Drilling Fluids

Part Two

By
Dr. Nada Sabah Al-Zubaidi
Al Maaqal University
2021-2022
Part Two
Part A
 Drilling Fluid
Composition of Drilling Fluids Water
All drilling fluids systems are
composed of:
Base Fluid
• Base fluids {water, nonaqueous
Nonaqueous

(not water-based), and

pneumatic (air/gas based) } Pneumatic

• Solids (active and inactive) Drilling Fluid

Active
Solids

• Additives (treating agents) to

Inactive
maintain the properties of the (Inert)
system. Additives

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Drilling Fluid
Drilling Fluid Systems (Classification of Drilling Fluids)

Drilling fluids are

Water Fresh Water
Based Mud

classified according
to their base to Liquids Salt /Brine
Systems

High
• Water Based Drilling Nonaqueous
Performance
Systems
Fluids Drilling
• Oil Based Drilling Fluid

Fluids [Nonaqueous-
100% Oil
Pneumatic
Single Phase
Based Drilling Fluids
Air, CO2, N2

(NADF)]
Oil Based
Systems

• Pneumatic Systems Pneumatic Mist/Foam Synthetic

Two Phase Fluids

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Drilling Fluid
Drilling fluid is classified to different systems according to base fluid
as shown in the previous figure:

• Water-Based Drilling Fluids, where solid particles are suspended in water or

brine, also oil may be emulsified in the water in which case water is termed
the continuous phase.

• Oil Based Drilling Fluids [Nonaqueous-Based Drilling Fluids (NADF)], where

solid particles are suspended in oil. Brine water or another low-activity liquid
is emulsified in the oil, i.e., oil is the continuous phase.

• Pneumatic Systems, when drill cuttings are removed by a high-velocity

stream of air, natural gas, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or some other fluid that
is injected in a gaseous phase, and when minor inflows of water are
encountered, these systems are converted to gas/liquid systems (mist or
foam).
Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi
 Drilling Fluid
• Water based drilling fluids are the most commonly used while oil-based
drilling fluids are generally more expensive and need more stringent
pollution control than water-based drilling fluids.

• Usually, oil-based drilling fluids use is limited to drilling extremely hot

formations, also drilling formations that are adversely affected by
water-based drilling fluids.

• When the formations are competent and impermeable, gases can be used

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

Part B
 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
Rheology: The term rheology originates from the Greek words “rheo” translating as
'flow' and 'logia' meaning “the study of”. Rheology is the science of deformation and flow
of matter. By making certain measurements on a fluid, it is possible to determine how
that fluid will flow under a variety of conditions, including temperature, pressure
and shear rate.
A rheologist is interested primarily in the relationship between flow pressure and flow
rate, and in the influence of that relationship of the flow characteristics of the fluid.
There are two fundamentally different relationships:

The laminar flow regime prevails at low flow velocities. Flow is orderly, and the pressure
velocity relationship is a function of the viscous properties of the fluid.

The turbulent flow regime prevails at high velocities. Flow is disorderly and is governed
primarily by the inertial properties of the fluid in motion. Flow equations are empirical.

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models

In other words
The behavior of a fluid is determined by the flow regime, which in turn has a direct
effect on the ability of that fluid to perform its basic functions.
The flow can be either laminar or turbulent, depending on:

Fluid velocity

Size and shape of

the flow channel
Fluid viscosity
Fluid density

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
In axial laminar flow, the fluid moves parallel to the walls of the
flow channel in smooth lines. Flow tends to be laminar when moving
slowly or when the fluid is viscous. The viscous forces
dominate.

In turbulent flow, the fluid is swirling and eddying

as it moves along the flow channel, even though the
bulk of the fluid moves forward. Wall roughness or
changes in flow direction will increase the amount
of turbulence. Flow tends to be turbulent with Figure 1 shows laminar
higher velocities or when the fluid has low and turbulent flow.
viscosity. The inertial forces are more important.

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

Fundamentals and Fluid Models

Figure 1. Laminar and turbulent flow

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
Viscosity
What is Viscosity? First, it is imperative to understand that viscosity is a laminar
flow concept and has no meaning in turbulent flow. To some, viscosity is the
resistance to a fluid to flow while others call viscosity the "body" of the fluid.
Mathematically, viscosity is the proportionality constant between the shear stress,𝝉,
𝒅𝒗
applied to the fluid and the shear rate, , or rate at which the fluid is moving.
𝒅𝒓
Equations 1 and 2 are the mathematical expression for viscosity

𝒅𝒗
𝝉=𝝁 =𝝁𝜸 eq. 1
𝒅𝒓

𝝉
𝝁= eq. 2
𝜸

Where
𝝉 = Shear stress, lbf / 100 ft2
𝝁 = Viscosity, the traditional unit of viscosity is dyne-s / cm2, which is termed Poise (P).
Since 1 P represents a relatively high viscosity for most fluids, the term centipoise (cP)
is normally used. A centipoise is equal to one- hundredth of poise or one millipascal-
second.
𝜸 = Shear rate, s-1, (the reciprocal second or often called the inverse second)
Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi
 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
Fluid characterization
Fluid can be classified by their rheological properties,

Fluids whose viscosity remains constant with changing

Shear rate are known as Newtonian fluids

Fluids whose viscosity varies with changing

Shear rate are known as non- Newtonian fluids

Temperature and pressure affect the viscosity of a fluid.

