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HEALTH & HYGEINE

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF THE HUMAN BODY

1. In order to carryout first aid, a first aider should have basic idea of structure
and function of every part of the human body.

2. The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body.

3. Function of bones.

(a) The bones give shape and firmness to the body

(b) It protects the vital organs like brain, heart, lungs and spinal cord.

4. Our body is composed of around 300 bones at birth – this total decreases to
around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones have fused together.

5. The bone mass in the skeleton reaches maximum density around age 20.

6. The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and
the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral column,
the rib cage, the skull and other associated bones. The appendicular skeleton,
which is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed by the shoulder girdle,
the pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper and lower limbs.

7. The human skeleton performs six major functions; support, movement,

protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals, and endocrine
regulation.

8. Classification of Bones. Bones can be classified according to their shape as

under:-
(a) Long Bones. These bones are long and tubular and are confirmed to
upper and lower limbs.

(b) Short Bones. This bones are short and tubular and are found in the
ankle/wrists.

(c) Flat Bones. These bones are flat like plates eg. Bones of cranium
skull shoulder or hips.

(d) Irregular Bones. Irregular or mixed shape eg.Vertebral column.

(e) Sesamoid Bones. They develop in the tendons of the muscles

around the joints e.g. Patella

9. Muscular System. The muscular system is an organ system consisting

of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles.

10. Function of muscular system. (Pnemonics CMP)

(a) It permits Movement of the body.

(b) Maintains Posture
(c) Circulates blood throughout the body

11. The muscular system in vertebrates is controlled through the nervous

system.

12. An example of completely autonomous muscles is the

13. Muscle system + Skeletal system = musculoskeletal system, which is

responsible for movement of the human body.

14. The muscles form about half of the total weight of the body and are
responsible for body movement.

15. Classification. The muscles of the body are classified into the following
types:-

(a) Voluntary/Skeletal Muscles. These muscles are attached to the

surface of bones. These muscles form about 47% of the body weight. Most
of the skeletal muscles act upon the joints and produce movements.

(b) Involuntary Muscles. These muscles are controlled by the Automatic

Nervous System.

(c) Cardiac Muscles. These muscles are striated structurally, unstrained

functionally.

Organ Systems

16. Circulatory System. The circulatory system consists of the Heart, Blood
Vessels and blood.

17. How are wastes and CO2 removed from the body?

Each time the heart contracts; blood is pumped along the blood vessels. By blood
circulation, oxygen, nutrients and other substances are brought to the tissues and
the waste products and carbon dioxide formed by the tissues are constantly
removed.

18. Explain the parts of circulatory system.

(a) Heart. The Heart is the four chambered pumping organ. It is
situated in thorax between the lungs and on to the left side of the body.
The size of heart is to a closed fist and the average weight of heart in a male
is about 300 grams, and in a female about 250 grams.

(b) Blood. The blood is also known as the transport system of the
body. It consists of plasma and formed of cells such as RBC, WBC and
platelets.
(c) Blood Vessels. Blood vessels are tube like structures which
carry blood all over the body for circulation. These are of three types:

(i) Arteries. These are the blood vessels which carry blood
from the heart to other parts of the body.

(ii) Capillaries. These are tiny blood vessels which connect the
small arteries & veins. The exchange of oxygen and nutrition with
carbon dioxide by the tissue takes place in the capillaries.

(iii) Veins. These blood vessels carry blood to the heart. The
main veins are called superior and inferior vena cava.

19. Respiratory System. Respiration is a process by which oxygen is taken

in and carbon dioxide is given out. The human respiratory system consists of a
pair of lungs and a series of air passages leading to the lungs. The entire
respiratory tract (passage) consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
and bronchioles. Air enters the nose through the nostrils. When air passes through
the nose, it is warmed, moistened and filtered. The hairs present in the nose filter
out particles in the incoming air. The air is moistened by the mucus present in the
nose, and it is warmed by the blood flowing through the capillaries in the nose.

20. Digestive System. Digestion is a mechanical and chemical process by

which, complex food substances are converted into simple substances so that they
can be easily absorbed by blood and utilized by the various tissues of the body
according to their requirements. The main organs of digestive system are mouth,
salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, small intestine and
the large intestine.

21. Excretory System. Excretion is a process by which waste products are

removed out of the body. The excretory system is a passive biological system that
removes excess, unnecessary materials from the body fluids of an organism, so as
to help maintain internal chemical homeostasis and prevent damage to the body.

22. What are the dual functions of excretory system?

(a) the elimination of the waste products of metabolism

(b) to drain the body of used up and broken down components in a liquid
and gaseous state.

