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EEE 3105: Signals and Linear Systems

1.6 Interconnections of Systems

There are variety of systems interconnections. The basic interconnections of
systems are as follows:
• Series or Cascaded interconnections
• Parallel interconnections
• Series-Parallel interconnections
• Feedback interconnections
Series or Cascaded Interconnections: This interconnection is shown in
Fig.1.6(a).

Fig.1.6(a)

Parallel Interconnections: This interconnection is shown in Fig.1.6(b).

Fig.1.6(a)

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Series-Parallel Interconnections: This interconnection is shown in Fig.1.6(c).

Fig.1.6(c)

Feedback Interconnections: This interconnection is shown in Fig.1.6(d).

Electrical circuits are often usefully viewed as containing feedback
connections as shown in Fig.1.6(e). This system can be viewed as the
feedback interconnection of the two circuit elements (Fig.1.6(f)).

Fig.1.6(e)

Fig.1.6(d)
Fig.1.6(d)

2 Linear Time Invariant (LTI) Systems

Linear Time Invariant System: A system is said to be linear
time-invariant (LTI) when it satisfies the conditions of both
linear and time invariance.

Linear Time Variant System: A system is said to be linear time-

variant (LTV) when it does not satisfy the conditions of linearity
and time invariance.

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Prerequisites of LTI Systems

(a) Properties of Linear and Non-Linear Systems:
1) System linearity is independent of time scaling
2) System linearity is independent of coefficient used in system relationship
3) If any added /subtracted term other than i/p and o/p is available in the
system relationship then the system will be non-linear
4) If o/p is summation of time shifted terms of i/p, then the system will be
linear
5) Integral and differential operators are linear
6) Even and odd operators are linear
7) Real, imaginary and conjugate operators are non-linear
8) Trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, roots,
powers, modulus, sgn, sa, sinc……are non-linear
9) For zero i/p, o/p is also equal to zero
10) Split systems are linear
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(b) Properties of Time Invariant Systems:

1) No Time scaling,
2) Coefficient should be constant,
3) Any added/subtracted term in the system relationship
(except i/p and o/p) must be constant or zero.

(c) Properties of Impulse Response Systems:

1) Impulse response is used to define LTI system.

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Examples of Linearity / Non-Linearity and Time Invariant / Variant

of Systems *Properties of Time Invariant
Systems:
Example-1: y(t) = x(t) + 5 1) No Time scaling,
2) Coefficient should be constant,
Solution: 3) Any added/subtracted term in the
system relationship (except i/p and o/p)
Time Variant/Invariant Check must be constant or zero.
• According to property 1, the input [x(t)] has no time scaling TIV
• According to property 2, the coefficient 1 and 1 are constant  TIV
• According to property 3, the added term [5] is constant  TIV
Properties of Linear and Non-Linear Systems:

Linearity/Non-linearity Check 1)
2)
System linearity is independent of time scaling
System linearity is independent of coefficient used in system

• According to property 1  Linear

relationship
3) If any added /subtracted term other than i/p and o/p is available in the
system relationship then the system will be non-linear
4) If o/p is summation of time shifted terms of i/p, then the system will be

• According to property 2  Linear 5)

linear
Integral and differential operators are linear
6) Even and odd operators are linear

• According to property 3  Non-Linear 7)

8)
Real, imaginary and conjugate operators are non-linear
Trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, roots,
powers, modulus, sgn, sa, sinc……are non-linear
9) For zero i/p, o/p is also equal to zero
So, the system is Non-Linear Time-Invariant.
10) Split systems are linear
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*Properties of Time Invariant

Example-2: y(t) = x(t2) Systems:
1) No Time scaling,
Solution: 2) Coefficient should be constant,
3) Any added/subtracted term in the
Time Variant/Invariant Check system relationship (except i/p and o/p)
must be constant or zero.
• According to property 1, the input [x(t2)] is time scaled TV

• According to property 2, the coefficient 1 and 1 are constant  TIV

• According to property 3, the added term [0] is constant  TIV

Linearity/Non-linearity Check

• According to property 1  Linear

• According to property 2  Linear

So, the system is Linear Time-Variant.

