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EEE 3105: Signals and Linear Systems

1. What is Signal?
A signal is a function that conveys information about a phenomenon.
Or
A signal is defined as any physical or virtual quantity that varies
with time or space or any other independent variable or variables.
Or
Any time varying physical phenomenon that is intended to convey
information is called as signal.
(Important three points: Signal is (i) Time varying, (ii) Physical
phenomenon and (iii) convey information)

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1.2 Classification of Signals

Signals are classified into the following categories:
• Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals.
• Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals.
• Even and Odd Signals.
• Periodic and Aperiodic Signals.
• Energy and Power Signals.
• Real and Imaginary Signals.

1.2.1 Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals

Continuous Time Signals : A signal is said to be continuous when it is
defined for all instant of time.

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Discrete Time Signals: A signal is said to be discrete when it is defined at only

discrete instants of time.

1.2.2 Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals

Deterministic Signals: A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no
uncertainty with respect to its value at any instant of time. Or signals which
can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula are known as deterministic
signals.

Non-deterministic Signals: A signal is said to be non-deterministic if there is

no uncertainty with respect to its value at some instant of time. Non-
deterministic signals are random in nature hence they are called random
signal. Random signals cannot be described by a mathematical equation. They
are modelled in probabilistic terms.

1.2.3 Even and Odd Signals

Even: A continuous time signal is said to be even when it satisfies the condition,
x(t) = x(-t).

Let x(t) = cos t

x(-t) = cos (-t) = cos(t) = x(t)
 cos t is even function.
Let x(t) = t2
x(-t) = (-t)2 = x(t)  t2 is even function.
Similarly, a discrete time signal is said to be even
when it satisfies the condition, x[n] = x[-n].

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Odd: A continuous time signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition,
x(t) = -x(-t).

Let x(t) = sin t

x(-t) = sin(-t) = -sin(t) = -x(t)
 sin t is odd function.

Let x(t) = t1
x(-t) = (-t)1 = -t = -x(t)
 t1 is odd function.

Similarly, a discrete time signal is

said to be odd when it satisfies
the condition, x[-n] = -x[-n].

Neither Even and Odd Signals: A continuous

time signal is said to be neither even nor odd
when it does not satisfy the conditions, x(t) =
x(-t) and x(t) = -x(-t).

Similarly, a discrete time signal is said to be

neither even nor odd when it does not satisfy
the conditions, x[n] = x[-n] and x[-n] = -x[-n].

Example 1.2.3.1: Determine algebraically whether the given function is

even, odd, or neither: f(x) = x5 - 3x3 + 7.

Solution: Replacing x with -x we obtain: f(-x) = (-x)5 - 3(-x)3 + 7

= -x5 + 3x3 + 7 .
Notice that the first two terms in f(x) changed signs when x was replaced
with (-x), but the third (constant) term did not .

So the resulting f(-x) is not equal to f(x) or -f(x). So, f(x) is neither even
nor odd.
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How to Determine if a Function is Even, Odd or Neither?

Example 1.2.3.2: Determine algebraically whether the given

function is even, odd, or neither:

Solution: Evaluating − x into f (x),

Since f (–x) = f (x), it means f (x) is an even function.

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Example 1.2.3.3 : Determine algebraically whether the given

function is even, odd, or neither:

Solution: Evaluating − x into f (x),

So, it is an odd function.

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Example 1.2.3.4: Determine algebraically whether if the function is

even, odd, or neither:

Solution: Evaluating − x into f (x),

So, it is an even function.

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Example 1.2.3.5: Determine whether the given function is even, odd, or

neither:

Solution: Evaluating − x into f (x),

So, it is an odd function.

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Example 1.2.3.6: Determine whether the given function is even, odd, or

neither:
Solution: First, check if it is even.

So, it is not an even function.

Secondly, check if it is odd

So, it is not an odd function.

Conclusion: Since we reached the case where f (–x) ≠ f (x) and f (–x) ≠ f (x), this
function is neither even nor odd! 14

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Example 1.2.3.7 : Determine whether the given function is even, odd,

or neither:

Solution: Evaluating − x into f (x),

So, it is an odd function.

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Example 1.2.3.8 : Determine whether the given function is even, odd, or

neither:

Solution:

Therefore, function h (x) is neither!

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Example 1.2.3.9 : Determine whether the given function is even, odd, or

neither:

Solution:

So, it is an even function.

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1.2.3.1 Even-Odd Components of a Signals

Any function x(t) can be expressed as its even function xe(t) and odd
function xo(t).
x(t )  xe(t )  xo(t ) .......... .......... (1)
Substituting t = -t in Eq.(1)
x(t )  xe(t )  xo(t )
 xe(t )  xo(t ).......... ........(2 )
Adding Eq.(1) and (2), we get
x(t )  x(t )
xe(t )  .......... ........(3 )
2
Subtracting Eq.(2) from Eq. (1) and, we get
x(t )  x(t )
xo(t )  .......... .......(4)
2
So, x(t )  xe(t )  xo(t )
x(t )  x(t ) x(t )  x(t )
  .......... .......(5)
2 2 18

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Example 1.3.1.1 : Find the event and odd components of the signal:

Solution: Substituting t = -t, then we get as

Fig.1(b). We know, even and odd components: Fig.1(a)
Original signal
x(t )  x(t )
xe(t ) 
2
Fig.1(b) Phase
x(t )  x(t )
xo(t )  reversal signal.
2
According to the formula for even Fig.1(c) Even
component we get the signal as Fig.1(c). component..

Similarly, for odd component we get the

Fig.1(d) Odd
signal as Fig.1(d).
component.

The sum of the even and odd components the

signal becomes as Fig.1(e)) which is the Fig.1(e)
original signal of Fig.1(a). Original signal.
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Example 1.3.1.2 : Find the even and odd components of the

following signals: x(t) = cost + sint + sint cost
Solution: First, let’s determine what is x(-t):
x(-t) = cos(-t) + sin(-t) + sin(-t) cos(-t)
= cos(t) - sin(t) - sin(t) cos(t).
Now, we can evaluate what are the even and odd components of
x(t) using the formulas xe(t) = 1/2[x(t) + x(-t)] and xo(t) = 1/2[x(t)
- x(-t)].
xe(t) = (1/2)[{cos(t) + sin(t) + sin(t) cos(t)} + {cos(t) -
sin(t) - sin(t) cos(t)}]= cos(t).
xo(t) = (1/2)[{cos(t) + sin(t) + sin(t) cos(t)} – {cos(t) +
sin(t) + sin(t) cos(t)}] = sin(t) + sin(t) cos(t).
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Example 1.3.1.3 : Find the even and odd components of each

of the following signals:
(a) x(t) = cos(t) + sin(t) + cos(t) sin(t) + sin2t
Solution: We know, even and odd components:
x(t )  x(t ) x(t )  x(t )
xe(t )  ; xo(t ) 
2 2
Putting –t in , x(t) = cos(t) + sin(t) + sin(t) cos(t) + sin2t separately,
we get,
(i) cos(t) = cos(-t) = cos(t) (Even);
(ii) sin(t) = sin(-t) =- sin(t) (Odd );
(iii) sin(t) cos(t) = cos(-t) sin(-t) = cos(t) {-sin(t)}
= - cos(t) sin(t) (Odd );
(iv) sin2t = sin2t = (1/2) {1- cos(t)} = (1/2) - (1/2)cos(t) (Even)
So, xe(t) = cos(t) + sin2t and xo(t) = sin(t) + sin(t) cos(t)
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1.2.4 Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

Continuous Time Periodic Signal : A signal x(t) is said to be periodic if
it satisfies the condition-
x(t) = x(t+T)
Otherwise Aperiodic.

where, T is fundamental time period. It is the smallest value of T which

satisfies the above condition is called ‘Fundamental Time Period’. So,
the angular frequency is  = 2f = 2/T

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Discrete Time Periodic Signal : A signal x[n] is said to be periodic if

it satisfies the condition-
x[n] = x(n+N)
Otherwise Aperiodic.

where, N is fundamental time period. It is the smallest value of T

which satisfies the above condition is called ‘Fundamental Time
Period’. So, the angular frequency is  = 2f = 2/N.

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Digital Signal : In this type of signal, the amplitude become 1 in a

specific duration and 0 for next specific duration.

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Example 1.2.4.1: Is the signal 2cos(t/4) periodic?