23. In humans and other amniotes (mammals, birds and reptiles) most of these
substances leave the body as urine and to some degree exhalation, mammals
also expel them through sweating. Among the organs that contribute towards
the elimination of waste products are the skin, lungs, kidneys and the gastro-
intestinal tract.

24. Nervous System. Internal balance of the human body is maintained

within normal limits by the nervous system and the endocrine system. The
neurons are the basic units of nervous system.

25. The nervous system may be divided into three main parts (Pnemonics CAP):-

(a) The Central Nervous System. This consists of brain and spinal
cord.

(b) The Peripheral Nervous System. This forms the connections

between the central nervous system and the various organs and
muscles.

(c) The Autonomic Nervous System. It is an offshoot of the central

nervous system and controls the involuntary functions of the various
internal organs.

HYGIENE AND SANITATION (PERSONAL AND FOOD HYGIENE)

1. Why is it necessary to maintain hygiene and sanitation?

(a) Maintaining hygiene and sanitation is necessary for many reasons;
personal, social, health, psychological or simply as a way of life.
(b) Keeping a good standard of hygiene helps to prevent the
development and spread of infections, illnesses and bad odours.
(c) Personal and Food Hygiene are necessary to preserve and improve
the health of the individual and of the community as a whole.
2. Personal hygiene involves those practices performed by an individual to care
for one's bodily health and well being, through cleanliness.

3. What are the main components of personal hygiene?

Main components of personal hygiene are:-

(a) Sleep. The average requirement of sleep is about 7 to 8 hours a day.

(b) Bathing
(c) Brush your teeth twice a day.
(d) Keeping finger and toe nails trimmed. Feet that are clean and dry are
less likely to contact Athlete’s foot.

4. Food hygiene is the condition and measures necessary to ensure the safety of
food from production to consumption.
5. What are the five keys to safer food?
The five keys to safer food are listed below:-
(a) Keep clean.
(b) Separate raw and cooked items.
(c) Cook thoroughly.
(d) Keep food at safe temperatures.
(e) Use safe water and raw materials.
6. Food is a potential source of infection and is liable to contamination by
micro organisms at any point during its journey from the producer to the consumer.
Prevention of contamination of food has to be observed from production to
handling, distribution and serving.
7. What are the important components of food hygiene?
The following are the important components of food hygiene.
(a) Milk Hygiene. Milk is an efficient vehicle for many disease
organisms Contamination of milk may be through infected animal, human
handler or environmental factors. Following aspects should be ensured to
obtain clean and safe milk:-
(i) The animal and its surroundings should be healthy and clean.
The animal should be properly washed before milking.
(ii) Milk handler should be free from any communicable disease.

(iii) Milk vessels should be cleaned, sanitized and kept covered.

(iv) Water supply must be safe.

(v) Pasteurization. It is the heating of milk to such

temperature and for such periods of time, as are required to
destroy any pathogens without destruction of nutritive value. It
does not alter taste. (Temperature 130 C and time 1 to 2 seconds.)

(b) Meat Hygiene.

Characterstics of good meat

(i) Neither pink nor deep purple

(ii) Should be firm and elastic to touch
(iii) Should not contain excess fluids (indicates oedema)
(iv) Has an agreeable odour
(v) Reaction should be acidic

Characterstics of ill animal

(i) Loss of appetite

(ii) Offensive odour from breath
(iii) Hanging head
(iv) Slow movement
(v) Febrile
(vi) Loss of gloss
(vii) Dry nostril or abdominal discharge
(viii) Dull watery and congested eyes
(ix) Dribbling saliva
(x) Blown abdomen
(xi) Diarrhoea
(xii) Blood in stool
(xiii) Nodules or wound in skin

(c) Fish Hygiene. Fish for human consumption should be fresh. In fresh
fish, the gills are bright red and the eyes are clear and prominent.
Consumption of contaminated fish may give rise to fish poisoning.

(d) Egg Hygiene. Though the majority of freshly laid eggs are sterile
inside, the egg shell may become contaminated by fecal matter from the
hen. The egg must be properly washed before cooking.

(e) Fruits and Vegetables Hygiene. Fruits and vegetables are an

important source for the spread of pathogenic organisms, protozoan and
helminthes. Fruits and vegetables consumed raw must be washed well
before eating.

(f) Hygiene of Eating Places.

(i) Eating places should not be located near filthy places, open
drains, animal, sheds, manure/soakage pits and other such places.
(ii) Floors should be easy to clean, and should be preferably tiled.
(iii) Room for storage of food should be well ventilated, insect and
rat proof and should have adequate lighting.
(iv) Perishable and non perishable items should be kept
separately.

(v) Furniture should be strong and easy to clean.

(vi) Refuse should be collected in covered bins and removed
regularly.

(vii) Water supply should be independent, adequate and safe.

(viii) Proper place for cleaning of utensils should be provided.

