Wood

Wood
is used to describe the fibrous substance that makes up a
tree; the very thing that supports it when it’s in the ground,
allowing growth and stability

Timber
is used to describe felled trees

Lumber
refers to sawn wood as well as processed wood products
used for purposes such as home construction, cladding,
decking and furniture making.

The broad difference between timber and lumber is that

timber is less processed than lumber.
Internal Parts of Wood
Wood Processing

► Video link : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eglGgXAngdQ&t=301s

Natural Defects
► Defects are structural faults within the timber which may impair its
strength, resilience or durability and should not be confused with
surface blemishes.

Defects due to NATURAL FORCES

1. BURLS- These are formed when a
tree has received an injury or shock
in its young age. Due to such injury,
the growth of the tree gets
completely upset and irregular
projections appear on the body of
the timber.
► SHAKES - These are splits along the length of the plank where the cells or
fibers
► CHEMICAL STAINS- Due to
chemical action by some external
agents, wood is sometimes
discoloured.

► COARSE GRAIN- If a tree grows

rapidly, annual rings are widened.
It is known as coarse grained
timber and such timber possesses
less strength.
► DEAD WOOD. Timber which obtained
from dead standing trees contains dead
wood. It is indicated by light weight and
reddish color.

► KNOTS. Knots are the remains of

outgrowing branches of a tree. Their
grain runs at an angle to that of the
main timber and where the knots are
large and numerous the fibers are
distorted and the strength of the timber
Defects due to Conversion
During the process of converting timber to commercial
form, the following defects may occur:
► Chip mark. This defect is indicated by the marks or signs
placed by chips on the finished surface of timber.

► Diagonal grain. The improper sawing of timber.

► Torn grain. When a small depression is made on the

finished surface due to falling of some tool.

► Wane. Presence of original rounded surface on the

finished surface.
Defects due to Fungi
Fungi attacks timber when these conditions are all present:
► The timber moisture content is above 25%.
► The environment is warm enough.
► There is lots of air. Wood with less than 25% moisture remains free of fungi
for centuries. Similarly, wood submerged in water will not be attacked by
fungi because of absence of air.
Defects due to Insects
Timber may be attacked in certain circumstances by various
wood-boring insects, which differ in their choice of species and
condition of the wood - from standing trees to woodwork which has
been in service for many years.
► Insects responsible for the decay of timber:
► Beetles. These are small insects. They form pin holes and form tunnels
in all directions. They convert timber into fine powder.

► Marine borers. These are found in marine water. They do not feed on
wood. They dig holes or form tunnels for shelter and the wood loses
colour and strength

► Termites. Popularly known as white ants, these insects are found in

tropical and sub-tropical countries. They feed on wood inside out, form
tunnels and live in colonies. They usually do not disturb out shell. Good
timbers like teak, sal, etc are not attacked by termites.
Decay in Timber
Following are the causes for the early decay of timber:
► Alternate dry and wet conditions.
► Bad storage or stacking of timber
► Fungi which are responsible for developing diseases in timber.
► Improper seasoning.
► Insects.
► Keeping timber in contact with damp wall, damp earth, etc.
► Shocks or impacts received during young age from natural forces such as fast
blowing of wind, etc.
► Use of timber without taking out sap wood from its structure.
► Using seasoned timber without applying suitable preservative on its surface.
► Using unseasoned wood with the application of protective coat of paint or tar.
Wood Products
► Plywood is a manufactured wood panel
made from thin sheets of wood veneer. It
is one of the most widely used wood
products. It is flexible, inexpensive,
workable, re-usable and can be locally
manufactured

► It is used instead of plain wood because

of its resistance to cracking, shrinkage,
splitting, and twisting/warping, and its
general high degree of strength.
► Veneer refers to thin slices of wood, usually thinner than 3mm (1/8inch), that typically
are glued onto core panels (typically, wood, particle board, or medium-density
fiberboard) to produce flat panels such as doors, tops and panels for cabinets, parquet
floors (the inside lower horizontal surface) and parts of furniture.
► Particle board is a composite product of
wood manufactured from wood particles,
such as wood chips, sawmill shavings, or
even saw dust, and a synthetic resin or other
suitable binder.