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Properties of Linear and Non-Linear Systems:

1) System linearity is independent of time scaling
2) System linearity is independent of coefficient used in system relationship
3) If any added /subtracted term other than i/p and o/p is available in the system relationship then
the system will be non-linear
4) If o/p is summation of time shifted terms of i/p, then the system will be linear
5) Integral and differential operators are linear
6) Even and odd operators are linear
7) Real, imaginary and conjugate operators are non-linear
8) Trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, roots, powers, modulus, sgn, sa,
sinc……are non-linear
9) For zero i/p, o/p is also equal to zero
10) Split systems are linear

Example-3: y(t) = cost . x(t)

Solution:

Time Variant/Invariant Check

• According to property 1, the input [x(t)] is not time scaled TIV
• According to property 2, the coefficient [cost] is not constant TV

• According to property 3, the added term [0] is zero  TIV

Linearity/Non-linearity Check
• According to property 1  Linear

• According to property 2  Linear

So, the system is Linear Time-Variant.

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Example-4: y(t) = 2x(t)

Solution:

Time Variant/Invariant Check

• According to property 1, the input [x(t)] is not time scaled TIV

• According to property 2, the coefficients 1 & 2 are constant  TIV

• According to property 3, the added term [0] is zero  TIV

Linearity/Non-linearity Check

• According to property 1  Linear

• According to property 2  Linear

So, the system is Linear Time-Invariant.

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Impulse Response of a System with Examples

Let us consider a system, y(t) = x(t-1) + x(t+1) which is LTI
system.

Here, the system is in Time-Domain and the variable, t is Real.

But the analysis of the system in Frequency-Domain is much

easier in stead of Time-Domain, because it is difficult to obtain
the Impulse Response in Time-Domain. Since, the LTI system
needs the Impulse Response, so the analysis needs tool to
convert the system from Time-Domain to Frequency-Domain.
The tool used in LTI system is Laplace Transform.
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Laplace Transform: Let us consider a function f(t), we have to make Laplace

Transform. The Laplace Transform of this function is

L{ f (t )}  F ( s )   f (t )e  st dt [Here, F and s are both complex]


Let f (t )  2, then
 
F ( s )   2.e  st dt  2  e  st dt  2.
  s
 
1  st 
e  
s

2  s
e 
 e  s(  )  

If we consider f(t)  2u(t), then

  
F ( s )   2u (t ).e  st dt   2  1. e  st dt  2  e  st dt  2.
0 0 0 s
 
1  st 
e 0


s

2  s
e  e  s0  2 
s

e  e 0   2
s
0  1  2
s
So, for f(t)  u(t), then
  
F ( s )   u (t ).e  st dt   1. e  st dt   e  st dt 
0 0 0 s
 
1  st 
e 0


s

1  s
e  e  s0   1 
s

e  e 0   1
s
0  1  1
s
So, for f(t)  au(t), then
a
L{ f (t )}  F ( s )  which is the general form
s 13

For y(t) = x(t-1) + x(t+1), the Laplace Transform of the Output is

the sum of the Laplace Transform of the Inputs

Y(s) = X(s) e-s + X(s) es

The Transfer function is

H(s) = Y(s) / X(s) for all initial conditions = 0

So, H(s) = Y(s) / X(s) = e-s + es which is in frequency-domain.

We can now have the Impulse Response by doing Inverse Laplace

Transform as

h(t) = (t-1) + (t+1)

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Example-1: y(t) = x(t-1) + 5

Solution: This system is LTI. Laplace Transform of the system is
Y(s) = X(s) e-s + 
Laplace Transform of DC value or any Double-sided power signal is
undefined i.e.,  (DC value is Double-sided). So, the Laplace Transform
does not exist..
We can modify the system as
y(t) = x(t-1) + 5u(t)
So, the Laplace Transform of the system is
Y(s) = X(s) e-s + 5/s
The Transfer function is
H(s) = Y(s) / X(s) for all initial conditions = 0
So, H(s) = [X(s) e-s + 5/s] / X(s)
Here, Transfer function and Impulse Response calculation is not possible.
So, the system is not LTI.
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Example-2: y(t) = x(t-2) + x(t+2)