(g) Hygiene of Food Handlers.

(i) Complete medical examination of food handlers must be

done at the time of employment.
(ii) Regular health checkups should be done.
(iii) Food handlers should be regularly educated on health
and hygiene aspects.
(iv) They should be constantly reminded about hand washing,
trimming of nails, covering of hair, wearing of overalls and covering
mouth while coughing and sneezing during cooking.
8. Sanitation means keeping the living area and its surroundings neat and
clean. This involves removal of waste products and refuse.
9. List types of waste products

Types. Some types of the waste products are:-

(a) Human excreta - faeces & urine.

(b) Stable litter - horses & cow dung.

(c) Dry refuse & garbage - household, municipality, industrial &

agricultural.

(d) Liquid waste - household sullage, municipal & industrial effluent.

(e) Offensive trade wastes.

(f) Dead animals, carcasses & offal of slaughtered animals.

10. What are the sources of refuse?

(a) Street Refuse. Refuse that is collected by street cleansing service or

scavenging is called street refuse e.g. leaves straw paper etc.

(b) Market Refuse. Refuse that is collected from markets is called

market refuse. e.g. spoiled vegetable and animals matter.

(c) Stable Litter. It contains mainly animal dropping and left over animal
feeds.

(d) Industrial Refuse. Industrial refuse comprises of a wide variety of

waste ranging from

(e) Domestic Refuse. The domestic refuse consist of ash, rubbish and
garbage.

11. Disposal of Waste Products / Refuse.

Collection and Removal of Refuse.

(a) House Hold Refuse. Covered galvanized irons bins are placed on
brick / cement platforms at convenient distances from the house. These
should be used for dumping house hold refuse. This refuse is then collected
in covered wheel barrows or municipal vans to prevent blowing out by
air.

(b) Special Refuse. This is from stables and cowsheds. It is collected

in carts and taken to disposal grand at frequent intervals.

(c) Street Refuse. Covered dustbins should be placed at suitable

intervals along the street and all the sweeping should be dumped in it. It is
then collected early morning in covered vans.

12. Disposal of Refuse. Various methods for disposal of refuse are:-

(a) Filling. In this method the refuse is generally utilized in filling up

pits, unsanitary tanks or in reclaiming low land. The area selected should
be at least 100-150 feet away from any habitation. No refuse should be
left uncovered for more than 72 hrs.

(b) Controlled Tipping. Controlled tipping or sanitary landfill is the

most satisfactory method of refuse disposal where suitable land is
available. Chemical, bacteriological and physical charges occur in buried
refuse.

(c) Incineration. Hospital refuse, which is particularly dangerous, is best

disposed off by incineration.

(d) Composting. It is a method of combined disposal of refuse and

night soil or sludge.

(e) Manure Pits. The garbage, cattle dung, straw and leaves should be
dumped into the manure pits and covered with earth, after each days dumping.

(f) Burial. This method is suitable for small camps. A trench 1-5m
wide and 2m deep is excavated. When the level in the trench is 40 cm from
ground level, the trench is filled with earth and comported.

(g) Sorting. This method consists of storing refuses in three separate

parts for easy disposal:-

(i) Breeze. Cinders and pieces of coal are used for making bricks.

(ii) Soft Core. Animal and vegetable organic matter, which is used
as manure.

(iii) Hard Core. Broken bottles and crockery is used for metaling
of roads.

13. What are various methods for disposal of human wastes?

Disposal of Human Waste. Proper disposal of human night soil / excreta are
very essential for prevention of various communicable diseases and also to
prevent pollution / contamination of soil, water or food (through flies). Various
methods are available for disposal of human waste / excreta as per the type of area
ie, area with a proper sewage system (sewered areas) and areas without proper
sewage system (unsewered areas).

(a) Sewered Areas. The latrines used in such areas are mainly the
Flush Latrines. It implies that ample supply of water is available to flush the
night soil away. It is simple and hygienic.

(b) Unsewered Areas. There are of various types latrines for such
areas:-

(i) Domestic Latrines. These are those latrines which are used in
houses in areas not having a sewage system. These are of following
types:-

(aa) Bore Hole Latrine. The latrine consists of a circular

hole 30-40 cm in diameter dug vertically in the ground to a

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depth of 4 to 8 mtr. In loose sandy soil the hole is lined with

bamboo matting or earthenware lining.

