core only
• Optimum for πc≈15
• Thrust-specific fuel consumption drops as turbine does more work
• Optimum turbine temperature ratio, τt*, gives minimum thrust specific fuel consumption
• πc>15 is desirable to keep S low
• Lower τt (more turbine work) for better propulsive efficiency
• Maximum propulsive efficiency for τt*
• Work output of core increases with πc for constant τt
• Propeller work output decreases with πc
• Optimum total work output for πc≈15
• Optimum turbine temperature ratio, τt*, decreases with πc

6. Component Performance
6.2 Variation of Gas Properties
Enthalpy, h, specific heats (e.g., at constant pressure, cp), and isentropic exponent,  are
 • For air: Functions of temperature, T
• For fuel-air mixture (e.g., JP-8 and air): Functions of temperature, T, and fuel-air-ratio, f
• Both h and cp increase with temperature and fuel/air ratio
•  decreases with temperature and fuel/air ratio
• → Models of gas properties used in engine analysis need to account for changes in cp and
 wherever changes are significant
• cp and  can be assumed to be constant everywhere except for in the burner (combustor)
• Upstream of the burner: cpc and c
• Downstream of the burner: cpt and t

6.3 Component Performance

• Engine components will be characterized by figures of merit that model the component’s
performance and facilitate a cycle analysis of real air-breathing engines
• Total temperature ratio, , and total pressure ratio, , and interrelationship between two
will be used as much as possible in component’s figure of merit

6.4 Inlet / Diffuser Pressure Recovery

• Inlet losses due to wall friction and shock waves (supersonic inlet)
• Both loss mechanisms result in reduction in total pressure such that d<1
• Inlets are almost entirely adiabatic such that d=1
• Inlet figure of merit is simply defined as d
• For supersonic flight shockwaves can cause much larger total pressure losses (and wall
friction losses)
• Inlet total pressure ratio is product of ram pressure ratio and diffuser pressure ratio
• Because of shocks, only portion of ram pressure ratio can be recovered
π d =π d , max ηr

d max: Portion of d due to wall friction

r: Portion of d due to ram recovery

6.5 Compressor and Turbine Efficiencies

6.5.1 Compressor Isentropic Efficiency
• Compressors are (to a high degree of approximation) adiabatic
 • Isentropic efficiency is good overall performance measure
6.5.2 Compressor Stage Efficiency
• Multistage compressor, stage number j (inlet: 0, outlet: N)
• Each stage has an isentropic efficiency:
γ −1
γ
π −1
sj
η sj =
τ sj −1

6.5.3 Compressor Polytropic Efficiency (figure of merit for compressor)

ideal work of compression for differential pressure change
ec=
actual work of compression for differential pressure change
d wi d T ti
¿ =
dw dT t

From that
γ−1
γ ec
τ c =π c

For state-of-the-art design: ec very close to constant.

Isentropic efficiency then becomes:
γ −1
π c γ −1
ηc = γ −1

π cγ e −1
c

6.5.5 Compressor Stage Pressure Ratio

• For multistage compressor, energy added is divided somewhat evenly per stage
• Each stage increases total temperature by about the same amount
• Explains change in stage pressure ratio through compressor
• Intercooling required for very high compression ratios, but intercooling reduces
temperature of air entering combustor
6.5.6 Turbine Isentropic Efficiency
• Modern turbines are cooled by air taken from the compressor
• To be accurate, a multi-stream analysis would have to be carried out
• Here: Cooling flow rates are assumed to be low and turbine is assumed to be adiabatic
6.5.7 Turbine Stage Efficiency
Turbine isentropic efficiency as function of stage pressure ratio and stage isentropic efficiency
(similar analysis as for compressor)
6.5.8 Turbine Polytropic Efficiency
actual turbine work for differential pressure change
et =
ideal turbine work for differential pressure change
On white board
( γ−1 ) e t
γ
τ t=π t

For state-of-the-art design: ec very close to constant.

Isentropic efficiency then becomes:
( γ−1) e t
γ
1−τ t 1−π t
ηt = 1
= γ −1
et γ
1−τ t
1−π t

• Turbine efficiency increases with turbine expansion ratio 1/t

• Polytropic efficiency will be used as figure of merit for turbine

6.6 Burner
• Incomplete combustion and total pressure loss
Combustion efficiency is defined as

( ṁ+ ṁf ) c p 4 T t 4− ṁc p 3 T t 3

ηb =
ṁf h PR

cp3 and cp4 can be approximated as cpc and cpt, respectively, such that

( ṁ+ ṁf ) c pt T t 4− ṁc pc T t 3

ηb =
ṁf h PR

Total pressure losses arise from

• Viscous losses in combustion chamber
• Total pressure loss due to combustion at non-zero Mach number
Effects are combined as
pt 4
π b= <1
pt 3

6.7 Exhaust Nozzle

 • Loss is primarily due to over- or under-expansion, p9 ≠ p 0
• Loss in total pressure from turbine exit to nozzle exit due to viscous effects
pt 9
π n= <1
pt 7

• But nozzle is still nearly adiabatic such that

τ n=1

Figure of merit for nozzle: π n

6.8 Mechanical Efficiency of Shaft

• Losses in bearings, seals, etc.
• Power extracted for driving accessories (e.g., oil and fuel pumps)
Mechanical efficiency:

¿ Ẇ
ηm = power leaving shaft ¿ compressor turbine ¿= c
power entering shaft ¿ Ẇ t

6.9 Mixer
Kutta condition: p 6= p 16

' ṁ16
Bypass ratio: α =
ṁ 6

• Mach number of secondary stream, M 16 , can be increased by increasing the total

p t 16
pressure ratio, , at constant values of M 6
pt 6

• When total pressure ratio is near unity, Mach numbers at station 6 and 16 are almost
equal

6.12 Component Performance with Variable cp

f=0.0676 is maximum value for hydrocarbon fuels of composition (CH2)n