Therefore, to properly describe the drilling fluid flow, the
test temperature and pressure must be specified.

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
NEWTONIAN FLUID

The simplest class of fluids is called

Newtonian. The base fluids (freshwater,
seawater, diesel oil, mineral oils and
synthetics) of most drilling fluids are
Newtonian. In these fluids, the shear
stress is directly proportional to the shear
rate, as shown in Figure 2.

The points lie on a straight line passing

through the origin (0, 0) of the graph on
rectangular coordinates. Viscosity of a
Newtonian fluid is the slope of this shear-
stress/shear-rate line. The yield stress
(stress required to initiate flow) of a
Newtonian fluid will always be zero (0). Figure 2. Newtonian fluid

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
The shear stress at various
shear rates must be measured
in order to characterize the
flow properties of a fluid.

Only one measurement is

necessary since the shear
stress is directly proportional
to the shear rate for a
Newtonian fluid. From this
measurement the shear stress
at any other shear rate can be
calculated from the following
equation:
𝝉=𝝁𝜸
Figure 2. Newtonian fluid

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
This general definition is independent of units.
VG meter data (converted to shear stress and
shear rate) can be converted to viscosity with
the following formula: Dial deflection in degrees
1.0678𝜃
𝜇 𝑐𝑃 = 478.9 eq.3
1.703𝜔
Rotor speed in rpm

If the numerical values are simplified,

this formula becomes:
𝜽
𝝁(𝒄𝑷) = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 eq.4
𝝎

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Fluids for which shear stress is not directly proportional to shear
rate are called non-Newtonian. Most drilling fluids are non-
Newtonian.
Some non-Newtonian Some non-Newtonian
fluids exhibit dilatant fluids exhibit shear
behavior (shear thinning behavior
thickening) Both
are The viscosity of these
The viscosity of these
shown fluids decrease with
fluids increases with
in increasing shear rate
increasing shear rate
figure
Dilatant behavior 3 Shear thinning
rarely occurs in behavior occurs in
drilling fluids drilling fluids

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

Fundamentals and Fluid Models

Figure 3. Flow curves for shear thinning

and shear thickening

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
Shear Thinning
As mentioned previously, the faster the fluid moves, the thinner
it becomes.
One type of shear thinning fluid will began to flow as soon as any
shearing force or pressure, regardless of how slight, is applied.
Such fluids are termed
Pseudoplastic
begin

Another type of shear thinning fluid will not flow until a given
shear stress is applied. The shear stress required to initiate flow
is called the yield stress. These fluids are referred to as
Viscoplastic
Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi
 Fundamentals and Fluid Models

Time-dependent behavior
Increasing viscosity
(rheopectic)

+ =
Decreasing viscosity
(thixotropic)
Constant shear rate Increasing time

Fluid can exhibit (show) time-dependent effects. Under constant shear rate, the
viscosity changes with time until equilibrium is established, as shown in figure 6.

Either an increase in viscosity or a

decrease in viscosity

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

Fundamentals and Fluid Models

Thixotropic
fluids

Figure 4. Thixotropic and

rheopectic fluids

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
Gelation ( gel strength)

Thixotropic fluids can also

exhibit a behavior described as
gelation or gel strength
development. The time-
dependent forces cause an
increase in viscosity as the fluid
remains static, as shown in
Figure 5. Sufficient force must
be exerted on the fluid to
overcome the gel strength to Figure 5. Effect of time on
gel strength
initiate flow.

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
Measurement of rheological properties
The determination of drilling fluid rheological parameters (viscosity and gel
strength) is important in:

1. The hydraulic calculations in circulating system

2. Hole cleaning efficiency
Barite or weight
3. Prediction barite sag in an oil wells material sag is a
problem of drilling
mud, and it occurs
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
when weighting
The methods of measuring viscosity in oil field drilling operations: material (barite,
1. Orifice viscometer- Marsh funnel calcium carbonate,
2. Concentric –cylinder viscometer etc.) separate from
A. Low temperature, non-pressurized instrument liquid phase and
B. High temperature, pressurized instrument settle down.

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
Rheological Models
Rheological models are intended to provide assistance in
characterizing fluid flow. Knowledge of rheological models combined
with practical experience is necessary to fully understand fluid
performance. A plot of shear stress versus shear rate (rheogram or
consistency curve) is often used to graphically depict a rheological
model.

The laminar flow equations relating flow behavior to the flow

characteristics of the fluid are based on certain mathematical flow
models, namely, the Newtonian, the Bingham plastic, the Power Law,
the Power Law with yield stress {Herschel-Bulkley Model (Modified
Power Law Model)} and the dilatant. Only the first four are of
interest in drilling and completion fluid technology.

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
Most drilling fluids do not conform
exactly to any of these models but
drilling fluid behavior can be
predicted with accuracy sufficient for
practical purposes by one or more of
them.

Flow models are usually visualized by

means of consistency curves, which
are plots either of flow pressure
versus flow rate, or of shear stress
versus shear rate as shown in figure6.
Figure 6. Consistency curves
for different mathematical
flow models

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
THE BINGHAM PLASTIC FLOW MODEL
Plastic fluids were first recognized by Bingham (1922), and are
therefore referred to as Bingham plastics, or Bingham bodies. They are
distinguished from Newtonian fluids in that they require a finite stress
to initiate flow. Figure 6 shows the consistency curve for an ideal
Bingham plastic, the equation for which is

𝝉 = 𝒀𝒑 + 𝑷𝑽 𝜸 eq.5
Where:
𝝉 = Shear stress
𝒀𝒑 = Yield point or shear stress at zero shear rate (Y-intercept)
𝑷𝑽 = Plastic viscosity or rate of increase of shear stress with increasing
shear rate (slope of the line)
𝜸 = Shear rate

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
The two-speed viscometer was
designed to measure the Bingham
plastic rheological values for yield
point and plastic viscosity. A flow
curve for a typical drilling fluid
taken on the two-speed viscometer
is illustrated in Figure 6.

The slope of the straight-line

portion of this consistency curve is
plastic viscosity. From these two
shear stress measurements, the
plastic viscosity line can be
extrapolated back to the Y-axis to
determine the Bingham yield point
that is defined as the Y-intercept.
Figure 6. Bingham plastic model

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
This model uses the 𝜽𝟔𝟎𝟎 and 𝜽𝟑𝟎𝟎 viscometer dial reading
Most drilling fluids are not true to calculate two parameters:
Bingham plastic fluids. For the
typical mud, if a consistency curve 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑷𝑽 𝒄𝑷 = 𝜽𝟔𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽𝟑𝟎𝟎 eq. 6
for a drilling fluid is made with
rotational viscometer data, a non- 𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒀𝑷 𝒍𝒃𝒇 /𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒇𝒕𝟐 = 𝜽𝟑𝟎𝟎 − 𝑷𝑽 eq. 7
linear curve is formed that does
not pass through the origin. 𝜽𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑨𝑽 𝒄𝑷 = eq. 8
𝟐

The Bingham plastic model

accurately represents the shear-
stress/shear-rate relationship of
low-density, flocculated clay,
water-base muds and most other
fluids at high shear rates (greater
than 511 sec–1 or 300 RPM).

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
Figure 7 illustrates an actual drilling
fluid flow profile with the ideal
Bingham plastic model.
If a mud is a true Bingham Plastic fluid, then
the initial gel strength and yield point will be
equal.

It shows not only the comparison of

the “true yield point” to the Bingham
yield point , but also shows the
deviation in viscosity at low and high
shear rate as compared to the
Bingham Plastic viscosity.
The Bingham yield point is higher than
the true yield stress. For most muds,
the true yield stress (true yield point) 𝝉𝒚 = 𝟐 𝜽𝟑 − 𝜽𝟔
is less than the Bingham yield point as
shown in Figure 7.
The true yield point can usually be
better estimated from the initial gel Figure 7. Bingham plastic model and
strength value. typical non-Newtonian fluid

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

 Fundamentals and Fluid Models
Plastic viscosity is usually described as
that part of resistance to flow caused
by mechanical friction. Primarily, it is
affected by:
• Solids concentration.
• Size and shape of solids.
• Viscosity of the fluid phase.
• The presence of some long chain
polymers (POLY-PLUS ,
Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC), POLYPAC
, Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC)).
• The Oil-to-Water (O/W) or
Synthetic-to-Water (S/W) ratio in
invert-emulsion fluids.
• Type of emulsifiers in invert-emulsion
fluids.
Yield point, the second component of resistance to flow
in a drilling fluid, is a measurement of the electro-
chemical or attractive forces in a fluid.
These forces are a result of negative and positive
charges located on or near the particle surfaces. Yield
point is a measure of these forces under flow conditions
and is dependent upon:
• the surface properties of the fluid solids.
• volume concentration of the solids.
• the electrical environment of these solids
(concentration and types of ions in the fluid phase of
the fluid).
Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi
 References

• Ryen Caenn, H.C.H. Darley, and George R. Gray “ Composition and

properties of Drilling and Completion Fluids”, 7th edition, 2017
• M-I Drilling Fluid Manual, 1996
• Robert D. Grace, Jerald L. Shursen “Drilling Practices”, Petroskills,
2006
• Adam T. Bourgoyne Jr., Keith K. Millheim, Martin E. Chenvert, and
F.S. Young Jr. “Applied Drilling Engineering”. SPE Textbook, 1st
edition, 1986

Dr. Nada S. Al-Zubaidi

The End of Part Two

by

Dr. Nada Sabah Al-Zubaidi