(ab) Dug Well Latrine. A circular pit about 75 cm in

diameter and 3 to 5 m deep is dug into the ground for the
reception of the night soil . In sandy soil the depth of the pit
may be reduced to 1.5 to 2 mtr.
(ac) Water Seal Latrine. The water seal performs two
important functions e.g. it prevents access to flies and it
prevents escape of foul odour. Out of many designs of water
seal latrines, the RCA type is widely adopted.
(ii) Camp Latrines. These are of following types:-

(aa) Deep Trench Latrines. A pit three feet wide, at least

eight feet deep and of a length suitable to the requirement is
constructed and wooden seats placed over it with proper
partitions and curtains. Soil may necessitate reverting of sides
with sand bags, bamboos or wire netting. On vacation of camp,
these are filled up with soil to assist in disintegration and prevent
breeding of flies.

(ab) Shallow Trench Latrines. For camps of less than a

week’s duration, dig a row of trenches in parallel, each
trench being 3 feet long, 1 foot wide and 2 feet deep. Each
trench should be 2 feet apart. The ratio is 5 trenches for the
first hundred users and three for each subsequent hundred.
After defecation, the excreta is covered with loose earth with a
shovel or a scoop. These trenches are filled up after 24 hours
and new trenches are dug up.

(ac) Urinals. The most common urinal used for camps is the
Funnel Urinals which are constructed over a simple soakage
pit.

(c) Soakage Pits. These are essential for the disposal of liquid
refuse like greasy water from kitchen and waste water from bathrooms.
Dig a pit 4 feet by 4 feet and 5 feet to 6 feet deep. Fill with small stones and
broken bricks. Cover the top with oiled sacking and put earth or sand 6 inches
above. In the centre keep a perforated empty tin of kerosene oil. Fill this tin
with layers of gravel or sand and gravel. In this fit remove the strainer daily
and replace with fresh one.

(d) Disposal of Garbage. Disposal of solid refuse like kitchen

garbage, bones etc, be done by burial or burning. The household refuse
should be deposited in a covered bin placed outside. Improvised kerosene/oil
tins are not advisable. Further disposal should be done under municipal
arrangements.

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14. What are the methods of disposal of sewerage?

The disposal of sewage involves treatment and disposal as under :-

(a) Treatment of Sewage. Treatment of sewage is brought about by the

action of anaerobic and aerobic bacteria. The different steps involved in this
process are:-

(i) Screening.

(ii) Chambering.

(iii) Primary Sedimentation.

(iv) Trickling Filter.

(v) Activated Sludge Process.

(vi) Sludge Digestion.

(vii) Disposal of Effluent.

(b) Disposal of Sewage. The sewage is collected by the water carriage

system and where no treatment facility is available can be disposed off by:-

(i) Sea Out Fall. The sewage is drained into the sea. This is
applicable mostly for coastal cities / towns.

(II) River Out Fall. The sewage is drained into the river. This is
applicable mostly for cities / towns situated along the rivers or
connected by drains.

(ii) Land Treatment. Here the sewage is allowed to drain out on

the earmarked land / pits. This is mostly applicable to small
villages.
(iv) Oxidation Pond.

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PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH

1. Health is the level of functional and metabolic efficiency.

2. The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health in its broader sense in
its 1948 constitution as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-
being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”.

3. Physical health is the absence of disease and infirmity and it is assessed

by taking health state measurements of the body. Poor physical health can lead to
an increased risk of developing mental health problems. Similarly, poor mental
health can have negative impact on physical health, leading to an increased risk.

4. What are the Elements of Good Health? The main elements of good
health are:-
(a) Absence of disease.
(b) Ability to work hard with efficiency and enthusiasm.
(c) Ability to endure stress and strain.
(d) Cheerfulness.
(e) Courage.
(f) Freedom from anxiety.
(g) Self control and self confidence.
(h) Sense of well being.
(j) Wholesome mental attitude.

5. What are the components of health?

Components of Health.
(a) Physical Activity. This should be a mix of both leisurely physical
activity and structured exercise. Examples of leisurely physical activity
include hiking, biking, and walking. Examples of more structured forms of
exercise include strength training, running, and sports.
(b) Nutrition and Diet. A well-balanced diet should contain
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Restricting specific
nutrients should only be done under the supervision of a licensed health
professional. Fluid, ideally in the form of clean water, should be regularly
consumed. Meals and snacks should be consumed throughout the day, and
portion sizes should be sensible.
(c) Alcohol and Drugs. Substances that alter mood or other bodily
processes should be limited or avoided. Those with addictive tendencies
or other health risks should consider complete abstinence from these
substances.

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(d) Medical Self-Care. Basic items, such as bandages, lozenges, and

over-the-counter pain-relieving medications, should be easily accessible from
home. Long-term coughing, fevers, or other ailments should be addressed
through primary care. Emergency treatment should be sought when signs
and symptoms are significant or life-threatening.
(e) Rest and Sleep. Sleep should take place in a quiet, dark environment
and should last approximately 7-9 hours.