Solution: 1) Here,   2  1 T  2  4  8
T 4
2) Now, x(t )  x(t  T )  2 cos{(t / 4  8 )  2 cos(t / 4)
So, it is periodic.

Example 1.2.4.2 : Is the signal x(t) = cos2(2t) periodic?

Solution: x(t )  cos 2 (2t )  (1 / 2)[1  cos( 4t )] [cos 2 A  1 / 2(1  cos 2 A]
2
Now,   4 or , 2f  4 or ,  4
T
 T  2 / 4  1 / 2  0.5 sec
We know, x(t  T )  x(t )
LHS  x(t  0.5)  (1 / 2)[1  cos{4 (t  0.5)}]
[cos( A  B)
 (1 / 2)[1  cos 4 (t  0.5)]  (1 / 2)[1  cos( 4t  2 )]  cos A cos B  sin A sin B]
 (1 / 2)[1  (cos 4t cos 2  sin 4t sin 2 )]  (1 / 2)[1  (cos 4t.1  0]
 (1 / 2)[1  (cos 4t ]  x(t )  Periodic 25

*Example 1.2.4.3: What is the time period of the signal x[n] =

cos(2n/5+ /4) ?

2 2
Solution:   N  5.
N 5

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1.2.5 Energy and Power Signal

Energy Signal: A signal is said to be energy signal when it has

finite energy. Or, A signal which satisfies the condition 0<E<∞ is
called the energy signal.
 2
E    x(t ) dt for continuous time (CT) signal

 2

E   x ( n) for discrite time (DT) signal



However, there are signals where this condition is not satisfied.

For such signals we consider the power and the signal is called a
Power signal.
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Power Signal: A signal is said to be Power signal when it has

finite energy. A Power signal will satisfies the condition 0<P< ∞.
1 T 1 T /2
 
2 2
P  lim x(t ) dt  lim x(t ) dt for CT
T  2T T T  T T / 2

N N /2
P  lim
1
N  2 N  1 
N
x ( n)
2
 lim
1
N  N  1 
N / 2
x ( n)
2
for DT

A signal cannot be both, energy and power simultaneously. Also, a

signal may be neither energy nor power.
Power of energy signal = 0 and Energy of power signal = 
**Generally, Non-periodic signal is Energy signal and Periodic
signal is Power signal.
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Example 1.2.5.1: Is the signal x(t) = A rect(t/) energy or power?

Solution:

E  
2
x(t ) dt
  A dt   A dt   A dt
 / 2


2  /2
 / 2
2
 /2
 2

 0   A dt  0  A t 
 /2   
 A   A
2 2  /2 2 2
 / 2 Joule
 / 2
2 2
1 T

2  Finite Energy 
P  lim x(t ) dt P   o
T  2T T  2. 

1  /2 2 1  /2 2
 lim
T  2T  / 2
A dt  lim

T  2T  / 2
A dt

1 2    1 2 1 2
 lim A     lim A   A   0 watt
T  2T  2 2  T  2T 2.
So, the signal is Energy signal.
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Example 1.2.5.2 : Is the signal x(t) = u(t) energy or power?

Solution: x(t) = u(t) is standard unit step signal.


E    x(t ) dt
2

 0 2 2
  2

   0 dt  0 1 dt  0  0 1 dt  0 1 dt  1t 0    0  
   2 

1 T
P  lim
2
T   2T
 T
x(t ) dt

 lim
1 0 2

T   2T T
0 dt 
 0
T 2
1 dt  lim
1
T   2T
0  0
1
T 2
dt  lim
T   2T
t 0
1 T
 
1 1 1
 lim (T  0)  lim T  Watt
T   2T T   2T 2

So, the signal is Power signal.

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Example 1.2.5.3: Is the signal x(t) = r(t)= t energy or power?

Solution: x(t) = t r(t) is standard unit ramp signal. Value of the signal is t.

r(t) dt
2
E

  
0 t3 
 0 0 t 2 dt     3  0  
1
 t 2 dt  t 2 dt  0 
 
3 3  
0
T

1 2
P  lim x(t ) dt
T  2T T
1   1  
0 T T
  
2 2 2
 lim t dt  t dt   lim 0 t dt 
T  2T  T 0  T  2T 
  0 

T
1   1 t3 
T

2 1 T3
 lim t dt   lim    lim .
T     
 T    0 T 
2T 2 T 3 2T 3
 0
1 T 2 1 2
 lim .  . 
T  2 3 2 3

So, the signal is neither energy nor Power signal. 31

Example 1.2.5.4: Is the signal x(n)=u(n) energy or power?

Solution: x(n)=u(n) is power signal, Signal having infinite duration but
constant amplitude is always Power signal.

E

n  
x[n]
2

 1   


n  
2
u[n] 

n  
u[n] 
2

n 0
u[n]
2
0

n 0

12 
n 0
12

 [n  0]  [n  1]  [n  2]  ......[n  ]

 12  12  12  12  ........    
 

N  1 N   N 

 1 
 2 1 

1 2 2 2 
P  lim u (n)  lim  u ( n)  u (n)   lim 0  1 
N   1
2 N N  2 N  1   N  2 N  1  
nN  n N n 0   0 
N 1 N (1  1 / N )
 lim
1
N  0  1  lim  lim
N  2 N  1 N  2 N  1 N  N (2  1 / N )
(1  1 / ) (1  0) 1
   For Energy: For Power:
(2  1 / ) (2  0) 2  N2
1
 an  1 a 1n  N 2  N1  1
N1
0 32

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Conclusions of Energy and Power Signals

1) Signal having finite magnitude and finite duration is always Energy
signal. Signal should be bounded in duration and bounded in magnitude
whatever the shape (Fig. below).

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2) Signal having infinite duration but constant amplitude is always Power

signal (Fig. below).

3) Periodic signals are always Power signal such as Acos(t+), Aejt .

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4) When the magnitude of a signal becomes zero at the infinity, then the
signal is Energy signal (Fig. below).

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1.2.6 Real and Imaginary Signals

Complex Numbers - Basic Definitions

Quadratic Equations

Fig.

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Fig.

Fig.

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Cubic Equations

Fig.

Fig.

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Fig.7
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Complex in Rectangular Form Polar Form

Fig. Fig.
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The Complex Conjugate

Every complex number has associated with
it another complex number known as its
complex conjugate. The complex conjugate
can be made simply by changing the sign of
the imaginary part of the complex number.

Example
The complex conjugate of 4+7i is 4 − 7i.

Example
The complex conjugate of 1 − 3i is 1+3i.

Example
The complex conjugate of −4 − 3i is −4 + 3i.
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Special Property of Complex Number:

The complex conjugate has a very special property. Consider what
happens when we multiply a complex number by its complex
conjugate.
Example: Multiplying (4+7i) by (4 − 7i):
(4 + 7i)(4 − 7i) = 16 − 28i + 28i − 49i2 = 16 + 49 = 65
The result is purely a real number, it has no imaginary part.

Example:
(1 − 3i)(1 + 3i) = 1 + 3i − 3i − 9i2 = 1 + 9 = 10
Also, the result is purely a real number.

This is a very important property which applies to every complex

conjugate pair of numbers.
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Real and Imaginary Signals

Real Signal: A signal is said to be real signal when it satisfied the
condition: x(t )  x * (t )

If x(t) = 3, then x * (t )  3*  3

Therefore, x(t) is real signal. For real signal, imaginary part

should be zero.

Imaginary or Odd Signal: A signal is said to be imaginary signal

when it satisfied the condition: x(t )   x * (t )

If x(t) = 3j, then x * (t )  3 j*  3 j

Therefore, x(t) is imaginary/odd signal. For imaginary signal, real

part should be zero.
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1.3 Basic Operations on Signals

Basic operation on signals are below:
(1) Time Shifting (Delayed and Advanced) [Example: x(t-2), x(t+3)]
(2) Time Scaling (Compressed and Extended) [Example: x(2t), x(t/3)]
(3) Time Reversal [Example: x(-t) = x(t/-1)]
(4) Amplitude Scaling [Example: (3/2)x(t)]
(5) Amplitude Reversal/Inversion [Example: (-x(t)]
(6) Amplitude Addition [Example: x1(t) + x2(t)]
(7) Amplitude Subtraction [Example: x1(t) - x2(t)]
(8) Amplitude Multiplication [Example: x1(t)  x2(t)]
(1) Time Shifting
Time shifting of a signal means the shifting of signal in the time axis.
A signal x(t) may be shifted in time by replacing the independent
variable t by either t−t0 or t+t0. Here, t0 is called as the shifting
factor. 46

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If the independent variable t is replaced by t−t0, the signal is

shifted to the right and the time shift results in a delay of
the signal by t0 units of time. This type of time shifting is known as
Right Side Shifting.
If the independent variable t is replaced by t+t0, the signal is
shifted to the left and the time shift results in an advance of
the signal by t0 units of time. This type of time shifting is known as
Left Side Shifting.
Consider a signal x(t) as shown in Fig.1(a). Fig.1(b) and
Fig.1(c) show the signals of x(t-2) and x(t+3).

Fig.1(a) Original signal. Fig.1(b) Delayed signal. Fig.1(c) Advanced signal.

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(2) Time Scaling

Time scaling of signals involves the modification of periodicity of
the signal, keeping its amplitude constant. A signal x(t) may be
scaled in time by replacing the independent variable t by at. Here,
a is called as the scaling factor.
If the independent variable t is replaced by at and a>1
the signal is compressed. This can be achieved by dividing every
time instant in signal x(t) by ‘a’.
If the independent variable t is replaced by at and 0<a<1,
the signal is extended. This can be achieved by dividing every time
instant in signal x(t) by ‘a’.

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Consider a signal x(t) as shown in Fig.2(a). Fig.2(b) and Fig.2(c) show

the signals of x(2t) and x(t/3).

Fig.2(a) Original signal. Fig.2(b) Compressed signal. Fig.2(c) Extended signal.

(3) Time Reversal

Time reversal of a signal means the time is reversed on the time axis
keeping its amplitude constant. Time reversal is special case of time
scaling.
If the independent variable t is replaced by ‘-t’, this operation
is known as time reversal of the signal about the amplitude axis This
can be achieved by mirror image of the signal x(t) or by rotating x(t)
by 180o about the amplitude axis. Hence, time reversal is known as
folder or reflection.
49

Consider a signal x(t) as shown in Fig.3(a). Fig.3(b) shows the signal of x(-t).

Fig.3(a) Original signal. Fig.3(b) Time reversal signal.

(4) Amplitude Scaling

Amplitude scaling is a very basic operation performed on signals to
vary its strength. It can be mathematically represented as y(t) =
α x(t). Here, α is the scaling factor, where
α<1 → signal is attenuated.
α>1 → signal is amplified.
50

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This is illustrated in the diagram Fig.(a), where the signal is amplified

by α = 3/2 as in Fig.(b).

Fig.4(a) Original signal. Fig.4(b) Amplitude scaling.

(5) Amplitude Reversal/Inversion
Whenever the amplitude of a signal is multiplied by -1, then it is known as
amplitude reversal. The signal produces its mirror image about time-axis.
Fig.3(b) shows the reversal signal of -x(t).

Fig.5(a) Original signal. Fig.5(b) Amplitude reversal signal. 51

(6) Amplitude Addition

Addition of two signals is nothing but addition of their corresponding
amplitudes. This can be explained by using the following example:

As seen from the diagram above,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 1 + 2 = 3
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2 52

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(7) Amplitude Subtraction

Subtraction of two signals is nothing but subtraction of their corresponding
amplitudes. This can be explained by the following example:

As seen from the diagram above,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 0 - 2 = -2
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 1 - 2 = -1
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 - 2 = -2
53

(8) Amplitude Multiplication

Multiplication of two signals is nothing but multiplication of their
corresponding amplitudes. This can be best explained by the following
example:

As seen from the diagram above,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) ×x2(t) = 0 ×2 = 0
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) ×x2(t) = 1 ×2 = 2
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) × x2(t) = 0 × 2 = 0 54

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Other Operations are:

• Convolution
• Differentiation
• Integration …

55

1.4 Signals Basics

Unit Step Signal (Heaviside function): When the amplitude of
step function is one then it is called unit step signal. The signal
whose amplitude is not one then it is called as step signal. The
unit step signal is denoted by u(t) and is defined as:

1 t0
u (t )   for contnuous time (CT) signal
0 t0

1 n0
u ( n)   for discrite time (DT) signal
0 n0

56

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Properties:
(1) x(t) = u(t) + u(-t) = ?

At t = 0, u(t) = 1 and u(-t) = 1,  x(t) = 1 + 1 = 2, which is not

true. This can be solved by Gibb’s Phenomenon which is:

before discontinuity = 1 and after discontinuity = 1

 Average = (1 + 1) / 2 = 1
57

(2) Energy and Power of Unit Step Signal:


 x(t )
2
E dt

 0 2  2   2
  0 dt  1 dt   1 dt  1t 
  0    0  
  0  0

1 T

2
P  lim x(t ) dt
T  2T T

1  0 2 T 2   T 2 
 lim   
0 dt  1 dt   lim
1

0  0 1 dt   Tlim t 0
1 T
T  2T  T 0  T  2T  2T

1 1 1
 lim (T  0)  lim T  Watt
T  2T T  2T 2

 RMS Power  P  1/ 2  1/ 2

So, unit step signal is Power signal and its RMS Power = 1/2.
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(3) Eveness and Oddness of Unit Step Signal:

Unit step signal is Neither Even nor Odd signal.

(i) For even u(t)  u(-t) and (ii) for odd u(t)  -u(-t)

So, unit step signal is neither even nor odd signal.

59

(4) (i) [u(t)]n = u(t) and (ii) [u(t-to)]k = u(t-to)

60

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(5) u(at) = u(t) Here, time scaling don’t work, but time
shifting works.

But, u(at-to) = u(a(t-to/a)) = u(t-to/a)

Example: u(2t-4) = ?
 u(2(t-4/2) = u(t-2)
61

Example: Sketch the wave form of the signal:

x(t) = -u(t+3) + 2u(t+1) - 2u(t-1) + u(t-3)

62

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Questions-1: Sketch the wave forms of the following signals:

(i) x(t) = u(t+1) - 2u(t) + 2u(t-1)

(ii) x(t) = u(t+1) - 2u(t-1) + 2u(t-2)

(iii) x(t) = 3u(t) - 2u(t-1) + 2u(t-3) - 5u(t-5)

63

Impulse/Dirac Delta Signal: It is denoted by (t). An

ideal impulse function is a function that is zero everywhere but
at the origin, where it is infinitely high. However, the area of
the impulse is finite. It is defined as:

 t  0
 (t )  
0 t  0

Basically, this function is naturally present. We have to obtain it

using some practical methods.
64

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How to obtain Unit Impulse signal?

Let us consider a rectangular pulse x(t) having area = 1:
1 /  - /2  t  /2
x(t )  
0 otherswise
So, from Fig.(a), Area = 1/   = 1

If we reduce the duration from ‘’ to ‘/2’, i.e., -/4 to

/4 (Fig.b), then what will be the Height? We know,
Height  Duration = 1
 Height = 1 / Duration = 1/(/2) = 2/
Again, Area = Height  Duration = 2/  /2 = 1

Thus, at  0, then x(t)  , but area = 1. So,

the signal x(t) now becomes unit impulse (t):
 t  0
 (t )  lim x(t )   (1.4.1)
 0 0 t  0 65

So, in terms of area, the unit impulse signal is defined as:

1 t  0
 (t )   for contnuous time (CT) signal
0 t  0

Here, 1 indicates area of the unit impulse signal.

1 n0
 ( n)   for contnuous time (DT) signal
0 n0

66

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Properties:
 
(1) 
 (t )dt  1 Or 
x(t )dt  1
  


  (t )dt 
  lim x(t )dt  lim
   0  0  x(t )dt  1

(1.4.2)

(2) Weight or Strength of an Impulse:

y(t )  Ao (t )
  
 y (t )dt   Ao (t )dt  Ao   (t )dt
 Ao  1  Ao (Weight).

This is Normal Impulse signal.


(3)   (t )dt  u(t )



  (t )dt  A u(t )

o
Delayed stagg version of
Impulse signal 67

(4)  (t )   (t )
Unit Impulse / Impulse signals are Even signals.

(5) Unit Impulse signal is neither Energy nor Power signal:

At t = 0, This signal has the magnitude of ,

  0
   (t ) dt    2 dt   2
2 2
E x(t ) dt 
0

1 T

2
P  lim x(t ) dt
T  2T T

1 0 1 1

2
 lim  dt  lim  2   2  
T  2T 0 T  2T 2
68

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1 t  t1
(6) Time Shifting: δ(t  t1 )  
0 t 0

(7) Time Scaling: δ(at ) 

1
δ(t )
a
Examples:

(i) δ ( 2t)  ?
1 1
Sol. : δ ( 2t)  δ(t)  δ(t)
2 2

(ii) δ (2t  3 )  ?
Sol. : δ (2t  3 )  δ(  2(t  3 / 2 )
1 1
 δ(t  1.5 )  δ(t  1.5 )
2 2 69

(8) Multiplication: x(t ).δ(t  t1)  x(t1).δ(t  t1)

Examples:
(i) y(t)  2t 2 δ(t  3 )  ?
Sol. : y (t)  2(3) 2 δ(t  3 )  18δ(t  3 )

(ii) y (t)  cos 4t.δ( 2t  )  ?

Sol. : y (t)  cos 4t.δ( 2(t   / 2 )

1
 cos 4t. δ(t   / 2 )
2
1
 cos 4t. δ(t   / 2 )
2
1
 cos 4( / 2). δ(t   / 2 )
2
1 1
 1. δ(t   / 2 )  δ(t   / 2 )
2 2
70

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(iii) x(t )  sin t. (2t   )

Sol. : x(t )  sin t. (2(t   / 2))

1
 sin t.  (t   / 2)
2
1
 sin t.  (t   / 2)
2
1
 sin( / 2).  (t   / 2)
2
1
 1.  (t   / 2)
2
1
  (t   / 2)
2
71


(9) Integration: 
x(t ).δ(t  t1)dt  x(t1)  constant
 
We can write, 
x(t1).δ(t  t1)dt  x(t1)   δ(t  t1)dt
 x(t1).1  x(t1)
Examples:

 2t .δ(t  4)dt  ?
2
(i) I 2
2

 
2 2
Sol. : 2t .δ(t  4)dt  2(4) .δ(t  4)dt
2 2
2 2


2
 32.δ(t  4)dt  32  0  0
2
(because δ(t  4) is outside the limit)

 2t .δ(t  4)dt  ?
10
(ii) I  2
10

  2(4) .δ(t  4)dt  32  1  32

10 10
Sol. : 2t 2 .δ(t  4)dt  2
10 10
(because δ(t  4) is within the limit) 72

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4
(iii) I 5 δ(t  5 )dt
4
Sol. : I  5 δ(t  5 )dt  0
(because δ(t  5) is outside the limit)

4
(iv) I  5 δ(t  2 )dt
4
Sol. : I  5 δ(t  2 )dt  1
(because δ(t  2) is within th e limit)

73


 e
 2t
(v) I  .δ (2t  1 )dt


Sol. : I   e  2t .δ (2t  1 )dt

  2t
  
e .δ (2(t  1/ 2 )dt
  2t 1
  e .
2
δ(t  1/ 2 )dt

1
 e
 2t
 . δ(t  1/ 2 )dt
2
  2(1 / 2) 1

 
e . δ(t  1/ 2 )dt
2
 1 1

 
e . δ(t  1/ 2 )dt
2
1 

2e   
(t  1/ 2 )dt
1 1
 .1 
2e 2e 74

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 dn n d
n


(10) I  x(t ). n  (t  t1 )dt  (1) n x(t ) t  t , when x(t ) t    0 or finite
 dt dt 1

d2

Examples: I 
 
cos t. 2  (t  1)dt  ?
dt

d2
Sol. :

cos t. 2  (t  1)dt
dt
2
2 d
 (1) . 2 (cos t ) t  1
dt
d
 (1) 2 . ( sin t ) t  1
dt
 1.(  2 cos t ) t  1

 1.(  2 (cos  .1))   2  (1)   2

75

d
(11) x(t )  Doublet function (Odd signal)
dt

(12)  (n)  u(n)  u(n  1)

76

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Questions: Solve the problems bellow:


(i) I 3 (t  1)δ(t )dt  ?
5
(ii) I 3 (t  1)δ(t )dt  ?
2

3  at
(iii) I 
e u (t )dt ?
 ( 2 t )
(iv) I   e δ(t  2)dt  ?

77

Unit Ramp Signal: It is denoted by r(t), and is defined as:

t t  0
r (t )   for contnuous time (CT) signal
0 t  0

Equation of straight line:

y = mx + c.
when c = 0 and m = tan45o = 1 then,
y = x.
So, unit ramp signal, r(t) = t.
If m  1 then it is called Ramp Signal.

n n0
r ( n)   for contnuous time (DT) signal
0 n0

78

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Properties:
t
(i)
u(t)dt  r(t)


  
0 t t
LHS  0dt  1dt  1dt  t   [t  0]  t  r(t) (proved)
t
0
 0 0
d
So, r(t)  u(t)
dt

(ii) Unit ramp signals are neither Even nor Odd signals, i.e.,
r(t)  r(-t) and r(t)  -r(-t)

79

(iii) Unit ramp signals are neither Energy nor Power signals.



2
E x(t ) dt



t3 
 


 
0
2 2 1
 0 dt  t dt     3  03  
 0  3 0 3


T
1 2
P  lim x(t ) dt
T  2T T


1  
  
0 T
2 1 2
 lim  0 dt  t 2 dt   lim t dt
T  2T   0  T  2T 0
T

 lim
1
T  2T
t3 
   Tlim
1 1 3
. T  0  lim
  2T 3
3
1 T3
.
T  2T 3

 lim
T2
T  6

 3 0
80

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81

Unit Parabolic Signal: Unit Parabolic signal is defined as:

t 2 /2 t 0

P(t )   for contnuous time (CT) signal
0 t0
n 2 /2 n0

P ( n)   for contnuous time (DT) signal
0 n0

82

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Out of these four orientation which one is the orientation of Unit

Parabolic Signal. In this case: y = P(t) and x = t.
From the definition when t  0,
t2
P(t )  or, 2 P(t )  t 2 or, 2 y  x 2 (1.4.3)
2
But the Equation of Parabola of Fig.(c),
4ay  x 2 (1.4.4)
From Eq.(1.4.3) and (1.4.4), 2 y  4ay  a  1/ 2
1 1
Using Eq(1.4.4) we can write, 4ay  x 2 or, 4. .y  x 2 or, y  x 2
2 2
So, the orientation of Fig.(c) is the orientation of
Unit Parabolic Signal. But its value is 0 when t
<0. So, the actual Unit Parabolic Signal should
be as of Fig.(e) 83

Properties:
t
(i)
 r(t)dt  P(t)

t
t 0 tt 2  tt2

   0 0 
LH S  r(t)dt  0dt  tdt  tdt      P(t ) (proved)
 2  0 2
d
So, P(t)  r(t)
dt

(ii) Unit ramp signals are neither Even nor Odd signals, i.e.,
r(t)  r(-t) and r(t)  -r(-t)

84

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(iii) Unit parabolic signals are neither Energy nor Power signals.



2
E x(t ) dt


2 
1 t 5 
 
  4
t2 
  
0
2 t 1 5
 0 dt  dt  dt       05 
 0 2 0 4 4  5  0 20 20


T
1 2
P  lim x(t ) dt
T   2T T

1  
2 T
t2 t4 1 1 t5 
  
0 T T
1
 lim  2
0 dt  dt   lim dt  lim .  
T   2T   T  2T T   2T 4 5

T 0 2 0 4  0

 lim
1 1 5
.
T   2T 20
T  05  lim 
1 T5
.
T   2T 20
 lim .
1 T4
T   2 20

85

Relation among unit impulse, unit step, unit ramp and unit
parabolic signals.


d
* u (t )   (t )dt (t)  u(t)
dt


d
* r(t)  u(t)dt  u(t)  r(t)
dt
d2

(t)dt  2 (t)
dt


P(t)  r(t)dt d
*  r(t)  P(t)
dt
d2

 u(t)dt  2 u(t)
dt
d3

(t)dt  3 (t)
dt 86

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TUTORIAL-3
EEE-3105: Signals and Linear Systems
Marks: 15 Date: 03/02/2021
1. (a) What is the difference between Unit Ramp signal
and Ramp signal? (Marks:4)
(b) Sketch the wave forms of the following signals:
x(t) = r(t+2) - r(t) + r(t-1)- r(t-2) (Marks:9)
(c) What is the difference between Unit Parabolic
signal and Parabolic signal? (Marks:2)
Email: mnhaque.iu@gmail.com End Time:12 Minute
ANSWER SCRIPT SHOULD BE OF ONE PAGE

87

Unit Pulse Signal: The Unit Pulse Function is obtained from unit
step signals as:

unit pulse, x(t) = u(t + 1/2) - u(t - 1/2)

where, the u(t + 1/2) and u(t - 1/2) are the unit step signals shifted
by 1/2 units in the time axis towards the left and right respectively.

88

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Sinusoidal Signal: The Unit Sinusoids are an extremely

important category of time-varying functions (or signals). A
signal having the form of “sine” and “cosine” function is called
Sinusoidal signal, such as:

where, A is the amplitude of the sinusoid, ω is

the frequency (in radians/second) of the signal and θ is
the phase angle of the signal. A typical sinusoidal signal is
shown in Fig. 1.
89

The general relationship between cosine and sine is:

90

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Mathematically, the frequency (in Hertz) of a sinusoid is simply the

inverse of its period:

Since there are 2π radians in one cycle, the relationship between

frequency in Hertz and radian frequency is:

Thus, the sinusoid of equation (1) can be written as:

91

Unnormalized (Sampling) Sinc Function and Normalized Sinc

Function
Unnormalized (Sampling) Sinc Function: The mathematical
formulation of the sinc function, also known as the cardinal sine
function, is written as follows:
sin(t )
Sa (t )  (1)
t
The function shown above is undefined for t = 0 (i.e., sin(0)/0 =0/0),
and consequently we need to define Sa(0) based on the limit as t
approaches 0 i.e., lim0 (sin(t)/t). This can be done by differentiating
numerator and denominator according to L’Hospital’s rule.
d
sin(t )
sin(t ) dt cos(t ) cos(0) 1
lim  lim  lim   1
t dt 1 1 1
t 0 t 0 t 0
dt 92

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So, this function can be written as

1 for t0

Sa(t )   (2)
sin(t )
 otherwise
 t

Here, all the integer multiple of π points are the zero-crossing

points.

93

The sampling function can be written as multiplication of two

functions:
sin(t ) 1
Sa(t )   sin(t ).
t t
Figure shows the graph of sin(t), 1/t and sin(t)/t.

94

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Properties of Unnormalized (Sampling) Sinc Function:

(i) Sa(t) is even function of t.

(ii) Sa(t) = sin(t)/t = 0 for t =  n i.e., at t =  ,  2,  3….;

except t = 0.

(iii) Sa(t) = sin(t)/t has 0 value at .

(iv) Sa(t) = sin(t)/t = 1 at t = 0. This can be proved by L’Hospital’s

rule as
d
sin(t )
sin(t ) dt cos(t ) cos(0) 1
lim t  lim dt  lim 1  1  1  1
t 0 t 0 t 0
dt 95

(vi) Sa(t) is an Energy signal and its value is  .

(vii) The Sa(t) function can be written as multiplication of two

functions:
sin(t ) 1
Sa(t )   sin(t ).
t t
Here, sin(t)  Oscillatory function with period 2 and
1/t  A decreasing function.

Figure shows the graph of sin(t), 1/t and sin(t)/t.

96

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Normalized Sinc Function: In the context of digital signal

processing, we often use an alternative form (normalized sinc
function) in which the independent variable is multiplied by π:

1 for t  0 (Accoridng to L’ Hospital's rule)


sin c(t )   (3)
sin(t )
 otherwise
 t

Here, all the integer points are the zero-crossing points.

97

The sinc function can be written as multiplication of two functions:

sin(t ) 1
sin c(t )   sin(t ).
t t
Figure shows the graph of sin(t), 1/t and sin(t)/t.

98

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This second form is called the normalized sinc function, because the
definite integral over the entire range of x is equal to1:


 sin c(t )dt  1

The normalized version is common in digital signal processing.

When we are dealing with discrete data instead of a continuous-time
variable, the normalization is expressed as follows:

 sin c(t )  1
The following plot shows the shape of the sinc function, and it
also conveys the difference created when we multiply the
independent variable by π.
99

Properties of Normalized Sinc Function:

(i) sinc(t) is even function of t.

(ii) sinc(t) = 0 for t =  n i.e., at t =  1,  2,  3…..; except t = 0.

(iii) sinc(t) has 0 value at .

(iv) sinc(t) = 1 at t = 0. This can be proved by L’Hospital’s rule as

d
sin(t )
sin(t ) dt  cos(t )
lim t  lim d  lim  lim cos(t )  cos( .0)  1
t 0 t 0 t 0  t 0
(t )
dt
(v) The definite integral of sinc(t) = 1 over the real numbers.

100

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(vi) Sa(t) is an Energy signal and so the energy of sinc(at) has the
value: E = [energy of Sa] / a =  / a =  /  = 1 [if a = ]

(vii) The sinc function can be written as multiplication of two

functions:
sin(t ) 1
sin c(t )   sin(t ).
t t
Here, sin(t)  Oscillatory function with period 2 and
1/t  A decreasing function.
Figure shows the graph of sin(t), 1/t and sin(t)/t.

101

Differences and Similarity Between Unnormalized Sinc

(Sampling) Function and Normalized Sinc Functions:
Differences
Unnormalized (Sampling) Sinc Function Normalized Sinc Function

1. Denoted by Sa(t) 1. Denoted by sinc(t)

2. It is unnormalized function 2. It is normalized function

3. Sa(t) = sin(t)/t = 0 3. sinc(t) = sin(t)/t = 0 where,

where, t =  ,  2,  3, …… t =  1,  2,  3, ……

Similarity
Sa(t) = sin(t)/t = 1 at t = 0 sinc(t) = sin(t)/t = 1 at t = 0
102

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Signum Function: The continuous time signum function of a real

number t is defined as follows:

 1 if t  0 
 
sgn (t)   0 if t  0  for CT signal (*)
 1 if t  0 
 

Since signum function at t = 0 is discontinuous, so it can not be

differentiated at t = 0.

Range of Signum Function = (1, 0, -1)

Domain of Signum Function = (-, )

103

Examples: What is the value of the signal- (i) sgn(3), (ii) sgn(-

3), (iii) sgn(-2), (iv) sgn(0), (v) sgn(1-2) and (vi) sgn(1+x2).

Solution: (i) sgn(3) = 1; (ii) sgn(-3) = -1; (iii) sgn(-2) = -1;

(iv) sgn(0) = 0; (v) sgn(1-2) = -1 and (vi) sgn(1+x2) = 1.

104

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Properties of Signum Function:

(i) sgn( t )  2u(t )  1  u(t )  u(t )

1st Part:

Here, at t = 0, the magnitude for 1st term = (0+2)/2 = 1 and for 2nd term = 1.
So, the output = 1 - 1 = 0 at t = 0 (According to Gibb’s phenomenon).

2nd Part:

Here, at t = 0, the magnitude for 1st term = (0+1)/2 = 1/2 and for 2nd term =
(0+1)/2. So, the output =1/2–1/2=0 at t=0 (According to Gibb’s phenomenon).
105

d
(ii) sgn( t )  2 (t )
dt
d d
We have, sgn (t)  2u(t)  1 Or, sgn (t)  2 u(t)  0
dt dt
d
Or, sgn (t)  2δ(t) (Proved)
dt
t
 if t  0
(iii) sgn (t)   t

0 if t  0
Examples: (i) sgn(3) = ?, (ii) sgn(-3) = ? and (ii) sgn(0) = ?
3 3 3 3
Solutions: (i) sgn ( 3 )    1. (ii) sgn (  3 )    1
3 3 3 3
0 0
(iii) sgn ( 0 )    undefined . So, sgn ( 0 )  0 (by definition)
0 0 106

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d
(iv) t  sgn( t ) for t  0
dt

From property (iii) We know,

t
sgn(t)  for t  0
t

Or , t. sgn (t)  t

d d
Or , t.sgn( t )  t
dt dt

d
Or , 1. sgn( t )  t
dt

d
Or , sgn( t )  t (Proved)
dt 107

(v) sgn( t )  sgn sgn( t )  sgn sgn sgn( t )  ........

Examples: sgn(4) = 1

sgn sgn(4) = sgn(1) = 1

sgn sgn sgn(4) = sgn.1 = 1

(vi) sgn( t )   sgn( t )

Examples: sgn(-4) = - sgn(4)

Or, -1= - 1

108

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Problems:

1. If sgn(x+1) = 1, then find the value of ‘x’.

Sol: Since the value of sgn(x+1) = 1, so (x+1) should be greater

than 0 i.e.,

(x+1) > 0 Or, x > -1.

109

The discrete time signum function of a real number n is defined as

follows:
 1 if n  0 
 
sgn[ n]   0 if n  0  for discrete signal (DS) (*)
 1 if n  0 
 
Properties:
(i) sgn[ n]  u[n  1]  {u[n  1]}  u[n  1]  u[n  1]

110

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(ii) Signum signal is a Power signal.

N
1

2
P  lim sgn[ n]
N   ( 2 N  1) n   N

Since the Power of a signal is calculated using magnitude only,

so the limit in this case is from - N to N excepting at t  0 where magnitude  0
[ for example Fig.(a) is coverted to (b) ].

1  1 0 N
2
 sgn[ n]   sgn[ n]   sgn[ n] 
2 2
 lim 
N   ( 2 N  1)  n   N n  1 n 0 

1  1 N
2
 
2
 lim  sgn[ n ]  0  sgn[ n] 
N   ( 2 N  1)  n   N n 0 

 lim
1
N  N   lim 1
.2 N
N   ( 2 N  1) N  N (2  1 / N )

2 2 2
 lim    1 Watt
N  (2  1 / N ) ( 2  1 / ) 2
111

Exponential Signal: The exponential signal is defined as

y(t )  Aet (1)

where, A and  are constant on those the shape of the exponential

depends. For unit exponential the above equation can be written as
(2)
t
y(t )  e
Case-1: when  = 0, then y(t) = e0.t = e0 = 1.

112

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Case-2: when  > 0, suppose  = 2, then y(t) = e2t .

Case-3: when  < 0, suppose  = -2, then y(t) = e-2t .

113

The property that causes this signal to arise so frequently in

systems concerned with its rate or slope. For convenience the
dependency so the signal on the independent variable t of Eq.(1)
will be omitted and it can be written as
y  Aet
and its slope
dy
 Ae t  y
dt
The signal has the property that its slope, at any time, is
proportional to its value at that time. Many systems produce
signals having this property, for example- phases in bacterial
growth, charging and discharging of capacitor, radioactive decay
etc. The slope can be positive or negative depending on the value
of ‘’ giving growth or decay ( = 0 is a special case of the
exponential. 114

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Example-1: Draw the graph of the signal: u(t) e2t.

Example-2: Draw the graph of the signal: u(-t) e2t.

115

Example-3: Draw the graph of the signal: u(t) e-2t.

Example-4: Draw the graph of the signal: u(-t) e-2t.

116

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The discrete exponential signal is of the form

nT
y[n]  Ae
where, A and  are constant. Figure below shows this signal
for both positive and negative values of ‘’.

As the signal is a time signal the independent variable is the

discrete time instant nT.

117

The signal can also be written in the form

y[n]  AenT  A(eT ) n  A( z ) n

where, z = eT.

In this form it is easy to see that

y[n  1]  Az n1  Az n z1  y[n]z

At each instant the signal is formed by multiplying the signal at
the previous instant by the constant z i.e., the values form a
geometric progression. The constant z is grater than unity
(positive) and less than unity (negative) leads to growth and
decay respectively.
118

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The continuous exponential signal has the property that its

slope is always proportional to its present value. There is no
meaning to slope as a derivative when applied to a discrete
signal. However, a similar property holds based upon
differences between successive samples.

y (n  1)  y (n)  y (n) z  y (n)  ( z  1) y (n)

As (z-1) is a constant, the difference between successive samples

is a constant times the nth sample.

119

Continues Time Complex Exponential Signal: It is of general

form y (t )  Ae st
where, s =   j is a complex variable
Case-1: If s = 0;

Case-2: If s =  (Real part); If,  > 0, let  = 2.

120

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Case-3: If s =  (Real part); If,  < 0, let  = -2.

Case-4: If s = e j (Imaginary part).

y(t )  Ae st  Ae  jt
It is sinusoidal or oscillatory signal of frequency ‘’.

121

Case-5: If s =   j and let  > 0.

y(t )  Ae st  Ae (  j )t  A.et .e  jt

Case-6: If s =   j and let  < 0.

y(t )  Ae st  Ae (   j )t  A.e t .e  jt

122

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Modulus and Argument of Complex Numbers

Any complex number z can be represented by a point on an
Argand diagram. This point can be joined to the origin with a line
segment. The length of the line segment is called the modulus of
the complex number and is denoted |z|. The angle measured from
the positive real axis to the line segment is called the argument of
the complex number, denoted arg(z) and often labelled θ. The
modulus and argument can be calculated using trigonometry

123

The modulus of a complex number z = a+bj is

z  a 2  b2
The angle produce by the point can be calculated as
b
  tan 1 

a
For argument the range is - <  < . The argument is defined as

Arg(z)  θ   for 1st Quadant

Arg(z)  θ     for 2nd Quadant
Arg(z)  θ     for 3rd Quadant
Arg(z)  θ   for 4th Quadant

124

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Example-1: Plot the following complex numbers on an Argand diagram:

z 2  3  j; z2  2  4 j; z3  1  3 j; z4  2 j
Solution:

125

Example-1: Find the modulus and argument of the complex number:

z  3 2 j
Solution: Magnitude of the complex number is
z  32  2 2  9  4  13
As the complex number lies in the first
quadrant of the Argand diagram, so
2
Arg ( z )      tan 1    0.588 rad
3
Example-2: Find the modulus and argument of the complex number:
z4j
Solution: Magnitude of the complex number is
z  02  42  16  4
As the point lies on the positive vertical axis, so
4
Arg ( z )      tan 1     / 2 rad
0 126

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Example-3: Find the modulus and argument of the complex number:

z  2  5 j
Solution: Magnitude of the complex number is
z  (2) 2  52  4  25  29
As the complex number lies in the 2nd quadrant
of the Argand diagram, so
 2 
Arg ( z )          tan 1    1.951 rad

 5 
Example-4: Find the modulus and argument of the complex number:
z  4  3 j
Solution: Magnitude of the complex number is
z  (4) 2  (3) 2  16  9  25  5
As the complex number lies in the 3rd quadrant
of the Argand diagram, so
 3 
Arg ( z )        tan 1     2.498 rad

  4  127

Example-5: Find the modulus and argument of the complex number:

z  1 4 j
Solution: Magnitude of the complex number is

z  (1) 2  (4) 2  1  16  17
As the complex number lies in the 4th quadrant
of the Argand diagram, so
 4 
Arg ( z )       tan 1   1.325 rad

 1 

128

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Discrete Time Complex Exponential Signal: It is of general form

y[n]  Ae (  j ) n
 Ae n e jn
 A n e jn

j n
y[n]  1  1 e
n 4 [ A  1,   1]
 1  1n cos(n / 4)  j sin(n / 4) 
 1  1n cos( .5 / 4)  j sin( .5 / 4) 
 
 0.707  j.0.707 

j n
y[n]  1  0.9 e n 4

A  1,   0.9

j n
y[n]  1  1.1 e n 4

A  1,   1.1
129

Magnitude for the Equations:


j n
y[n]  11n e 4 [ A  1,   1]
 11n cos(n / 4)  j sin(n / 4) 
 11n cos( .5 / 4)  j sin( .5 / 4) 
 
 0.707  j.0.707 
y[n]  (0.707)  (0.707)  1
2 2


j n
y[n]  1  0.9 n
e 4
A  1,   0.9


j n
y[n]  1  1.1 e n 4

A  1,   1.1
130

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Real and Imaginary Components:


j n
y[n]  1  1 en 4 [ A  1,   1]
 1  1n cos(n / 4)  j sin(n / 4) 
 1  1n cos( .5 / 4)  j sin( .5 / 4) 
 
 0.707  j.0.707 
y[n]  (0.707) 2  (0.707) 2  1
Argument/Phase Angle:

j n
y[n]  1  1 en 4 [ A  1,   1]
 1  1 cos(n / 4)  j sin(n / 4) 
n

 1  1n cos( .5 / 4)  j sin( .5 / 4) 
 
 0.707  j.0.707 
  0 .707 
Arg ( z )        tan 1   

  0.707 
 2.356 rad 131

Rectangular Function/Signal: The rectangular function, also

known as the gate function, unit pulse, or normalized boxcar
function is defined as:
t
x(t )  A rect 
T 

where, A = Amplitude of rectangle, T = Period or width of rectangle.

Mathematically, it is defined as:

 T T
A  t
t 
x(t )  A rect    2 2 (*)
T  
0 Otherwise

132

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Example-1: Draw the wave of the signal: x(t) = 5 rect(t/4).

Solution: Here, A = 5 and T = 4.
So, the waveform is as below:

Example-2: Draw the wave of the signal: x(t) = 3 rect(2t/T).

Solution: Here, A = 3 and T’ = T/2.
So, the waveform is as below:

Example-3: Draw the wave of the signal: x(t) = 4 rect(4t).

Solution: Here, A = 4 and T’ = 1/4.
So, the waveform is as below:

133

Example-4: Draw the wave of the signal: x(t) = -2 rect(t/6).

Solution: Here, A = -2 and T = 6.
So, the waveform is as below:

Example-5: Draw the wave of the signal: x(t) = rect((t-4)/6).

Solution: Here, A = 1 and T = 6.
So, the waveform is as below:

Example-6: Draw the wave of the signal: x(t) = rect((t+4)/6).

Solution: Here, A = 1 and T = 6.
So, the waveform is as below:

134

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Unit Rectangular Function/Signal: The area of unit rectangular

signal is unity. The area will be unity when A = 1 and T = 1 i,e.,
area = A.T = 1 . 1 = 1. It can be written as
 1 1
1  t
 
x(t )  1. rect   rectt   
t 2 2 (*)
1 
0 Otherwise

135

Example-1: Draw the wave of the signal: x(t) = rect(t-2).

Solution: Here, A = 1 and T = 1.
So, the waveform is as below:

For unit rectangular signal

136

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Properties of Unit Rectangular Function/Signal:

(i) The rectangular signal is an Even signal,
since rect(t) = rect(-t).

(ii) The rectangular signal is an Energy signal.


E
2
x(t ) dt


1 1 
dt  t 1 / 2      1 (Finite)
1/ 2 1/ 2
 1 dt  
2 1/ 2
1 / 2 1 / 2
2 2

137

Problem-1: Find the Energy and Power of the given signal:

Solution: Since the signal is non-periodic so we should to calculate

Energy:

So, this signal is Energy signal.

138

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Problem-2: Find the Energy and Power of the given signal.

Solution: Since the signal is periodic so we should to calculate
Energy:

So, this signal is

Power signal. 139

Triangular Function/Signal: The triangular function is defined as:

  t 
 A1   t T
  T 
tri(t )   (*)


0 Otherwise
where, A = Amplitude of triangle, T = Period of triangle.
Unit Triangular Function/Signal: The area of unit triangle is
unity (i.e., A=1 andb T=1).It is defined as:
1  t t 1

tri(t )   (*)
0 Otherwise
If t = 0.5 then, tri(t) = 1 - t= 1 - 0.5 = 0.5 and
t = -0.5 then, tri(t) = 1 - t= 1 - 0.5 = 0.5.
If t = 1 then, tri(t) = 1 - t= 1 - 1 = 0 and
t = -1 then, tri(t) = 1 - t= 1 - 1 = 0. 140

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The unit triangular function/signal can also be written as:

 t 1 1  t  0

tri(t )   t  1 0  t 1 (*)
 0
 Otherwise
For left side, tri(t) = t + 1 = tan (45o)  t + 1. So, slope = 1.
If tri(t) = 0, then 0 = t + 1.  t = -1. So, leftmost point is (-1,0).
If t = 0, then tri(t) = 0 + 1.  tri(t) = 1. So, leftmost & middle
points are (-1,0) & (0,1) respectively.

For right side, tri(t) = -t + 1 = tan (135o)  t + 1. So, slope = -1.

If tri(t) = 0, then 0 = -t + 1.  t = 1. So, rightmost point is (-1,0).

The area of unit triangular function/signal is unity:

Area  base  height  2  1  1
1 1
2 2 141

Example-1: Write down the Equation for the signal below:

 t 
tri(t )  21  
 1 
Example-2: Write down the Equation for the signal below:

 t 
tri(t )  91  
 3 

Example-3: Draw the signal for the Equation:

 t 
tri(t )  31  
 5 
142

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Properties of Unit Triangular Signal:

(i) The triangular signal is an even signal,
since tri(t) = tri(-t).
(ii) The triangular signal is an energy signal.

E
2
x(t ) dt

0 1 0 0
  (t  1) 2 dt   (t  1) 2 dt   (t 2  2t  1)dt   (1  2t  t 2 )dt
1 0 1 1
0 3 1
t 3 t2   t2 t
   2  t   t  2  
3 2  1  2 3 0
 (0) 3 (0) 2   (1) 3 (1) 2 
  2  0    2  (1)  
 3 2   3 2 
 (1) 2 (1) 3   (0) 2 (0) 3 
 1  2   ( 0  2  ) 
 2 3   2 3 
  1   1  1 1 2
 0  0  0    1  1)   1  1    0  0  0    (Finite)
  3   3  3 3 3 143

Problem-1: Find the Energy and Power of the given triangular signal.
For time 0 to 1, tri(t) = mt + c
tri(t) = (1).t + c
tri(t) = t + c
Putting (t, tri(t)) = (0, 0),
0=0+c
Or, c = 0
tri(t) = t + 0 = t

For time 1 to 2, tri(t) = mt + c  Therefore, the function:

tri(t) = (-1).t + c tri(t) = t 0 < t <1
tri(t) = -t + c and tri(t) = -t + 2 1 < t < 2
Putting (t, tri(t)) = (1, 1),
1 = -1 + c
Or, c = 2
tri(t) = -t + 2
144

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145

1.5 Systems
Definition of System: The meaningful interconnection of physical devices
and components is called as System. The systems may be continuous-time
system and discrete-time systems (Fig.a).

Continuous-Time System: A continuous-time system is a system in which

continuous-time input signals are applied and results in continuous-time
output signals as in Fig.b. The input-output relation may be represented by
the notation-
x(t)  y(t)

Discrete-Time System: A discrete-time system is a system in which

discrete-time input signals are applied and results in discrete-time output
signals as in Fig.c. The input-output relation may be represented by the
notation-
x[n]  y [n]
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Example of Continuous-Time System: Let us consider an RC

circuit of Figure below. From Ohm’s law, the current i(t) through
the resistor is proportional to the voltage drop across the resistor,
i.e., vs (t )  vc (t )
i (t )  (1.5.1)
R

We can relate i(t) to the rate of change with tome of the voltage
across the capacitor:
dvc(t )
i(t )  C (1.5.2)
dt
Equating the right-hand sides of Eq.(1.5.1) and (1.5.2) we get

dvc(t ) 1 1
 vc(t )  vs (t ) (1.5.2)
dt RC RC
147

Example of Discrete-Time System: Let us consider a simple

model for the balance in a bank account from month to month.
Specially, let y[n] denote the balance at the end of the nth month,
and suppose that y[n] evolves from month to month according to
the equation

y[n] = 1.01 y[n-1] + x[n]

Or, equivalently,

y[n] - 1.01 y[n-1] = x[n]

where, x[n] represents the net deposit (i.e., deposits minus

withdrawals) during the nth month and the term 1.01 y[n-1]
models the fact that we accrue 1% interest each month.
148

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Classification of Systems: The systems are classified

depending on their properties:

1. Static and Dynamic Systems

2. Causal and Non-Causal Systems
3. Time-Invariant and Time-Variant Systems
4. Linear and Non-Linear Systems
5. Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems
6. Stable and Unstable Systems

149

Dependency of Output on Input: The Present Output may depend

on Present, Past and Future Inputs. Let us consider
System Eqn. Time System Eqn. Present Output
Value Stands Depends on
y(t) = x(t) t=0 y(0) = x(0) Present Input
y(t) = x(t-1) t=0 y(0) = x(-1) Past Input
y(t) = x(t+1) t=0 y(0) = x(1) Future Input

y(t) = x(t) t=1 y(1) = x(1) Present Input

y(t) = x(t-1) t=1 y(1) = x(0) Past Input
y(t) = x(t+1) t=1 y(1) = x(2) Future Input

y(t) = x(t) t = -1 y(-1) = x(-1) Present Input

y(t) = x(t-1) t = -1 y(-1) = x(-2) Past Input
y(t) = x(t+1) t = -1 y(-1) = x(0) Future Input 150

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1.5.1 Static and Dynamic System

Static System: When the output of a system depends only on present values
of input then the system is called Static System.
for t = 0, y(0) = 2x(0) (present value)
Exm.: y(t) = 2x(t) for t = 1, y(1) = 2x(1) (present value)
for t = -1, y(-1) = 2x(-1) (present value)
Dynamic System: When the output of a system depends on past or future
values of input at any instant of time then the system is called Dynamic System.
for t = 0, y(0) = x(-1) (past value)
Exm.: (i) y(t) = x(t-1) for t = 1, y(1) = x(0) (past value)
for t = -1, y(-1) = x(-2) (past value)
for t = 0, y(0) = x(1) (future value)
(ii) y(t) = x(t+1) for t = 1, y(1) = x(2) (future value)
for t = -1, y(-1) = x(0) (future value)
Present value can also be included in Dynamic Systems as well
for t = 0, y(0) = x(0) + x(-1) (pr.&pst. value)
Exm.: (i) y(t) = x(t) + x(t-1) for t = 1, y(1) = x(1) + x(0) (pr.&pst. value)
for t = -1, y(-1) = x(-1) + x(-2) (pr.&pst.
151value)

1.5.2 Causal and Non-Causal System

Causal System: When the output of a system is independent (not depend
on) of future values of input then the system is called Causal System. The
output of this system depend on present and past values, and combination of
present and past values.
Exm.: (i) y(t) = x(t)
(present)
(ii) y(t) = x(t) + x(t-1)
(present) (past)
Non-Causal System: When the output of a system is depend on future
values of input at least one instant of time (output may also include the present
and past values) is called Non-Causal System.
Exm.: (i) y(t) = x(t+2)
(future)
(ii) y(t) = x(t) + x(t-1) + x(t+1)
(present) (past) (future)
Anti-Causal System: In this system the output depends only on future
values, i.e., it is anti of Causal System. Exm.: (i) y(t) = x(t+2). 152

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1.5.3 Time Invariant and Time Variant Systems

Time-Invariant System: A system is time invariant if a time shift in
the input signal results in an identical time shift in the output.
In continuous time with y(t) the output corresponding to the
input x(t), a time-invariant system will have y(t-to) as the output
when x(t-to) is the input. In discrete time with y[n] the output
corresponding to the input x[n], a time-invariant system will have
y[n-no] as the output when x[n-no] is the input.

Time-Variant System: A system is time invariant if a time shift in

the input signal results in non-identical time shift in the output.

153

Example-1: y(t) = 2 + x(t).

Solution: x(t )  System  2  x(t )  y (t )
to
Step 1 : y (t )  y (t  to)  2  x(t  to)
to
Step  2 : x(t )  x(t  to)  System  2  x(t  to)
(Time Invariant System)

Example-2: y(t) = x(cost).

Solution: x(t )  System  x(cos t )  y (t )
to
Step  1 : y (t )  y (t  to)  x(cos(t  to))
to
Step  2 : x(t )  x(t  to)  System  x(cos t  to)
(Time Variant System)
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Example-3: y(t) = x(tant).

Solution: x(t )  System  x(tan t )  y (t )
to
Step  1 : y (t )  y (t  to)  x(tan(t  to))
to
Step  2 : x(t )  x(t  to)  System  x(tan t  to)
(Time Variant System)

Example-4: y(t) = x(2t).

Solution: x(t )  System  x(2t )  y (t )
to
Step 1 : y (t )  y (t  to)  x(2(t  to))  x(2t  2to)
to
Step  2 : x(t )  x(t  to)  System  x(2t  to)
(here the operation is Time Scaling.) (Time Variant System)
155

Example-5: y(t) = x(t2).

Solution: x(t )  System  x(t 2 )  y (t )

to
Step 1 : y (t )  y (t  to)  x(t  to) 2
to
Step  2 : x(t )  x(t  to )  System  x(t 2  to)
(here the operation is Time Scaling) (Time Variant System)

Example-6: y(t3) = x(t).

Solution: Since the operation on the Equation is time scaling (not

time Shifting), so the system is Time Variant.

156

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Example-7: y(t) = cost . x(t)

Solution: x(t )  System  cos t . x(t )  y (t )
to
Step  1 : y (t )  y (t  to)  cos(t  to) . x(t  to)
to
Step  2 : x(t )  x(t  to)  System  cos(t ) . x(t  to)
(here no shifting should be added in the coeff.) (Time Variant System)

Example-8: y(t) = e-t . x(t)

Solution: x(t )  System  e t . x(t )  y (t )
to
Step  1 : y (t )  y (t  to)  e (t to) . x(t  to)
to
Step  2 : x(t )  x(t  to)  System  e t . x(t  to)
(here no shifting should be added in the coeff.)(Time Variant System)
157

Example-9: y(t) = tan(t+1) . x(t)

Solution: x(t )  System  tan( t  1). x(t )  y (t )
to
Step 1 : y (t )  y (t  to)  tan( t  1  to). x(t  to)
to
Step  2 : x(t )  x(t  to)  System  tan( t  1). x(t  to)
(here no shifting should be added in the coeff.)(Time Variant System)

Example-10: y(t) = e-2k . x(t)

Solution: x(t )  System  e 2k . x(t )  y (t )
to
Step  1 : y (t )  y (t  to)  e  2k . x(t  to)
to
Step  2 : x(t )  x(t  to)  System  e  2k . x(t  to)
2k
(here x(t) is no Time Scaling fun. and the coeff.e is not the fun. of time )
(Time Invariant System) 158

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Example-11: y(t) = 2t + x(t).

Solution: x(t )  System  2t  x(t )  y (t )
to
Step  1 : y (t )  y (t  to)  2(t  to)  x(t  to)
to
Step  2 : x(t )  x(t  to)  System  2t  to  x(t  to)
(Time Variant System)

For Time Variant Systems:

1) Operation needs to be Time scaling,
2) Coefficient should not be constant,
3) Any added/subtracted term in the system relationship
(except i/p and o/p) must not be constant or zero.
159

For Time Invariant Systems:

1) No Time scaling,
2) Coefficient should be constant,
3) Any added/subtracted term in the system relationship
(except i/p and o/p) must be constant or zero.

Example-12: y(t) = x(t+1) + x(t-1)

Solution: y(t) = x(t+1) + x(t-1)

Here, condition: (1)  Satisfied, (2)  Satisfied, (3)  Satisfied.

So, it is Time Invariant System.

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y(t )   x( )d

t
Example-13:


y(t )   x( )d

t
Solution:


Here, condition: (1)  Satisfied, (2)  Satisfied, (3)  Satisfied.

So, it is Time Invariant System.

y(t )   x(3 )d

t
Example-14:


y(t )   x(3 )d

t
Solution:


Here, condition: (1)  Not Satisfied, (2)  Satisfied, (3)  Satisfied.

So, it is Time Variant System.

161

y(t )   cos .x( )d

t
Example-15:


y(t )   cos .x( )d

t
Solution:


Here, condition: (1)  Satisfied, (2)  Not Satisfied, (3)  Satisfied.

So, it is Time Variant System.

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Time Invariant and Time Variant (Split System): Whenever there

is condition on time of a system is known as Split System.
 x(t  1) t0
Example-16: y(t )  
For Time Invariant Systems:
1) No Time scaling,

 x(t  1) t0 2)
3)
Coefficient should be constant,
Any added/subtracted term in the
system relationship (except i/p
Solution: Here, apparently condition: and o/p) must be constant or zero.

(1)  Satisfied, (2)  Satisfied, (3)  Satisfied.

So, it is Time Invariant System, But NOT.

This system can be presented as

1 t  0 0 t  0
y(t) = a(t) x(t-1) + b(t) x(t+1), Here, a(t )   b(t )  
0 t  0 1 t  0
When t < 0, then the Eqn. becomes
The coefficients are not constant
y(t) = a(t) x(t-1) + 0. x(t+1) = a(t) x(t-1)
but time-depended. Since the 2nd
When t  0, then the Eqn. becomes condition is not satisfied so the
y(t) = 0 . x(t-1) + b(t) x(t+1) = b(t) x(t+1) system is Time Variant System.
163

 x(t  2) t  -3

Example-17: y (t )   x(t ) -3 t  2
 x(t  2) t2

Solution: This is a Split system. Since the coefficients in split
system are not constant but time-depended, so the system is
Time Variant System.

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