► Laminate is a printed surface made to look

like real wood, but usually made of plastic
and bonded to a composite base.
► It is a man-made product. This means
that it is stronger and that it tends to be
heat- and scratch-resistant, making
laminate easier to care for than real
wood or veneer
Internal Parts of Wood
Properties of Wood
Tensile Strength
► Wood is very strong in tension
parallel to the grain; though,
defects, such as knots, greatly
reduce this strength.
► For this reason, timber should
never be loaded perpendicular to
the grain.
► It is estimated that the tensile
strength perpendicular to the
grain is about one-third of the
shear strength parallel to the
grain.
Properties of Wood

Compressive Strength
► Wood is very strong in compression parallel to grain because the
wood cells act as slender columns bonded together, giving and
receiving support from each other.
Properties of Wood

Flexural Strength
► Lumber in bending tends to experience flexural and shear stresses.
► Wood is very strong in bending, and its strength is characterized by the modulus
of rupture. Shallow beams have relatively greater resistance to bending in
comparison to proportionately deeper beams
Laboratory Testing for Timber 2-in gauge length extensometer

Tensile Strength Parallel to the Grain Test

ASTM D143

Main features of the specimen

• length =18 in,
• a double curvature gradual transition fillet of a 17.5-in
radius to a net cross section of 3/8 by 3/16 in
• 2.5-in long zone of uniform cross section in order to
accommodate a 2-in gauge length extensometer

This shape specimen was developed to satisfy both theoretical

and practical considerations
Laboratory Testing for Timber 2-in gauge length extensometer

Tensile Strength Parallel to the Grain Test

ASTM D143
1. After fabricating the specimen, measure the cross-sectional dimensions of the
specimen at the minimum section. Calculate the cross-sectional area.
2. Place specimen in a testing machine and slowly extend it until failure. The
rate of the movement of the crosshead should be at a rate of 0.005 in/s (1
mm/s).
3. Record the applied force (load) and the deformation of the gauge section
(elongation). Process the data to obtain stress (load divided by original
cross-sectional area) and strain (elongation divided by the original gauge
length of 2.0 in). These data points can then be graphed to obtain a
stress-strain diagram, which in most cases results in a straight line almost to
failure. The slope of this line gives the modulus of elasticity.
4. Note the type of fracture pattern of the specimen and record the maximum
load.
5. Calculate the tensile strength by dividing the maximum load applied on the
specimen by the original cross-sectional area.
6. Determine the MC of a small section, about 3 in in length, near the failure.
Sample Data and Computation

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 Compressive Strength Parallel to the Grain Test
ASTM D143
► standard specimen size of 2 in by 2 in by 8 in
1. After fabricating the specimen, measure its actual cross-sectional dimensions and length. Calculate the
cross-sectional area. The end grain should be lightly sanded after sawing.
2. Place specimen in a testing machine and slowly apply the load until well pass the proportional limit, which marks the
end of the linear relationship between load and deformation. The rate of movement of the crosshead should be 0.003
in/in of nominal specimen length per minute (approximately 0.0004 in per second for an eight-inch specimen).
3. Record the applied force and the deformation (to the nearest 0.0001-in) of the gauge length, which is the six-inch
central section.
4. Process the data to obtain stress (load divided by original cross-sectional area) and strain (deformation divided by the
original six-inch gauge length). Graph these data points to obtain a stress-strain diagram, which results in a straight
line almost to failure. The slope of this line gives the modulus of elasticity.
5. Note the kind of failure pattern of the specimen and record the maximum load. Failure types of non-buckling clear
wood in compression parallel to grain include: (a) crushing, (b) wedge splitting, (c) shearing, (d) splitting, (e)
crushing and splitting, (f) brooming or end rolling. The latter is considered unacceptable because it is usually
associated with a reduced load. Potential remedial conditions to promote body failure include moderate end drying
(MC of the ends that is slightly lower than the body).
6. Calculate the tensile strength by dividing the maximum load applied on the specimen by the original cross-sectional
area.
7. Determine the weight of the specimen just before testing; and determine the MC of a small section, about 1.0 in in
length, near the failure.
Laboratory Setup
 Flexural Strength Parallel to the Grain Test
ASTM D143
► standard specimen size of 2 in by 2 in by 30 in
1. After fabricating a specimen prepared from a straight grain material, measure its actual dimensions: cross section at the
center and length.
2. Place the specimen in a testing machine with the direction of growth rings parallel to the direction of loading . Slowly
apply the load at the center of a 28-in span using a bearing block of hardwood until well pass the proportional limit. The
rate of movement of the crosshead should be 0.10 in/min. Loading should continue until the deflection reaches 6.0 in or
specimen fails to support a load of 200 lb. Deflection is measured along the neutral axis, at the center of the span and
relative to the supports.
3. Record the applied force and the deflection beyond the maximum load (to the nearest 0.001 in up to the proportional limit,
0.01 in thereafter). With the maximum load, calculate the flexure strength using the modulus of rupture Equation 5.4.
4. Note the failure pattern of the specimen, appearance of the fractured surface, and how failure developed. The state of stress
in bending involves a complex combination of tension, compression, and shear. Thus, static bending failure types can
include brash (abrupt failure, which is more brittle), fibrous (fracture showing splinters, which is more ductile),
compression, and horizontal shear (see Fig. 5.15). Only the first two represent the modulus of rupture; with the brash
simple tension resulting in a lower ultimate capacity. The splintering simple tension results have greater energy dissipation
potential because of the increased deflection due to the higher stresses.
5. Determine the weight of the specimen just before testing; and determine the MC of a small section, about 1.0 in in length,
near the failure.
Wood Seasoning
► Seasoning of timber is the process by which moisture content in the timber is
reduced to required level.
► By reducing moisture content, the strength, elasticity and durability properties
are developed. A well-seasoned timber has 15% moisture content in it
Methods of Seasoning Timber
Natural seasoning
► is the process in which timber is seasoned by subjecting it
natural elements such as air or water