6. Mental health refers to the successful performance of mental

functions, resulting in productive activities, fulfilling relationship with other
people, ability to adopt to change and cope up with adversities. Mental
health includes our emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It also helps
determine how we handle stress, relate to others, and make choices

7. Characteristics of a Healthy Mind. These are normal appetite,

cheerful outlook, socially acceptable habits and positive outlook and attitude.

8. Mental Disorders. Following are some of the indicators of mental

disorders:-

(a) Embarrassment in presence of others.

(b) Lack of courage.
(c) Low intelligence.
(d) Depressed and pessimistic outlook.
(e) Undue anxiety and Moodiness.
(f) Bad Temper.

9. Measures To Improve Mental Health. Following measures will help in

improving mental health:-

(a) Favorable and stress free home and school environment.

(b) Regular medical examination.

(c) Provision of educational and vocational guidance/ counseling.

(d) Provision of co-curricular activities.

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INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES AND

THEIR PREVENTION

1. A disease is a particular abnormal condition, a disorder of a structure or

function that affects part or entire body.
2. The study of disease is called pathology which includes the study of
cause. Disease is often construed as a medical condition associated with
specific symptoms and signs. Diseases can affect people not only physically,
but also emotionally.

3. What are the classification of contagious diseases (communicable

diseases) can be classified as follows:-

(a) Excremental Diseases. These are those diseases which are

communicated through human excreta (urine and faeces). The excreta can
contaminate food, water or hands of cooks and thus pass on the infection.
Typhus fever, dysentery, diarrhea, jaundice and intestinal worms are
some of the important diseases belonging to this group.

(b) Droplet Infection. These are those diseases which are

communicated or transferred through germs which are sprayed out from
the nose, throat or lungs in the air, in small droplets of saliva during
coughing, sneezing or even while talking. Common cold, influenza,
diphtheria, meningitis, (inflammation of the brain) and tuberculosis are
the common diseases in this group.

(c) Contact Diseases. These are those diseases which are

communicated or transferred when the germs pass from a sick
person to a healthy person by actual body contact. Venereal diseases
i.e. syphilis, gonorrhea and skin infection are some common examples.

(d) Insect Borne Diseases. These are those diseases which

are communicated or transferred when the germs move from a
sick person to a healthy person through blood sucking insects
known as ‘carriers’. These insects first bite a sick person and then bite a
healthy person, transferring the germs of the diseases in the blood of
the healthy person. These germs then multiply in the blood of the
healthy person during the period of incubation, and at the end of which he
starts showing symptoms of the disease carried by the insect. Some of
the carrier insects and their disease are:-

(i) Mosquito - Malaria, Dengue and Filaria.

(ii) Sand fly - Sand fly fever, Kala Azar, Oriental Sore.

(iii) Lice - Typhus, Relapsing Fever.

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(iv) Flies - Diarrhea, Dysentery, Cholera, Typhoid.

(v) Fleas - Plague, Typhus.

(vi) Ticks - Relapsing Fever, Typhus.

(e) Water Borne Diseases. Certain diseases spread due to infection

carried through water. These are cholera, dysentery, diaorreah, jaundice
etc. These spread as water gets contaminated through vomits or faces
passing into it. Epidemics are likely to spread if immediate steps are not taken
to disinfect water and to properly dispose off the excreta through efficient
conservancy arrangements. All sources of the diseases ought to be
eliminated.

(f) Animal Borne Diseases. The germs are transmitted through the
agency of animals by drinking milk or through the agency of insects.
Rabies, plague, anthrax and tuberculosis are some of the common
diseases.

4. Measures to prevent diseases are as under:-

(a) Prevention of Excremental & Water Borne Disease.

(i) Control of water route is easy by disinfecting water or

providing safe water in place.

(ii) Control of the milk route is easy by subjecting the milk to boiling
or pasteurization.

(iii) Food born infection may be controlled by standards of food

hygiene, exclusion of sick persons from food handlings.

(iii) Safe disposal of excreta will block the transmission of disease

by the faecal matter.

(b) Prevention of Droplet Infection. This can be achieved by use of

mask, proper spacing of bed, screening, dust control, avoiding of over-
crowding, proper ventilation, avoiding of spiting in public places, proper
sunlight and proper disinfection of air.

(c) Prevention of Contact Disease. This can be achieved by:-

(i) Complete segregation of patient.

(ii) No direct personal contact between patient and the

relatives/staff.

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(iii) Early diagnosis will help in preventing the spread in the patient.

(iv) Proper disposal of all the excreta and disinfection of all articles
of the patient.

(d) Prevention of Insect Borne Disease.

(i) Filling, leveling and drainage of breeding places and water

management will help in eliminating larvae. Adequate collection,
removal and disposal of sewage and waste water are important in
preventing culex.

(ii) Use kerosene oil, fuel oil, or special oil to prevent larvae.

