Engine Principles

Engine Principles

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Engine Principles
Chapter 1. What is the Engine?
1. What is the Engine?.......................
2. Kinds of Engine............................
3. Engine layout...............................
4. Expansive force & Inertia Force.........
5. Reciprocal Engine.........................
6. Exhaust & Intake Stroke..................
7. Compression & Combustion Stroke....
8. Engine structure............................
9. Diesel Engine...............................
10. Internal Combustion & Motor..........
11. Lean Burn Engine........................
Chapter 2. Cylinder block and Moving
parts
1. Cylinder Block..............................
2. Cylinder Liner...............................
3. Water Jacket................................
4. Piston........................................
5. Piston Ring..................................
6. Connecting Rod............................
7. Crankshaft..................................
8. Crank Case.................................
9. Journal Bearing............................
10. Flywheel....................................
11. Balance shaft, Balancer for secondary
inertial force..............................
Chapter 3. Cylinder Head
1. Cylinder Head..............................
2. Cam & Camshaft..........................
3. Driving the Camshaft......................
4. Intake & Exhaust Valve...................
5. Valve Driving System......................
6. Valve Timing................................
7. Variable Valve Timing.....................
8. Malfunction of Valve......................
9. Overrun & Red Zone......................
Chapter 4. Intake System
1. Enhance the Volume Efficiency.........
2. Intake Inertia Effect & Pulsation Effect
3. Variable Intake System...................
4. Intake System..............................
5. Throttle Valve & Manifold.................
Chapter 5. Exhaust System
1. Exhaust System............................
2. Exhaust Inertia Effect & Pulsation Effect......
3. Component of Exhaust Gas.............
4. Air-Fuel Ratio & Exhaust Component.
5. Exhaust Purification System.............
6. Blow-by Gas Recirculation Device.....
Chapter 6. Charger
1. The Kind of Charger.......................
2. Turbocharger...............................
3. Boost Pressure & Compression Ratio.
4. Turbo Lag...................................
5. Supercharging System & Heat..........
6. Supercharger...............................
Chapter 7. Lubrication System
1. Role of Engine Oil.........................
2. Lubrication Method........................
3. Parts of Lubrication System.............
4. Engine Oil...................................
Chapter 8. Cooling System
1. Cooling System............................
2. Radiator.....................................
3. Cooling of the Cylinder Head............
4. Over Heat...................................
Chapter 9. Fuel System
1. Carburetor...................................
2. Mechanical Fuel Injection System......
3. Electrical Fuel Injection System.........
4. Fuel Supplying System...................
Chapter 10. Ignition System
1. Point type Ignition.........................
2. Full Transistor type Ignition..............
3. Distributor-less Ignition...................
4. Spark Plug..................................
Chapter 11. Combustion and
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Engine Principles

Combustion Chamber
1. Combustion Process......................
2. A/F ratio & Flame Velocity...............
3. Ignition Timing.............................
4. Swirl Effect..................................
5. Knocking....................................
6. Abnormal Combustion....................
7. Shape of Combustion Chamber........
8. Intake-Exhaust Valve & Combustion
Chamber........................................
9. Piston & Combustion Chamber.........

Chapter 12. Performance, Fuel

consumption, Noise, and
Vibration
1. Required Performance...................
2. What is Output?...........................
3. Representing Method for Power.........
4. What is Torque?...........................
5. To enhance Power.........................
6. S/B ratio & Output.........................
7. Compression Ratio & Output............
8. Enhancing Output by High rpm.........
9. Transient Characteristic & Response. .
10. Cylinder Array & Performance.........
11. Fuel Consumption Ratio................
12. Output & Fuel Efficiency................
13. Fuel Efficiency of Vehicle...............
14. Vibration of the Engine..................
15. Noise of the Engine..............................

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Engine Principles

Chapter 1. bottle or pot.

What is the engine?

1. What is the engine?

This book introduces about the automobile
engine especially the gasoline engine.
However, it is very complicated to define
about the engine, so called, what the engine
is. In general concept, the engine is 『the
devices driving something by changing the
energy in the natural source such as fire,
wind or electric material to the mechanical
energy continuously』. There are many types
of the engine and they are driven in different
ways.
Therefore, we can define the gasoline
engine, as a kind of combustion device in
other word, the 『device changing the heat
acquired by combusting the gasoline to the
mechanical force for driving the vehicles』.
How is the heat energy changed into the
mechanical energy? For example, the bottle
or pot. As they are heated, the covers move
with a noise. There is an important thing. The moving

The heat acquired from the gas or electric
energy boils the water so as to make the
water vapor pushing up the cover of the
force is not come from the heat energy, but
the hot air or vapor by the heat works.
That is, the media is need for changing the
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Engine Principles
energy form. This media is the working fluid
in the technical terminology. The working
fluid for the gasoline engine is the air in-
taken with the gasoline into the engine and
then combusted and exhausted.
Fuel
Combustion
Heat Generation
Air Expansion
Pressure Generation
Piston Movement
The procedure for transmitting the fuel to the
mechanical energy in the vehicle engine will
be explained in the following sections.
In this process, the working fluid is the air. If
there is no working fluid, the energy
transformation shall not be performed.
In contrary, think about the transforming the
mechanical energy to the heat energy. In the
vehicle, the brake is the represented
example. The principle is the friction heat
coming from the rubbing or striking the two
materials. We can warm our hands by
rubbing each other, that is, the moving
force(rubbing) can easily transform to the
heat energy(warming hands). At this time,
there is no working fluid. The force is
changed into heat directly.
However, when the heat energy is
transformed into the mechanical energy,
there must be a working fluid. Being the
media for the transforming the energy, there
should be a lot of loss of energy, at any
case. Therefore, how much energy of the
heat can be transformed into the
mechanical energy, the efficiency, is an
important factor in the engine.
2. Kinds of engine
There are many kinds of the engines.
The engines can be classified by the number
of cylinder, the array style of the cylinder or
the equipped method at the vehicle, and so
on.
As you know, the engine makes the driving
force by the reciprocal movement of the
piston in the cylinder so that the power is
decided by the number of the cylinder.
Therefore, the engine is mainly classified by
the number of the cylinder. The commercial
vehicles are classified into the 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
8, and 12 cylinders. More displacement
volume has the more cylinders.
According to the array of the cylinder, there
are three types including the In-line type with
serial arraying of the cylinder, the V type with
V-shaped arraying of the cylinder and the
opposed type in which the cylinders are
arrayed facing each other.
According to the engine installation type,
there are two types; the one is the
lengthwise type and the breadthwise type.
When the engines are arrayed in length
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Engine Principles
direction of the vehicle is called as the
lengthwise type, when the engines are
arrayed in width direction of the vehicle is
called as the breadthwise type.
Lengthwise type Breadthwise type
For example, the FR type car having the
engine at front and driving the rear wheels
has the lengthwise type engine. The reason
is that the propeller shaft transmitting the
driving force to the rear wheels shall be run
underneath the floor. In the case of FF type
car, the most small car, having the engine
at front and driving the front wheels, the
engine is breadthwise type because that the
rotation axis of the engine and the driving
axis rotating the wheels should be are
parallel. However, when the FF type car has
the 6-cylinder engine, if the serial engine is
installed in width direction, then the width of
the car is too wide. Therefore, in that case,
the engine rather is the V-type. In this
manner, considered with the displacement
volume and vehicle type, the engine array
type and the installation type are selected
for the best combination in design.
3. Engine layout
FF : Front Engine Front Drive
FR : Front Engine Rear Drive
MR : Midship Engine Rear Drive
RR : Rear Engine Rear Drive
It is possible to assume that the engine will
be installed at the front of the car. However,
the all vehicles do not have their engine at
front side. In 1770, the origin of the car, the
engine of the steam car of Cugnot was
located at the front ends of the body. In
1885, the first car equipped the gasoline
engine, the engine of the Daimler’s car is
located at the under the seat and the front
of the rear wheel axis.
In the history, many researches had been
performed to find the best condition where
the engine was installed. In 1891, the FR
(front engine rear drive) car was in France.
The FR type is that the engine was installed
at the front side and the rear wheels were
driven. After that, this type would be the set
as the standard layout of the engine. Until
now, the most large passenger cars and the
sports cars accept this type.
The typical characteristics of the FR type car
is that the cabin space is located to rear
side, the steering is controlling the front
wheels and the driving is contributed to the
rear wheels so that the operation and weight
load are evenly divided to the front side and
rear side and the movement performance
and passenger convenience are balanced as
well as the vibration and noise are less than
other types.
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Engine Principles

Engine Layout & Vehicle Features

In the layout of the relatively small public rear engine type.

car, there had been two big developments
for about hundred years. The first one is the 4. Expansive Force and Inertia Force
Volkswagen in 1936 having the engine at the
Almost of the commercial gasoline engines
rear side for driving the rear wheel. After the
for the vehicles are the Recipro-engines
World War II, this type was leading the
except for the rotary engine of which working
worldwide design of the mainstream the
principle is different. The word “Recipro”
passenger car of rear engine and rear drive
comes from the “Reciprocating”. The
(RR) type. The second one is the Mini of
reciprocation is the mechanical movement
England in 1959. The Mini accepted the
of go and back so that the Recipro-engine
front engine and front drive (FF) type having
is the device transforming the reciprocal
the breadthwise type engine at front side for
movement to the rotational movement using
driving the front wheels. Nowadays, this type
the crank which is the device having the
is applied to the small cars as well as the
prominence and depression shape.
middle sized sedans.
The FF type car has the engine and driving
devices at the front side so that it should not
applied to the car of which weight is
concentrated to the front side. The defect of
this type is that it is not easy to steer the
car. However, it has the relatively large
space of indoor and trunk, and the safety is
better than other types. Therefore, it is the
best design for the layout of the utility cars.
The midship engine and rear drive (MR) type
is focused on the performance rather than
the convenience of the passenger so that it
is mainly applied to the sports cars. When
the main parts of the engine are located at
front side than the rear wheel type, it is
called the midship type. When the main
parts are located at rear side, it is called the
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The cross sectional view of the Recipro-

engine shows that there is a piston
reciprocal moving in the cylinder at the
upper side and there is a crankshaft at the
lower side and the piston and the crankshaft
are connected by the connecting rod.
Considering the reciprocal movement of the
The gasoline engine uses the air as the
piston, the piston starts moving from the
media of working fluid for transforming the
halt state at the highest position of the
heat energy to the mechanical energy. The
stroke, has the maximum speed at the
air is mixed with the mist of gasoline in the
middle of the stroke, After that, the speed is
cylinder. When the mixture of air and
reduced and stops to the lowest position of
gasoline are compressed using the piston
the stroke, and then goes back to the
and combusted, then the expansive gas will
highest position again. During performing
press the piston. The expansive force
these movements, the inertia forces shall be
pressing the piston shall drive the car.
generated when the speed of movements
At this time, except for the expansive force, are changed. For example, from the highest
there is an inertia force which we are position of the piston to the middle of the
considering. This force is somewhat strange stroke, there is an ascending inertia force.
because it is not generated intentionally; After that there is a descending inertia force
however, this force is followed in the moving from the middle of the stroke to the lowest
part of the engine naturally. Therefore, it can position of the piston.
affect to the performance of engine or is the
When this inertia force is resonated with the
source of the vibration or noise.
other inertia forces from the other pistons,
there may be vibrations or noises.

5. Reciprocal Engine

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Engine Principles

exhaust valve shall be open to take out the

burnt gas [Exhaust Stroke]. These strokes
are repeated.
Among these 4 strokes, only at the
combustion stroke, the engine makes the
power for work. Therefore, there are needed
the additional forces, for intake and
exhausting the gas at the intake and exhaust
stroke, and for compressing the mixture at
the compression stroke. To do so, a
flywheel is installed to the crankshaft to
make these additional forces using the
inertia force to ensure the continuous
rotational movement.

The Recipro-Engines are classified into two

types, the 2-cycle type and the 4-cycle
type. After developed by Daimler of
Germany in 1883, the 4-cycle type which
had been completed its standard system
until 1900 is the mainly used in the most of
vehicles.
The principle of the reciprocal engine is that
the mixture of the air and the gasoline are
injected into the cylinder, the mixture is The 2-cycle engine comprises of the two
combusted using the electric spark to strokes. The operation of this engine
explode, the combustion force drives the comprises the four components such as the
piston in reciprocal movement, and the intake, the compression, the combustion,
reciprocal movement is changed to the and the exhaust as the 4-cycle engine.
rotational movement by the crankshaft.
The operation of the 4-cycle engine is
like that. When the piston is at the highest
position, the intake valve is opened. Being
down the piston, the mixtures of fuel gas is
injected into the cylinder and then the intake
valve is closed [Intake Stroke]. Next, the
piston will go to upward to compress the
mixtures of gas [Compression Stroke].
Then, the compressed mixtures of gas will
be burnt by an electrical ignition
[Combustion Stroke]. The burnt gas having
the high pressure and temperature will press
the piston downward. At this time, the Compression and Expansion
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The exhaust gas is exhausted by the

Exhaust and Intake
However, before and After the piston is
located at the highest position, the
compression and combustion operations are
performed, and before and After the piston
is located at the lowest position, the exhaust
and intake operation at the same time. So,
through the two strokes, the one cycle of
engine operation is completed. The 4-cycle
engine performs the combustion stroke at
one time per two cycles of the crankshaft,
but, the 2-cycle engine performs the
combustion stroke at every cycle of
crankshaft. Therefore, the 2-cycle has
higher efficiency.
entering new mixtures of gas when the
piston is located at the lowest position.
Therefore, some new mixtures will be mixed
the combusted gas and unburned gases will
be exhausted. It makes the air pollutions
and the large fuel consumptions.
6. Exhaust & Intake Stroke
This content will explain about the engine on
focusing the 4-cycle gasoline engine, the
most used type.
To understand the 4 strokes, the intake, the
compression, the combustion, and the
exhaust, it is helpful to refer the figures, the
indicator diagram (P-V diagram), showing
the process of the engine operations.

Scavenging
Additionally, it has no intake and exhaust
valves so that it has simple structure and It looks somewhat complicated, but it is
low cost. However, this merit can be a easy to understand just following the figures.
defect.

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Engine Principles

Exhaust stroke
However, actually, the exhaust valve prefers
to be opened before the piston reaches to
the lowest position, that is, at the position of
The indicator diagram is the graph
D in the drawing. Remaining the pressing
consisting of the horizontal axis representing
force of the burent gas, the exhausting the
the pressure of the chamber and the vertical
used gas is more effective by opening the
axis representing the volume of the
exhaust valve in advance. After that, the
chamber. At the left ends of the graph, C
piston will push out the remained used gas
and F, the piston is located at the highest
thoroughly to finish the exhaust stroke.
position of the cylinder, and at the right
ends of the graph, G and H, the piston is At the intake stroke, the intake valve is
located at the lowest position of the opened, and the piston goes down from the
cylinder. highest position to the lowest position so
that the mixtures of fuel gas and the air are
By comparing the lines of the graph to the 4
inhaled into the cylinder from the intake
strokes, the line of A-B is the intake stroke,
port. At that time, the intake valve shall be
the line of B-C is the compression stroke,
opened just before the piston reaches the
the line of C-D is the combustion stroke and
highest position, that is, the E in the
the line of D-E is the exhaust stroke.
drawing. Doing so, the intake operation is
In act, the cycle of the strokes is starting enhanced somewhat because of the
from the intake stroke. To understand the exhausting force of the used gas will pull the
engine operation, it is easy to start from the intake gases.
exhaust stroke. To inhale more air as
possible, the engine uses also the force
from the exhausted gas outgoing to the
outside of the engine through the exhaust
port.
The exhaust stroke is for pushing the
combusted gas to outside of the chamber
by moving the piston from the lowest
position to the highest position with being
opened exhaust valve. In principle, it is think
that the exhaust valve will be opened when
the piston is reaching at the lowest position. Intake stroke

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With the same manner, the intake valve shall
be closed when the piston is at the B. Doing
so, more mixtures of gas shall be inhaled
into the cylinder by the inertia force of the
intake gas. To inhale air into the engine is
performed by the difference of air pressure.
When the piston goes down, the air pressure
in the cylinder is lower than that of the
outside of the cylinder, so that the air
around the intake valve shall be inhaled to
the cylinder. The opening timing of the valve
is different from the stroke position is to use
this force to inhale more air as possible
7. Compression and Combustion Stroke
At the compression stroke, the mixtures of
gas are compressed by the piston, so that
the pressure is increased and the
temperature is high by adiabatic
compression. Therefore, the gasoline is
vaporized by the compressive heat of the
air, ready to be combusted. The injected
gasoline in the cylinder like the misty with
the air is vaporized to be gas state by the
heat from the adiabatic compression. Then
it is ready to be combusted easily. This
space for combustion is called the
combustion chamber.
The reason of that it is hard to start the
engine in winter is that it is hard for the
gasoline to be vaporized. To solve this
12
problem, one method is to mix more
gasoline with the air. Another problem is
that; when the gasoline is vaporized, the
ambient heat is used to the vaporization, so
the temperature of the chamber is lowered
somewhat. It may decrease the fuel
efficiency of the engine. To prevent from
lowering the fuel efficiency, the amount of
the gasoline is reduced. However, to do so,
the temperature of the chamber is so high
that the combustion may be performed prior
to the ignition, so called the abnormal
combustion.
The most important fact from the intake
stroke to the compression stroke is the flow
of the mixtures of the gasoline and the air. It
is not proper that the flow is too strong to be
ignited. The little particles of gasoline should
be mixed with air to be the mixtures.
Therefore, many manufacturers research
and develop the shape of the intake port
and flow pattern of the mixtures so that the
strength and the pattern of the mixture flow
are maintained until the combustion stroke
for the best efficiency of the engine.
Compression stroke
As processing the compression stroke, the
piston reaches the highest position. When
the piston is at the C of the drawing, the
ignition will be performed by the electric
spark generated from the spark plug. The
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Engine Principles
timing to make the spark is very important.
The mixture is not fully combusted at the
ignition time, but the combustion is started
from the ignition. It is needed some time
interval between the time of the ignition and
the time to be maximum pressure of the
chamber.
Combustion stroke
The ignition timing is determined by
considering that the combustion shall be
completed between the highest position and
the almost half position of the combustion
chamber. Additionally, this combustion
speed is proportion to the rotational speed
of the engine so that the ignition timing
should be adjusted with the engine speed.
Beginning the combustion, the vaporized
mixtures are combusted in a short time so
that the pressure and the temperature are
increased. At this time the expanded gas by
the combustion shall press the piston. This
pressing force should be stronger as
possible. The time period of combustion is
preferable to be short to strength the force.
If the time period for combustion is longer,
then the combustion force is not leading the
pressing the piston but following the piston.
Therefore, the engine efficient is worst. The
combustion time period is affected by flow
of the mixtures defined by the size and
shape of the combustion chamber and the
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component of the mixture and so on.
8. Engine structure
The gasoline engine is a complicated
machine having comprising of parts. Look
into how the engine is structured.
The engine is similar with the 3 floors
building. The first floor is the crank case
including the crankshaft transforming the
reciprocal movement to the rotational
movement. The second floor is the cylinder
block including the cylinder of which a piston
is moving with reciprocal movement. The
third layer is the cylinder head.
In this structure, the moving parts of the first
layer and the second layer are called as the
main moving part. It includes the piston,
the crankshaft and the connecting rod.
In the third layer, there are the valves
controlling the intake and exhaust of the
mixtures gas and the used gas and the
camshaft operating the valves. These are
called the cylinder head system.
On the cylinder head, there are intake
manifold sending the gasoline and the air to
the cylinder and the exhaust manifold taking
out the burnt gas. These are called the
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Engine Principles

intake-exhaust system. The manifold

consists the “many” and the “fold”, that is,
many materials are combined. In actual,
they are many branched pipes distributing
the air and gasoline to each cylinder or
merging the exhausted gases in one place.
There is the fuel system including the fuel
pump taking the gasoline from the fuel tank
and the carburetor or fuel injector to make a
air fuel mixture.
There is the lubrication system including
the oil pump supplying the oil for reducing
the frictions and the oil filter for filtering the
oil.
Also there is the cooling system including
the radiator and water pump for maintaining
the temperature of the engine properly.
To drive the engine, the electric power is
needed. There are electric devices
including igniting spark plug, the alternator
generating the electric power and the start
motor supplying the initial movement to the
engine.
Additionally, there are the auxiliaries such
as the oil pump for the power steering the
air-con compressor and so on.

9. Diesel Engine
The diesel engine has similar shape and
structure with those of the gasoline engine.
The different point is the ignition method.
The gasoline engine ignites the mixture of
fuel with the electric spark. Contrary, in
diesel engine, the fuel is injected into the
compressed air having the high temperature.
When the air is compressed, the
temperature of compressed air is increased.
The gasoline engine compresses the mixture
of fuel gas up to 1/10 of the initial volume.