Solution: This system is LTI. Laplace Transform of the system is

Y(s) = X(s) e-2s + X(s) e2s

The Transfer function is

H(s) = Y(s) / X(s) = [X(s) e-2s + X(s) e2s ] / X(s) = e-2s + e2s

So, the Impulse Response is

h(t) = (t-2) + (t+2)

Here, Transfer function and Impulse Response calculation is

possible. So, the system is LTI.
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2.1 Representation of Discreate Time Signals in Terms of Impulse

The discrete-time unit impulse can be used to construct any discrete
time signal. To see how the this intuitive picture can be turned into a
mathematical representation, considering the signal x[n] depicted in
Fig.2.1. The scaling of each impulse equals the value of x[n] at the
particular instant the unit sample occurs. For example.

 x[1] n  -1
x[1] [n  1]  
0 n  -1
 x[0] n0
x[0] [n]  
0 n0
 x[1] n 1
x[1] [n  1]  
0 n 1
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To understand the multiplication of signal and unit impulse sample:

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Fig.2.1 Decomposition of a discrete time signal into weighted sum

of shifted impulse for -2  n  2 . 19

Therefore, the sum of the five sequences in the figure equals x[n] for
-2  n  2 (Fig.2.1). More generally, by including additional shifted,
scaled impulses, we can write
x[n]  ......  x[4] [n  4]  x[3] [n  3]
 x[2] [n  2]  x[1] [n  1]
 x[0] [n  0]  x[1] [n  1]  x[2] [n  2]
 x[3] [n  3]  x[4] [n  4]  ...... (2.1)
Writing this summation in more compact form, we have

x[n]   x[k ] [n  k ] (2.2)
k  

Equation(2.2) is called the shifting property of the discrete time unit

impulse. Because the sequence [n-k] is nonzero only when k = n.
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If the signal is unit step, then x[n] = u[n]. In this case, since
u[k] = 0 for k < 0 and x[k] = 1 for k  0, Eq.(2.2) becomes

 
u[n]   u(k ) [n  k ]   [n  k ]
k 0 k 0

This corresponds to the representation of an arbitrary sequence as

a linear combination of shifted unit impulse [n-k], where the
weights in this linear combination are x[n].

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Example: Impulse decomposition of a signal– discrete time

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Example: Impulse decomposition of a signal– discrete time

x1[n]  ......  x1[1] [n  1]  x1[0] [n  0]  x1[1] [n  1]

*Every discrete signal can be written as a linear combination of

weighted shifted/delayed unit impulse.
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2.2 Representation of Continuous Time Signals in Terms of Impulse

1
 0t 
  (t )    (2.3)

0 otherwise

Each of the pulses/rectangles has the strength of )  )(t). Since it is an

unit impulse, so its area is unity, i.e. it has unit amplitude.
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One of these impulses at time k) can be represented as (similar to

discrete-time case)-
x(k)  (t  k)

Fig.2.2 Staircase approximation

to a continuous-time signal.

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For all the pulses/rectangles of the staircase can be written as



x(t)   x(k)  (t k) (2.4)


We know that as in discrete-time case, for any value of t, only one

term in the summation on the right-hand side of Eq.(2.4) is
non-zero.


x(t)  lim  x(k)  (t k) (2.5)
 0 

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We know that the limit as ) 0 of )(t) is the unit impulse

function (t). Replacing k) by a dummy variable,  we can write

x(t)   x( ) (t  )d (2.6)


As in discrete time, we refer to Eq.(2.6) as the sifting property of

the continuous-time impulse.

If we consider for specific example of x(t) = u(t) then

Eq.(2.6) becomes
 
u(t)   u ( ) (t  )d    (t  )d (2.7)
0 0

Since u() = 0 for  < 0 and u() = 1 for  > 0.

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2.3 Impulse Response

When a system is "shocked" by a unit impulse (delta function),

it produces an output known as its impulse response. For an LTI
system, the impulse response completely determines the output
of the system given any arbitrary input.

Let a discrete-time LTI system be shocked by a unit

impulse, [n] and it produces an output h[n] which is known as
Impulse Response. Fig.2.3 shows the impulse response of LTI
systems for discrete-time and continuous-time. In case of
continuous-time the input and output has been symbolized as
(t) and h(t) respectively.
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Fig.2.3 Impulse response of LTI system for DT and CT impulses. 

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2.4 Derivation of Convolution Summation Formula and

Convolution Integral Formula
Let us apply a signal x[n] to a LTI system whose impulse response is
h[n] as shown in Fig.2.4.
The response will be the sum of a number of scaled, time shifted
impulse responses as shown in Fig.2.5.
Hence knowing the unit impulse response h[n] it is possible to
obtain the output for an arbitrary input. This particular example can be
extended to obtain an expression for the general case.
According to the sifting property of the discrete time impulse
function, the input signal to a system can be represented as a sum of
scaled and shifted unit impulses according to Eq.(2.2).

x[n]   x[k ] [n  k ]
k   30

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and assuming a signal x[n] is applied as input to a system with unit

impulse response h[n], then listing components of the input and
output signals
Input Output Property
[n] h[n] Sample response
[n-k] h[n-k] Time invariance
x[k][n-k] x[k]h[n-k] Linearity
x[n] =  x[k][n-k] y[n] =  x[k]h[n-k] Linearity
Hence the system output for the input x[n] is given by

y[n]   x[k ]h[n  k ] (2.8)
k 
The expression on the right-hand side of Eq.(2.8) is known as the
convolution summation or superposition summation. So, the
convolution for discrete-time signal can be defined as a summation that
expresses the amount of overlap of one function when it is shifted over
another function”. 31

*Why do we convolute each input

signal sample by the impulse response?
We know, Fig.a Discrete signal.

x[n]   x[k ] [n  k ] (2.2)
k  
x[n]  ......  x[4] [n  4]  x[3] [n  3]
 x[2] [n  2]  x[1] [n  1]
 x[0] [n  0]  x[1] [n  1]  x[2] [n  2]
 x[3] [n  3]  x[4] [n  4]  ......
Fig.b Signal representation
x[0]  x[0] [0] [ For n  0 ] in terms of unit impulse for
a single input sample.
Again we know,
 Fig.c Signal representation

 x[k ]h[n  k ]
in terms of unit impulse for
y[n]  (2.8) all input samples.
k  
y[n]  ......  x[4]h[n  4]  x[3]h[n  3]
 x[2]h[n  2]  x[1]h[n  1]
 x[0]h[n  0]  x[1]h[n  1]  x[2]h[n  2]
 x[3]h[n  3]  x[4]h[n  4]  ......

y[0]  x[0]h[0] [ For n  0 ] Fig.d Output from single input sample

and its impulse response. 32

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Fig.2.4 Response of a discrete

system to an arbitrary input.

Fig.2.5 System response as sum

of impulse responses.
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In continuous-time case the system impulse response h(t) and signal

x(t) can be expressed in terms of the impulse function by use of
Eq.(2.6)


x(t )   x( ) (t  )d

Again listing components of input and output signals

Input Output Property

(t) h(t) Sample response
(t-) h(t-) Time invariance
x()(t-) x()h(t-) Linearity

x(t) =  x()(t-) y(t) =  x()h(t-) Linearity

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Hence the system output for input is


y(t )   x( )h(t  )d (2.9)
The expression on the right-hand side of Eq.(2.11) is known as
the convolution integral. So, the convolution for continuous-
time signal can be defined as an integral that expresses the
amount of overlap of one function when it is shifted over another
function”.
Convolution is used to compute the output of LTI system from
the given input and the impulse response of the system.

This infinite sum says that a single value of 𝑦, call it 𝑦[𝑛] may
be found by performing the sum of all the multiplications of
𝑥[k] and ℎ[𝑛 − k] at every value of k. ????
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2.4.1 Linear Graphical Methods of Convolution

Convolution: Convolution is a mathematical operation that expresses a relationship
between an input signal, the output signal, and the impulse response of a linear-time
invariant system. The graphical convolution methods are classified as (i) Echo
Method and (ii) Flip-and-Shift Method.
2.4.1.1 Echo Method [Example 2.1 (Oppenheim)]
Consider an LTI system with impulse response h[n] and input x[n], as illustrated in
Fig.2.6(a). We know

y[n]   x[k ]h[n  k ]
k  
For this case, since only x[0] and x[1] are non-zero, Eq.(2.8) becomes
y[n]  x[0]h[n  0]  x[1]h[n  1]  0.5h[n  0]  2h[n  1] (2.10)
The sequence 0.5h[n-0] and 2h[n-1] are the two echoes of the impulse response
needed for the superposition involved in generating y[n]. This implies that we have
to multiply h[n] having 3 samples of h[0], h[1] and h[2] by x[0], which gives
x[0]h[0] = 0.51 = 0.5
x[0] h[1] = 0.51 = 0.5
x[0] h[2] = 0.51 = 0.5 36

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Similarly, the results of the multiplication of

h[-1], h[-2] and h[-3] by x[0] gives
x[1] h[0] = 0.51 = 0.5
x[1] h[1] = 0.51 = 0.5
x[1] h[2] = 0.51 = 0.5
These echoes are displayed in Fig.2.6(b).

Here, x[n] = 0.5, 2; 0n1

h[n] = 1, 1, 1; 0n2
So, output range  [(0)+(0)]  n  [(1)+(2)]
0n3
Duration of convolved output being [(2+3)-1]=4 samples

By summing the two echoes for each value of n,

we obtain y[n], which is shown in Fig.2.6(c).

*This direct method of representation is not very

convenient for signals with many non-zero
samples and it cannot be used for continuous
systems.
Fig.2.6 (a) The impulse response h[n] of an LTI
system and an input x[n] to the system; (b) the
response or “echoes”, 0.5h[n] and 2h[n-1], to the
non-zero values of the input, namely, x[0]=0.5 and
x[1]=2; (c) the overall response y[n], which is the
sum of the echoes in (b). 37

Example 2.4.1.1.A: Convolute y[n] = x [n]* h[n]

Here, x[n] = -1, 2, 1; -1  n  1

h[n] = 1, 1, 1; -1  n  1
So, output range  [(-1)+(-1)]  n  [(1)+(1)]
 -2  n  2
Duration of convolved output being [(3+3)-1] = 5 samples

y[n]   x[k ]h[n  k ]
k  

 y[n]  x[1]h[n  1]  x[0]h[n  0]  x[1]h[n  1]

 h[n  1]  2h[n  0]  h[n  1]
For n = -1,
x[-1]h[-1] = (-1)(1) = -1
x[-1]h[0] = (-1)(1) = -1
x[-1]h[1] = (-1)(1) = -1
For n = 1,
x[1]h[-1] = (-1)(1) = -1
x[1]h[0] = (-1)(1) = -1
x[1]h[1] = (-1)(1) = -1
For n = 0,
x[0]h[-1] = (2)(1) = 2
x[0]h[0] = (2)(1) = 2
x[0]h[1] = (2)(1) = 2
By summing the two echoes
for each value of n, we obtain Fig.2.7 Convolution using
y[n], which is shown in Fig. Echo Method. 38

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Example 2.4.1.1.B: Determine y[n] = x1[n]* x2[n]

Here, x1[n] = -1, 1, -1; 0n2

x2[n] = 1, 1, 1; -1  n  1
So, output range  [(0)+(-1)]  n  [(2)+(1)]
 -1  n  3
Duration of convolved output being [(3+3)-1] = 5 samples

y[n]   x[k ]h[n  k ]
k  

 y[n]  x1[0]x2 [n  0]  x1[1]x2 [n  1]  x1[2]x2 [n  2]

  x2 [n  0]  x2 [n  1]  x2 [n  2]
For n = 0,
x1[0]x2[-1] = (-1)(1) = -1,
x1[0]x2[0] = (-1)(1) = -1
x1[0]x2[1] = (-1)(1) = -1
For n = 1,
x1[-1]x2[-1] = (-1)(1) = -1,
x1[-1]x2[0] = (-1)(1) = -1
x1[-1]x2[1] = (-1)(1) = -1
For n = 1,
x1[1]x2[-1] = (1)(1) = 1,
x1[1]x2[0] = (1)(1) = 1
x1[1]x2[1] = (1)(1) = 1
By summing the two echoes
for each value of n, we obtain Fig.2.8 Convolution using
y[n], which is shown in Fig. Echo Method.
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