(iii) Use of residual sprays like malathion.

(iv) Use of mosquito nets, screening of doors and windows,

mosquito repellant and sun down sleeves down.

(v) Control the presence of rodents and fleas in and around the
home.

(vi) Avoid contact with any species of wild rodents, especially sick or
dead rodents.

(vii) Not to handle sick or dead animals or animal waste.

5. Preventive measures to ward off communicable diseases:-

(a) Segregation of the Patient. Important points are as under:-

(i) Preferably shift patient to an isolated room.

(ii) Ensure room confirms to hygiene and sanitation standards i.e,

adequate ventilation, sunlight and cleanliness.

(iii) Nominate one healthy person to undertake nursing and care of

the patient.

(iv) Nominated person to take preventive measures like use of

mask, gown, and gloves and avoid direct contact and hand washing
before and after every visit.

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(iv) Clothing and utensils used by patient to be cleaned / washed

separately.

(v) Safe disposal of patients excreta – Urine, Stool, Sputum, Refuse

e.g, discarded dressings, garbage etc by burning.

(b) Destroy Agents (Germs) Causing Infection in the Surrounding

Area or Premises. Immediately on detection of a communicable disease,
the source of agents /germs causing infection should be destroyed by
following actions :-

(i) Removal / destruction of garbage.

(ii) Cleaning the drains & keeping them covered.

(iii) Remove/ dry out waste water.

(iv) Spray malathion mixed in water (ratio: malathion - 1 ml,

water 1000 ml) in and around the premises. (Caution - malathion is
highly poisonous. Direct breathing / touching should be avoided). Wash
hands after use.

(v) Keep premises free of rodents (rats), stray dogs.

(vi) Use mosquito nets, long sleeves, screening of doors and

windows.

(c) Disinfection. All articles in contact with the patient should be

disinfected by following means:-

(i) Natural. Sunlight and air can be used to disinfect articles

like blanket, mattresses, pillows and also the rooms. The
microorganisms thrive in darkness and need moisture for their
survival, on being exposed to sunlight and air they die.

(ii) Physical. Physical agents like heat, cold radiation etc.

can also be used for disinfection and sterilization.

(aa) Heat. Heat can be used in two ways for sterilizing.

Moist Heat in the form of ‘boiling’ kills germs very rapidly. In
addition, ‘autoclaving or Steam under Pressure’ is the most
effective method used to disinfect all hospital equipment
which can be boiled like linen, bandage, dressing material,
glovesand instruments. Dry heat like flaming or use of hot air
oven. Sterilization by steam under pressure (autoclaving) is
the commonest method for sterilization which is being used
in the Army.

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(ab) Cold. Freezing or freeze-drying can inactivate

bacteria. Some of them can however survive even at 0° C.
(ac) Radiation. It includes ionizing radiations like X rays,
gamma betaand ultraviolet radiation. These are expensive
methods and are not suitable for small-scale procedures.

(ad) Other Methods. Disinfection and sterilization can also

be done by using other methods like of infrared rays, filtration
etc.
(iii) Chemical Agents. Chemical agents like phenol, savlon,
potassium permanganate, hydrogen peroxide etc are commonly
used for disinfection and sterilization. The strength of
agent depends upon used concentration being used.

(iv) Control of Food & Drink. Salient points to be observed while

feeding the patient:-

(aa) Clean water preferably boiled must be served to the

patient. Water container must be kept covered.

(ab) Balanced diet, well cooked, hygienically prepared food

using less oil and condiments, should be served hot. Stale, cold
and food exposed to flies & insects should not be served.
(ac) Food items sourced from restaurants /dhabas must not
be served.

(v) Inoculation and Vaccinations. Inoculations and vaccinations

are provided free of cost under various government programmes.
These are administered at Primary Health Centers/Hospitals. If not
available the same should be administered/ taken from market.
Important inoculations and vaccination are as under:-

Name of Vaccine Disease Prevented

Injection Rabipur Rabies

Injection TAB Typhoid

Injection Hepatitis ‘B’ Hepatitis ‘B’

Injection T T Tetanus

Oral Polio Polio

 19

 20

FIRST AID IN COMMON MEDICAL EMERGENCIES

1. First aid is the assistance given to any person suffering a sudden illness or
injury, with care provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from
worsening, and/or promote recovery. First aid is usually carried out by a
layperson until professional medical assistance arrives.

2. Symptoms observed in case of internal injuries:-

(a) Cold clammy skin.

(b) Weak or rapid pulse.

(c) Shallow sighing and breathing.

(d) Face pinched and pale.

(e) Eyes deeply sunken with dark rings around them.

(f) Patient usually restless and anxious and may lose consciousness.

3. Injuries to the chest and abdomen can be difficult to recognize and treat,
and many injuries can go unnoticed until they become very serious.

4. Different organs react in different ways when subjected to trauma. Hollow

organs (such as the bladder) tend to rupture, releasing their contents into the
surrounding space. Solid organs (such as the liver) tend to tear instead, often
bleeding at a slow enough rate to be overlooked.

5. Closed Chest injuries can be inherently serious, as this area of the body
houses many critical organs, such as the heart, lungs, and many blood vessels.

6. A common result of trauma to the chest is damage to the victim's rib cage.
The curved shape of the rib cage helps to deflect the force of some injuries, but
damage to cartilage or the ribs themselves can still result. A victim with broken ribs
may take very shallow breaths without even noticing it, as their body tries to
prevent the pain with taking a full breath.
7. When many adjoining ribs are broken in different places, a portion of the rib
cage can move in the opposite direction the chest should. This is known as a "flail"
segment, and can make breathing very painful and less effective

8. Recognition of damage to rib cage.

(a) Trouble breathing

(b) Shallow breathing

 21

(c) Tenderness at site of injury

(d) Deformity & bruising of chest

(e) Pain upon movement/deep breathing/coughing

(f) Dusky or blue lips or nail beds

(g) May cough up blood

(h) Crackling feeling upon touching victim's skin

9. Treatment of damage to rib cage

(a) Call for an ambulance

(b) Assist the victim into a position of comfort (typically seated upright,
to avoid fighting gravity)
(c) Conduct a secondary survey

(d) Monitor patient's condition carefully

(e) Be vigilant, keep alert for any changes.

(f) If a flail segment is suspected, tightly secure a bulky dressing (such as

a tightly folded hand towel) to help stabilize the injury.

10. Open Chest Wounds. An open pneumothorax or sucking chest wound -

the chest wall has been penetrated (by knife, bullet, falling onto a sharp object.)
Recognition.

(a) An open chest wound – escaping air

(b) Entrance and possible exit wound (exit wounds are more severe)

(c) Trouble breathing

(d) Sucking sound as air passes through opening in chest wall

(e) Blood or blood-stained bubbles may be expelled with each exhalation

(f) Coughing up blood

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11. Treatment. of open chest wounds

(a) Assess ABCs and intervene as necessary

(b) Do not remove any embedded objects

(c) Call for an ambulance

(d) Lateral positioning: victim's injured side down

(e) Treat for shock

(f) Conduct a secondary survey

(g) Monitor vitals carefully

12. Abdominal Injuries.

(a) Protruding Organs.

(i) If a trauma injury has caused the victim's internal organs to

protrude outside the abdominal wall, do not push them back in.
Doing so will only cause greater complications - remember that
preventing further injury is one of the aims of first aid.
(ii) Instead, have the person lie flat with their knees bent and
cover the organs with a moist, sterile dressing composed of
material that will not stick to the affected organs. Normally a
special dressing, ABD Pad (Army Battle Dressing) or trauma
dressing is used, though large Telfa dressing will work well.
(iii) Gauze can stick if it is dry - be careful to keep normal gauze
moist if you do use it. Paper products like paper towel or toilet paper
must never be used, as they will turn to pulp, causing major
complications.
(iv) Do not allow the victim to eat or drink, though they may
complain of extreme hunger or thirst.
(v) Call an ambulance, treat for shock, and monitor ABCs until the
emergency medical team arrives.

(b) Internal Bleeding. If the abdominal injury does not cause an open
wound, have the person lie flat with their knees bent and treat for shock
until EMS arrives.

 23

13. Burns and Scalds

Burns may be caused by heat either, dry by contact with fire or flame, or
wet, as caused by moist heat such as hot water, hot fluids and steam, which is
called scalding. Chemical burns may be caused by strong acids or alkalis.

First aid Treatment.

(a) If the burn is chemical, let water from a pipe or hose flow freely on the
burn so that the chemical flows off.
(b) Protect the burnt area by applying bandage or cover exposed part with
clean towel or cloth.
(c) Give complete rest and plenty of fluids to the patient.
(d) Re-assure the patient.
(e) Evacuate patient to the nearest hospital or dispensary.

14. In Snake bite, the poison is injected by the snake through a pair of hollow and
deeply grooved biting fangs. The majority of bites occur on parts of limbs which
are exposed like hands, feet and lower legs.

First Aid Treatment. All cases of snake bite should be treated as

being bitten by poisonous snakes. The First Aid treatment will be as follows:-

(a) Make the victim lie down comfortably.

(b) Give convincing reassurance against fear of death.
(c) Apply a light constricting tourniquet with hand kerchief, bandage or
shoe lace above the knee for a bite on the leg and above elbow for a bite
on the arm. So that the poison does not flows to all parts of the body.
(d) Wash with soap and water. Use water freely.
(e) Evacuate the patient quickly to the nearest dispensary or hospital.
(f) If breathing fails, start artificial respiration.