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The diesel engine compresses the air about
1/20 of the initial volume to increase the
temperature of the air over 600℃, and
injects the fuel compressed with over 100
atm at the injection pump during
1/1000∼2/1000 seconds. The output shall
be controlled by the amount of injected
mixtures of fuel and air for the gasoline
engine. On the other hand, the output of the
diesel engine can be controlled by the
amount of the injected fuel without
controlling the air (the fixed amount of the
air).
To combust the fuel perfectly by increasing
the temperature of the air, the compression
ratio shall be increased. However, doing so,
the expansion power will be increased also.
Therefore, the engine should be stronger to
endure the increased force. Additionally, the
high quality of fuel injecting pump may be
needed. Then the engine is heavier and the
cost is expensive. So diesel engine is not
proper to apply to the passenger’s car.
In the diesel engine, because almost
constant amount of the air about the volume
of the cylinder is inhaled, the load applying
to the engine is relatively light. When the fuel
amount is small at the low speed, the fuel
shall be almost perfectly combusted.
However, with the full load, the diesel engine
needs more amount of fuel so that the air
amount is respectively small. Therefore, it
may exhaust a lot of black smoke.
15
In the gasoline engine, the ignition is
performed by the electric spark to the
mixture so the combustion time period is
very short. However, in the diesel engine,
the fuel diesel is sprayed into the
compressed air, so it needs some time
period to be vaporized. Therefore, the
maximum speed of engine is limited
relatively lower and the output shall be lower
than the gasoline engine.
Compared with the gasoline engine, the
expansion force and the inertia force of the
moving part are bigger so it makes bigger
noise and more vibration. It has merits of
easy maintenance resulted from not having
the delicate parts such as the ignition
system and of good fuel efficiency so that it
is used for commercial or business purpose
rather than passenger’s car.
10. Internal Combustion & Motor
The force of the 4-cycle gasoline engine, as
one of the internal combustion, is changed
according to the RPM (Revolutions Per
Minute) of the engine compared by the
electric motor or the steam engine. So, it is
impossible to drive with the lower revolutions
than certain RPM value. Therefore, the
clutch and the transmission should be
equipped when the gasoline engine is used
for vehicles.
For the 4-cycle engine, using the four
strokes, it makes moving force by
combusting the mixture of fuel and air in the
cylinder. It is very different with the electric
motor used in electric vehicles which can
start just by applying the electric power. If
the mixtures are not supplied into the
cylinder at idle condition, the engine can not
continue to run. In order that the engine
should be operating continuously when the
vehicle is stopped, the device for connecting
or disconnecting the moving force of the
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Engine Principles

engine to the wheels such as clutch should The exhaust purification system using the
be equipped. 3way catalysts has the characteristics of
maintaining the actual air-fuel ratio to the
In general, the vehicles needs larger power
ideal valve to perform the oxidation and
when it is started or accelerated, but when it
reduction of the harmful compounds
is driven in constant speed, it does not need
simultaneously. To do so, the purification of
larger power. For the motor, it outputs larger
the exhausted gas will be limited, and the
force when it rotates with lower RPM, and
fuel amount used for the engine is decided
when the RPM is increased, the output will
by the engine driving status. Therefore, the
be lower. Therefore, the electric motor can
engine shall not be developed no more to
be applied to the engine of the vehicles
get higher driving force with less amount of
without any transmitting device.
the fuel.
However, for the gasoline engine, the power
is determined according to the RPM of the
engine. The range of the RPM is limited
within certain ranges. For example, the RPM
of the gasoline engine is about 700∼7000
revolutions per minute, and the RPM for
getting the maximum power (torque) is
about 4000 revolutions. Therefore, when the
vehicles are running with various speeds, it
is necessary to control the speed and power The lean burn system is developed for
of the vehicle by inserting a transmission enhancing the fuel efficiency with the good
between the engine and the wheels. purification of exhaust gas. To enhance the
fuel efficiency is most important point for
At simple sight, the motor may be the best
future. The lean burn engine is one of the
engine for the vehicles. The important thing
most attracted public attention technologies.
is the fuel, the source of power. The
gasoline is easy to store during operating With the high A/F ratio by reducing the
the engine, but it is hard for the motor to gasoline in the mixture, how are the three
store the electric power effectively. major harmful materials, carbon monoxide,
hydrogen carbon, and nitrogen oxide. The
To develop the electric vehicles, it is
oxygen is more plentiful than fuel, so the
essential to develop the batteries having the
amount of carbon monoxide will be less or
high efficiency for charging and maintaining
the most carbon monoxide will be changed
the rechargeable batteries in equivalent
into carbon dioxide, harmless gas. The
state. Many companies are trying developing
hydro carbon will also be completely
the method for maintaining the rechargeable
combusted and changed into carbon dioxide
batteries. Even though the basic
and water. Now we will concern only the last
performance has been developed in field
one, nitrogen oxide.
test, the manufacturing cost is very high.
However there are being suggested some If the A/F ratio is higher, then the
patents and technologies for utilizing. temperature will be increase by the plentiful
of the oxygen and the amount of the
11. Lean Burn Engine nitrogen oxide will be increased. At about 16

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of A/F ratio, the nitrogen oxide will be

maximized. If the A/F ratio is higher than
16, then the combustion temperature will be
down so the torque is also down. If the A/F
ratio is higher and higher, the combustion is
not stable, and torque is very unstable,
finally combustion will not be performed.
A manufacturer focused on the torque
variations according to the lean burn. By
adapting the combustion pressure sensor
detecting the combustion pressure in the
cylinder, the engine is operated with the A/F
ratio just before the torque variation is
occurred. Therefore, they can make next
generation lean burn engine having the low
fuel consumption and the less amount of
nitrogen oxide. In that system, the lean burn
is performed at the condition in which the
driving is not hindered by the low torque at
low load. When the vehicle in accelerating or
high load, the combustion is performed with
the theoretical A/F ratio and the exhaust gas
is purified by 3way catalyst. Many
manufacturers continue to research for
enhancing the fuel consumption by focusing
on the intake system and combustion
chamber with 16∼20 of A/F ratio. Many new
engines satisfying this combustion
requirement and having less exhaust gas
problem are shown more and more.

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Engine Principles
Chapter 2.
Cylinder Block & Moving
parts
1. Cylinder block
The cylinder block is the basic part of the
engine. It is made of cast iron or aluminum.
It comprises of the cylinder in which the
piston shall be moving reciprocally, the
water jacket for circulating the cooling water
maintaining the temperature of the cylinder,
and the crankshaft installed underneath.
The role of cylinder is for guiding the
reciprocal movement of the piston accepting
the force and high temperature from the
combustion of the mixtures, for cooling the
cylinder properly, and for supporting the
crankshaft. As the basis of the engine, it
should have enough strength for enduring
the supporting the attached all parts of
engine.
For these purposes, the cylinder is generally
made of cast iron because that the iron is
easy to be processed mechanically and has
the characteristics of good resistance
against the ware and corrosion.
Recently, instead of the cast iron, the
aluminum alloy is more popular. The
aluminum is lighter and transmitting the heat
easier than steel so that it is deemed as the
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ideal material for engine. It is not easy to
apply the aluminum to the engine because it
has different heat expansion coefficient with
the steel, the main material of other parts
and it is complicated to design the engine
structures, as well as it is more expansive
than steel.
For the passenger’s car, the weight of the
engine is about 10∼15% of the total weight
of the car. The 15∼20% of the engine
weight is come from the cylinder block. It is
very important to be light maintaining the
strength of it as possible. Therefore, the
skeleton structure of the cylinder block has
different thickness such that the thickness is
thicker of the portion applied heavy force or
having possibility of deformation and the
thickness is thinner of the other portions. To
design the cylinder block regarding these
factors, the structure analysis is performed
by the finite element method in which the
engine is divided into triangular or
rectangular cells and the each element is
established in simultaneous equations to
calculate by numerical analysis using
computer.
In side of the block, there should be the
water jacket for circulating the cooling water
so it should be precisely manufactured for
the complicate structure. To prevent from
cracking at the bottle neck point of different
thickness or to enhance the resistance
against wear, it should be heat treated.
2. Cylinder Liner
The inside wall of the cylinder block is the
frictional face with the piston with a lubricant
oil there-between. Therefore, it satisfies the
strict requirements that it endures at the high
temperature and wear, that its changes of
the dimension by the heat expansion
coefficient shall be within the tolerance, and
that it should not be adhesive with each
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Engine Principles
other by the high temperature.
Generally, when the block material is the
steel, this part is made by polishing the cast
iron cylinder, so called as the linerless type.
When the block material is the aluminum
alloy, the inside wall of the cylinder having a
cylinder liner made of cast ion for preventing
the ware of the side wall. The liner is the
thing which is attached the inside of the
cylinder. The cylinder liner may be made
with the cylinder block or separately and
joined after that with the cylinder.
For the aluminum cylinder block, the cast
iron is used. It is heavier than the aluminum
alloy as well as it has the lower heat
transmission ratio than the aluminum.
Therefore, for the engine of racing car or
high efficiencies, the special liner made of
the silicon alloy based on the aluminum or
having special treatment on the aluminum
surfaces are utilized.
These special liners are so expensive and
hard to manufacture. Also, there are some
tries to develop the linerless cylinder with
aluminum alloy cylinder block. Even though
the linerless cylinder is more expensive, the
engine can be lighter and compacted so
that it is mainly accepted to the high
performance engines.
The gap between the cylinder liner and the
piston is depended on the material. When
the liner is the cast iron and the piston is the
aluminum alloy, considering that the heat
expansion ratio of the aluminum is almost
twice than that of the steel so that the gap
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will be reduce at the high temperature of the
engine, the gap shall be 30∼40 microns
(0.03∼0.04mm) at the room temperature. If
the liner and the piston are all the aluminum,
then the gap shall be 10 microns because
there is no difference of the heat expansion
between them.
The around of the cylinder liner is formed as
a shape of path for cooling water, the water
jacket, to maintain the temperature of the
engine to certain value by absorbing the
heat energy come from the remained energy
of the combustion.
3. Water Jacket
When casting the cylinder block, the cylinder
is surrounded by the core made of sand to
form vacant spaces. These spaces are the
water jacket for circulating the cooling water
to take down the temperature of the cylinder
head and cylinder to the proper temperature
for operating.
The water circulating inside the water jacket
goes into the engine from the lower outlet
port of the radiator cooling the heated
water. The water flows from the lower part
of the engine to the upper part of the
engine. After cooling the cylinder head, the
heated water is taken out from the engine
and goes into the upper inlet port of the
radiator. During circulating inside the water
jacket, it is important to cool down the each
cylinder equivalently. The design of the
water jacket is focused on the flow method
to spread the water smoothly over the all
parts with smaller volume of the water as
possible. The heated water is cooled in the
radiator and then return to the water jacket
again. In winter, the heated water selectively
flow into the another radiator for heating the
cabin.
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Engine Principles

Generally, the water jacket is surrounding

the cylinder thoroughly. In order to reduce
the path length along to the cylinder array,
the water jacket is surrounding the out side
of the cylinder so that the water does not
flow into the adjacent space the cylinders.
This type is called the Siamese type. Like The piston moving inside the cylinder
the Siamese twins, some portions of the reciprocally transmits the weight force of
jacket surrounding the each cylinder are 3~4 tons (5 tons for diesel engine)
merged into one body. The conventional according to the combustion of the fuel
jacket is called the full jacket type. mixture gas having over temperature of
2000℃ at the combustion stroke to the
connecting rod. The first thing to be
considered in design of the piston is that the
piston should be made of light materials to
reduce the inertia force of the reciprocal
movement. The next point is that its material
should have the strength enough to endure
the combustion force. And then, the
For the engine having the liner, the type is material of the piston shall have the good
divided into two kinds by whether the water heat-trance and not be distorted or
is contacting with the liner or not. When the deformed by the high temperature.
cylinder liner is surrounded by the wall of the
cylinder block so that the outside of the liner
can not contact with the cooling water, it is
called the dry type liner. When the most
portions of the liner contact with the cooling
water directly, it is called the wet type liner.
The wet liner has better cooling efficiency. It
should be sealed with an O-ring between
the liner and block to prevent leaking the
cooling water. In KIA, the most engines
having the liner are equipped with the dry At first, the aluminum or aluminum alloy can
type liner because KIA have not any problem be considered for lightening and
come from the heat adhesive of the engine strengthening. Then, for enhancing the heat
yet and we worry about the leaking the resistance to prevent from changing in
cooing water. dimension, the heat treatment shall be
performed.
4. Piston
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Engine Principles

The upper part of the piston is called as the the piston size.
piston head or the piston crown. It is very
important part forming the combustion 5. Piston Ring
chamber between the cylinder head. To
The main roles of the piston ring, the wheel
enhance the combustion efficiency by
shaped steel surrounding the head part of
combusting the fuel mixture instantly, the
the piston, are to prevent from leaking the
shape of piston head prefer to be flat. To
gas by sealing between the piston and the
enhance the compression ratio, the middle
cylinder, to prevent from remaining the
portion may be upraised or there are some
lubricant oil in the combustion chamber by
recessed positions, the valve recess, to take
gathering the oil down from the cylinder wall
the intake and exhaust valves not to touch
and to prevent from transmitting the heat
with the piston. The under portion of the
from the piston to the cylinder.
piston is the piston skirt stabilizing the
reciprocal movement of the piston. The Generally, the piston ring comprises of three
some front portions of the skirt looks like rings. The two rings near to the piston head
being cut out because that the balance are called the compression rings, and the
weight is passing these areas when the one ring near to the skirt is the oil ring. The
piston goes down. top ring of the compression rings is used for
There is a gap between the piston and the sealing the gas, the oil ring is used for
cylinder. This gap shall be sealed with the removing the lubricant oil, and the second
piston ring. When the piston is moving in ring of the compression rings is used for
reciprocal, some portions of the skirt may helping the sealing and for controlling the
be touching the cylinder wall. To reduce this thickness of the lubricant oil film.
touch, the shape of the skirt shall be
changed. The shorter length of the skirt has
fewer noises from the friction with the piston
and lighter weight. However, it is preferable
for designing the skirt to be balanced with
the size of the piston.
The piston is connected with the connecting
rod by a piston pin. So, the most forces of
combustion are applied to this pin. As the
piston pin is the shape of hollow cylindrical
structure, the larger of outer diameter, in a
same weight, is the more strength against Some piston comprises of the two rings, the
the bending force. However, when the compression ring and the oil ring. In this
diameter of the piston pin is enlarged, the case, the roles of rings are somewhat loss,
piston pin boss shall be also enlarged. but the fuel efficiency can be enhanced by
Therefore, the compression height, the reducing the loss of force from the friction
length from the pin to the piston head, is between the piston ring and cylinder wall.
also longed so the weight of the engine is Some racing cars accept the two ring
heavier. So, the diameter should be system for shortening the piston height to
designed by considering the balance with reduce the engine weight.

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The compression ring is made of the spring The connecting rod is the rod for connecting
steel by casting iron, and the surface should the piston and the crankshaft. It transfers
be heat treated to reduce the friction and to the reciprocal movement to the rotation
enhance the lubricant of the piston. To movement. The connecting rod moves very
insert the ring into the grooved portion of the complicatedly with swing movement about
piston and to ensure the tensile force for the piston pin and the linear movement up
compressing to the cylinder, one portion of and down. So, there is a balance weight to
the ring shall be opened. This open portion control the inertia force generated by the
is called the end gap. The combusted gas is complicating movements.
leaked out through this end gap a little. This
blow-by gas is returned to the combustion
chamber by the returning device not to leak
out.
The grooved portion of piston for the
compression ring has slightly lager then the
width of the rings. When the piston is
moving up and down, the rings are rotating
to prevent the end gap of the three rings
from being aligned each other. If the rings
have not enough strength, the rings are
fluttering within the grooves at the high
speed of the engine so it cannot seal the
The contribution ratio of the connecting rod
gas properly.
weight to the inertia force is about 2 to the
one reciprocal movement. To lightening the
load to the bearing and the vibration by
reducing the inertia force, the connecting
rod should be light as possible. However, it
has enough strength to transmit the
combustion force to the crankshaft.
The connecting rod is made of the special
The cross section of the oil ring has the steel by casting or forging. The forging is
shape of reversed “C”. The gathered oils by preferably used for ensuring the strength.
the rings are returned to the inside of the For the racing cars, the expensive but very
piston through the hole located at the lower light and strong material, titanium alloy, is
portion of the C-shaped ring. When the used also.
engine has high speed, the ring can not
gather the oil only with the its tensile force,
so an additional spring, the expander, shall
be attached to enforce the compressing
force of the ring to the cylinder.

6. Connecting Rod

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Engine Principles

The types of the rod can be divided into two

types according to the cross sectional shape 7. Crankshaft
of the rod, I type and H type.
If the strength is same, then the I-type is
lighter than H-type. Therefore, general cars
accept the I-type rod. The H-type has
stronger structure against the bending force
to the direction of the pin axis.
As the Connecting rod is longer, the lateral
vibration is smaller. The reason is that,
considering the force applied to the piston The crank means the 『bended handle』 as
at the rotation of the crank by divided into the transfer from the reciprocal movement
lateral direction and longitudinal direction, to the rotational movement as have
the longer connecting rod can reduce the mentioned until now. At the early time of the
ratio of the force to the lateral direction than vehicles history, the engine is started with
the shorter connecting rod so that the the crank. After the electric motor was used
vibration and friction also shall be reduced. for the starting the engine, until 1950s,
However, if the connecting rod is so long, Some cars had have a crank at the front of
the engine weight is heavier so it is not the engine for emergency device at the
preferable. Generally, the length from the malfunction of the motor.
center of the piston pin to the crank pin, is
about twice than the length of the stroke.

The crankshaft connects the cranks of each

cylinder. The main shaft is called the crank
journal and the attaching part to the big end
of the connecting rod with the crank is
called the crank pin. The other side, the
attaching part to the small end of the
connecting rod with the piston is called the
piston pin. The connector connecting the
crank journal and the crank pin is called the
The end portion of the connecting rod to the
crank arm. The sector formed pendulum at
piston side is called as the small end, and
the front of the crank arm is called the
the end portion to the crank pin side is
counter weight or the balancing weight.
called as the big end. The small end is
connected to the piston with the piston pin,
and the big end is attached to the crank pin
by inserting a bearing.

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Engine Principles

the counter weight as the ratio of 1:1. The

counter weight should be small as possible
within the requirement load range of the
journal in order to reduce the weight of the
crankshaft.

8. Crank Case
The crankcase is the part covering from the
cylinder of the cylinder block to the
crankshaft.
In the crankcase, there are some auxiliary
devices such as the alternator (the
alternative current generator), generating the
The reason of the shape of the counter
electric power, the compressor of the air
weight being spreading from the center
conditioner and the oil pump for the power
(root) to the circumferential portion (outer
steering. And the engine mount brackets
portion) is that it can have larger inertial
installing the engine to the vehicle body are
force when it rotates about the root part;
also attached to the crankcase. As the
even the counter weight has the same
crankcase is one part of the cylinder block,
weight density.
it is always vibrated by the reciprocal
In the reciprocal engine, the piston is press movement of the piston and the rotational
the crank journal with the connecting rod at movement of the crankshaft. Therefore, the
every combustion stroke. The crankshaft material of the crankshaft should satisfy the
affected by the complicated bending and requirement of the resistant against the
distorting force. Therefore, the crank journal shocking force and vibration.
shall have strength enough to endure these
The types of the crankcase are divided into
forces so it is made of the casting or forging
two types according to the covering range
steel. For the high performance engine or
over the crankshaft, the half skirt type and
the racing car engine, the forging steel is
the deep skirt type. In the half skirt type, the
most used for ensuring the strength. For the
front portion of the crankcase is covering to
commercial or general purpose vehicle, the
the center of the crankshaft. In the deep
casting steel is used because the forging
skirt type, the crankcase is covering over the
process is more expensive. Even though the
bearing cap.
casting steel has less strength than forging
steel, it is not so critical point because that
it is possible to manufacture the counter
weight precisely.
The counter weight balances the weights
force between from the reciprocal
movement of the piston and from the
rotational movement of the crankshaft.
Simply think, to balance the weight is to
match the inertia forces from the piston and
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Engine Principles

9. Journal Bearing
The bearing is for helping the smooth
rotation of the rotating axis and supporting
the rotation axis. There are various types of
the bearing including the plain bearing
supporting the axis with the flat and wide
side, and the bearing supporting the axis
and the around of the axis with balls or
rollers. Generally, for the crankshaft of the
engine, the plain bearing is more used.

Because the half skirt type has the short

length, it is possible for the block to make
be light. However, the joint strength shall be
weaker than the deep skirt type, because
the joining area is small when the
transmission is attached to the engine. It is
easy to make some vibrations so that it is
necessary to be assisted by supporters.
Additionally, the space for attaching the
auxiliary devices shall be smaller.
To secure the crankshaft to the cylinder
block and to reinforce the strength of the
block, a supporting device might be formed
The reason that the roller bearing type is not
with the bearing of the crankshaft at the
applied to the crankshaft is that the load
lower part of the crankcase. According to
can be concentrated at the contacting
the type of this supporting device, there are
portions of the ball or roller in a point or
the ladder frame style and bearing beam
linear type. In the plain bearing the load is
style.
applied on the lubricated side, the larger
At the lower part of the cylinder block, an oil contacting area than the ball or roller
pan is attached also. This is for gathering bearing so that the plain bearing can
the oil completing the lubricating and support large force.
cooling role. It is made of a pressed steel
As the plain bearing is also called as a
sheet and attached by rubber packing like
sliding bearing, the shaft is sliding on the
the head cover. The oil pan is easy to make
bearing with the lubricant oil. Even if the
a noise so that it is made of the vibration
surface of the solid metal body is applied
resistance steel plate. The vibration steel
the smoothing surface treatment precisely
plate is manufactured by inserting a resin
and carefully, it should have roughness
plate between the two steel plates to prevent
somewhat. Therefore, when the two solid
from vibrating.
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Engine Principles

bodies are directly contacted, they should

be worn.
The lubricant oil inserting between the plain
bearing and the axis can make the rough
surface of these two solid bodies to be
smoothly. The two solid bodies are not
contacted directly even they are so closed.
The thickness of the oil film, that is the gap
with the bearing, is changed by the load or
heat expansion. When it is so small, it may
be adhered by friction heat, otherwise, when
it is so big, it may make vibrations and
noise.
The bearing is made by welding the bearing
alloy having light weight and good fatigue
resistance such as the copper or aluminum.
On the surface, a special metal basis on the
lead is coated. The bearing has the oil hole
and oil groove for supply the lubricant oil to
lubricate the contact portion between the
connecting rod and the crank pin and
between the crankshaft and the crankcase.
The crank journal, the rotational axis of the
crankshaft, is attached at the lower part of
the cylinder block by the bearing cap with
the plain bearing. For the serial engine, this
bearing should be attached at the front side
and rear side of the cylinder. If it is the 4- The flywheel is equipped to the transmission
cylinder, it has 5 bearings and if it is the 6- side of the crankshaft to maintain the
cylinder, it has 7 bearings, that is, it called smooth rotation using inertia force and to
as 5-bearing and the 7-bearing, reduce the irregularity of the rotational force.
respectively. Certain old style engine of 4- The crankshaft is rotated twice per one of
cylinder might have 3-bearing structure. This the combustion. At the other strokes, the
type is not used because the crankshaft is reversed directional force shall be needed
easy to be bent and make vibrations. for the compression, the intake and
exhaust. If there is no flywheel, then the
10. Flywheel rotational force of the crankshaft shall be
reduced at these strokes. Therefore, when
the intervals of the each combustion stroke
are long like in the idling state, the engine
may be stopped.
Around the flywheel, a ring gear is attached
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Engine Principles
to rotate the crankshaft by being teethed
with the pinion gear. The clutch disk can
attach to the flat side of the flywheel by the
spring to transmit the driving force to the
transmission.
The magnitude of the torque is calculated by
multiple the magnitude of the force to the
distance between the center of the axis to
the point at which the force is applied. The
magnitude of the force is proportional to the
inertia mass so that if the fly wheel is heavy
and the outer diameter is large, or if the
outer portion is heavy, then the force of the
flywheel might be large.
In general engine, the half of the total inertia
mass is distributed at the flywheel.
Therefore, when the rotation of the engine is
low or when the engine is in the idling state,
the inertia mass of the flywheel should be
large to rotate the engine regularly.
However, with the large inertia mass of the
27
flywheel, the rotation of the engine can not
be changed easily. It is hard to increase the
engine rotation by pressing the accelerator,
or to take the engine brake by releasing the
accelerator. That is, the engine response will
be worse. So, the fuel efficiency shall be
worst too.
Some engines use the 30% of the torque
generated from the engine to increase the
rotation of engine itself when the
accelerating is performed with the lower
speed shift. The size and the weight of the
flywheel are decided by the purpose of the
vehicles. For example, the engine for the
racing car uses small size one, and that of
the family car uses large size one. For the
general purpose, the flywheel is made of the
cast iron, and for the special purpose such
as the racing car, it is made by cutting the
steel material having high strength.
11. Balance shaft, Balancer for the
secondary inertial force
The piston, the Connecting rod and the
crank make inertia force according to the
reciprocal and rotational movement. For this
reason, if the one-cylinder engine has not
the counter weight for balancing between
the inertial force and the weight of the
piston, the connecting rod and the crank,
then the engine may be severely vibrated by
the unbalancing.
For the serial 4-cylinder engine, the four
pistons are connected to the crankshaft with
being paired the first, forth and the second ,
third, in facing each other. When the
crankshaft is rotating, the inertial forces are
offset so that the counter weight might be
not needed.
In actual movement structure of the piston-
crank system of the 4-cylinder engine, the
inertia force shall not be offset. This is come
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Engine Principles

form the structure in which the piston in

reciprocal movement is connected to the
crank in rotational movement with the
connecting rod. For example, in the half
rotation of the crankshaft when the piston
moves from the highest point (TDC, Top
Dead Center) to the lowest point (BDC,
Bottom Dead Center), the piston has the
maximum speed at the near of the highest
point of the stroke rather than at the middle
of the stroke. The rotation of the crank is
regular so that the inertia force of the crank
of each cylinder (the first inertia force) is
easily offset. However, the inertial force of
the piston is not. For example, the upper
inertia force generated when the first and
forth pistons are moving from the highest
point to the lowest point is larger than the
lower inertia force generated when the
second and third pistons are moving from
the lowest point to the highest point.

By representing these relationship on the

graph with the inertia force at the vertical
axis and the rotation angle of the crankshaft
at the horizontal axis, when the upper inertia
force of the first and fourth pistons is
maximum value, the lower inertia force of
the second and third pistons is minimum
value, and vice versa after the crankshaft
with 180°. From this relationship, we know
that the inertia force is generated with the
ratio of 2 times per one rotation of the
crankshaft. This inertia force is called as the
secondary inertia force. It is easy to be
generated when the engine is in the idling
state.
The four-cylinder engine is equipped in the
small passenger car generally. For the
convenience of the passengers, a balance
shaft having the half circle shape in the
cross sectional view shall be attached at the
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Engine Principles

both side of the engine to reduce the

vibration from the secondary inertia force.
This balance shaft is designed to rotate with
two times of speed in reverse direction
against the crankshaft. The additional inertia
force generated from the balance shaft will
offset the vibration from the secondary
inertia force.

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Engine Principles
Chapter 3.
Cylinder Head
1. Cylinder Head
The cylinder head is attached on the cylinder
block with being inserting a gasket to
prevent from leaking the combusted gas.
The bottom of the cylinder head is also the
roof of the combustion chamber. Therefore,
the shape of the cylinder head is very
complicated. The rectangular box shaped
portion located upper position has the valve
driving system inhalation the mixture of fuel
to the engine and exhausting the combusted
gas, and the ignition plug so that the shape
and operation of this part can decide the
engine performance such as the combustion
of the mixture of fuel.
The structure of the cylinder head is various
according to the type of engine. The most
cylinder head has the common structure as
this. At the upper part, there is the valve
driving system in which the intake port
inhaling the mixture of fuel into the
combustion chamber and exhaust port
taking out the combusted gas in the
longitudinal direction. Inside the cylinder
head, there is a water jacket circulating the
30
cooling water from the cylinder block.
The combustion chamber is very important
part to decide the engine performance. So
the shape and the size are the important
factors. If the combustion chamber is big,
the time interval for combusting the mixture
of fuel is long even the mixture can be
compressed enough. So the bigger power
cannot be ensured. Therefore, it is prefer for
the sized of the combustion chamber to be
compact.
Additionally, the shape of the combustion
chamber has less uneven surfaces as
possible to enhance the combustion of the
mixtures. If the shape of the combustion
chamber is complicated, then the heat from
the combustion shall be easily lost because
the surface of the chamber is too large
about the volume of it. So, the force
pressing the piston shall be lowered.
The intake port is also important part
because that the flow of the mixture is
defined by the size and the shape of it.
Considering just about the flow, the
smoother inner surface is better for reducing
the resistance against the flow and the
straight shape of port is the better. However,
the shape of the port is helpful for the
inhaling mixture into the cylinder to be form
the swirled flow in order to be combusted at
the combustion stroke as well as possible.
The water jacket will absorb the remained
heat after the combustion until finishing the
exhaust stroke as fast as possible to prevent
from increasing the temperature of the next
inhalation mixtures. Especially, the around
portions having the high possibility of
increasing the temperature such as the
exhaust valve and spark plug should be
cooled mainly to prevent from making a
trouble by the over heat.
At the cylinder head, there is bearing for
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Engine Principles
supporting the valve driving system including
the cam shaft. The bearing is lubricated and
cooled by the engine oil.
2. Cam and Camshaft
The cam drives the valves operation opening
and closing the intake port for inhaling the
mixture of fuel into the combustion chamber
and the exhaust port for taking out the
combusted gas. For the OHC or DOHC
engine, the cam is attached at the camshaft
installed at the middle part of the cylinder
head.
The camshaft has the cams with the same
number of the valves for intake and exhaust
which are arranged with angles according to
the timing of the opening and closing. For
the 4-cycle engine, the opening ratio of the
intake and exhaust valves is one about the
two revolutions of the crankshaft. Therefore,
the camshaft revolves with the ratio of one
turn about the two revolutions of the
crankshaft.
The extrusion portion of the cam is called as
the cam nose or the cam robe. The height
is called cam lift. The “lift” means that the
cams lift the valve so that the opening
status is determined by the cam profile.
The opening and closing timing of the valves
are determined by the operation angle, the
angle from the start point to the end point of
the nose.
31
When the valve is closed to the valve seat, it
is preferred that the impact shall be little as
possible, so that the cross sectional shape
of the cam is the egg shape.
The valve is always applied a force in the
closing direction by the valve spring. By
pressing the spring with the cam nose, the
valves will be opened. If the cam velocity
becomes fast to enlarge the inertia force of
the valve, the reciprocal movement of the
valve is not balanced with the rotational
movement of the cam. The engine speed
generated by this limited speed of the valve
opening and closing is the maximum speed
of the engine. So the cam profile is very
important.
The cam nose should be treated special
surface treatment to ensure the strength for
enduring from the frictions with the valve lift
and rocker arm installed at the valve. To do
so, the camshaft is made of cast iron and
the cam nose should be treated with a
cooling treatment such as the chilling
method to strength the textures of the
surface, when it is cast.
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Engine Principles

Small cam lift Big cam lift

There are two methods for supplying the
lubricant oil to the cam journal supporting
the cam nose and the camshaft, from
outside and from inside. In the outside
supplying method, the oil will be supplied
from the journal. In the inside supplying
method, the camshaft has a hole for
supplying the lubricant oil from the middle
portion of the journal. In addition, the
camshaft is made by hollow tube type and
the lubricant oil may be supplied through the
hollow tube.

3. Driving the Camshaft

For the OHC engine, the crankshaft is
located under the cylinder block and the
camshaft is located on the cylinder head, so
there should be a chain or belt for
transforming the rotational movement of the
crankshaft to the camshaft. As the driving
for the intake and exhaust valves should be
exactly timed with the rotation of the
crankshaft, for some case such as racing
car, a gear is used for transforming the
rotational movement exactly.
In the chain system for transforming, the
tooth wheel for the chain is called the
sprocket. The one attached at the
crankshaft is the crankshaft sprocket, and
the other attached at the camshaft is the
camshaft sprocket.
In the system in which the camshaft is
driven by the chain, the ratio the teeth
numbers between the crankshaft sprocket
and the camshaft sprocket is 1:2. In order
to maintain the tension of the chain, a chain
tensioner is attached, and the chain guide
prevents from shaking the chain during
rotating.
If this method is applied to the DOHC
engine, the sprocket shall have the large
diameter according to the number of teeth
ratio. Therefore, the gap of camshaft and
gap of valves of intake and exhaust will be
enlarged. Consequently, this method is not
applied to the compact type engines. To
solve this problem, an additional sprocket is
inserted there between to transmit the
rotational movement to the camshaft
sprocket.
The timing belt type uses belt having

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toothed surface and pulley instead of the

chain and the sprocket, respectively. In this
type, the sprocket and pulley attached at the
end of the camshaft have the timing mark
indicating the opening and closing timing of
the valve. So we use the term of “timing” to
the name of the parts. The pulley attached
at the crankshaft is the crankshaft timing
pulley and the one attached at the camshaft
is the camshaft timing pulley. As well as
the chain type, in this type, there are direct
reduction type and double reduction type. The poppet valves consist of the valve head
and the valve stem. The valve stem supports
Even though the OHC engine can accept the
the valve guide and the valve spring. The
long chain to drive the camshaft, the belt
valve is opened by the pressing operation of
driving method is mainly used. The reason is
the cam nose, and closed by the elastic
that the long chain can make mismatching
force of the valve spring.
the timing and big noises, and the chain
system needs the lubricating equipment. The combustion temperature is over 2000℃,
However, the belt is made of fiber and and the temperature of the burnt gas
rubber so it can be easily broken by the heat passing through the valve is over 1000℃.
or oil. It is prefer that it should be Therefore, the temperature of the exhaust
exchanged at every 90,000km running. valve is over 800℃ and that of the intake
valve is over 300℃. So the material of the
4. Intake and Exhaust Valve valve should be heat resistance steel.

The cylinder head includes the intake port

inhaling the mixture of fuel to the cylinder
and the exhaust port taking out the burnt
The valve size is represented by the
gas. The valves at the ports are the intake
diameter of the head portion. The intake
valve and the exhaust valve, respectively.
valve is larger than the exhaust valve.
According to the valve shape of mushroom,
Representing by the area of the head
we call poppet valve.
portion, when the intake valve is 100, the
exhaust valve is about 75∼85. This
difference in their sizes is for balancing of
the gas flow. The intake is performed by the
decreased pressure resulting from the

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downing of the piston, on the other hand, has been developed from the side valve
the exhaust is performed by the high type, OHV, OHC to the DOHC type.
pressure resulting from the combustion. To
balance the flow of the intake and exhaust,
the intake valve size may be larger than
exhaust valve.
The valve stem is designed, considering the
flow, such as that of the intake valve is
thinner as possible to reduce the flow
resistance and that of the exhaust valve is
thicker as possible to transmit the heat from
the extrude portion to the stem. The heat is
transferred through the path of the valve Side valve type
stem → the valve guide → the cylinder head
In the side valve type, the camshaft
→ the cooling water. Some high
installed near the camshaft presses the long
performance engine uses the hollow stem
valve system to open and close the valve.
securing sodium for enhancing the valve
The combustion chamber is large and it has
cooling.
long time interval for combusting the mixture
The portion of the port contacting with the of fuel so that it can not make high output
valve face is called as the valve seat. If the power. Nowadays this type is not used.
cylinder head is casting iron, then the valve
seat has double structure. If the cylinder
head is made of aluminum alloy, then the
seat is made of heat resistance steel.
The valve spring always press the valve to
attach to the cam so that the valve spring is
preferable to be soft to reduce the frictional
resistance generated when the cam nose
presses the valve. Additionally, in order to
enlarge the amount of intake and exhaust
gas, the valve may be enlarged and the lift
OHV (Over head valve) type
of the cam may be extended as well as the
valve spring may be softened to operate In the Over Head Valve (OHV) type, the
faster. Then, it may make the surging valve like in the side valve type is attached
problem and it is hard to be balanced. on the cylinder to open and close the valve
using a long rod, the push rod. The shape
5. Valve Driving System and structure is similar with that of engines
used now to enhance the performance.
As the valve controls the gases for inhaling
into and the taking out from the cylinder, its
driving method can give an important
affects on the engine performances. There
are various type of valve driving system. It

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OHV (Over Head Camshaft) type
After that, the OHC (Over Head Camshaft)
type is developed. As know from the name,
the camshaft is located over the head,
exactly to say, in the middle of the cylinder
head. In the OHC type, there are two types,
the one is the in-line type in which the
intake valve and the exhaust valve are
alternatively arrayed along the linear
direction, and the other is the V-shaped
arrange type in which the intake valve and
the exhaust valve are faced each other in
opposite side to form the V-shape. The later
has more enhanced efficiencies and higher
performance.
DOHC (Double Over Head Camshaft) type
Developing this V-shaped arrange type more
and more, the DOHC (Double Over Head
Camshaft) type, in which the intake valve
and the exhaust valve are independently
driven by the different camshaft, is mainly
used nowadays for the high performance
35
engine. As we see from the name, there are
two camshafts so we call it as the twin cam
system also. Additionally, in the V-type
engine, it has two cylinder head so the
camshaft shall be four.
Direct type Swing arm type Rocker arm type
The driving method for the intake and
exhaust valves is divided into the direct type,
in which the cam directly drives the valves,
and the rocker arm type, in which the cam
drives the valve using a lever. The rocker
arm means the lever connecting the
leverage point and the cam. Using the lever,
it can drive the valve faster than the cam lift.
The direct type has less components and
high strength. Using the oil pressure for the
hydraulic tappet, the valve can trace the
cam profile always.
6. Valve Timing
The valve timing is the time at the opening
and closing the intake and exhaust valve.
Each time indicating when the valve starts
opening and when the valve finishes closing
is represented by the rotational angle of the
crankshaft about the highest point or the
lowest point of the piston as the standard
time.
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Engine Principles

at the lowest point, so that the mixture of

fuel can be inhaled enough.

Intake valve timing

As simply saying about the opening and When the piston is passed the lowest point,
closing the valves, the exhaust valve will the intake valve is not closed thoroughly. To
open when the piston is at the lowest point. do so, the mixture will be more inhaled into
After taking out the gas, when the piston is the cylinder by the inertia of the flow of the
at the highest point, the exhaust valve will be mixture.
closed. At the same time, the intake valve
At the end of the combustion stroke, the
will be opened to take in the mixture of fuel.
exhaust valve will be open just before the
When the piston is at the lowest point, the
piston is reached at the lowest point(BDC).
intake valve will be closed.
However, this is just concept for the
operation of valves. The mixture of fuel and
the used gas have mass so the flow of the
mixture or gas is not completed at a
moment but need some time intervals.
Furthermore, the valves can not open and
close at an instant moment, too. For
example, the intake valve need some time
interval to open fully, and the mixture is not
inhaled at a moment into the cylinder but
inhaled during some time interval by the
Exhaust valve timing
inertia of flow.
It is for exhausting the combusted gas as
Therefore, the intake valve shall open prior
fast as possible by the remained expansion
that the piston is reached at the highest
force in the cylinder. In the same manner of
point. When the piston starts to go down,
the intake valve, even the piston is passed
then the valve is already little opened to take
the highest point(TDC), the valve is still
into the mixture of fuel into the cylinder. By
opened to exhaust the burnt gas fully using
that the intake open little early, the valve will
the inertial of exhausting flow.
be fully opened when the piston is reached

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Engine Principles
According to these operating process of the
valves, there is some period in which the
intake valve and the exhaust valve are
opened at the same time, because the
exhaust valve is closed after passing through
the highest point(TDC) and the intake valve
is opened before reaching to the highest
point(TDC). At this time, the vacuum inertia
force generated from the exhausted gas can
accelerate the inhalation of the fuel
mixtures. This period is called the valve
overlap.
7. Variable Valve Timing
37
Variable camshaft angle type
Being overlapped in the opening time of
intake and exhaust valve, the enhanced
intake efficiency of the mixtures is as high
as the enhanced exhaust efficiency of the
used gas, that is, the rotation of the engine.
On the other hand, when the engine is in the
rotating state with low speed such as the
idling state, the engine efficiency may be
lowered by the lowered gas flow.
Especially, for some high performance
engine having large overlap, in the low
speed, the intake valve will open with large
amount of burnt gas so that the burnt gas
will be adhered to the intake port. Therefore,
the combustion will be unstable or
incompletely combusted. In the 4-valve
engine, if the valve overlap is too large, then
the engine will be easily unstable at the
idling state. So, the overlap time for the 4-
valve engine shall be very short, or some
cases have the zero overlap time, that is,
the intake valve is opened according that the
exhaust valve is closed.
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Engine Principles
Selective camshaft-lobe type
As we mentioned, the valve timing is
different according to the rotation speed of
the engine. That is, the intake valve should
be opened with little lately at the lower
rotation, and with little early at the higher
rotation. So, an additional switch operated
by oil pressure is installed at the intake cam
sprocket in order that the camshaft can be
rotated somewhat when the engine is
rotating over certain RPM so that the cam
presses the intake valve early. This is the
variable valve timing system.
In the variable valve timing system, the cam
shape is not changed, so the valve shall be
also closed early when it is opened early.
Early closing the valve, the amount of the
inhaled mixture is reduced. Therefore, the
choice of the valve timing is decided by not
only the rotation speed of the engine but
also the load of the engine.
Consequently, the cam system will include
the two kinds of cams, the one for the low
speed of the engine and the other for the
high speed of the engine. For the low speed
cam, the valve will be opened lately and
closed early, and the lift will be small and
then the inhaled mixture of fuel will be
reduced so that the fuel efficiency can be
enhanced. For the high speed cam, the
valve will be opened early and closed lately
and the lift will be large to inhaled more
38
mixtures so that the engine output shall be
enlarged. This system also called variable
valve timing system but this system controls
the valve lift also. It is more advanced
system.
8. Malfunction of the Valve
The valve is opened by the cam but closed
by the spring. Actually, the valve attached
by the spring to the valve seat is opened
with the pressing by the cam nose. At that
time, the force rotating the camshaft is
rather small as possible. So the soft spring
is more proper. However, for some high
performance engine having large size of
valve or lift, the spring shall be harder and
the balance of the spring strength is
important factor.
Even not occurring in the normal driving
situation, the hardness of the spring with the
weight and the strength of the valve can
make an abnormal operation such as the
valve jump, the valve bounce or the valve
surge, when the engine is rotating over the
limitation rpm.
The valve jump is that the inertial force of
the valve is too large so that the cam can
not press the spring and then the valve is
jumped up from the cam nose when the
camshaft is rotating with high speed. The
valve can return back to the original position
but the other dynamic components including
cam, rocker arm, valve lifter, etc are
damaged by friction each other.
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Engine Principles
The valve bounce is that the valve face is
not contacted to the valve seat (contacted
portion with the valve) but bounced from the
valve seat when the valve is closed by the
spring. The dynamic components shall be
damaged by this bouncing. As increasing
the rotation of the engine, the bouncing is
occurred over than limited rpm. This limited
rpm is called as the crush speed or limit rpm
of the engine.
The valve surge is the abnormal vibration
of the spring. As the natural frequency of
the spring is corresponding with to the
elastic timing by the cam, the spring can
make a high movement by the self-excited
vibration. When the engine is rotated in
force. If it is continued then the spring shall
be broken.
These abnormal operations of valve can be
easily made when the valve is heavy and the
lift is large. When the most used engine was
the 2-valve OHC engine, they were main
problems in engine. After the 4-valve DOHC
engine is mainly used, these problems are
scarcely occurred. As the 2-valve system
39
became to the 4-valve system, the valve
area would be enlarged so the intake and
exhaust flow would be smoother. Therefore,
the lift has not to be enlarged. Furthermore,
the valve is to be lightened so that the
spring has not to be strengthened even if the
rpm is increased.
9. Overrun and Red Zone
In the tachometer of the engine, there is
certain rpm range colored in red called as
the red zone. Some meter has the yellow
zone just before the red zone.
The rpm at the beginning of the red zone is
the maximum allowable rpm decided by the
characteristics and endurance requirement
of the dynamic components including valve
and valve spring and the main system
components including piston and
connecting rod when the engine is operated
with the maximum speed having the
maximum output.
To operate the engine over the maximum
allowable rpm is called as the overrun or
over-revo means the revolution. The over-
revo may occur when the shift is down to the
lower speed gear at the driving with high
speed. When the engine is in the idling
state, if the rpm is increased in force, then
the engine will be overrun state.
When the engine is overrun, the valve shall
be abnormally operated such as the valve
surge, jump or bounce. In this case, the
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Engine Principles

valve and spring may be damaged or in

some cases, the piston may be damaged
by bumping with the head of the piston and
the valve. In order to prevent bumping
between the piston and valve, a recessed
portion is made at the piston. However, if
the piston is jumped up over the recessed
portion, then the piston will be bumped to
the valve.
If the average speed of piston movement is
abnormally fasted by the overrun, the gap
between the piston ring and the cylinder will
be damaged and the oil film of the bearing
at the piston pin and the crankshaft will be
broken so that the temperature will be
increased or some parts will be adhered by
this heat. When the engine is operating with
high speed, the combustion speed is also
fast and the around temperature of the
combustion chamber will be increased. So,
these problems might be easily occurred, so
it needs to be careful.
Additionally, by the overrun, the engine has
the increased inertia force being results of
the abnormal vibration. The parts shall be
broken or cracked.
The maximum allowable rpm is set with
300~1300 rpm higher than the maximum
output rpm. In some engine, in the red zone
the fuel injection will be cut to prevent the
rpm from increasing over the maximum rpm
and to prevent from making problems by the
overrun.

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Chapter 4. enhancing the volume efficiency is like the

followings.
Intake System ⑴ The ambient air shall be inhaled into the
manifold with not high temperature as
1. Enhance the Volume Efficiency possible. For the engine having the
turbocharger, it should be equipped with
the intercooler to prevent from
increasing the temperature of the
inhaled air.

The pressure of the fuel mixture at the end

of the intake stroke is lower than the
ambient pressure because of the resistance
against the flow of the air cleaner and duct.
And the temperature of the fuel mixture is ⑵ Reduce the flow resistance of the inhaled
high because that it contacts with the hot gas by increasing the number of valves,
valve and cylinder wall when it is inhaled. As and enlarging the size and the bending
the density of the air becomes low when the radius of the duct and manifold.
pressure becomes lower or the temperature
becomes higher.
The volumetric efficiency is used for
indicating the intake ability of the mixture.
As indicating the amount of the inhaled air in
rate about the engine displacement, the
volumetric efficiency is calculated from
dividing the weight of the inhaled air by the
weight of the air amount with the
displacement at the same temperature and
the same pressure. In another method for
indicating the efficiency of the intake stroke,
⑶ Enlarge the diameter of the valve and the
the charging efficiency can be used also.
height of the cam lift, and balance the
This is the volume efficiency when the
valve timing properly.
temperature and the pressure is in the
standard condition (25℃, 99kPa).
In order to enlarge the maximum output of
the engine, this volume efficiency should be
as high as possible. The method for
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Engine Principles
⑷ Choose a long intake manifold at the
lower speed , and choose a short one
at the higher speed to use the inertia
and pulsation effect of the air.
⑸ Enlarge the intake gas pressure by
installing the turbocharger.
Until now, we mentioned about the
enhancing method for volume efficiency
related to the intake stroke. It is important to
exhaust perfectly the burnt gas at the
42
exhaust stroke as possible in order to
enhance the volume efficiency. It is possible
to apply the (2) ~ (4) of above mentioned
methods applied to the intake system
except (1) and (5) to the exhaust system.
For example, the “flow resistance of the
inhaled gas” of (2) is took place with the
“flow resistance of the exhausted gas”, and
the “inertia energy of air” of (3) is took place
with the “exhausting inertia”. Furthermore,
the exhaust interference shall be minimized
as possible. Additionally, a turbocharger
shall increase the intake resistance.
By tuning up the engine, it can be effective
for increasing output even it is very difficult
to tune up the engine.
2. Intake Inertia Effect and Pulsation
Effect
In order to inhaling air having high density to
the engine, to use the inertia of the air flow
is called the inertia effect, and to use the
characteristics of the longitudinal wave such
as sound wave according to the density of
the air is called the pulsation effect. In the
inertia effect, as the high density air is
inhaled into the engine using a inertia energy
of air. It is called as the inertia
supercharging.
The air into the engine has the flow inertia
as a gas and is a media for transmitting the
pressure wave. The air flow in the intake
manifold is periodically intercepted by the
valve, so the manifold pressure has
variations from the difference of pressures
between high density portion and low density
portion.
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Engine Principles
Valve open (Inhaled air)
Valve close (High density air at valve)
Valve open (Inhaled high density air)
Therefore, the intake inertia effect and the
pulsation effect could be made. When this
pressure variation affects to the intake
stroke at the cycle generating the wave
directly, it is called as the inertia effect.
When the pressure variation is not reduced
and then affects to the next cycle, it is
called as the pulsation effect. However, it is
not distinguished between them exactly. We,
here, will call as the inertia effect when the
air flow inertia is mainly governed and as the
pulsation effect when the pressure wave is
mainly governed.
As the first example, assume that the intake
valve is closed during the fuel mixture is
inhaled into the cylinder. As the fuel mixture
has the flow inertia, the mixture flow in the
intake manifold can not stop instantly just at
the closing the valve, but pretends to flow
continuously. Therefore, the air just before
the valve will be pressed by inertia energy of
intake air. Consequently, the air density at
the port portion will be increased. At that
time, if the valve is opened in time, then the
air of high density can be inhaled into the
cylinder. This is the inertia effect.
43
Valve close (High density air at valve)
Density of following air is low & pressure
wave are reflected by surge tank
High density air by reflection of pressure
wave is inhaled
When the air density near the port is
increased, the density of the following air is
low respectively. So, the boundary portion
makes the pressure variations, that is,
noise. This air density variation passes
through the manifold with the speed of
sound. It reflects to the end of the manifold,
and then it returns to the port. When the
high density air is back to the port, if the
port is opened, then the high density air can
be injected into the cylinder. This is the
pulsation effect.
As these effects are combined, it is hard to
separate from each other. However, in order
to maximize the effect, it is prefer to make
the pressure wave in the manifold to make
high air density near the port when the valve
is opened. To do so, the diameter and
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Engine Principles

length the intake manifold and the shape of

the intake port shall be controlled.

3. Variable Intake System

At low speed

At high speed
The air flow in the intake manifold is not
uniformed but variable according to the
engine speed. When the high density air flow
reaches at the port, if, ideally, the intake
speed is maximum just before the closing
the valve, then the intake inertia effect will
be maximized.
The air pulsation frequency is decided by the
diameter and the length of the manifold.
When the diameter is same, the frequency
of the long length manifold is small. It is the
same that the sound has the lower
frequency when the distance between the
hole and the mouth piece of the recorder is
larger.
Generally, the length of the manifold is
already decided, so if the engine is running
with certain velocity, the intake inertia is
effective. However, if it is rotating with
variable speed, then the lower density air
can reach at the port when the valve is
opened so, the charging of air may be
worst.
Consequently, the method for varying the
length of manifold is developed according to
the rpm of the engine. When the engine has
high rpm in which the valve is frequently
opened and closed within the same time
interval, the short length manifold is chosen
to make the cycle be short. Contrarily, when
the rpm is low, the long manifold is chosen
to make the cycle be long. So, it is possible

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Engine Principles
to get the intake inertia effect in wide range
of rpm. As being the variable intake system,
it is called as the variable inertia charging
system or the variable intake control
system.
There are many types to control the length
of the intake manifold. Mainly, the two types
are used. The one type is that the separated
two manifold groups are connected
together. When the engine is high speed,
the path is divided each other, and when the
engine is low speed, the two manifold
groups are linked each other to elongate the
length of the total manifold.
The other is to attach a bypass at the
manifold system in which the air pass
through the bypass when the engine is low
speed, and the path to the bypass is closed
to reduce the length of manifold at the high
speed.
In case of linking some manifolds, the
resonance may be occurred between the
45
manifolds. This comes from the pressure
vibration having the same frequency in the
separated manifold. In this case, the inertia
charging effect can not be expected even at
the high speed. This phenomenon can be
inhibited by enlarging the volume of the
intake collector connecting to the manifold.
When the resonance is occurred, at the
middle and low speed, the inertia
supercharging effect becomes high so the
charging efficiency will be increased. This is
called as the resonance supercharging
effect.
4. Intake System
The intake system takes the air to mix with
the gasoline and inhales the mixtures into
the cylinder. Generally, the intake system
comprises the air cleaner filtering the dust
in the inhaled air, the carburetor mixing the
air and the gasoline, and the intake
manifold (or inlet manifold) inhaling the
mixture into the cylinder, at the head portion
of the cylinder. Nowadays, the electrical
controlled unit for fuel injecting to the intake
manifold directly is widely used, so the
design of the intake system is changed very
much.
Carburetor intake system
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MPI intake system The resonance chamber is a small box

branched from the duct as the device for
At first, the air inlet port which was near the
reducing the intake noise, and it is called as
cylinder head is moved to the front grill to
the regenerator chamber or the side branch.
intake the ambient air having lower
According to the opening and closing the
temperature than the air around the engine
intake valve, the vibration of the air inside
room.
the air cleaner box or the duct can make a
As being low temperature air, the air has large intake noise or hinder the intake
high density, therefore, the much amount of operation. Using the resonance effect by
oxygen will be contained into the inlet air. installing a resonance device, this vibration
With the same volume of the inlet air, the will be terminated.
lower temperature of the air is the more
prefer. For example, in summer of 30℃ 5. Throttle Valve and Manifold
temperature, when the air conditioner is
working at the low speed such as at the rush
hour in the city, the temperature of the
engine room could be over 80℃. In this
case, by calculation, the amount of the
oxygen in the air around engine room is 15%
less than that of the ambient air.
The inlet air to the front grill is inhaled into
the intake manifold through the long duct via
the air cleaner, resonance chamber and
throttle body.
In the carburetor system, the dish type air
Butterfly type, slide type throttle valve
cleaner was looking on the carburetor, but
nowadays, the box type air cleaner is To rise up the engine rpm, we press the
installed at one corner of engine room. The accelerator pedal, and to lower down the
air cleaner not only cleans the air going into rpm, we release the accelerator pedal. As
the cylinder but also reduces the noise from the accelerator pedal is linked to the throttle
the intake operating. The air cleaner element valve by the wire and linkage, when the
should be maintained periodically. pedal is pressed the throttle valve will be
opened to intake the air into the cylinder.
That is, the carburetor or the electronic
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control system for fuel injection engine, the intake manifold should be
automatically checks the amount of the air heated up.
to supply the amount of gasoline proper to
The method for heating the intake system
the driving situation.
using the exhaust temperature is only used
In the carburetor system, the throttle valve is for the counter flow type engine in which
equipped with the carburetor. In the both the intake and the exhaust manifolds
electronic control system, it is installed at are installed at the same side of the engine.
the middle of the throttle body (throttle The method for heating the intake system
chamber) separately installed in the intake using the cooling water is accepted in the
system and being with the air flow sensor cross flow type engine in which the
detecting the air flow amount and the manifolds are installed at the opposite side
throttle position sensor checking the status of engine each other.
of the throttle valve opening.
In the throttle valve type, there are a butterfly
valve in which disk plate having the shape of
the butterfly wing is attached at the axis
inside the pipe to control the air amount by
rotating the axis, and a slide type in which
an aluminum plate controls the amount the
air without any hindrance at opening the
throttle valve, especially for racing engine.
The air passing through the throttle body
and the mixture mixed with gasoline at the
carburetor are distributed into the cylinder by
the intake manifold. The fuel injection is
performed before distributing the air at the
manifold, or at each cylinder as the mixture.
The important thing is that the intake
manifold should inhale the mixture into the
cylinder as smoothly as possible, so that the
manifold should have less bent portions and
smooth inside faces.
The mixed gasoline in the carburetor is
inhaled into the cylinder as the foggy state in
the air. When the temperature is low such as
just before starting the engine, this foggy
particle of the fuel can attach to the
manifold wall during being inhaled.
Therefore, the mixture is leaned so the
combustion is not enough. To solve this
problem, using the heat from the exhaust
manifold or from the cooling water for the

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Chapter 5.
Exhaust System

1. Exhaust System

The catalyst converter is used for

purification of the exhausted gases. There
are a manifold catalyst installed near the
manifold and a under catalyst installed
under the floor. The manifold catalyst is
more effective because the exhaust
By opening exhaust port of the cylinder
temperature is higher than the other system.
head, the combusted gas is exhausted
However, it can be easily aged by the high
through the exhaust manifold, the exhaust
temperature so usually two pieces are used.
pipe gathering the combusted gas from
The under catalyst is not easily degraded,
each cylinder, the catalyst converter
however it has high performance of
purifying the used gas and the silencer
purification.
(muffler) reducing combustion noise.
The most important thing in the exhaust
system is the smooth path also. The
exhausted gases from each cylinder are
bumped at the exhaust pipe gathering the
each exhaust manifolds. So, it is important
to prevent from hindering each flow or to
increase the exhaust efficiency using the
exhaust inertia effect having the same
principle in the intake inertia effect.
However, it is hard to balance between the
increasing the exhaust efficiency and the
enhancing the engine performance, because The muffler is equipped for reducing the
there are many weak points from the engine temperature and pressure of the exhausted
to the muffler. gas as well as the combustion and
exhausting sound. Generally, the muffler has
The exhaust manifold is made of the casting
many sector walls to make the inside space
iron having high heat resistance, or the
into maze path for flowing the exhaust gas,
aluminum alloy. Also the exhaust gas
so it called as the maze type. There is also
temperature is high. So, it is need to make
a straight muffler type in which a tube
the exhaust system with the material having
having many holes on the surface and
better heat resistance or to cool the exhaust
silencer such as glass wool inside the tube.
system with the wind.
The maze type muffler has more effective
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sound absorption ability but has larger flow
resistance. The straight muffler has more
enhanced output but has louder sound.
In some cases, these two muffler types are
simultaneously equipped using separated
two pipes so that the maze type muffler is
only used when the engine is working in low
speed, and the straight type muffler will be
additionally used when the engine is working
in high speed and load.
2. Exhaust Inertia Effect and Pulsation
Effect
The most important thing determining the
performance of the exhaust manifold is the
smoothness in the exhausting. The exhaust
interference is the main problem hindering
the smoothing exhaust. From the each
cylinder, the combusted gas is exhausted
according to the order of ignition. As they
are merged into the manifold, if the exhaust
system is not well arranged and combined,
then one exhausted gas passing through the
manifold can be collided with another
exhausted gas from another cylinder or the
pressure in the manifold will be increased,
so that the exhaust gas can not be
exhausted well.
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The exhaust interference can be overcome
by elongating the distance between the
exhaust valves to the collection portion of
each cylinder gas or be making the angle of
collecting portion into an obtuse angle to
ensure the well flow. As increasing the
number of cylinder, it is hard to ensure the
well exhaust flow by combining the
increased manifolds.
In the serial 6-cylinder turbo engine, with not
being fully closed the first exhaust valve, the
fifth exhaust valve is opened, and with not
being fully closed the fifth exhaust valve, the
third valve is opened. So, if the all 6 exhaust
manifolds are gathered into one collecting
pipe, then the sequentially exhausted gases
can be collided each other. Therefore, the
manifolds are divided into two groups; the
one includes the first, the second and the
third manifolds and the other includes the
fourth, the fifth and the sixth manifolds.
Each group has own turbo charger to
eliminate the exhaust interference and to
enhance the engine output.
The inertia effect and pulsation effect are
utilized to exhaust the remained combustion
gases in the combustion chamber. As being
the same with the intake system, when the
exhaust valve is closed, the gas density
around the valve shall be reduced to
accelerate the exhausting gases from the
chamber effectively.
When the exhaust valve is open, the
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combusted gas having the high pressure is
exhausted through the exhaust valve and the
remained gases will be exhausted by the
following compressing pressure of the piston
at the exhaust stroke and then the exhaust
valve is closed. Therefore, the exhausted
gas flow has high density portion and low
density portion in the manifold.
As we mentioned in above chapter, when a
gas flow has a difference in density, then
pressure wave is generated. Therefore, this
difference is transmitted during the manifold
with sound velocity. This is called the
exhaust pulsation.
Just before the exhaust valve is closed, if it
is possible that the density around the valve
is lower than other portions, then it is
accelerated that the remained gas in the
chamber shall be took out as well as the fuel
mixture shall be inhaled from the intake
valve.
3. Component of the Exhaust Gas
The exhaust gas from engine and fuel
system to atmosphere comprises of the
burnt gas from the exhaust pipe, the blow by
gas from the crank room, and the vapor gas
from the fuel tank by the hot weather and
hot temperature of the working engine. As
these gases include harmful materials
contaminating the atmosphere, a hydrocarbon gas and the nitrogen oxide are
purification system should be equipped.
Especially, the exhaust gas is the most
important gas.
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If the fuel is combusted perfectly, then any
harmful material is not included in the
exhaust gases. The fuel, gasoline, consists
of hydrocarbon, the compound of the
carbon and the hydrogen. In the chamber,
the fuel is changed into the carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O) with making heat
energy.
In actual chemical reaction, the hydrocarbon
and the oxygen are not changed at a
moment into the carbon gas and water
vapor. This chemical reaction is very
complicated. For example, the hydrocarbon
would be divided into a small unstable
material by the heat and reacts with the
oxygen, or the results particles are reacting
each other, and so on.
Among the gases generated during this
complicated reaction, the carbon monoxide,
the major harmful materials. The carbon
monoxide (CO) is the unstable material
having one carbon and one oxygen so that it
can be easily changed into the carbon
dioxide, the stable and harmless material, if
additional oxygen and heat are supplied. If
we breath the carbon monoxide, then it will
catch the oxygen delivered by the
hemoglobin in the blood to be carbon
dioxide, more stable material. So, our body
is lag of oxygen.
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Engine Principles
The hydrocarbon gas (Hm Cn : here m, n
are integer number) is come from the fuel
not combusted or the intermediated material
during the chemical process of combustion.
It is come from the blow by gas or the
vaporized fuel from the fuel tank.
If this gas is revealed at the atmosphere,
then it will react with the oxygen and
hydrogen and change into the aldehyde, the
harmful material having strong stimulus.
The nitrogen oxide (NOx) is come from the
reaction between the nitrogen (78% of the
air) and the oxygen in the air by the high
temperature of 2000℃ in the chamber. As
the nitrogen oxide is made by the difference
mechanism with the carbon monoxide or
hydrocarbon gas, it will be increased when
the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon are
reduced by almost perfect combustion.
When the combustion temperature is low,
the nitrogen oxide will be less; however, the
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combustion efficiency will be worse. So, the
nitrogen oxide shall be treated at the
exhaust system.
4. Air-Fuel Ratio and Exhaust
Composition
As the harmful material in the exhaust gas is
the product from the combustion, one of
chemical reactions, the amount of it is
decided by the air-fuel ratio, e.g. the ratio
between the amount of air and the gasoline,
the combusting temperature and the gas
flow status. When the air-fuel ratio is lower
than theoretical value (Stoichiometric), that
is rich fuel, the combustion is not
completely performed, so that more
hydrocarbon gas and carbon are made.
Contrarily, if the air-fuel ratio is higher than
the theoretical value (Stoichiometric), that is
lean fuel, then the gasoline shall be
combusted completely. So, the amount of
the carbon monoxide and the hydrocarbon
gas will be less, however, the amount of the
nitrogen oxide will be increase because the
combustion temperature is high. Especially,
when the temperature is over 2000℃, the
nitrogen oxide will be abruptly increase.
Even the nitrogen and the oxygen are not
react in the room temperature, in the high
temperature, they are changed into the
nitrogen monoxide and then changed into
nitrogen dioxide After exited from the
exhaust system.
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The amount of the nitrogen oxide will be by the sensing and calculating with the
maximized at about 16 air-fuel ratio higher temperature of mixture and cooling water,
than the theoretical ratio (14.7). With lower the vehicle speed, and the load.
ratios than 16, the nitrogen oxide amount
will be reduced because the combustion 5. Exhaust Purification System
temperature is lowered. When the air-fuel
Devices for reducing the harmful material
ratio is over 18 with less fuel, the fuel can
from the exhaust gas are the exhaust
not combusted properly so that the
oxidation device combusting the carbon
hydrocarbon will be increased.
monoxide and carbon and the 3way
To reduce the harmful material, it is catalysts device treating the exhaust gas
important how to decide the air-fuel ratio. In using oxidation and de-oxidation reaction by
some cases, the air-fuel ratio can be the three catalysts for carbon monoxide,
controlled by inhaling the combusted gas hydrocarbon, and nitrogen oxide.
into the mixtures; it is called the exhaust gas
As the carbon monoxide and the
recirculation device (EGR).
hydrocarbon gas are come from the
incomplete combustion of the hydrocarbon
and oxygen, the oxidation device supply
additional air to the exhaust port to make
oxidation the incomplete combusted gas
included in the exhaust gas. So it is called
as the secondary air device. In some
system, in the middle of the exhaust pipe, a
oxidation catalyst coveter, the vessel
including the oxidation catalyst may be
equipped for converting the carbon
The exhaust gas recirculation device is monoxide and the hydrocarbon into the
called as EGR as an abbreviation. It is the carbon dioxide and water, respectively.
device for returning some amount of the
exhaust gas back to the cylinder. Doing so,
the actual amount of fuel is reduced and the
combustion speed is slow, and then the
maximum temperature of the combusting
chamber will be lowered and the amount of
the nitrogen oxide will be also reduced. But,
if the amount of the re-circulated exhaust
gas is too much, then the engine output and
fuel efficiency will be worse, so it is
important to control the amount of EGR.
In the carburetor system, the amount of the
re-circulated exhaust gas is controlled by
the reverse pressure of the intake manifold.
In the ECM system, the amount will be
determined in optimizing the vehicle status
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3way catalyst is not work properly when the

oxygen is remained, it is necessary to
maintain the air-fuel ratio with the
theoretical value. To do so, an oxygen
sensor is used for detecting the oxygen. If
oxygen is detected in the exhaust gas, then
the computer will calculate the amount of
intake air and EGR gas to maintain the fuel
ratio to the theoretical value.

6. Blow-by Gas Recirculation Device

The blow-by gas is the leaked gas to the
crankcase through the end gap of piston
ring at the combustion stroke. It includes
vaporized engine oil, too. The old type
The electronic control engine uses the 3way engine or some racing engine exhausts this
catalysts device, generally. gas into the atmosphere. When you stand
In the nitrogen oxidation, there are nitrogen near the racing car, you can smell like some
monoxide consisting of one nitrogen and oil burning result from the blow-by gas.
one oxygen, and nitrogen dioxide consisting
of one more oxygen. If the oxygen is
removed from the nitrogen oxidation, e.g.
de-oxidation reaction, then it becomes
nitrogen gas. If the acquired oxygen from
de-oxidation reaction of the nitrogen
oxidation is supplied to the carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbon to oxide them,
then the three harmful gases can be
simultaneously purified.
From this idea, the chamical action is
performed the de-oxidation reaction on the
nitrogen oxide and the oxidation reaction on
the carbon monoxide and the hydrocarbon The components of this gas are the
by controlling air-fuel ratio to eliminate the flammable gas of 75∼80% and the
oxygen in the combusted gas completely. combusted gas of 20∼25%. As they are the
The catalyst is the material accelerating main causes of air pollution, the perfect
certain chemical reaction. The catalyst used combustion system by recirculation of this
in this purification is called the 3way gas should be equipped by law. This device
catalysts. There are the pellet type covering is called as the blow-by gas recirculation
a film of platinum and rhodium on the device or the positive crankcase ventilation,
particle alumina and the honey comb type. PCV in abbreviation.
As the theoretical air-fuel ratio, the ratio of In the 1ℓ of blow-by gas, 0.04∼0.05g of
complete combustion is 14.7. Because the the strong acid moistures are included, so

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that the inside of the engine can be easily

corroded and the engine oil can be easily
oxidized. Therefore, it is important to treat
the blow-by gas for maintenance the
engine.
The blow-by gas amount will be increased
as the pressure difference between the
cylinder and the crankcase is large. The
pressure inside the crankcase is not
changed so much even the engine is running
with high speed. So, when the engine speed
and load is increased, the blow-by gas will
be increased. The blow-by gas treating
should be performed in two steps according
to the engine load.

The blow-by gas recirculation device

comprise of hoses, one is connected
between the rocker cover and the surge
tank, the other is connected between the
rocker cover and the intake duct before
throttle body for fresh air. Also there is an air
passage between the crankcase and the
rocker cover.
When the engine is working, the pressure in
the intake manifold is always negative
pressure so that the blow-by gas will be flow

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from the crankcase to the manifold.

The blow-by gas in the intake manifold is
inhaled into the cylinder. The blow-by gas
will be treated by these methods.

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Chapter 6.
Charger

1. Kinds of charger

Turbocharger

The basic of increasing the engine power

and torque is 『How more oxygen can be
inhaled into the engine』. For example, if the
density and amount of inlet air is high, then
the power and torque shall be high.

Additionally, by developing the intake
system and combustion chamber, it is
possible to intake more air. One of possible
methods is 『to compress the air and to
inhale』, that is, to use auxiliary device, the
charger.
Supercharger
The Turbocharger is, as the “Turbine driving
charger”, a system compressing air by the
compressor rotating a turbine using the
exhaust gas flow. It is possible to get high
power output using a small device.
However, when the engine is rotating with
low speed, the turbine can not rotate with
high speed, so the compressing power is
not enough and the acceleration will be
delayed.

There are some types in the chargers.

Typically, there are a Turbocharger type in
which the charger is driven by the exhaust
turbine, and a Supercharger type in which
the supercharger is driven in mechanically
using driving force of some part (such as
crankshaft rotation).

Therefore, even the accelerator is pressed

the engine rotation may not be response

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immediately, that is Turbo Lag. The lag

means the time delay.
As driven by the interlocking mechanism
with the crankshaft, the Supercharger, the
mechanical supercharger, has the well
response. However, in the low engine
speed, the engine efficiency will be worse by
increasing leak air through the gap between
the rotor and the housing. In the high engine
speed, the driven force loss may be
increased. To recover these defects, the
structure of supercharger system may be The heated air by the compressing is cooled
changed or a the Turbocharger and the by the intercooler and supplied into the
Supercharger may be combined to new engine via the throttle valve. The exhaust
system. gas passes to the turbo charger to rotate the
turbine wheel. In order to prevent the over
The engine without such supercharger is
boosting at high speed, when the boost
called as the naturally aspirate engine or NA
pressure is over the predetermined pressure,
engine.
a waste gate valve (exhaust bypass valve) of
the WGT (waste gate turbocharger) will be
2. Turbocharger
opened.

As the turbocharger is a combined word of

turbo (turbine) and charger, it comprises of
a turbine and a compressor directly linked,
so that the turbine wheel is rotated by the
exhaust gas energy and the inlet air will be
compressed by the rotation of the turbine
wheel.
The body of turbocharger comprises of
turbine wheel, compressor wheel and axis,
and attached near the exhaust manifolds.
The turbine wheel is rotated 100,000 rpm ~
160,000 rpm with hot exhaust gas about
900℃ at high speed, the turbine wheel is
made of light material having high heat
resistance such as ceramics.
The smaller and lighter turbocharger is better
for the engine response such as
acceleration and deceleration but worse
power at high speed. On the contrary, the
bigger turbo charger has a high power at

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high speed but slow response. Therefore, it

is important to select the size of turbo wheel
according to the displacement volume of the
engine. Generally, the compressor wheel is
made of aluminum to make lighter
turbocharger.
For the supporting of the high speed rotor
shaft, lots of the engine oil is supplied to the
shaft for the lubrication and the cooling. If
the engine is stopped from the high speed
abruptly, the turbocharger is rotated without
the oil by inertia force of turbocharger until
self stopping. So, the rotor shaft may be
adhered. For this reason, the turbo engine
should be stopped after idling.

3. Boost Pressure and Compression

Ratio
The air pressure which is pressurized by the
turbocharger is the Boost pressure. If the
boost pressure is increased, the intake air
amount into the cylinder is also increased
and the power output will be increased.
However, the boost pressure can not be
increased without limitation. As increasing
the boost pressure, the actual compression
ratio is also increased, so knocking shall be
occurred at high compression pressure. The
actual compression ratio represents how the
inlet air into the cylinder compressed
actually is. So, the boost pressure is
regulated by waste gate valve.
The knocking is the self ignition phenomena
while the flame is spreading after the ignition
of the spark plug, the un-burn mixture can
be easily self-ignited at high temperature
condition by high compression. So, the
knocking is occurred as much as the actual
compression ratio high.
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By this reason, the compression ratio of the
turbo engine in specification is smaller than
that of the NA engine. For example, if the
engine having the represented compression
ratio of 10 is supercharged with 1 atm, then
the air amount will be 2 times and the actual
compression ratio will be 20 and then
knocking will suddenly be occurred.
Generally, compression ratio of the
commercial turbo engine is set lower than
that of the NA engine balancing with the
power, torque and fuel efficiency.
The knocking can be prevented by
controlling the ignition timing in the NA
engine but the knocking control by the
ignition timing in trubo engine is not easy
because the knocking is affected by the
boost pressure.
The maximum power and fuel efficiency is
made just before the knocking is occurred
because the combustion speed is most fast
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at this situation. By sensing the knocking
noise, the ignition timing can be fully
advanced by ECM (electronic control
module) until the knocking is occurred. The
sensor for detecting the shock noise is the
knock sensor.
The knock sensor converts the vibration
about 7 kHz into an electrical signal. By
attaching at the cylinder block, this signal is
treated by computer with the engine rpm,
crank angle, and the intake air amount to
control the ignition timing for preventing the
knocking
4. Turbo Lag
The turbo charger is an air compressor for
『how much air is supplied』. By using the
negative pressure acquired when the piston
goes down and the flow inertia for intake air,
the NA engine can make the charging
efficiency of 65∼95%. In the turbo charger,
charging amount is 1.2∼1.5 times higher
than NA engine if the displacement volumes
are same. Therefore, it is possible to make
smaller engine than NA engine if the power
and the torque are same.
However, it has a defect, so called the turbo
lag. The turbo lag is the time delay from
starting the acceleration to the actual rpm
increasing of the engine. Especially, it is
occurred when the car is started,
accelerated suddenly, or speed up from the
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low speed.
The process is like that; at first, the throttle
valve is opened, then the air amount is
increased, then the combusted gas is
increased and the exhaust gas temperature
is increased. After that, the rpm of the
turbine is increased by the increasing
exhaust gas, so that the supplied air amount
by the compressor is increased. By this
process, the intake air amount is increased
more. According to this process, the engine
acceleration is delayed from the starting of
acceleration to the actual rpm increasing of
the engine.
To minimize the turbo lag, there are many
researches and developments. For example,
as the simplest method, there is a method
for increasing the exhaust speed pushed into
the turbine wheel. By reducing the diameter
of nozzle of exhaust pipe, as the exhaust
speed can be increased with the same
displacement volume, the turbo lag can be
minimized. However, in this case, the
maximum power is limited.
To attach small two turbo instead of large
one, it is possible to reduce the turbo lag.
For example, in the 6-cylinder engine, one
turbo is attached at each 3-cylinder. Doing
so, it is possible to prevent the exhaust
interference as well as to increase the
power. This method is called as the twin
turbo type. On the other hand, the two way
twin turbo type also accepts the two turbo,
but just one turbo will be driven at the low
speed to maintain better response and two
turbo will be driven at the high speed for
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Engine Principles
enhancing torque.
Hybrid turbo
For another example, there is a hybrid
turbo type in which the supercharger is
used for the low speed, and the
turbocharger is used for high speed.
In the electronic control engine, VGT
(Variable Geometry Turbocharger) is used to
reduce the turbolag and to increase the
torque of the engine.
The VGT uses a set of adjustable vanes, or
nozzles, to direct flow into the turbocharger
turbine. When the vanes are closed, flow is
directed tangentially into the turbine wheel.
This imparts maximum energy into the
turbine, causing the turbocharger to spin
faster. Conversely, when the vanes are
opened, they direct flow into the turbine in a
more radial direction.
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VGT (Variable Geometry Turbocharger)
This reduces the angular momentum of the
flow going into the wheel, producing less
turbine work and ultimately slowing down the
turbocharger.
5. Supercharging System and Heat
The turbine shaft of turbocharger is supplied
lots of engine oil to cool and to lubricate.
Therefore, engine oil in the turbo engine is
deteriorated easier than NA engine.
As combusting more mixture, the charging
system can not avoid increasing
temperature of combustion chamber.
As the turbocharger performs the boosting
using the exhaust gas energy, the boosting
efficiency will be better at the higher
temperature of exhaust. For example, by
adopting the heat resistance material to the
parts such as the exhaust valve with natrium
and the stainless exhaust manifold, and
making the supercharger of high heat
resistance material, the performance shall
be enhanced.
The inlet air should have as lower
temperature as possible. Because the air
density is lowered as the temperature is
higher, the actual compression ratio will be
decreased as the temperature is increased
with the same volume and the oxygen
amount will also be decreased. If the inlet
air is hot, the compress mixture at the
compressing stroke has higher temperature
easy to make a knocking.
When the air is compressed the temperature
is increased. This is the same in the
charging process. So, the boosting effect is
reduced as the amount of increased
temperature. Therefore, the heated air
should be cooled using a radiator before it
reaches at the throttle valve. This cooling
device is the intercooler.
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There are two types in the intercooler, air

cooling and water cooling system.

The supercharger drives the blower and

Air cooling type compressor to boost using the engine
power. It can make higher torque and not
make any response delay such as the turbo
lag. However, the driving force for
supercharger is from the rotation of the
crankshaft, so the engine power shall be
consumed. The maximum power output is
lower than turbocharger.
There are some kinds in the supercharger,
typically, the Roots Blower and the Lysholm
Compressor.
The Roots Blower has been used in vehicle
Water cooling type engine. The boost control is performed by
computer. It is operated when the high
The air type intercooler cools the inlet air
output is needed such as for accelerating
temperature using the wind get from the
and driving in high speed.
running of the vehicle. The intercooler is
attached at the front or side of the radiator.
The structure of intercooler is similar with the
radiator, but the flow is not the water but the
compressed air by the charger.
The water type intercooler cools the
compressed hot air using an additional
cooling water separated from the engine
cooling water. The water has higher heat
capacity than air, so the water type is more
effective than air type, but it has high cost
for parts and maintenance.

6. Supercharger

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In the supercharger, the roots blower is not

a compressor but a fan as know from the
name. In the NA engine, the air is charged
by the negative pressure generated when the
piston goes down, but the supercharger is
additionally equipped the blower for
enhancing the charging efficiency by
positively sending the air. The Lysholm
compressor is a compressor so that it can
send the compressed air like the
turbocharger.

Roots blower
The structure of the roots blower is, to send
the air from one side to other side by
rotating two elliptical shaped aluminum
rotors coated with special resin, in the oval
housing. If the boost pressure is over
charged, the valve is opened to return some
amount of the charged air.

Lysholm compressor
The Lysholm compressor had been used
in industrial field not in vehicle engine. The
structure is that two rotors including 3 and 5
screw blades respectively are combined in
the elliptical shaped housing. It is driven by
a V belt linked with the engine. The rotor is
made of aluminum alloy coated with resin of
teflon. When it is rotating, airs supplied from
one side is accumulated and transmitted to
other side so the air is compressed.
Consequently, the intake air is compressed
up to 2 times.
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Engine Principles
Chapter 7.
Lubrication System
1. The Role of Engine Oil
The main role of the engine oil is to move
the dynamic system such as the piston in
the cylinder and the crankshaft smoothly. To
do so, the oil forms a oil film at the metal
surface to reduce the friction between the
metal surfaces. At the same time, the
engine oil can secure the combusted gas
not to leak to the crankcase, cools the
piston and valve, and reduce the shock
transmitted from the piston to the crankshaft
as well as clean the engine inside.
As the lubrication is already mentioned in
the section of 『Journal Bearing』, here, we
63
will explain the other roles of the oil. The first
is the sealing role in which the engine oil
between the piston ring and cylinder
prevents the leaking the compressed air or
combustion air.
Oil jet
The cylinder head and the piston crown
directly contacts with the hot combusted
gas. The cylinder head is cooled not only by
the cooling water but also by the oil at the
dynamic system. The heat of piston crown
is transmitted to the cylinder wall via the
piston ring. Also the piston cools down by
spraying the engine oil.
Another important role of the oil is to reduce
the shock. The combustion force is very
strong up to several tons weight force. This
force is transmitted from the piston to piston
pin, to Connecting rod, to crank pin and to
crankshaft. In that process, the oil absorbs
shock at the piston pin and the crank pin.
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Engine Principles

foreign materials. There is a oil gallery in

the engine block, it is a oil passage for each
dynamic parts such as crankshaft, cylinder
head, connecting rod and cylinder wall.

Except that, the engine oil can wipe out the

foreign materials such as carbon particle
generated by burned oil and metal particles
from the wear of metal surfaces.

Wet-sump type

The oil also prevents inside of the engine

from being rusted by chemicals from the
combustion.

2. Lubrication Method
In old style engine, the lubrication method
was so called the Splash type in which the
big end of connecting rod hit and sprayed
the oil contained in the oil pan under the
connecting rod. Nowadays, the lubrication
oil is sent to necessary portion by the oil
pump and collects to the oil pan. According
to the oil circulation method, there are the
dry-sump type and the wet-sump type. The
lubrication device consists of the oil pan
containing oil, the oil filter purifying the oil,
the oil pump sending the oil to each portion.
The wet-sump is equipped in most car.
The oil contained in the oil pan is filtered big
foreign materials using the oil strainer
consisting of steel meshes and sent to the
oil filter by oil pump to eliminate any tiny
64
Dry-sump type
The oil is returned to the oil pan from the
piston, connecting rod, crankshaft and
cylinder head. When the car is turned rapidly
or accelerated or decelerated abruptly, the
oil in the oil pan is leaned one side so it can
not be pumped well. Some engines have a
separator, a kind of partition in the oil pan to
prevent the oil from leaning. For the special
engine for racing car, the Scavenging
pump takes the oil and air together, and the
oil and air are separated by a separator and
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Engine Principles
then oil is contained to the separated oil
tank. This is the dry-sump type.
As the dry-sump method does not contain
the oil in the pan, the oil pan can be thinner.
So, the lower part of engine is smaller and
the engine is designed to have lower weight
center. However, the device should be
complexed. It is applied only to the special
case for equipping the opposed engine.
Some engine equips a semi-dry-sump type
having the oil pump for collecting the oil in
the oil pan.
3. Parts of Lubricant System
The 3 main parts consisting of the lubricant
system are oil pump, oil filter and the oil
cooler cooling the heated oil.
There are many kinds in the oil pump taking
up the oil in the oil pan. The passenger car
uses a gear pump combined with toothed
wheel and linked to the crankshaft directly.
The gear pump comprises of a driven gear
in the pump body and the drive gear linked
with the tooth of the driven gear. When the
drive gear is rotating, the driven gear is also
rotating. However, the centers of each gear
are departing each other so the oil between
them is pumped from the inlet port to outlet
port. According to the tooth shape, there is
an Involute type, the Trochoidal type, and
so on.
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Gear type oil pump
The oil sending amount by the oil pump is
proportional to the engine rpm. At the high
rotation of the engine, the oil pressure is too
high. At the low temperature, the degree of
viscosity of oil is increased so the oil
pressure is too high. The device for
maintaining the oil pressure should be
equipped. It is called the pressure
regulator or the relief valve.
The oil filter purifying the oil from the
carbon or metal particles. A folded filter
paper is inserted into the cleaner case.
There are two types for the replacement the
element type and the cartridge type. The
cartridge type is replaced the filter with
case, the element type is replaced only filter
element when the filter is replaced.
The proper working temperature of the
engine oil is about 80℃. If the temperature
is too low, the friction becomes high
because of high viscosity. If the temperature
is too high, the oil pressure is lowered so
lubricating ability will be degraded and also
the oil in the high performance engine can
be easily deteriorated. So the oil cooler is
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Engine Principles
required for the high performance engine.
The kinds of oil cooler are divided into the
water type and the air type. The water type
oil cooler maintains the oil temperature
using the engine cooling water, and the air
type oil cooler uses the running winds.
The air type has simpler device, but the
cooling efficiency is lower than the water
type. The water type is more complicated,
but it ensures the more stable cooling
efficiency.
4. Engine Oil
As we have mentioned, the engine oil works
for reducing the wear, cooling the piston
and the cylinder head, sealing the gap
between the piston and cylinder, releasing
the shock, cleaning the engine inside,
preventing the knocking and so on.
The required characteristics of the engine oil
are as follows,
- Proper viscosity at working condition
- Good lubricant performance
- High heat and corrosion resistances
- Anti-bubble
The most important characteristic is the
viscosity. Therefore, the engine oil is
classified by two aspects, the viscosity or
the quality.
The commercial engine oil is sold in case of
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1ℓ, 4ℓ or 20ℓ. At the case, there are name
of manufacturer, brand name and oil name
with the viscosity class and the quality class.
In the viscosity classification, according to
the standard by SAE(Society Automotive
Engineers), the lower viscosity has lower
number and higher viscosity has higher
number. For cold weather, letter “W” is
added. For example, certain classification
like that the number 30 is for general
purpose, and the number 20 is for winter, is
the single grade using one number system
only. Another classification like that a range
is represented such as 5W-30 or 10W-30, is
the multi grade. In this case, by comparing
the 5W-30 with the 10W-30, the 5W-30 has
lower viscosity than 10W-30 at low
temperature, but has higher viscosity at the
high temperature.
Generally, when the temperature is
increased, the viscosity of oil will be
decreased. To indicate how the viscosity is
changed, the viscosity index is used. If the
viscosity is not easily changed, then the
viscosity index of the oil is high. The higher
viscosity index is easier to use.
In the quality classification, the standard
by the API(American Petroleum Institute) is
used. For gasoline engine, the letter “S”
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Engine Principles

followed from other alphabet letters is

assigned. For the diesel engine, the letter
“C” followed from other alphabet letters is
assigned. For example, letters from SD to
SG are assigned for the gasoline engine.
The kind of engine oil and replacing period
are decided by type of engine, driving
condition and ambient temperature, so
please refer to the manual carefully to select
the engine oil. The replacing running time is
about 10,000km for SD, and 15,000km for
SE, and SF 15,000km for gasoline engine
roughly. For turbo engine, the engine oil
should be replaced at every 5,000km
running time because the driving condition is
very tough. The maintenance intervals for
each engines are varies, refer the manuals
for the each engine.

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Engine Principles
Chapter 8.
Cooling System
1. Cooling system
Of the total heat energy generated by the
combustion of fuel mixture in gasoline
engine, about 30% is converted into the
kinetic energy to push the piston, another
about 30% is wasted with exhaust gas,
another about 30% is transmitted to coolant
through the piston and the other about 10%
is lost by friction.
Among them, if the heat transmitted to the
combustion chamber wall is not eliminated
as quickly as possible, the piston or the
cylinder will be deformed by this heat or the
film of lubricant oil will be broken.
If this heat is cooled excessively, the much
heat energy will be transmitted to the
coolant so that the heat efficiency will be
degraded. Therefore, cooling system should
be controlled to maintain the proper
temperature according to the driving
situation.
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The cooling system for vehicle engine is
classified into the water-cooling system
and the air-cooling system. The air-
cooling system is hard to cool uniformly and
easy to make a loud noise, so nowadays
almost this system is not used in the
vehicle.
According to the flow type of water cooling
system, there are the U-turn flow type
flowing from one side of the engine to the
same side, and the cross flow type flowing
from one side to the opposite side.
Additionally, according to the flow direction,
it can be classified into the longitudinal
flowing type flowing along to the
longitudinal direction of the engine, and the
lateral flowing type along to the lateral
direction of the engine.
In the water-cooling system, the cooling
water is circulated by water pump from
lower portion of the water jacket to the
radiator. During running, strong winds can
cool the radiator, however, when the car is
stopped or slowly driven, a fan should send
winds in force. The cooled water shall be
returned to the water jacket by the pump. By
installing a thermostat between the water
jacket and the radiator for sensing the
cooling water temperature, if the cooling
water has too low temperature, the
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Engine Principles

thermostat blocks the water passage. The

most used thermostat is the wax type in
which a wax is secured between capsules,
and the wax opens and closes the valve
using the expansion and shrinking by heat.
The thermostat working temperature is about
85℃.

Down flow type

2. Radiator

Cross flow type

The radiator is a body radiating heat, in this
case, it is a device for radiating the heat into
the atmosphere. As the heater is called also
as radiator, the cooling device in a car is
called as radiator; especially this is called as
heat core.
To enhance the efficiency of radiator, the
area should be large as possible. Generally,
the radiator comprises a radiator core
manufactured by welding many metal fins
around a tube flowing cooling water therein U-turn flow type
and two tanks containing the cooling water
at both sides of the core.
It is the most used type so called the down
The tanks are attached at the upper portion
flow type. There is the cross flow type in
and lower portion of the heat core to flow
which the tanks are attached at the left and
hot water to upper tank and cold water to
right side to flow in horizontal. In the cross
lower tank using the convection principle.
flow type, the height of radiator can be
lowered and the design of front grill can be
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Engine Principles
freely changed. However, it has larger flow
resistance. For another example, there is an
U-turn flow type in which the radiator core
is divided in up and down at the center
portion, and the cooling water flows into the
one side of the upper core and returned
from the lower core side.
The aluminum material is more used in both
the tube flowing water and the fin colliding
with wind. To make be lighter, the resin tank
including nylon with glass fiber instead of
brass or aluminum is more used.
High temperature
Low temperature
The radiator is equipped with a radiator cap
to supplement the cooling water.
Conventionally, this cap is just a cover so
the cooling water can contact outer
atmosphere directly. Nowadays, the cap
secures the inside of the radiator that is the
pressurized radiator cap. In the
atmospheric pressure, the water is boiling at
100℃ and not increasing the boiling point.
By pressuring the cooling water, the
pressure is increased and the boiling point
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of water will be higher so the difference with
the outer temperature is larger. Therefore,
the cooling effect shall be increased.
At the pressurized radiator cap, a
pressure valve and a vacuum valve are
attached, When the cooling water is about
110∼120℃ and the inside pressure is high,
then the pressure valve will be open to take
out the cooling water; when the temperature
is low and the pressure is lowered, then the
vacuum valve will be open to suck the
cooling water to the radiator. So the
pressure of cooling water is maintained
uniformly.
3. Cooling of the Cylinder Head
The most heated part of the engine is the
combustion chamber. The cylinder and the
cylinder head are cooled by the cooling
water, the piston is cooled by the engine oil.
This heat affects to the temperature of fuel
mixture, the combustion condition, and the
temperature of exhaust gas, that is, to the
engine performances. How to cool the
cylinder head is the most important thing.
The most cylinder head parts are made of
aluminum alloys because it has high heat
conductivity and light weight. As the intake
port having the similar temperature of outer
atmosphere and the exhaust port taking out
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Engine Principles
the so hot exhaust gas are nearly installed,
they may deformed by the difference of the
heat expansion. Therefore, it is very
important to cool with balancing the each
part temperature.
The cooling water is took into the cylinder
head from the water jacket at the cylinder
block, and flown around the exhaust port
heated by the exhaust gas, and then took
out via the intake port. Doing so, the
temperature difference among the cylinder
head, the exhaust port and the intake port
can be minimized. It is possible to prevent
the engine parts from being deformed or
distorted by the difference of the heat
expansion.
Additionally, the each temperature around
each cylinder head in the series of cylinder
should not have big difference. So the
temperature of each cylinder should be
similar as possible.
For example, if the cylinders are sequentially
cooled from the front to the end, then the
later cylinder can not be effectively cooled
because the cooling water is already heated.
In some cases, the cooling water is
distributed to each cylinder at the beginning
of the cooling to be cooled equivalently.
The oil can be used for cooling the cylinder
head. However, the portions of the cooling
effect by the oil is about 20%, the most
cooling is performed by the cooling water.
4. Overheat
The water temperature of the engine is
decided by the balance between the
generated heat capacity from engine and
the radiated heat capacity from radiator. If
the cooling is not enough, then the cooling
water can be boiled. Consequently, water
vapor can be ejected from the radiator cap.
This is called overheat. If the car is going
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with overheat state, then the performance
will be degraded, at last the engine will be
stuck.
If the engine is normal and the thermometer
is varying, then it means that overheat will
be occurred. The main reasons are four;
one is that the wind amount passing the
radiator is too small; another is that wind
temperature is too high; the third is that
amount of cooling water is too small and
the last is that the engine is working in hard
situation continuously.
When a car has aero parts or large fog lamp
so the wind passing is hindered, or when the
car runs unpaved road so the radiator covers
with dirty thereon, then the cooling water
can be easily overheated. In other case, if
the fan belt is not tightened or broken then
the cooling water can be easily overheated
because the wind amount sent to the
radiator is reduced.
To tune up the turbo engine, when a large
intercooler is installed in front of the
radiator, then, then wind amount will be
reduced and the cooling water may be
overheated.
If the water pipe is old so the cooling water
is leaked, or the belt for driving the water
pump is loosened, then the cooling water
may be easily overheated because the
cooling water is deficiency.
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Engine Principles
Chapter 9.
Fuel System
1. Carburetor
In the gasoline engine, the carburetor or the
ECM is used for mixing the air and fuel. The
most 4-cylinder engine uses the ECM
system, only some small engines use the
carburetor.
Carburator fuel system
Electronic fuel system
The carburetor uses spraying principle for
mixing the gasoline and the air. That is, a
fuel spraying hole is made at the venturi and
the air flow at the venturi is high. So the
pressure at the fuel spraying hole is
decreased. So the gasoline will be following
the air flow in the fog form and it is mixed
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with air.
This phenomena is called as the Venturi
effect named by the inventor. To enhance
this effect, the ventury is made in narrow as
possible. This inside diameter is called the
main bore size indicating the size of the
carburetor. By define the diameter of the
venturi about the main bore size, the
gasoline amount can be controlled
according to the air flow, so the air-fuel
ratio can be maintained uniformly.
The pipe for supplying the gasoline is the
main jet (fuel spraying hole). By selecting
proper jet according to the driving state, it is
possible to cover the wide range of rpm.
However, when the engine is rotating with
low speed such as idling state, the pressure
in venturi is lowered so the proper amount of
gasoline is not injected. When the engine is
rapidly accelerated, the amount gasoline
should be larger than normal state.
However, it is not so easy to control these
variations. To overcome these hindrances,
various carburetors have been developed.
Especially, in the motor sports, as the
displacement volume is determined, the
carburetor is most important device for
enhancing the engine performance.
The operation of carburetor is like that; at
first, the gasoline from the fuel tank is
contained into the floating chamber; when
the amount of gasoline in the float chamber
is reduced then the float goes down and the
more gasoline is supplied from the fuel tank.
When a driver presses the accelerator pedal,
the throttle valve is opened and air flow
passing the venturi part so that the gasoline
will be taking out from the main jet.
The carburetor has this simple structure, so
the cost is low and it has fewer defects.
However, for the modern engines which
need to enhance the emission, the fuel
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Engine Principles
efficiency and the power output, the
carburetor has many problems.
2. Mechanical Fuel Injecting Device
Basically, as regarding the negative pressure
as the air amount injected, the carburetor
supplies proper amount of gasoline using
only mechanical device. Therefore, it can
not maintain the air-fuel ratio uniformly. It is
need to control the injected fuel amount
exactly using the predetermined the air-fuel
ratio to prevent from wasting the fuel or to
enhance the engine response.
A new system is developed in which the
inhaled air amount is measured directly, and
the gasoline is sprayed to the intake
manifold with the optimized the air-fuel ratio
using the mechanical device. This is the K-
jetronic invented by Bosch.
By comparing with the carburetor, the fuel
injecting device is injecting the fuel to the
manifold directly. Therefore, it has good
response at the start and at accelerating
and decelerating. It is hard for this device to
make the vapor lock in which flow of fuel is
broken by vaporizing the fuel in the middle
of fuel pipe. Additionally, it does not make
icing that the carburetor is frozen.
The main feature of the K-jetronic is that
installing a circular plate named sensor
plate in front of the throttle valve, the
gasoline amount is controlled using that the
opening state of this plate is changed by the
air amount. When the throttle valve is open,
the air presses the sensor plate installing in
the air flow meter. The lever supporting this
plate is connected to the device for
controlling the injected fuel amount, and the
gasoline is injected to the fuel injecting
device by a response to the plate operating.
As a system replacing the carburetor, the K-
jetronic has better reliance. However, it
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sometimes injects the fuel in the same
manner of carburetor and controls the fuel
amount mechanically. Therefore, it is hard
to control the mixture ratio precisely.
In some cases, by accepting an ECM to a
portion of the system, the KE-jetronic
supplementing these week points is
developed. However, step by step, the full
ECM system is replacing these mechanical
systems in order to regulate the exhaust gas
and to enhance the fuel efficiency.
3. Electrical Fuel Injection System
The main part of the electrical fuel injecting
system is the fuel injecting device deciding
the amount of fuel to make proper mixing
ratio by measuring the inlet air amount. This
system comprises of the device of
measuring the air amount, the device of
injecting the fuel, and the device of
controlling theses operations.
The representative mechanical fuel injecting
device, the K-jetronic, uses the sensor plate
for device measuring air amount, and
transmits the movement of sensor plate to
the valve controlling fuel supplying.
Contrarily, the electrical fuel injecting system
the measured air amount by the air flow
sensor is sent to computer as an electric
signal to decide the fuel amount with the
result from the sensor for checking the
engine status. By these devices, it is
possible to control the air-fuel ratio
precisely.
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Engine Principles

By

The structure of the fuel injector is differed memorizing the data concerning to some
according to the manufacturer and the combinations of these signals and the
applied engine type. Except the air flow control method which indicate what amount
sensor, most parts are similar. Here, we will of gasoline is injected according to the
explain about the mass air flow type using combination to the computer installed into
the air flow meter as the air flow sensor. the ECM, the computer can inject proper
amount fuel decided by the computer
The filtered air through the air cleaner is
according to the accelerator operating, from
measured its amount at the air flow meter,
the injector.
and taken into the surge tank (intake
collector) via the throttle body including
4. Fuel Supplying System
throttle valve connecting to the accelerator
pedal. This air is distributed to the intake
manifold of each cylinder, and inhaled into
the cylinder with the gasoline injected from
the fuel injecting valve (injector) to the
manifold or intake port.
At this time, a controller decides the
gasoline amount optimized to the driving
status and running condition of the vehicle.
This is called as the ECM, Electronic
Control Module. The driving status is the
electrical signal from the water
temperature sensor, the intake air
temperature sensor, and the throttle
position sensor, and the running condition
The gasoline, the fuel, is contained in the
is the signal from the speed sensor and the
fuel tank and sent to the fuel injection device
signal indicating the air conditioning working
after eliminating dust and water by filter.
status. These signals are sent to the ECM.
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Engine Principles

The fuel tank is made of galvanized steel to

prevent rust, as well as the plastic tank is
more used. To protect the fuel from leaning
one side, there are some partitions, called
separator, and level gauge is attached.
The fuel pump has various types. The
carburetor uses mechanical pump, ECM
system uses electrical pump using electric
motor mostly.

A regulator, pressure controller, is attached

for sending the gasoline to the injector after
controlling the gasoline pressure within the
specific range.

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Engine Principles

injector. The
point
injection
performs
injecting
operation at
the intake
stroke of
each
cylinder
according to
For injecting the gasoline, an injector is
the engine rotation. The group injection
used. The injector has a needle valve
performs the injecting operation with a group
closing the front of the nozzle so the valve is
of cylinders which have the sequential intake
open by flowing an electric current to the
stroke.
solenoid to injecting gasoline.
Of course, the point injection can inject the
In the injecting method, there are a Single
gasoline with most optimized timing and
Point Injection (SPI) injecting gasoline to
amount. However, the electrical circuit for
the collecting portions of manifold, and a
driving the injector is more complicated. So,
Multi Point Injection (MPI) injecting
some commercial car accepts the group
gasoline to each manifold corresponding
injection.
with each cylinder. The SPI has the injector
at the same place as the carburetor does, Simplifying the group injection is the bank
but this makes the mixture more effectively injection. At the intake stroke and the
than carburetor does. combustion stroke in which the piston goes
down, the needed gasoline is injected after
The MPI can be classified to point injection,
dividing into two turns and taken into the
group injection and bank injection according
cylinder after gathering at the intake stroke.
to the injecting timing. Each manifold has

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Due to the simple structure, it ensures the

most efficiency in the gasoline injection. So
it is the most used method in the gasoline
engine.

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Engine Principles
Chapter 10.
Ignition System
1. Point type Ignition
The ignition system is to fire the mixture
compressed in the combustion chamber
making a flame with a spark plug.
When the plus and minus poles of the 12V
battery is shorted, a spark can be made.
However, it is too weak to ignite the mixture.
Therefore, this voltage should be boosted up
to 10,000∼30,000V. The ignition system
consists of a device for boosting the
voltage, a device for distributing the ignition
timing and a series of spark plug.
To boosting the voltage, an ignition coil, an
electric inducer, is used. The ignition coil
comprises of a iron core shaped of rod, the
secondary coil wound with about 20,000~
30,000 turns using a hairy thin copper wire
around the core and the primary coil wound
with 150~300 turns using copper wire of
0.5∼1mm diameter over the secondary coil.
When a current is flown at the primary coil,
the iron core will be an electromagnet. And
at time when the current at the primary coil
is broken, a boosted high voltage is induced
at the secondary coil.
The distributor has a device for controlling
the current flowing at the primary coil and a
cam having the same number of extruded
portions in the middle of it. When this cam
presses the arm by rotating, the point
attached in front of the arm is opened to cut
the current of the primary coil (contact
breaker). And the distributor has also a
device, overlapping with the contact
breaker, for distributing the boosted voltage
of the secondary coil to each plugs.
At the cam of the contact breaker, an
advancing device for controlling the ignition
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timing at the variations of engine speed to
send the boosted high voltage to the spark
plug in time. As the cam should rotate with
1/2 of the engine rpm to match the ignition
timing of the plug, it should be attached at
the end of camshaft having the same
rotation speed. The advancing device shall
be explained at the section of 『Ignition
Timing』 in detail.
After that, the high voltage generated by the
ignition coil is sent to each spark plug
through a series of High-Tension Cord.
This ignition system is called contacting or
point type. If the driving for the contact
breaker is performed by a transistor, then it
is called the full transistor type. Furthermore,
developing the system, the distributor is
driven by a computer in the distributor-less
ignition device.
2. Full Transistor type Ignition
In the point type ignition device, the point is
opened by the cam, and high voltage is
induced at the secondary coil when the
current at the primary coil is cut. Similarly,
when the switch is turn off, a small
unwanted spark will be made at the contact
point. As the same of mechanical inertia,
the electrical current has the inertia. This
unwanted spark will be prevented by
inserting a condenser within the ignition
circuit.
Furthermore, the point would be burned or
not work normally at the high speed.
Therefore, for intermitting the current of the
primary coil, a transistor is developed
instead of the mechanical point.
As being many kinds in the transistor, the
application method is various also. When it
is used for a switch, NPN type transistor is
used. This consists of a base made of P
type semiconductor and two N type
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Engine Principles
semiconductors at the both side, one is a
collector, and the other is emitter.
In normal state, the current is not
transmitted from the emitter to the collector
of NPN type transistor. However, if a little
current (base current) is applied between the
emitter and the base, then an amplified
current is induced from the emitter to the
collector. Using this characteristic, it can be
utilized as a switch.
Instead of the cam and point in the
distributor, the signal generator is
equipped for detecting the ignition timing,
the electrical signal is sent to the igniter
including a transistor. Then the base current
made by the signal generator is applied to
between the emitter and the base, and then
an amplified current is generated from the
emitter to the collector. Using this current
amplifying, the intermittent current is applied
to the primary coil, so a boosted voltage
can be generated at the secondary coil.
The signal generator consists of a rotor
having the same number of extruded
portions with that of the cylinder, a
permanent magnet, and a pick-up coil
detecting the change of magnetic flux. As
the signal rotor rotates with the 1/2 speed of
the engine speed, the extruded portions
passes through the gap between the pick-
up coil and the permanent magnet
corresponding with the ignition timing. The
magnetic flux generated by the permanent
magnet will be changed, so an induced
current will be flown at the coil. This current
is used for the base current of the transistor.
Doing so, the trouble from the contact
breaker can be resolved.
3. Distributor-less Ignition
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In the full transistor ignition system, the
primary coil current switching is performed
by the signal generator and the transistor,
while the advancing and distributing of
secondary current is performed by the same
device used in point ignition system. The
distributor-less ignition system is that the
advancing of ignition timing is performed by
a computer using an electrical signal from
the sensor for ignition timing, and the
ignition is performed using generated
secondary current from the ignition coil
installed near the ignition coil.
The main feature of this ignition device is
the high-tension cable connecting the
ignition coil – the distributor – the spark
plug. As this cable will be short only for
connecting the spark plug and the coil just
nearby or this cord is not needed in some
cases, the troubles from the
electromagnetic wave interference from the
high current of the high-tension cable or the
ignition faults from the electrical resistance
of the cable can be prevented. Additionally,
the electrical advance device is more
compact than the mechanical one.
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Engine Principles
Inductive type crankshaft position sensor
Optical type crankshaft position sensor
In the sensor for deciding the ignition timing,
the crankshaft position sensor or the
camshaft position sensor, one type
comprises of a timing rotor driven by the
camshaft and a pick-up detecting the
position of the rotor electrically. Anther type
comprises of a LED attached at the rotor
blade driven by the camshaft and a photo
diode to decide the ignition timing.
In the ignition method, there are the
individual ignition method and the bank
ignition method.
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Individual ignition system
Bank ignition system
In the Individual ignition method, the ignition
coil is installed at each cylinder to ignite
sequentially according to the order decided
by the ECM. In the bank ignition method,
the ignition spark is occurred at two
cylinders at the same time by one ignition
coil. In this time, one cylinder is in the
compression stroke and the other cylinder is
in the exhaust stroke. The ignition spark at
the compression stroke is effectively used,
but the spark at the exhaust stroke is
meaningless. In this method, the used
amount of the transistors and coils is half of
individual ignition method, so the cost will
be down.
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4. Spark Plug
The spark plug ignites at the compressed
mixture to fire it according to the spark arc
by the high voltage generated from the
ignition coil. The spark plug contacts, at
first, with the mixture having the similar
temperature of outer atmosphere in the
intake stroke, After that, it contacts with the
exhaust gas over 2000℃ and generates high
voltage of 20,000V. Therefore, it is the
device working in most severe condition.
The spark plug is used for many kinds of
engine in common, and manufactured with
a standardizing specification internationally.
There are many kinds according to the
dimension, structure, performance and
characteristic (especially, heat
characteristic). This is distinguished by the
alpha numerical indicator. This indicating
character differs from the manufacturer, so
be careful when replacing them. Generally,
spark plug is classified as 14mm, 12mm,
and 10mm according to the size of
attaching screw. To make the combustion
chamber compact, the smaller plug is the
better. However, the smaller can be the
easier to be affected by heat. It is very
important to inspect the temperature
situation of the engine in order to use the
spark plug.
The spark plug, during driving, is affected by
the various temperatures. The most
affecting temperature is the combusted
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amount of fuel mixture per time. As the
engine is high speed, the temperature of
plug will be high. Even in the same driving
condition, the temperature differs according
to the heat range of the plug.
The heat range is the degrees of which the
spark plug radiates the heat acquired from
the chamber. As the plug easily radiates the
heat, the heat range is high. In racing
engine, the cold type having high heat
range should be used to prevent the
temperature from increasing easily.
Contrarily, if the engine is usually used in
low speed, the hot type having low heat
range should be used to prevent from being
cold easily.
The heat range is represented with numeric
character on the plug. It differs with the
manufacturer. It should be selected
according to the used standard plug. If the
plug not corresponding with the engine
features and driving conditions, for example,
if it is used in the low temperature, then
carbon slug will be deposited on the end
portion of the plug, so it doesn’t work. If the
temperature is excessively high, then the
mixture is exploded before the ignition is
worked, that is pre-ignition will be occurred.
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Chapter 11.
Combustion and
Combustion Chamber
1. Combustion Process
To get high output and to enhance the fuel
efficiency, it is necessary to combust the
mixture of fuel and air perfectly as soon as
possible while the combustion process.
Therefore, to enhance the engine
performance is to learn the relationship with
the combustion and to study how to
increase the fuel efficiency.
The mixture of fuel and air by the carburetor
and injector is, at first, inhaled into the
cylinder through the intake valve with the
swirling flow. And then it is compressed with
the swirl flow by the piston going up from
the BDC (bottom dead center). At this time,
the fog state fuel is converted into a vapor
state by the heat from the chamber wall and
adiabatic compression, and the strong flow
of the mixture. Some components may
change to the flammable gas.
When a flame is applied to the gas with high
temperature, then a flame kernel is made
between the electrodes of the plug. This
flame kernel is a combusting gas unit having
high temperature made from the reaction
the fuel gas and the oxygen in the air.
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This combusting gas unit immediately heats
the mixture there-around. The more mixture
surrounding the kernel reacts with more
oxygen by this heat and then converts into
larger combusting gas unit. Within a short
time, this sequence is widely spread so the
whole mixture is converted into the
combusting gas. This is the combusting
process of the mixture.
As the time for being the spark is only about
2/1000 seconds (2 mille seconds: ms), if
the temperature around the flame kernel is
low or the kernel is blown out by the swirl of
the mixture, then the mixture can not be
combusted. This phenomenon is called the
misfire.
In the process of the combustion, the
boundary between the combusting gas and
the combusted gas is called the flame
surface. The expansion velocity of the flame
surface is the flame velocity. The flame
velocity is the same mixing the combustion
velocity which is the speed of flame
developing with statistic fuel gas, the
expansion velocity which is the speed of gas
expansion by the combusting heat, and the
velocity of the gas flow.
The combustion velocity is changed by the
component of the fuel and air-fuel ratio
which is the weight ratio between the fuel
and air. However, it is very slow, i.e. several
cm per second, As adding the gas
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expansion velocity and flow velocity to the
combustion velocity, the flame velocity is
about 15∼20m per second, even it can be
30m per second. Therefore, the flow of
mixture is very important.
2. Air-fuel ratio and Flame Velocity
To enhance the engine performance, the
flame velocity should be fast and the
amount heat energy which will be converted
into the kinetic energy should be as large as
possible.
The flame velocity is decided by the three
main elements including the combustion
velocity, the gas expansion velocity, and the
mixture flow velocity. To combust the
mixture fast, these elements should be
maintained in the best condition.
Considering the combustion velocity and
gas expansion velocity, the flame velocity is
decided by the mixture ratio which is the
ratio between the fuel and air and the
temperature and the pressure of the mixture.
The temperature and the pressure are
decided by the temperature of chamber and
compression ratio. To consider the
temperature and pressure is very
complicated, so here, we assume these
conditions are constant. We focus on the
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fuel component and the mixing ratio.
The gasoline is a liquid consisting of 4∼12
carbon atom in chain link and various
molecules including hydrogen atom. If the
component ratio is changed or a material is
added to accelerate the combustion, then
the combustion velocity and the gas
expansion velocity shall be faster.
The mixing ratio is a number representing
the ratio of fuel amount and the air amount.
It can affect to the combustion velocity. So
it can be represented by the three indicating
number such as the air-fuel ratio (or A/F
ratio), the excess air ratio, and the
equivalency ratio.
The air-fuel ratio is the value calculated by
which weight of air included into the mixture
is divided by the weight of fuel included into
the mixture. It is called the AIR/FUEL
RATIO, or A/F ratio. When the air and fuel
are mixed, the A/F ratio for complete
combustion theoretically is called the
theoretic A/F ratio. The theoretic A/F ratio
of the regular gasoline is about 14.7.
If the actual A/F ratio is less than the
theoretic A/F ratio, then the amount of the
gasoline is more than the theoretic A/F ratio
so it is indicated as 『RICH』, otherwise, as
『LEAN 』.
For the mixture is combusted in the best
condition and for the flame velocity is
fastest, the A/F ratio is little smaller than the
theoretic A/F ratio, that is 13.5∼14. This
means that when the fuel is little more than
air, the combustion is better. The
combustion velocity has the maximum value
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at the A/F ratio of 12∼13, with more
gasoline amount.
Therefore, the engine power output will be
maximum at the A/F ratio of 12∼13.
Otherwise, the output will be reduced. In the
aspect of fuel consumption ratio, the
consumption ratio will be minimum value
about the A/F ratio of 16, that is, little lean
state has the best fuel efficiency. After
combusted, if any oxygen is not remained,
then the gasoline is not completely
combusted.
3. Ignition Timing
The ignition timing is when the compressed
mixture is fired, that is the timing for making
a electrical flame at the spark plug.
Generally, it can be thought when the
mixture is fully compressed and the piston
reaches at the TDC (top dead center) is the
best timing for the ignition. However, it is
too late. The reason is that the combustion
velocity of the mixture is changed by the gas
flow velocity. As the engine speed is
increased, the gas flow will be faster and
faster. Therefore, the flame velocity will be
faster. So, to ignite when the piston is at the
highest point is too late. The best timing is
when the piston is almost at the highest
point that is, when the area of flame surface
is almost half of the combustion chamber.
The ignition timing is represented by the
rotation angle of the crankshaft about the
TDC of the piston. In terms of the angle, if
the ignition timing is set to 40∼30° before
the TDC, then the combustion chamber has
the maximum pressure at the 15∼20° after
the TDC.
If the ignition timing is too early performed,
then the combustion is occurred before the
piston reaches at the highest point. In this
case, the combustion force will press the up
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rising piston, so the force will be reduced. If
the ignition timing is too late, then
combustion force will press the downing
piston. So the combustion force will not be
work effectively.
As the flame velocity is as fast as the engine
speed, the ignition timing should be
corresponded with the engine speed in order
to maximize the pressure of combustion
chamber at the TDC of the piston. This
operation is to advance the angle of the
ignition in considering of the crankshaft
rotating angle, so it is called the advance
angle.
In the system for performing the advance
angle, there are the mechanical type and
the electrical type. The mechanical advance
angel device is assembled between the
distributors applying currents to the spark
plug. By detecting the engine speed
mechanically, the timing for applying current
is controlled according to the engine speed
to advance the ignition timing of the spark
plug. For example, in the vacuum advance
angle device, the advance angle is
performed by the operation proportional to
the negative pressure of the device
connected to the carburetor with pipe using
the phenomenon in which the negative
pressure in the intake port is increased
according to the engine speed.
The electrical advance angle device is that
the engine speed and the intake air pressure
are detected by the sensor, and the best
ignition timing is decided by the computer.
4. Swirl Effect
As the flame velocity is fast, more heat
energy can be converted into the kinetic
energy. Ideally, the mixture should be
exploded when the piston just passes the
highest point to transmit the expansion force
of the combusted gas to the piston most
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Engine Principles

effectively. For full combustion, in terms of

crankshaft rotation angle, the time of
40∼60° rotation should be needed. So, the
actual situation differs from the ideal
situation.
To ensure the fast combusting, the gasoline
should be mixed with air well to be enable to
perform the chemical react between
hydrogen carbon and oxygen. Therefore, some researches and
developments for direction of intake port, for
To do so, the gasoline particle from the
reducing the size of intake port and for using
injector should be tiny and easy to be
two intake ports in which one intake port is
vaporized as possible. And the injector
closed to flow in whirl when the engine
orifice should face to the intake valve in
works in low speed, to mix the fuel with air
order not to adhere the gasoline particles to
enough. The flow of whirl is divided into the
the intake port wall. For some racing
swirl of which direction is in horizontal and
engines, two injectors may be attached at
the tumble of which direction is vertical.
each cylinder.
The important thing in the swirl is that the
Additionally, in order to be make the flame
swirl generated at the intake stroke should
velocity be fast, the flow velocity of gas
be remained even should be much stronger
should be faster. When the engine is rotating
in the ignition-combustion stroke.
in slow speed, the flow velocity of the
mixture is very important element. When the
engine is rotating in high speed, the flow of
mixture is high, so the mixing is well and the
flame velocity is enough fast. However,
when the engine speed starts to be
decelerated, the piston downing speed is
low, so the mixture flow velocity is lowered
and the gasoline fog within the mixture can
not be easily vaporized.

Swirl Tumble
To do so, one method is that a little gap
called squish area is made between the
most far position from the plug and the end
portion of the piston crown, to blow the
mixture by squish area when the piston is
near the highest point.

5. Knocking

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Engine Principles
Even it is rarely occurred in nowadays, the
engine makes a noise when the car is
accelerated in high load condition.
This is the typical knocking. This comes
from that the combustion is not started from
the flame kernel of the spark plug and
expansion of the flame surface, but from the
early combusting of the mixture in the end
zone which will be combusted at last.
As the flame surface is a boundary, inside
of the surface is filled with the combusted
gas and outside of the surface is filled with
un-burn gas. That is the combustion is
spreading from the flame surface. Before
this flame surface is not reached, the un-
burn gas is self combusted by the pressure
of the gas expansion. This gas with the high
pressure and high temperature knocks the
cylinder head and piston, so the engine has
harmful damages. The knocking is occurred
at once, then the piston and cylinder have
the abnormally high temperature, so the
sequential knockings can be easily
following.
Because that the knocking is generated at
the end zone of the combusting chamber,
the bore will be enlarged by the SHORT
STROKE and it is easily generated in the
engine having longer flame spread distance.
Therefore, the modern engine is equipped
with the spark plug, especially the center
plug, at the center of the chamber or with a
squish area enhancing the mixture flow by
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making the end zone be narrower.
Nowadays most car doesn’t make any
knocking during driving. The engine is
developed to prevent from knocking.
On the other hand, there is a research for
enhancing the engine performance using the
knocking. The knocking, as the firstly
concerned, is occurred at the low engine
speed in which the combustion of mixture is
lag behind of the abnormal combustion.
Generally, it is occurred at the ignition timing
is advanced when the compression ratio is
increase or the flame velocity is high.
Therefore, by detecting the knocking, if the
engine is run with maximum advance of
ignition timing, the best combusting
condition can be made.
6. Abnormal Combustion
The all combustion contrary with the normal
combustion in which the combustion starts
from the spark plug and spread over all
chamber are called abnormal combustions.
The knocking is the representative example.
There are also other types of abnormal
combustions.
⑴ PRE-IGNITION & POST-IGNITION
As the PRE is “before” and the POST is
“After”, these ignition means that the
mixture can be combusted by the other
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flame before or after the normal ignition is

occurred. The PRE-IGNITION is occurred
at the compression stroke by any reason
such as remaining at the carbon slug
attached at the plug, chamber wall, piston
or valves. The POST-IGNITION is that the
mixtures not combusted at the normal
flame period by misfire, un-burned gas is
combusted at the combustion stroke.
Both of them are very similar with the
knocking, so they can make a great ⑷ BACK FIRE
affects at the parts around the chamber. In the state that the almost of the
⑵ RUN ON combusted gas is taken out at the exhaust
stroke, there are some amount of
As being also called as dieseling, this is
remained gas. The remained gas with high
the phenomenon that the engine is still
temperature make a ignition the air/fuel
working even the ignition switch is off.
mixture at the beginning of intake stroke.
Very similar with the PRE-IGNITION, the
In some cases, the fire can reach back to
carbon slug works as a flame seed. This
the air cleaner. This is mainly occurred at
is generally occurred when the key is off
the carburetor system.
with the overheated carburetor engine.
This is named from that the diesel engine These abnormal combustion is not often
combusts without ignition. occurred in normal driving situations,
however, be careful to maintain the engine.

7. Shape of Combustion Chamber

⑶ AFTER FIRE
This is also called as the AFTER BURN.
This is that the incompletely combusted
gas is exploded at the exhaust system
with a big combustion sound. When the
accelerator is turn to open or close
abruptly, the exceeded gasoline is
exhausted into the chamber and then the
incompletely combusted mixture is
exploded at the catalyst converter or at
the muffler. This can make damage to the
exhaust system.
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According to the combustion method, the
engine performance shall differ. Then, which
shape of the combustion chamber is the
best for engine performance.
It may be true that the faster flame velocity
is the better in order to increase the engine
output. With the same gasoline and A/F
ratio, we can consider the following five
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Engine Principles
items for the engine power.
⑴ The amount of the inhaled mixture shall
be plentiful (More fuel, more heat)
⑵ The flow just before the ignition shall be
proper.
(The faster is the better, however, too fast
makes a misfire)
⑶ The ignition plug should be installed at
the center of the combustion chamber (to
ensure fast combustion of mixture)
⑷ The compression ratio should be as high
as possible (With high compression, heat
efficiency is good)
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⑸ Combustion chamber should be compact
size to prevent heat from losing.
(to ensure the heat energy converted into
kinematical energy)
First of all, concerning the inhalation amount
of mixture in ⑴, this is decided by the
attaching angle, number, size, lift and
shape of the intake valve. It is explained in
the intake-exhaust valve section in detail.
In the mixture flow in ⑵, here, how the
mixture is taken into the cylinder is the most
important point. Even the mixture flow is
well, if the shape of valve inside and piston
crown are complicated, then the gas will not
be expanded smoothly, so it should have
the simple shape as possible.
The plug position in ⑶ is decided by the
number and position of the intake-exhaust
valves. In the 4-valve engine most used
nowadays, the plug shall be installed at the
center of the combustion chamber, ideally.
As the compression ratio mentioned in ⑷ is
higher, the combustion will be faster
because the temperature and pressure of
the combustion chamber just before ignition
is high. However, if the combustion is too
fast, then the combustion is performed
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Engine Principles
abnormally. So the chamber can be
damaged by this abnormal combustion such
as knocking.
To make that the heat can not be lost easily
as mentioned in ⑸, consider that; as the
inside area of the combustion chamber is
bigger, the heat loss when the exploded gas
presses the piston will be higher, that is, the
heat energy which will be converted into the
force energy will be lost. With the same
volume of the combustion chamber, as the
inside surface area of the chamber is
smaller; the heat converting ratio will be
higher.
Therefore, when the ratio between the
SURFACE and VOLUME of the combustion
chamber is the S/V ratio, this ratio
represents the combustion efficiency. The
smaller S/V ratio is better for the
combustion efficiency.
8. Intake-Exhaust Valve & Combustion
Chamber
To get better volume efficiency, more
amount of intake air is needed, and the flow
90
of intake-exhaust should be made
smoother. The size and shape of the intake
port is important as well as the attaching
angle, diameter and number of the valves
should be appropriate to enhance the
volume efficiency.
The larger diameter of valve is the better. If
the valve is too large, it is heavy so it has
large inertia force when it is open and close.
Therefore, it will hinder the engine from
rotating with high speed. The size of valve
should be optimized. The 4-valve engine
having two set of intake-exhaust valve is
more applied recently than the 2-valve
engine having one set of intake-exhaust
valve.
The three-valve engine having two intake
valves and one exhaust valve was noticed.
However, the plug was not installed at the
center of chamber, and the exhaust valve
was too large so the two intake valve system
is worse than 4 valve system.
The chamber types of 4-valve engine are
the PENT ROOF type having the roof
shaped cylinder head and the Poly-
spherical type having the some overlapped
spheres. In the both types, a pair of intake-
exhaust valve is facing with each other, and
the spark plug is located at the center. It
satisfies the requirement condition for the
excellent volume efficiency.
Big valve angle Small valve angle
The valve inclined angle is the angle of
intake-exhaust valve about the center line of
the cylinder. The valve angle is the angle
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Engine Principles
between the center lines of each valve.
These angles make an important affect to
the chamber shape, the S/V ratio, the
compression ratio, and the shape of intake-
exhaust ports. If the valve angle is to be
larger, then the valve diameter can be made
widely, and the intake-exhaust gas will be
flown more smoothly. However, the
chamber is to be larger also, so it has
demerits such that the compression ratio will
be reduced, and the S/V ratio is to be large.
New type engine has the compact
combustion chamber of which valve angle is
smaller than ever.
The five-valve engine having the three
intake valves and two exhaust valves is for
high performance by enlarging the cross
area of the valve and lightening the valve
weight. However, it has more complicated
chamber so the S/V ratio will be larger as
well as the mechanism around the valve will
be more complicated.
9. Piston & Combustion Chamber
The piston head forms the combustion
chamber by facing the intake-exhaust valves
portion of cylinder head. To combust the
mixture fast, the inside surface of the
chamber should have fewer extruded or
recessed portions to flow the mixture
smoothly, and the S/V ratio should be small
as possible. Therefore the piston head
should be flattened.
In actual, considering other elements such
91
as the valve angle, the cylinder head shall
have the recessed shape. Therefore, to
increase the compression ratio, the piston
head should be extruded, highly.
Furthermore, if the engine has high
compression ratio, then the gap between the
cylinder head and piston head should be
narrow so it need to make the valve recess
be larger to prevent the valve from
abnormally operating. With these limitations
in the mechanism, there are many
researches for better combustion.
The piston has an important role to transmit
the combustion force to the connecting rod
effectively, so the other portions except the
piston head should be precisely designed.
The combusted gas is sealed with the piston
ring. To ensure the sealing, the gap between
the piston and cylinder (piston clearance)
should be small as possible. The piston will
be cooled by the lubricant oil and the heat
will be radiated through the piston ring. The
thermal expansion coefficient of the
aluminum, the main material of the piston,
is 23 relatively higher than steel of which
thermal expansion coefficient is 12~15,
which is the main material of the cylinder.
Therefore it is hard to match the piston size
to the cylinder size. For example, as the
back side of the piston head is reinforced, it
is made little smaller than the skirt part and
the piston diameter along to the inserting
axis of piston pin is little smaller than the
perpendicular axis.
As the connecting rod rotates the
crankshaft, the piston will press the
connecting rod with inclined direction.
Therefore, the piston may be trembling
along the lateral direction so the skirt will
strike the cylinder wall. This is called the
piston slap or the sides knock. This is the
cause of the noise or power loss by friction.
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Engine Principles

To minimize this slap, the center of the

piston pin is offset about 1∼2.5mm along
to the movement direction of the connecting
rod. Doing so, the force pressing the piston
to the lateral direction will be reduced. It is
called the offset piston.

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Chapter 12. engine is concerned to the purification of the

exhaust gas. The carbon monoxide and the
Performance, Fuel hydrogen carbon among the three major
consumption, Noise, harmful materials in the exhaust gas may
not be exist if the gasoline can be
Vibration completely combusted, in ideal. The one,
the nitrogen oxide is also one of the
1. Required Performances important problems.

Various performances are required for the

Considering that the engine weight is
engine. Each performance is related with
10∼15% of whole weigh of the vehicle,
each other in complex manner, so these
another method for acquiring better output
affect to the performance of the vehicle.
and fuel efficiency at the same time is to
Furthermore, as time is going, which
make engine be compact and light. With the
performance is more important has been
same output, the power of vehicle having
changed. However, the output power is the
lighter engine will be higher. The lighter and
most important item because the purpose of
compact engine enhances the fuel
the engine is developed making a power for
consumption. Also, to ensure the good
the vehicle. Conventionally, to operate
steering, the vehicle should be light and the
engine for more work should need more fuel
weigh balance is distributed 50:50 at the
to be used. Recently, by enhancing the
front and the rear or similarly.
engine efficiency, better fuel efficiency and
better output can be acquired.

Engine also should have the features to be

driven by the driver’s willingness. For
example, when the driver presses the
To develop the combustion efficiency of the

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Engine Principles
accelerator pedal, if the engine output is too
high, then it is not so good for the safety.
The response, how to act according to the
pressed amount of the accelerator pedal,
can make a big affect to the drive condition.
As the engine get the driving force by the
combustion of the fuel, the noise and
vibration can not be avoided. It is important
to prevent these noises and vibrations from
transmitting to the passenger.
Additionally, as the engine is one
mechanical part of the vehicle, how to
maintain the engine is also an important
factors.
2. What is Output?
94
The engine is the device converting the heat
energy to the force. The basic performance
is represented by the three major factors
such as the fuel consumption indicating
how much gasoline is combusted, the
torque indicating how much force is
generated thereby, and the power indicating
how much work is performed per unit time.
Among them, the fuel consumption is easy
to be notified because it is easily detected
by measuring used fuel amount. Then, what
are the others, the power and the torque?
As we have explained frequently, the
working principle of the gasoline engine is
that the expansion force by the combustion
of the gasoline is converted into the force
pressing the piston to rotate the crankshaft.
When ascending up to the inclined road, we
press the accelerator pedal to get high
power. When running constantly in the even
road, we just press the accelerator a little.
As connecting to the throttle valve
controlling the amount of intake air, the
pressed depth of the accelerator pedal
directly affects to the open amount of the
throttle valve.
The fuel injection amount is decided by the
amount of the intake air. When the air is
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Engine Principles

inhaled with little amount by little pressing

the pedal, the gasoline injection amount will
be small. When the air amount is large by
pressing deeply, then the fuel injection
amount will be increased.
That is, the ratio between the air amount
and the fuel amount is already preset, so
the accelerator pedal controls only the inhale
air amount. So, pressing the pedal little, the
mixture amount is small and the power of
engine, while pressing the pedal more, the This concept was suggested by the James
power of engine will be increased because Watts who invented the steam engine in
the mixture amount is increased. England. To compare the dynamic
performances of the some kinds of the
Generally, the engine performance is
steam engines, as the horse power used for
decided by the engine force. The force is
water pumping works in the coal mine, the
represented in unit of kg. In the vehicle, as
one horse power is 550 ft·lbf/s. Converting
the ultimate force is the rotating force
into the metric system, it will be 75 kg·m/s.
driving the wheel, it is prefer to represent in
This is the power for pulling up the 75kg
unit of torque, i.e. kg·m, acquired by
weight per 1m in one second.
multiple the magnitude of force with the
distance between the center of rotate to the For the unit of the Horsepower, it will be
force applying point. represented HP in abbreviation, or the PS
Pferdestarke from Germany. The PS is more
In another aspect of engine performance,
usually used. In SI unit system, representing
how much work is possible within certain
with W (watt), 1 PS is about 735.4W. So,
time period is also important. This work
100PS is 73.5kW, 100kW is 136PS.
amount is the power represented by horse
power. In the vehicle catalogue, we can see
additional word such as (Net) or (Gross) in
3. Representing Method for Power front of the unit of PS/rpm. As the engine
output is generally measured with being set
Generally, the most important element of
the engine to the measuring equipment, the
the engine performance is the output
measured output is changed according to
(power). When a new engine is installed,
the measuring condition, and there is
some one says “What horse power has it?”
dispersion in measured values. Therefore, to
This horse power is the work efficiency, that
indicate the output, Net value and Gross
is, the unit indicating the work amount
value are used. The Gross value is
during specific time period, so called the
measured value with engine only, and the
dynamic output (power).
Net value is measured value with being set
the engine to the vehicle. For the gasoline
engine, the Net value is 15% less than the
Gross value. If there is no notice, the larger
value is the Gross one.

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The power is the function of the time. The
engine power will be increased proportional
to the rpm because the work amount per
time is increased when the rpm is higher.
However, when the engine rpm is
increasing, the dynamic parts can not run
over the certain value, or the engine can not
intake or exhaust faster than limit, or the
engine power is excessively wasted for
driving engine itself if the rpm is over than
certain rpm. That is the engine power has
certain limit value. This is the maximum
power output. In catalogue, it is indicated
with the rpm thereat.
4. What is Torque?
The torque or the twisting force which is
applied to a rotational matter such as bolt,
axis rod and wheel. It depends not only on
the applied force but also on the length of
the lever arm upon which the force acts. By
definition, torque is equal to force multiplied
by the leverage; the length from the center
of the rotor to the point which a force is
applied.
In engine, the torque is equal to force of
which the piston going down force multiplied
by the distance from the center of crank pin
to the center of crankshaft.
So, the magnitude of the torque of certain
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engine is decided by the force of which the
piston presses the connecting rod, that is,
the combustion force. The performance
graph of torque is representing that which
piston is pressing the crankshaft with how
much force when the engine is rotating at
what rpm. As this force will be transmitted
to the wheel finally, the impulsive force of
the vehicle is small if the engine torque is
small, the impulsive force of the vehicle is
high if the engine torque is high.
The expansion (exploded) force is
determined by many elements, especially,
by the amount of the inhaled air into the
cylinder. With plentiful of air, it is possible to
get high power. Considering the relationship
between the inhaled air amount and the rpm
of engine, when the engine has low speed
of rotation, the movement of piston is also
slow and inhaled air amount is low. When
the engine has high speed of rotation, the
movement of the piston is fast and the
inhaled air amount is high. However, if the
engine has too high speed, then the intake
valve may close before the air is not fully
inhaled into the cylinder yet. In this case, the
inhaled air amount per stroke (volumetric
efficiency) is decreased. Therefore, the
engine torque curve has the peak shape.
For example, compare the engine torque
between the 2500rpm pick engine and the
5000rpm pick engine. The former engine
has the best performance at the 2500rpm
but not so good performance at the
5000rpm.
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Engine Principles

complicated structure and the high cost.

The pressing force at the piston is
calculated by dividing a work amount per
cycle by the displacement volume. By this
calculation, the pressing force at the piston
is the pressure. But the pressure at the
piston is continuously changed by the
position of piston and the stroke. So, the
mean pressure per cycle is used for a
On the contrary, the 5000rpm pick engine calculation. This is called as the mean
has a good performance at high speed but it effective pressure, the average pressure in
has low performance at low speed. So, the the cylinder.
engine characteristics are different between
To enhance the engine power, the main
above engines even though the maximum
three elements including the total
torques are same.
displacement volume, the mean effective
pressure, and the rpm should be enhanced.
5. To enhance Power
The work per certain time shall be increased
The engine power is a working amount by enhancing the rpm. Deciding the total
during a specific time. The engine power displacement volume of the engine, how the
can be increased as high as the cylinder mean effective pressure is increased and
volume high, the combustion force high and how the limitation of the rpm is overcomed
the rpm high. are the major focusing point for a
The engine size is represented by the developing of an engine to enhance the
displacement volume. The cylinder engine power.
displacement volume is the exhausted gas
amount from certain cylinder during the
piston moves from the BDC to TDC. The
total displacement volume is the sum of
volume of all cylinders. The cylinder
displacement volume is calculated from
multiple the cross sectional area by the
stroke of the cylinder. It is represented by
unit of cc or ℓ.
When the total displacement volume is
bigger, the engine output will be also higher.
To compare the engine performance, the
PS/ℓ is used. The PS/ℓ means that how
much horsepower is generated per 1ℓ of
displacement volume. For the passenger
car, generally, the more cylinder has higher
value of PS/ℓ because volumetric efficiency
is higher with multiple cylinder. But the
demerit of multiple cylinder is the much
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Methods for increasing of maximum power
Method Item
Increasing compression ratio
Increasing combustion pressure
High combustion speed
Increasing mean piston Good shape of combustion chamber
effectivepressure High heat efficiency
Small Surface/Volumn ratio of combustion chamber
Proper ignition timing
Proper location of spark plug
Place the duct for taking cold air
Low intake air Heatproof air duct and manifold
temperature Duct layout for heat proof
Utilize intercooler
Increasing intake
Utilize turbocharger or supercharger
pressure
Multi valve
Increase inner diameter for intake and exhaust
Increasing
charging Reduce resistance for Increase radius of curvature
efficiency intake and exhaust Smooth inner surface
Proper capacity of surge tank
Reduce back pressure
Wide cam nose
Valve system Increase valve overlap
Proper valve timing
Using inertia energy & Variable intake system
pulsation Proper length of manifold
Multi valve
Multi cylinder
Reduce intake air Short stroke
speed Increase valve diameter
Wide cam nose
Increasing rpm
limit Increase valve lift
Light weight of valve system
Reduce inertia mass
Light weight of main moving parts
of moving parts
Double over head camshaft, twine cam
Reduce piston mean
Short stroke
speed

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6. S/B Ratio & Output
The displacement volume of cylinder is
calculated by the cross sectional area of
cylinder and the stroke. Also the cross
sectional area is calculated by the diameter
of cylinder (Bore). So, the main factors of
displacement are the Bore and the Stroke.
The bore and the stroke may differ from
each engine even though the same number
of cylinder and the same cylinder
displacement. That is, some engine have
the thin and long cylinder, other engines
have the fat and short cylinder. The ratio
between the length of stroke and diameter
of bore is called Stroke/Bore ratio.
For the passenger car, the Stroke/Bore
(S/B) ratio is about 0.7∼1.3. The S/B ratio
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is less than 1, the stroke is smaller than the
bore, it is called Short Stroke. The S/B ratio
is higher than 1, the stroke is larger than
bore, it is called Long Stroke. The S/B ratio
is just 1, the stroke is equal to the bore
diameter, it is called Square.
With the same displacement volume, the
Short Stroke engine has more potential to
have higher power because larger bore
engine can make a larger valve diameter
and can make a high engine rpm without
increasing the piston speed.
First of all, consider about the bore. The gas
amount will be larger as the valve diameter
or the Valve Lift is larger. With larger gas
amount, it is possible to get higher output
because more gasoline will be combusted.
Additionally, if the valve diameter will be
larger, for the same gas amount, the valve
lift can be made smaller. So the valve
movement will be small at the high speed.
However, the larger valve diameter has
larger diameter of intake port, the large
intake port engine can not make the fast
flow of intake gas at low speed so
combustion may be degrade.
Next, considering about the piston speed.
With the same rpm of engine, the piston in
long stroke should be move as fast as the
stroke length. The piston speed has a
limitation. When the piston moves in high
speed, the lubricant oil may not be properly
worked, or the piston inertia force will be too
high. The rpm of short stroke engine can be
more increased than the long stroke engine,
if the engines has same limitation of piston
speed. Recently, the limit of the average
piston speed is about 15∼22m per second.
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Engine Principles
In general, the engine for high speed and
output such as sports car shall accept Short
Stroke or Square type S/B ratio, the engine
for commercial car accepts the Long Stroke
to increase the torque instead of speed.
7. Compression Ratio & Output
In the previous section, the power can be
enhanced by increasing the intake air and
increasing the engine rpm. Also there is one
more method to increase the engine power.
That is the compression ratio.
When the piston is at the TDC, the space
which is surrounded by the piston and the
cylinder head including the intake-exhaust
valves is the combustion chamber. The
compression ratio is that the cylinder volume
is divided by compression chamber volume.
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The cylinder volume is the total volume of
compression chamber volume and the
displacement of cylinder.
The compression ratio represents how much
the intake mixture is compressed. The
compression ratio in the vehicle catalogue is
a theoretical value by a calculation. In
general, it is about 9 ∼ 10 for normal
gasoline engine and about 12 ∼ 13 and for
racing engine.
As the compression ratio is high, the mixture
is compresses strongly. So the mixture
temperature will be high and the combustion
will be performed in short time. Then the
combustion pressure will be high and the
torque and power will also be high.
Furthermore, in the combustion stroke, the
expansion ratio is also high, so the exhaust
gas has not too high temperature. So the
fuel efficiency will be good.
However, if the compression ratio is too
high, the engine can easily have abnormal
combustion such as knocking. So it has
limitation. Knocking is related with mixture
temperature, flow, chamber wall
temperature as well as the compression
ratio. So, to increase the compression ratio
should be followed by the good cooling
system for the cylinder head. Furthermore,
the engine should have higher strength for
high compression ratio. The high
performance engine should be carefully
designed.
There are theoretical compression ratio and
the actual compression ratio. The actual
compression ratio indicates how much the
intake air is compressed actually. For
example, in the intake stroke, if the air is not
inhaled sufficiently, then the actual
compression ratio is less than theoretical
ratio. In the turbo engine, if the boost
pressure is 1atm, then the actual
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Engine Principles

compression ratio will be twice. So, the
actual compression ratio is the important
factors for the enhancing the power. In
above, the knocking is affected by the
actual compression ratio.
⑶ Enlarge the lift of intake valve and
elongate the opening time: The opening
time of intake valve is about 240° in
terms of crankshaft rotation angle. In
the racing engine, it is about 280∼320°.

8. Increasing power by High rpm (rpm

limit)
To make a high power engine, the fuel
amount of combustion is increased. Even
the fuel amount is increased, if the air
amount is not increased, then it is no
meaning. Therefore, to make a high power
engine, the intake air amount be more.
The air flow speed at the intake port is
⑷ Design the SHORT STROKE: with the
divided the intake air quantity by the cross
same displacement volume, the SHORT
sectional area. The intake air amount will be
STROKE is to make the valve be
increased by the increasing of the engine
enlarged. So, the opening area is also
rpm. So, the engine output is proportion to
large and then the intake air speed will
the rpm.
be slow.
The flow resistance of the air will be
If the intake air speed is sufficiently slow,
increased as the air flow is fast. By
the engine rpm can be increased more to
enlarging the duct or volume of air cleaner,
make more power.
the flow resistance can be reduced.
However, the resistance around the valve is If the engine rpm is increased, the engine
not controlled. So, over the certain rpm, the should endure against the high rpm. That is,
power can not be increased any more. the engine should be strengthening to
Therefore, to get high output at the high ensure the high rpm. Generally, the engine
speed, the intake air speed should be should be lightened to reduce the inertia
decreased at the high speed. To do so, force, and enhanced the strength of the
there are some methods to be considered. body and parts of engine.

⑴ Increase the number of cylinder: with the

9. Transient Characteristic & Response
same total displacement volume, if the
cylinder number is increased, then the
cylinder diameter will be reduced and
then valve diameter will do so.
Therefore, the intake flow velocity will be
reduced.
⑵ Increase the number of intake valve: with
the same reason mentioned in ⑴, the
air flow velocity will be reduced around
the intake valve.

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Engine Principles

increased, then the engine output shall be

increased.

The engine makes large torque but

acceleration response is slow, the engine is In some fuel system, the gasoline may not
not a high performance engine. The be flown smoothly because the gasoline
acceleration performance or the response of sprayed from the injector. In this case, when
the engine can be affected by the weight of the throttle valve is open quickly, the mixture
the car or gear ratio. is leaned and then the initial torque of the
engine may be delayed. To solve this
When the driving condition is changed, the
problem, there is a method in which the
intermediate state between before and after
injection amount is selectively increased at
is called transient or partial state. The
that moment.
engine characteristic at partial state is called
the transient characteristic of the engine.
10. Cylinder Array & Performance
The transient characteristic is basically
There are three method for arraying the
related with the changing of the rpm and the
cylinders, in-line type, V-type, and opposed
inertia force. The important things for the
type. What relationship is there between the
response are the weight of the dynamic
cylinder array and the engine performance?
parts of the engine and the changing ability
of the air/fuel while acceleration.
To reduce the inertia force of the dynamic
parts of the engine, the dynamic parts
should be made as light as possible.
In the fuel injection type engine, an intake
collector (surge tank) has a similar volume
with the total displacement volume. When
the accelerator is pressed to open the
throttle valve, the air can not be inhaled into
the manifold immediately because of the
inertia force of the air.
Therefore, the first movement of the engine
torque will be delay. To solve this problem,
if the volume of the collector (surge tank) is

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Engine Principles

The in-line type engine has the cylinder in easy to get high power.
sequentially arrayed. There are from 2-
If the angle of V array is set to 60°, the
cylinder type to 6-cylinder type. In the in-
feature is closed to the serial 6-cylinder
line type, the structure of the cylinder block
engine. It can be installed at the FF type
is very simple and the cylinder head is one
vehicle. So it is possible for the FF car to be
body, so the engine shall be light and
developed into high performance car.
compact. It is used widely from commercial
car to racing car. The V-type engine generally consists of 6-
cylinder. By combining the serial 4-cylinder
In the in-line type engine, generally, the
and the serial 6-cylinder, the V8 and the
cylinder number is 4 when the displacement
V12 engines can be manufactured
volume is up to 2ℓ. The cylinder number is 6
respectively. They are generally installed at
more than 2ℓ less than 3.5ℓ. The 4-cylinder
the large vehicle or sports car. The V6
engine having the displacement volume of
engine is not easy to be utilized because the
from 1ℓto 1.5ℓ is used for commercial
width of the engine is wider and weight is
vehicle, and one having more and up to 2ℓ
heavier.
is used for high performance purposed car.
Engine for the displacement volume of 2ℓ is The opposed engine is the same with the
generally made into 4-cylinder or 6-cylinder. V-type engine having the 180° of the angle.
The 6-cylinder engine has smaller The center of engine will be lower than
combustion chamber and is easy to be others.
made with SHORT STROKE. So it can be
get large maximum output. 11. Fuel Consumption Ratio

The in-line 6-cylinder engine has the long

length so it needs somewhat high cost. But,
the size is compact in compare with the
performance, and the turbocharger can be
easily attached. So it can be utilized in high
performance engine. Additionally, the inertia
force of the piston-crank is well balanced so
it shows good features at the anti-vibration.
However, it is hard to install widely in the
engine room of FF type vehicle; so
generally, it is installed at the FR type
vehicle in longitudinal direction. The 3-
cylinder or 5-cylinder is rarely used in the
in-line type.
By dividing 6-cylinder into two set of serial
3-cylinder and facing them to array in
parallel, the length is reduced almost half of
the in-line 6-cylinder engine is the V-Type
6-cylinder engine. As this engine has the
high intake-exhaust efficiency because the
bore diameter can be enlarged easily, it is
103
The fuel efficiency of the engine is
represented by the fuel consumption rate.
The fuel consumption amount for the driving
is changed by the driving condition. When
the dynamic performance is measured by
attaching to the dynamometer to compare
with other engine, the consumption amount
of the fuel should be considered.
Therefore, the fuel consumption rate is
represented by fuel consumption amount
per work, and the unit is g/PS·h. Assume
that when a engine is rotating with 3000rpm
at the dynamometer, the engine outputs
55PS, and 11kg gasoline is used for 1 hour
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Engine Principles
working in this condition, then the fuel
consumption rate is 220g/PS·h.
When referring to the graph of fuel
consumption rate in the engine performance
curve, that the fuel consumption rate is
minimized with certain rpm of engine is
more concerned than the fuel amount. The
actual fuel consumption rate shall be
measured in actual driving condition at the
vehicle.
Generally to say, the catalogue indicates the
fuel consumption rate with the 10-15 mode
rate and the 60km/h steady rate. On here,
the rate is just concerned to the engine
itself.
To reduce the fuel consumption rate, the
fuel is used less as possible and the heat
should be thoroughly converted into the
dynamic force. So, it is related with the heat
efficiency. For example, the mixture should
be combusted with high temperature and
high pressure, completely and fast as
possible. And the heat loss to the exhaust
gas and to the cylinder wall should be
reduced as possible. As well as the
mechanical friction should be reduced also.
To calculate how the engine uses the heat
from the gasoline in classifying according to
the element is the heat balance.
To indicate this heat balance with the graph
is the heat balance graph. Generally to say
104
about the heat balance of the gasoline
engine. The heat for output, the heat for
loss in exhaust gas and the heat for loss
through the cylinder wall are 30% separately,
and 10% is for others. Until now, the most
heat efficiency of the engine is about 35%,
that is, in the term of fuel consumption rate,
about 170g/PS·h.
12. Output & Fuel Efficiency
As the air amount is increased to enhance
the engine output, the fuel amount will be
increased, so the fuel efficiency is
degraded. However, if the mixture can be
completely combusted to increase the heat
efficiency and to get higher output, then the
high fuel efficiency as well as the high
output will be acquired. Additionally, the
exhaust gas has less harmful elements.
The engine heat efficiency is the ratio of the
heat capacity used for working. To increase
the heat efficiency, the expansion of the gas
should be as large as possible, at the same
time; the loss energy should be as small as
possible. The loss energies in the engine are
the cooling loss by cooling system, the
exhaust loss by being taken out with the
hot exhaust gas, and the intake-exhaust
loss (pumping loss) used for intake-
exhaust operation.
To increase the heat efficiency by increasing
the expansion force of the combusted gas is
related with to increase the mixture amount
and to increase the compression ratio.
To reduce the cooling loss, the temperature
of the combustion chamber should be
increased. By changing the shape of
combustion chamber to enhance the
compression ratio, the chamber temperature
will be increased at the compression stroke
as well as the knocking is prevented. In
other hand, the method using the higher
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Engine Principles
cooling water is also concerned.
To reduce the intake-exhaust loss (pumping
loss), The intake-exhaust tube should be
short and have less bent portion as
possible.
To enhance the air flow at the valve, the
diameter of the valve may be enlarged or
the number of valve may be increased.
However, in that case, if the mixture flow is
too slow, or if the structure of the chamber
is too complicated, then the heat efficiency
will be degraded. Therefore, it should be
carefully designed.
One more, to enhance the heat efficiency, it
should be considered that the friction loss
generated when the piston moves. The
mechanical energy loss in driving the
auxiliary equipments should be reduced.
13. Fuel Efficiency of Vehicle
105
Even though the fuel consumption rate
indicates the engine fuel efficiency, this
value is not the exact fuel efficiency of
vehicle. With the same engine, the fuel
efficiency may differ according that it is
installed at heavy and large vehicle or it is
installed at light and small vehicle.
Comparing one case that a vehicle includes
a small engine having good fuel efficiency
and another case that a vehicle includes a
large engine having bad fuel efficiency but
high power, the actual fuel efficiency will be
changed by the driving condition. For
example, if a car is usually used in the low
rpm condition, then the small displacement
volume is more effective. If the car is usually
used in high speed or high power condition,
then the large displacement volume engine
will be more effective.
For the comparing of the fuel efficiency
between engines, the specific test mode is
required. The specific test mode means that
the test method and test conditions are
specified. There are many test mode which
should be suggested in catalogue, the 10-
15 mode running fuel consumption, the
60km/h steady fuel consumption, FTP 75
mode and so on.
In representing the fuel consumption rate,
for engine only, the unit of g/PS-h is used,
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Engine Principles

the unit of km/ℓ indicating for vehicle what

km the car can run with 1ℓ of fuel is used.
The 10-15 mode fuel efficiency is
acquired from dividing the running distance
by the amount of the used fuel, the vehicle
is tested at the dynamometer according to
the predetermined pattern cycle of idling →
start acceleration → running with constant
speed → deceleration. In the past, the
driving pattern had the maximum speed of
There are many sources to make vibration in
40km/h, however, it was not proper to the
engine. There are major three vibrations,
modern traffic condition. Recently, the
one is from the combustion of the engine,
maximum speed sets to 70km/h, the 15
one another is from the inertia force of the
mode is added to this test.
reciprocal and rotational movement at the
dynamic system such as piston, connecting
rod, crankshaft, and others.
The vibration from the engine is as much as
high pressure of the combustion. And, the
engine having high compression ratio and
high performance makes more noise. The
vibration of the turbo engine makes 20~50%
more noise than NA engine. In this case,
some devices for preventing from noise are
used and the auxiliary devices are attached
at the portions less affected by vibration.
Additionally, by changing the engine
The 60km/h steady fuel efficiency is
mounting position or adopting the vibration
acquired from the used fuel amount when a
absorber with the mounting portions, the
car is driving with constant speed of 60km/h
vibration can not be transmitted to the body
with the gross weight having full passengers
directly.
and baggage at the paved plain road
without wind. Generally, this value is
measured in the ideal state by the
manufacturer to suggest to government. The
actual value is less than this value.

14. Vibration of Engine

The inertia force is one major source of the

vibration. As the piston moves from the
highest point to the lowest point with various
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Engine Principles
accelerations. The crankshaft makes a
vibration waves and an inertia force from the
rotation of the crank pin. The Connecting
rod makes an inertia force from the
combination of the reciprocal and rotational
movement. In the multi cylinder engine, the
pistons are connected to the crankshaft, so
each inertia will be canceled each other. It is
very complicated with the number of
cylinders, array of them and each timing of
combustion. Therefore, using the counter
weight, the inertia force is balanced with the
total weight. To match the balance of the
inertia force completely is very difficult.
The inertia force is less when the dynamic
parts such as piston and Connecting rod
have lighter weight. With the same
displacement volume, the engine having
more number of cylinders has less inertia
force because the parts are small and light.
When the inertia force is small, the
possibility to make a vibration will be few
and it will rotate at high speed with the same
strength.
By lightening the weight of dynamic part, the
inertia force at each part will be small. With
the same rpm, the strength of these parts
will not be maintained highly. Generally, the
device having lower strength is lighter than
the device having higher strength. To be
lightening is most important point to
increase performance as well as to prevent
vibration.
15. Noise of Engine
107
The noises from the engine are the
combustion noise and mechanical sounds.
The mechanical sounds is caused by the
friction between the parts. When the engine
rotates with high speed, the noise will be
changed and be louder. When a driver
changes the shift to up or down, generally,
the driver may selects the proper gear by
engine noise. So, the sound of engine helps
the driver for the driving. Therefore, the
engine sound should be noticed but it shall
not the noise but the sound.
The mechanical noise is made from the
vibration of the cylinder and cylinder head by
the combustion force. When the mixture
amount is increased or the combustion
pressure is higher, then the noise will be
louder. Someone may feel that the turbo
engine make less noise than the NA engine.
The reasons are the turbine absorbs the
exhaust energy and the variation of the
combustion pressure is smaller.
The mechanical sounds comes from the
friction and bump the dynamic parts such as
gear, chain, and valves. For example, the
cam hits the valve lifter, rocker arm and
camshaft hits the valves, the valve bumps
with the valve seat and so on.
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Engine Principles

The resonance noise from the vibration is

louder than the direct mechanical noise. So,
the causes of the noise from the engine can
not be exactly found. Any way, that there is
a noise is not good situation because some
parts of the engine shall be hit with others
and this is bad for the endurance of parts. If
you detect abnormal noise, please check
the system as soon as possible.
Comparing the combustion noise with the
mechanical noise, at the low speed, the
combustion noise is larger. When the rpm is
over 3000rpm, the inertial force is larger and
the mechanical noise will be larger.
The noise from the engine room will be
protected by attaching absorbing materials
under the hood and in front of the
dashboard, the boundary of the engine
room and cabin. The noise absorbing
materials are glass wool, felt and so on.

108 Chonan Technical Service Training Center