Artificial seasoning
► is the process by which lumber is dried
using man-made devices such as a kiln

✔ Natural seasoning gives good results but takes more

time. So, artificial seasoning of timber is developed
nowadays.
✔ By artificial seasoning, timber is seasoned with in 4-5
days only
Natural Seasoning
Water Seasoning
► is the process in which timber is immersed in water
flow which helps to remove the sap present in the
timber.
► It will take 2 to 4 weeks of time and after that the
timber is allowed to dry. Well-seasoned timber is
ready to use.
Air Seasoning
► In the process of air seasoning timber logs are
arranged in layers in a shed. The arrangement is done
by maintaining some gap with the ground.
► A platform is built at 300mm height from ground. The
logs are arranged in such a way that air is circulated
freely between logs. By the movement of air, the
moisture content in timber slowly reduces and
seasoning occurs. Even though it is a slow process it
will produce well-seasoned timber
Artificial Seasoning 
Seasoning by Boiling
► Seasoning of timber is also achieved by boiling
it in water for 3 to 4 hours. After boiling timber is
allowed to drying.
► For large quantity of timber boiling is difficult so,
sometimes hot steam is passed through timber
logs in enclosed room. It also gives good
results. The boiling or steaming process
develops the strength and elasticity of timber
but economically it is costly
Chemical Seasoning
► timber is stored in suitable salt solution for
some time.
► The salt solution used has the tendency to
absorb water from the timber. So, the moisture
content is removed and then timber is allowed
to drying. It affects the strength of the timber.
Artificial Seasoning 
Kiln Seasoning
► In this method timber is subjected to hot air in air tight
chamber. The hot air circulates in between the timber logs
and reduces the moisture content.
► The temperature inside the chamber is raised with the help of
heating coils. When the required temperature is obtained
moisture content and relative humidity gets reduced and
timber gets seasoned. Even though it is costly process it will
give good results strength wise.
Electrical Seasoning
► timber is subjected to high frequency alternating currents.
► The resistance of timber against electricity is measured at
every interval of time. When the required resistance is
reached seasoning, process is stopped because resistance of
timber increases by reducing moisture content in it.
► It is also called as rapid seasoning and it is uneconomical
Laboratory Test for Wood
Moisture Content of Wood
► is the weight of water contained in wood, expressed as a percentage of the weight of oven-dry
wood weight.

► The standard procedure for obtaining MC of wood is detailed in ASTM D4442, Standard
Test Methods for Direct Moisture Content Measurement of Wood and Wood-Based
Materials, which covers four methods.
► The main procedure is Method A— primary oven-drying, and three additional secondary
procedures used when less precision is appropriate, or for special purposes or when Method
A is not desired or justified.
Method A
► the test procedure is carried out using eight specimens, which should be processed using
Guide ASTM D4933, Guide for Moisture Conditioning of Wood and Wood-Based Materials.
► After taking the initial weight, the drying time can take 24 h for a one- to two-inch sample in
an oven at a temperature of 103 ± 2°C. The specimens are weighed every three hours;
when the change in weight is less than twice the sensitivity of the scale (i.e., 0.2-g change in
weight of a 100-g sample), the sample is considered dry; and its weight is the oven-dry
weight.
Sample
A wood sample initially weighs 205 g, but decreases to 110 g after oven drying
to a constant weight. What is its percent moisture contetnt?

Solution:
 Density and Specific Gravity
► Density of a material is the ratio of its mass to its volume and is expressed in
units of lb/ft^3 in U.S. customary units (which is technically specific weight) and
g/cm^3 in SI units;
► Specific Gravity (also known as relative density) is a dimensionless ratio of the
density of a material to the density of water at a temperature of 4°C, when
water is densest, γ (it is equal to 62.43 lb/ft ^3 or 1.00 g/cm^3 ).

The standard procedure for obtaining density/specific gravity of wood is detailed in

ASTM D2395,Standard Test Methods for Specific Gravity of Wood and Wood-Based
Materials,

the volume is determined from the dimensions (length, width, and thickness) of
the specimen; and the mass is determined before and after oven drying.
Sample
► A red oak sample initially weighs 173.2 g, but decreases to 152.3 g after drying to a
constant weight. The average dimensions (three points each) after drying are 0.75 in
by 3.50 in by 5.46 in. Compute the percent MC and the specific gravity for the
specimen.
Solution: