What is the Heat Engine?

An engine is a device that converts one form of energy into another. A heat
engine is a machine which chemical energy of a fuel transformed into thermal
energy by combustion to produce mechanical work. Heat engines may be
classified according to the place where combustion takes place.

Types of Heat Engines

Following are the two main types of heat engines:

1. Internal Combustion Engine

2. External Combustion Engine

1. Internal Combustion Engine

If the combustion of fuel takes place inside the working cylinder, the engine is
known as an internal combustion engine (I.C engine).

Ex: Petrol Engine, Diesel Engine etc.

2. External Combustion Engine

If the combustion of fuel takes place outside the working cylinder, the engine
is known as an external combustion engine (E.C engine).

Ex: Steam Engine, Steam Turbines etc.

Difference Between Internal and External Combustion

Engine
The varies differences between the internal combustion engine and the
external combustion engine is as follows:
 The internal combustion of fuel takes place inside the working cylinder.
Whereas the external combustion of fuel takes place outside the working
cylinder.
 The working fluid used in the internal combustion engine is maybe Petrol,
Diesel & Various types of gases. Whereas the Working fluid used in the
external combustion engine is maybe steam.

 The internal combustion engine requires less space. As compared to the

external combustion engine it requires large space than the i.c engine.
 The capital cost of the internal combustion engine is relatively low. But the
capital cost of the external combustion engine is relatively high.
 Starting of this internal combustion engine is easy & quick. As compared to
the external combustion engine, the starting of the engine requires time.
 In the internal combustion engine, thermal efficiency is high. Whereas in the
external combustion engine, thermal Efficiency is low.
 The power developed in an internal combustion engine is per unit weight of
these engines is high. As compared to the power developed in an external
combustion engine is per unit weight of these engines is low.
 An Internal combustion engine does not require boiler or other components,
thus it is light and compact. Whereas the external combustion engine requires
a boiler and other components to transfer energy, thus it is heavy.
 The internal combustion engine has an efficiency of about 35-45 %. As
compared to the external combustion engine has an efficiency of about 15-25
%.

The Fuel cost of the internal combustion engine is relatively high. As

compared to the fuel cost of the external combustion engine is relatively low.

Internal Combustion Engines

As the name implies or suggests, the internal combustion engines (briefly
written as I.C. Engine) are those engines in which the combustion of fuel
takes place inside the engine cylinder.

In other words, the internal combustion engines are those engines in

which the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder by
a spark. These are petrol, diesel and gas engines.

An engine is a device, which by using the chemical energy of the fuel,

transforms it into thermal energy by combustion, to produce mechanical work.
 We have seen in steam engines that the fuel, fed into the cylinder, is in the
form of steam which is already heated and is ready for work in the
combustion cycle of the engine.

But in the case of internal combustion engines, the combustion of fuel takes
place inside the engine cylinder by a spark and produces very high
temperature as compared to the steam engine.

Types of Engines
There are two types of engines

1. External combustion engines

2. Internal combustion engines

External combustion engines – If the combustion of fuel place outside the

engine cylinder, it is an external combustion engine. Ex: Steam turbine, Gas Turbine,
Steam Turbine etc.
Internal combustion engines – If the combustion fuel takes place inside
the engine cylinder, it is an internal combustion engine. Ex: Petrol engine, Diesel
Engine.

Types of Internal Combustion Engines

Following is the list of different types of Internal Combustion Engines:

1. Working Cycle Employed

1. Two-stroke Engine
2. Four-stroke Engine
2. Fuel Used
1. Petrol
2. Diesel
3. Gas Engine
4. Kerosene
3. Nature of Thermodynamics Cycle Used
1. Otto Cycle
2. Diesel Cycle
3. Dual Cycle
4. Methods Of Cooling
1. Air Cooling
2. Water Cooling
5. Speed Of The Engine
1. High-speed Engine
2. Medium-speed Engine
3. Low-speed Engine
6. Field Of Application
1. Stationary Engine
2. Automobile Engine
3. Portable Engine
4. Aero Engine
7. Method Of Ignition
1. Spark-ignition Engine
2. Compression-Ignition Engine
8. Arrangement Of The Engine Cylinder
1. Horizontal Engine
2. Verticle Engine
3. Radial Engine
4. V-type Engine
Parts of Internal Combustion Engines

1. Cylinder
 The cylinder is made up of steel or aluminium alloys.
 In this Piston makes to and for a motion to develop power.
 It will withstand high pressure and temperature.

2. Cylinder Head
 Cylinder Head is fitted at the top of the cylinder.
 It is made up of steel or aluminium alloys.
 It is made by casting.
 A copper or asbestos gasket is provided in between the cylinder and the
cylinder head to make it airtight.
3. Piston
 It is made of aluminium alloys.
 The main function is to transmit force exerted by burning of charge to
connecting rod.

4. Piston Rings
 These are circular rings made up of special steel alloys.
 these are housed in circumferential grooves of the piston.
 Two sets of rings are provided, with an upper ring to prevent leakage of
burnt gases into the lower portion, while lower ring to prevent leakage
of oil into the Engine Cylinder.
 They retain elastic properties even at a higher temperature.
 The rings are provided with an airtight seal.

5. Valves
 These are provided on the cylinder head,
 Inlet valve is used to take the fresh mixture into the cylinder.
 The exhaust valve is used to expel burnt gases from the cylinder.

6. Connecting Rod
 It is a link between the piston and the crankshaft.
 The function of Connecting Rod is to transmit the force from piston to
crankshaft.

7. Crankshaft
 It is made of special steel alloys.
 The function of the crankshaft is to convert the reciprocating motion of
a piston into rotary motion with the help of connecting rod.

8. Crankcase
 The crankcase is made of cast iron.
 It holds the cylinder and crankshaft of an engine.
 It also serves as a sump (storing place) for lubricating oil.
9. Flywheel
 It is a big solid wheel mounted on a crankshaft of an IC Engine.
 The main function of the flywheel is to maintain speed constant.
 It stores excess energy during power and gives out during the
compression stroke.

Working Principle of Internal Combustion Engines

In IC engines (internal combustion engines) the combustion of takes place
inside the cylinder, therefore the thermal energy of the fuel is directly
converted into mechanical work.

the IC engine has a higher thermal efficiency than the thermal efficiency of EC
engines. In internal combustion engines, when the IC engine is working
continuously, we may consider a cycle starting from any strokes.

We know that when the engine returns back to the stroke where it starts we
say that one cycle has been completed. The IC engine has four steps to
complete one cycle as follows:

Suction Stroke:  In this stroke the fuel vapour, in the correct proportion, is
supplied to the engine cylinder.

Compression Stroke:  In this stroke, the fuel vapour is compressed in the

engine cylinder.

Expansion Stroke:  In this stroke, the fuel vapour burn by the spark plug is
provided on the top of the engine cylinder. when the fuel is burned suddenly
raise the pressure, due to the expansion of the combustion products in the
engine cylinder. The rise of the pressure pushes the piston with a high force
and rotates the crankshaft. The crankshaft, in turn, drives the machine
connected to it.

Exhaust Stroke:  In this stroke, the burnt gases are exhausted from the
engine cylinder, so as to make space available for the fresh fuel vapour.
 Difference Between Petrol Engine and Diesel Engine
The main difference between a petrol engine and a diesel engine is a petrol
engine draws a mixture of petrol and air during the suction stroke. And a
diesel engine draws only air during the suction stroke.

The petrol engine works on the Otto cycle. It is easy to start, lighter and
cheaper, It has a high running cost and low maintenance cost.

The diesel engine works on the diesel cycle. It difficult to start, heavier and
costlier, It has low running cost and high maintenance cost.

The petrol engines thermal efficiency is about 26%. These are high-speed
engines and used in light-duty vehicles. Where diesel engines thermal
efficiency is about 40%. These are low-speed engines and used in heavy-duty
vehicles.

List of Car Engine Parts: Its Function

(With Pictures)

Car Engine Parts and Functions with Pictures

An engine is a machine designed to convert one form

of energy into mechanical energy.  Heat engines burn a fuel to
create heat which is then used to do work. The engine has two types one
is the internal combustion engine and another one is the external combustion
engine.

 The internal combustion engine is those heat engines that burn their fuel
inside the engine cylinder.
 External combustion engines are those heat engine that burns their fuel
outside the cylinder engine.

The engine most essential part of automobile industries or we can say that
the engine is the heart of an automobile. The function and construction of
 each engine parts of an internal combustion engine are explained. The key to
the engine is as follows.

1. Cylinder block

Fig shows a simple sketch of the cylinder block. It is the basic framework for
the engine. and one of the main in engine parts. Cylinder block, cylinder head
and crankcase these three parts form the foundation and main stationary
body of the automobile engine.

A cylinder block consists of three parts:

1. The cylinder in which the piston slid up and down.

2. The port or opening for the valves.
3. The passages for the flow of cooling water.
 Construction and working:

 The cylinder block is usually made of grey cast iron or aluminium and its
alloys.
 While the crankcase is fixed to its bottom. Apart from these other parts like
timing gear water pump, ignition distributor, flywheel, fuel pump etc., are also
attached to it.
 Passages are provided in the cylinder walls for the circulation of cooling water.
 Mating surfaces of the block are carefully machined to provide a perfect
sealing surface.
 Cylinder block also carries lubrication oil to various components through
drilled passages called oil galleries.

2. Cylinder Head

Another type of engine parts is cylinder head it is joint between the cylinder
head and cylinder block.
 Construction:

 It is usually made up of cast iron and aluminium alloy.

 The top of the cylinder is covered by a separate cast piece know as the
cylinder head.
 The cylinder head is attached to the cylinder block by means of studs fixed to
the block gaskets are used to provide a tight, leak-proof joint between the
head and block.
 Cylinder head contains a combustion chamber above each cylinder.
 It also contains valve guides, valve seats, ports, coolant jackets and threaded
holes for spark plugs. It incorporates passages for the flow of cooling water.

Applications:

 The cylinder head casts integrally with cylinder blocks also be done in a few
cases usually in racing cars to obtain a gas-tight joint.
 The detachable head types are more advantages than integral construction.
 However, for certain heavy-duty engine requires high cooling rates such as in
racing cars copper alloys may be used.

3. Pistons
Pitons are most important engine parts compared to others. The piston is a
cylindrical plug that moves up and down in the cylinder.
 It helps to convert pressure energy obtained by the combustion of fuel into
useful mechanical power and it transfer this power to the crankshaft through
the connecting rod.

The material used for the piston is mainly.

 Cast iron,
 Aluminium alloy.
 Nowadays aluminium alloys are widely used. It may be either cast or forged.

The piston must possess the following qualities

 Rigidly to withstand high pressure

 Light in weight, to reduce the reciprocating mass to perform at higher engine
speed.
 Good heat conductivity.
 Less noise while operating.
 Piston clearance:

The piston is usually small in diameter than the bore of the cylinder. The
space between the cylinder and the cylinder wall is called the piston
clearance. This piston clearance provides a space for a layer of lubricant
between the piston and cylinder wall to reduce friction.

Generally, piston clearance is

1. 0.025mm to 0.100mm.

Proper clearance should be maintained between the piston and the cylinder
wall.

 If the clearance is too small, there will be a loss of power from excessive
friction, more wear, seizing of the piston in the cylinder.
 If the clearance is too much, the piston slap will result. Piston slap means
sudden tilting of the cylinder as the piston moves down during the power
stroke.

It prevents piston seizure due to high temperature. If there is on clearance

then it is not possible to reciprocate piston inside the cylinder.
 Functions of piston:
some of the important function of the piston as follows

 To transmit the power developed by fuel combustion to the crankshaft

through the connecting rod.
 To form a seal so that high-pressure combustion gases do not escape to the
crankcase.
 Piston serves as a support for the small end of the connecting rod.
 To suck the charge and push out the exhaust gases.

4. Piston Rings
The piston rings are fitted into the grooves of the piston to maintain a good
seal between the piston and the cylinder wall.

The number of piston rings used is about 2 to 4 compression rings and 1 to 2

oil control ring was used but in modern design the number if rings usually
three out of which one is the oil control ring.

The function of piston rings

1. To form a seal for the high pressures gases from the combustion chamber
entering into the crankcase.
2. The piston ring provides easy passage for heat flow from the piston crown to
the cylinder walls.
3. To maintain sufficient lubrication oil on cylinder walls throughout the entire
length the piston travel, hence it minimizes the cylinder wear.
 Material for piston rings:

The material generally used for piston rings is

 fine-grained alloy cast iron containing silicon and manganese. It has

good heat and wears resisting qualities.

Chromium plated rings are also used for the top ring, which is subjected to
the highest working temperatures and the corrosive action of the combustion
products.

5. Engine Valves
Engine valves are essential to control the timing of air-fuel mixture entry into
the cylinder and combustion products out of the cylinders.

Construction

 These are located at the inlet and outlet opening of the engine cylinder.
 The valves fit on the valve seats in their closed position.

There are three types of engine valves as follows,

1. Poppet valve
2. Sleeve valve
3. Rotary valve
 6. Connecting Rod
Fig showed a connecting rod. It is fitted in between the piston and crankshaft.

The main function of the connecting rod is to convert the reciprocating motion
of the piston into the rotary motion of the crankshaft.

It must be light and strong enough to withstand stress and twisting forces.

Construction:

 The connecting rod usually has I-beam cross-section and is made of alloy
steel of duralumin by drop forging.
 Nowadays it is also cast from malleable or spheroidal graphite C.I.
 The small end of the connecting rod has either a solid eye used to connect
the piston by the piston pin.
 The big end of the connecting rod is always split is used to connect the crank
pin of the crankshaft.
 7. Crankshafts
The crankshaft is the engine component from which the power is taken. It is
one of the main power transmission sources in all engine parts.

The Crankshaft is the first part of the power transmission system in which the
reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into the rotating motion with
the help of connecting rod.

Construction

 The crankshaft is made of casting or forging of heat treated alloy steel and
is machined.

The front end of the crankshaft carries three devices that

 A gear that drives the camshaft,

 The vibration damper to control torsional vibration, and
 The fan belt pulley. This pulley drives the engine fan, water pump, and
generator with a V-belt.
 The rear end of the crankshaft carries flywheel. The flywheel tends to keep
the crankshaft running at constant.

8. Crankcase
The oil pan and the lower part of the cylinder block together are called the
crankcase. It is the bottom portion of the cylinder block, in which the
crankshaft is fitted.

Construction

 This is a rigid construction made of grey cast iron or aluminium. Either it can
be cast integrally with the block or can be cast separately and attached to the
block with bolts.
 The crankcase is shaped simply like a box having no bottom. Oil pan or sump
forms the bottom half of the crankcase.

Working

 The function of the crankcase is to provide support for the main journals
and bearing of the crankshaft, rigidly maintaining the alignment of their axes
of rotation under various engine loads.
 The crankcase is supported in the crankcase through a number of
bearing called the main bearing.
 9. Flywheel
The flywheel used in a transmission system of a vehicle.

Construction

 A flywheel is a heavy steel wheel attached to the rear end of the crankshaft.
 The size of the flywheel depends upon the number of cylinders and the
construction of the engine.

Working

 During the power stroke, the engine tends to speed up and during the other
strokes, it tends to slow down.
 The inertia of the flywheel tends to keep the running of the crankshaft at a
constant speed. Hence the engine speed is maintained constant.

Two-Stroke Engine: Parts, Types, Working Principle

with Diagram [Petrol and Diesel Engines]
Two Stroke Engines

A two stroke engine is a type of internal combustion engine which

completes a power cycle with two strokes of the piston during only one
crankshaft revolution.

In four stroke engines, there is one working stroke in two revolutions

of the crankshaft or in a cycle of four strokes of the piston. The desire of one
working stroke in every revolution of the crankshaft has led to the
development of two stroke engine.
 In 1838, Barnett, an Englishman, described the mechanism for supplying a
charge to the cylinder by means of separate pumps. In 1878, Dugald Clerk
also made a lot of contribution in this direction and described a two stroke
cycle known as Clerk Cycle.

The two-stroke engine employs for small powers required in autocycles,

scooters, motorcycles. In two-stroke engines, there is no suction and
exhaust strokes. There are only two remaining strokes the compression stroke
and power stroke. These are usually called the upward stroke and
downward stroke. Also, instead of valves, there are inlet and exhaust ports
in two-stroke engines.

Fresh charge enters the cylinder at the end of the working stroke through the
inlet port. And then burnt exhaust gases are forced out through the
exhaust port by a fresh charge.

Two strokes Spark Ignition (Petrol) Engine.

The principle of two stroke spark ignition engine is shown in the figure. Its
two strokes are as follows:

1. Upward Stroke
2. Downward Stroke
Upward Stroke
During upward stroke, the piston moves upward from the bottom
dead centre to top dead centre. By compressing the charge air petrol
mixture in the combustion chamber of the cylinder. Due to upward movement
of the piston, a partial vacuum is created in the crankcase.

And a new charge is drawn into the crankcase through the uncovered inlet
port. The exhaust port and transfer port are covered when the piston is at the
top dead centre position. The compressed charge is ignited in the combustion
chamber by a spark given by the spark plug.

Downward Stroke
As soon as the charge is ignited the hot gases compress the piston which
moves downward, rotating the crankshaft thus doing the useful work. During
this stroke, the inlet port is covered by the piston and the new charge is
compressed in the crankcase. Further downward movement of the piston
uncovers first the exhaust port and then the transfer port. and hence the
exhaust starts through the exhaust port.

As soon as transfer port is open, the charge through it is forced into the
cylinder. The charge strikes the deflector on the piston crown, rises to the top
of the cylinder and pushes out most of the exhaust gases. The piston is now
at the bottom dead centre position.

The cylinder is completely filled with a fresh charge, although it is somewhat

with the exhaust gases. The cycle of events is then repeated, the piston
making two strokes for each revolution of the crankshaft.

The figure shows a port diagram for a two stroke petrol engine. which is self-
explanatory.
A figure shows the shape of the p-v diagram for a two stroke petrol engine.
This diagram is only for the main cylinder or top side of the piston. 
Two Stroke Compression Ignition (Diesel) Engine

In this two stroke engine, only air is compressed inside the cylinder. and the
fuel (diesel) is injected by an injector fitted in the head of the cylinder. There
is no spark plug in this engine. The remaining operations of the two stroke
compression ignition engine are exactly the same. as those of the spark
ignition engine.

Port timing diagram for a two stroke diesel engine.

 R
The figure shows the cylinder pressures and temperatures acting on spark
plug for two strokes and four stroke engines.

Advantages of Two-Stroke Engine Over Four Stroke:

Advantages:

 The two stroke engine gives one working stroke for each revolution of
the crankshaft. The four-stroke gives one working stroke for every two
revolutions of the crankshaft. Hence, the power developed by two
 stroke engine is twice that developed by four-stroke engine for the
same engine speed and cylinder volume.
 The turning moment on the crankshaft is more even in two stroke
engine. Due to one working stroke for each revolution of the
crankshaft, and so it need a lighter flywheel in it.
 For the same power, a two stroke engine is more compact, light and
requires less space than a four-stroke engine. Thus it is more suited for
auto-cycle, motorcycles and scooters.
 A two stroke engine is simpler in construction and mechanism. There is
no valve and valve mechanism in it. The ports are easy to design and
they are cover and uncover by the movement of the piston itself.
 It has high mechanical efficiency due to the absence of cams,
crankshaft and rockers, etc., of the valves.
 It gives less torsional oscillations.
 Two stroke engine requires fewer spare parts due to its simple design.
 It can be reversed if it is of valveless type.
 There is a saving in work required to overcome the friction of the inlet
and exhaust port.

Disadvantages

 In two stroke cycle Otto engine, the fuel consumption is high. because
the fresh charge is likely to be wasted by escaping through the exhaust
port.
 The actual compression starts when the ports are completely closed by
the upward movement of the piston, after a few degree revolutions of
the crankshafts. Thus, the actual compression ratio and hence the
thermal efficiency of two stroke engine is less than that of the four-
stroke for the same dimensions.
 The charge is diluted by the burnt gases due to incomplete scavenging.
 It gives greater noise.
 It consumes more lubricating oil.
 There are greater wear and tear of moving parts.
 Four Stroke Diesel Cycle Engine and Its Working
[Explained with P-v and T-s Diagram]
Diesel Cycle

The engine of heavy motor vehicles mostly operates on diesel cycle or

constant volume cycle. Diesel cycle was introduced by Dr. Rudolph Diesel in
1897. Diesel cycle differs from otto cycle in one respect. The is added at
constant pressure instead of constant volume.

Thus, it comprises two adiabatic processes, one constant pressure heat

addition process, and one constant volume heat rejection process. Diesel cycle
engines use heavy oil, diesel oil is the most common. In diesel cycle engines
only air is compressed in the cylinder to aa high pressure, the temperature of
this compressed air becomes sufficiently high to ignite the fuel.

Diesel is injected in the cylinder at the end of compression stroke which itself
ignites due to the high temperature of the compressed air. The diesel engine
does not have a spark plug. In a four-stroke, diesel cycle compression ignition
engine, the four strokes are as follows:

Suction Stroke
 During suction stroke, the piston moves down from the top dead centre
position.
 Air is sucked into the cylinder through the open inlet valve which closes at the
end o f the stroke.
 The exhaust valve remains closed during this stroke.

Compression Stroke
 The piston moves upwards from the bottom dead centre position.
 Inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. The air is compressed in the cylinder
with the upward movement of the piston.
 As the compression ratio in this engine is high (10 to 20), the air is finally
compressed to a pressure as high as 40 Kg/cm2 at which its temperature is as
high as 100°C, enough to ignite the fuel.

Working Stroke or Power Stroke

 At the end of the compression stroke, the fuel (diesel) is injected into the hot
compressed air where it starts burning maintaining the pressure constant.
 At point 4, the fuel supply is cut-off. Theoretically, the fuel is injected at the
end of the compression stroke and injection continued till the point of cut-off.
 Meanwhile, the piston moves from point 3 to 4, and this stroke is called
constant pressure stroke.
 In practice, the ignition starts before the end of the compression stroke.

Theoretically, the power stroke from point 4. The hot gases now expand
adiabatically to point 5 in the cylinder pushing the piston down. The piston
finally reaches to the bottom dead center. Both the valves remain closed
during the stroke.
 Exhaust Stroke
 The piston moves upward. The inlet valve remains closed and the exhaust
opens.
 The maximum burnt gases escape because of their own expansion.
 The upward movement of the piston pushes the remaining gases out through
the open exhaust valve. The cycle is thus completed.
The fig shows the valve timing diagram for a four-stroke diesel cycle engine.
Inlet valve opens 10° to 25° in advance of the top dead centre and closes 25°
to 50° after the bottom dead centre. the exhaust valve opens 30 ° to 50° in
advance of the bottom dead centre and closes 10° to 15° after the top dead
centre.

Fuel injection starts 5° to 10° before the top dead centre on the compression
stroke and continues up to 15° to 25° after the top dead centre in working
stroke, depending upon the speed of the engine.

P-v and T-s Diagram of Diesel Cycle

Let the engine cylinder carry m kg of air at point 1. at this point
let P1  and T1  and V1 be the pressure, temperature and volume of the air.
Following are 4 stages of an ideal diesel cycle.
The ideal diesel cycle consists of two adiabatic, constant pressure and
constant volume processes. These processes are represented on a P-v and T-s
diagram as shown in the Figure.

Process 1-2 (Constant Pressure Heating)

The air is heated at constant pressure from initial temperature T1 to a

temperature T2 represented by the graph 1-2 in Fig.

The heat is cut off at point 2, so its called cutoff point

Process 2-3 (Adiabatic Expansion)

The air is expanded adiabatically from temperature T2 to a temperature T3 as

shown by the graph 2-3 in Fig. In this process, on heat, we absorbed or
rejected by the air.
Process 3-4 (Constant Volume Cooling)

The air is now cooled at constant volume from temperature T4 to a

temperature T4 as shown by the graph 3-4 in the figure.

Process 4-1 (Adiabatic Compression)

The air is compressed adiabatically from temperature T4 to a temperature T1

represented by the graph 4-1 in Fig. In this process, no heat is absorbed or
rejected by the air

We see that the air has been brought back to its original conditions of
pressure, volume and temperature, thus completing the cycle.

We know that,

Work done = Heat supplied – Heat rejected

∴ Air standard efficiency

Now let compression ratio,

Cut-off ratio,

Expansion ratio,

We know for constant pressure heating process (1-2),

Similarly, in adiabatic compression process (2-3)

And in adiabatic compression process (4-1),

Substituting the value of T1 in equations (iv) and (v)

And

Now substituting the values of T1, T2 and T3 in equation (iii),

Note:
The efficiency of the ideal diesel cycle is lower than of otto cycle, for the
same compression ratio.

The diesel cycle efficiency increases with decreases in cut-off and approaches
maximum (equal to otto cycle efficiency) than cut-off is zero, i.e, p=1.
 Four-stroke Otto-cycle Spark-Ignition
Engine with [P-v and T-s Diagram]
Four Stroke Otto cycle Engine

The modern petrol (gasoline) engines operate on otto (constant volume)

cycle. This cycle was introduced by a German scientist otto in 1876, although
it was described by a French scientist Beande Roches in 1862. In a four-stroke
otto-cycle spark-ignition engine, the four strokes are as follows:

Suction stroke
 During suction stroke, the piston is moved downward by the crankshaft, which
is revolved either by the momentum of the flywheel or by the power
generated by the electric starting motor.
 The inlet valve remains open and the exhaust valve is closed during this
stroke.
 The downward movement of the piston sucks air-fuel mixture in the cylinder
from the carburettor through the open inlet valve.
 Here the fuel is petrol mixed with air, broken up into a mist, and partially
vaporized in the carburettor.
 Compression stroke
 During the compression stroke, the piston moves upward, thus compressing
the charge.
 Ignition and compression also take place during this stroke.
 The heat produced by the compression performs like a mixture of air and
petrol inside the cylinder.
 Heat causes petrol easier to burn, while the compression pushes it into closer
combination with the air.
 The mixture under compression is ignition by the spark produced by a spark
plug, and the combustion is about half-completed when the piston is at top
dead-centre.
 Both the inlet valves and exhaust valves closed during the compression
stroke.

Working power of expansion stroke

 The expansion of the gases due to the heat of combustion exerts a pressure
in the cylinder and piston.
 Under this impulse, the piston moves downward thus ding useful work. Both
the valves remain closed during this stroke.

Exhaust stroke
 During this stroke, the inlet valve remains closed and an exhaust valve opens.
 The greater part of the burn gases escapes of their own expansion.
 The piston moves upward pushes the remaining gases out of the open
exhaust wall.
 Only a small quantity of exhaust gases remains in the clearance space which
will dilute the fresh incoming charge.

Thus, in this type of engine, four-strokes of the piston is required to complete

the cycle and the four-stroke makes two revolutions of the crankshaft. The
processes are repeated over and over again in running the engine. each
alternative revolution of the crankshaft as one power stroke.
 The Valve Timing Diagram of a 4 Stroke Otto Cycle
Engine
In this engine, the inlet valve opens during the suction stroke and the exhaust
valve opens during the exhaust stroke. The exact movement at which each of
the valves opens and closed with reference to the position of piston and crank
can be shown graphically in a diagram. This diagram is known as a valve
timing diagram.

Theoretically, the inlet valve opens exactly at the beginning of the suction
stroke and closed at the end of the stroke. Both the valves remain closed
during compression and power strokes. The exhaust valve opens exactly at
the beginning of exhaust stroke and closed at the end of the stroke. the
theoretical valve timing diagram for a four-stroke Otto cycle engine.

Opening and Closing of Valve During 4 Strokes

The opening and closing of valve with reference to the position of piston and
crankshaft during the four strokes are described as follows:

1. Suction Stroke: The inlet valve opens. The piston starts to move downward
from top dead centre (TDC) position and reaches to bottom dead centre
(BDC) position. A fresh charge of air-fuel mixture enters the cylinder. The
exhaust valve remains closed.
2. Compression Stroke: Both the valves remain closed. The piston starts to
move upward from B.D.C, thus compressing the charge until it reaches the
T.D.C.
3. Working Stroke: Both the valves closed. Sparking takes place from the
spark plug with ignites the compressed charge. The piston moves downward
from T.D.C and reaches to B.D.C.
4. Exhaust Stroke: The exhaust stroke opens. The piston moves from B.D.C.
and reaches to T.D.C. thus rushing out the burnt gases from the cylinder. The
inlet valve remains closed.

In actual practice, the above cycle is slightly modified. The exact moments of
opening and closing the valves with reference to the piston and crankshaft are
shown in the figure. This diagram is known as the actual valve timing
diagram.

Inlet valve and Exhaust Valves

Inlet Valve
The inlet valve starts opening 10° to 30° before T.D.C. as measured in
degrees of crankshaft rotation. It remains open during 180° of the normal
suction stroke and, in addition, 30° to 40° or even 60° after B.D.C., at the
beginning of the compression stroke.
The reason for opening the inlet valve before the starts of suction stroke is
that the valve is made to open and close very slowly, and this timing of
opening the valve is permited to open sufficiently during the suction stroke.

The valves are arranged to open and close slowly to provide silent operation
under high-speed conditions. The column of charge in the inlet pipes requires
to be accelerated before the suction stroke starts, so that sufficient charge
may enter the cylinder during the suction stroke.

Working of Inlet Valve

As the piston moves downward during the suction stroke, the pressure
decreases inside the cylinder which causes the gases to rush in and fill up
space above the piston. The pistons reach at the end of the stroke before a
complete charge has time to enter through the small inlet valve opening.

Therefore pressure in the combustion space will still be below atmospheric,

and the gases will be moving in the direction of the motion of the piston with
high velocity. If the inlet valve is closed at this point so that no more charge
enters, less charge will remain in the cylinder.

Thus, the inlet valve is made to remain open until the piston reaches a point
in its next stroke at which the pressure in the cylinder equals the pressure
outside. Also, the actual closing point of the valve coincides with the point
when the motion of the rushing charge would reverse the direction.

Timing Data of The Inlet Valve

The figure shows timing data of the inlet valve for a popular engine. In this
engine, the inlet valve starts to open 5° before top dead centre. This pre-
admission allows the valve to be open during 5° of the exhaust stroke ( the
preceding stroke).
It remains open during the 180° of the normal suction stroke, and addition,
during 44° of the beginning of the compression stroke. This gives a total inlet
valve opening of 229°of crankshaft rotation.

Exhaust Valve

The exhaust valve starts opening 30° to 60° before B.D.C., remains open
during 180° of the normal exhaust stroke, and in addition, 8° to 10° or even
25° after T.D.C. at the beginning of the suction stroke. The reason for
opening the exhaust valve before the start of the exhaust stroke is that the
gases have an outlet for expansion to begin to rush of their own pressure.

This removes the greater part of the gases reducing the amount of the work
to be done by the piston on its return stroke. This reduction compensates the
waste due to the early release of gases. During the next outward stroke, the
remaining gases are forced out through the open exhaust valve. This causes a
slight compression of the gases ahead of the piston.

Working of Exhaust Valve

When it reaches to T.D.C. positions, there will be a certain amount of
compressed exhaust gases in the clearance space. If the exhaust valve is
closed at this point, this amount of the exhaust gases will remain in the
cylinder.
 Thus, the exhaust valve is closed a little after, the end of the exhaust stroke.
It may result in drawing the exhaust gases back into the cylinder. But this
drawing back is prevented by two conditions,

1. Gases under compression exceed the pressure in the manifold and will
continue to flow out because of this difference in pressure.
2. This piston, while at the top of the stroke, moves but very little for 10° to 15°
movements of the crankshaft. This does not materially increase the
combustion space as shown in fig.

The crankarm is in a position as at A, for a certain number of degrees say 15°

movement of the crankshaft, the piston will move upward for a considerable
distance. When the crankarms are as at B, for the same 15° turning of the
crankshaft, the distance moved by the piston will be less.

When the crankarms are as at C, for the same 15° turning, there is very little
upward movement of the piston. It can be seen that between certain points
there is practically no motion of the piston travel in the region is called the
rock of the piston. Within the region usually, the exhaust valve is closed after
top dead centre.

Timing Data of The Exhaust Valve

Shown timing data of the exhaust valve for a popular engine. In this engine,
the exhaust valve opens 47° before bottom bead centre. this pre-release
causes the valve to be open during the last 47°of the power stroke.
It remains open during the 180° of the normal exhaust stroke, and in
addition, during 12° of the beginning of the suction stroke. This gives a total
exhaust valve opening of 239° of crankshaft rotation.

Pressure-Volume (p-v) Diagram of Four-stroke Otto cycle Engine

The ideal Otto cycle consists of two constant volume and two reversible
adiabatic or isentropic processes as shown on PV  and T-S diagrams.

Let the engine cylinder contains m kg of air at point 1. At this point, let p1,
T1, andV1 be the pressure, temperature and volume of air.

1. Process 4-1 (constant volume heating)

The air is heated at constant volume from temperature T4 to T1.

Heat absorbed by the during tI is a process,

2. Process 1-2 (Adiabatic or isentropic expansion)

The air is expanded reversibly and adiabatically from initial temperature T1 to

a temperature T2. In this process, no heat is added or rejected by the air.

3. Process 2-3 ( constant volume cooling)

The air is cooled at constant volume from temperature T2 to temperature T3.

Heat rejected by the air during this process.

4. Process 3-4 (Adiabatic or isentropic compression)

The air is compressed adiabatically from temperature T3 to a temperature T4.

In this process, no heat is added or rejected by the air. The air has been
brought back to its original conditions of pressure, volume and temperature.

Work done = Heat supplied – Heat rejected

Air standard Efficiency,

Consider adiabatic expansion 1-2

Where, r = Expansion ratio

Consider adiabatic compression 2-3

Where r = Compression ratio

From equation (2) and (3)

Since the right side is the same,

Interchanging terms

Substituting the value of T2/T3 in equation 1

Note
It is to be noted that in the theoretical  p-v diagram, every corner is sharp
which represents the opening and closing of the valve instantaneously. Also,
the suction and exhaust take place at atmospheric pressure.

The opening and closing of the valve cannot take place instantaneously but
take some time, by which every corner in the p-v diagram will be round, as
shown in the actual p-v diagram. Also, the suction takes place at a pressure
slightly lower than the atmospheric pressure due to the resistance of the inlet
valve of the entering charge.
The exhaust takes place at a pressure slightly higher than the atmospheric
pressure due to the resistance of the exhaust valve to the exhaust gases. This
gives an area, in the form of a small loop, and indicates what is called the
pumping loss of the engine. This area is treated as negative and hence
subtracted from the area of the larger loop which is treated as positive, giving
us the network done during the cycle.