Snake Bites: Do’s and Don’ts.

(a) Do’s.
(i) Stay calm, make the victim lie down comfortably.
(ii) Give convincing reassurance against fear of death.
(iii) Call ambulance.
(iv) Take off anything constricting the area, such as a ring or watch.

 24

(v) Position the affected area at or above heart level on the basis on
the affected site.
(vi) If breathing fails, start artificial respiration.
(b) Don’ts.
(i) Don’t apply ice as it can cause local tissue damage.

(ii) Don’t cut the affected area and don’t attempt to suck venom out.

(iii) Don’t use a commercially available extraction device.

(iv) Don’t use electrical therapy.

(v) Don’t apply any type of lotion or ointments.

15. Bite by scorpions should be treated like snake bite.

First Aid Treatment. If blood has been drawn, the wound should be
cleaned well with antiseptic lotion.

 25

16. Rabid dog bite. Rabies is a very dangerous disease transmitted by a

rabid dog. The disease is preventable by giving anti-rabies vaccine.

First Aid Treatment.

(a) Immediately wash the bite area with lots of water and soap.
(b) Wound should be cleaned with available antiseptic.
(c) Patient should be sent to hospital for an anti-rabies injection course.
(d) Dog and the patient should be kept under observation for at least
10 days.

17. Foreign Body in Eye Particles of coal or dust may lodge on the eye-ball
or inside the eye lid causing discomfort and damage to the tender structure.

First Aid Treatment.

(a) Ask the patient not to rub the eyes.

(b) Wash the eye with water repeatedly for a minute or two.

(c) Search for the foreign body by lifting the upper eyelid and parting the
lower eyelid down. The patient should face the light. If the foreign body is
seen, it can be wiped off with the moistened corner of hand kerchief,
cloth or cotton swab.

(c) If foreign body is fixed to the eye-ball, patient should be sent to the
hospital with a light eye bandage.

18. Foreign Body in Ear This is common with children. They often put
beads, peas, nuts and other objects into the ear or an insect may get into the ear.

First Aid Treatment. Do not try to remove the foreign body with the
help of a pin or forceps as this may push the foreign body further in, causing
damage to the ear. The patient should be sent to the hospital.

19. Foreign Body in Nose This is a common occurrence among children.

They might put peas, beads in the nostril.

First Aid Treatment.

(a) Blowing the nose and sneezing may expel the foreign body.
(b) Make the casualty breathe through the mouth.
(c) Do not try to remove the foreign body.
(d) Send the patient to the nearest hospital.

 26

20. Asphyxia The tissue and organs of the body are supplied with oxygen
through respiration, essential for the functioning of body. Respiration consists of
inspiration, expiration and a pause. During inspiration air is drawn inside causing
the lungs to expand. During expiration the lungs contract and air is pushed out. The
respiratory system consists of the air passage known as respiratory tract and
lungs. The actions of muscles concerned with respiration are controlled and
regulated by the respiratory centre of the brain.

Causes. Anything which interferes with respiration producing irregularities in

breathing, produces a condition known as Asphyxia. The main causes of
Asphyxia are:-

(a) Drowning – due to water entering the air passage.

(b) Hanging and Strangulation – due to obstruction to entry of air.
(c) Suffocation.

(i) Due to obstruction to entry of air through the air passage.

(ii) Foreign body obstruction in air passage.

(iii) Inhalation of poisonous gases e.g. carbon monoxide.

(d) Over dosage of drugs such as sleeping pills, morphine, pethedine.

(e) Electric Shock.

(f) Diseases e.g. tetanus, epilepsy, rabies.

Signs and Symptoms of Asphyxia.

(a) Dizziness and weakness.

(b) Shortness of breath rate or breathing increase.
(c) Rapid pulse.
(d) Partial loss of consciousness.
(e) Swelling of the veins of the neck.
(f) Face, lips, nails, fingers and toes turn blue.

General Rules for Treatment of Asphyxia.

(a) Remove the cause if possible or the casualty from the cause.

 27

(b) Ensure that there is a free passage for air.

(c) Lay the individual on his back. Press the head back-wards
supporting the neck on your palm. Lift the tongue clear of the airway. Give
mouth to mouth breathing.

21. First Aid for Special Cases - Drowning.

(a) Wet clothes should be loosened.

(b) Mouth, throat and nostril should be cleaned of mucus and any foreign
body.

(c) Patient should be made to lie down over his belly, face down, head
turned to one side, arms stretched beyond the head, tongue pulled out.

(d) Artificial respiration should be given till he starts breathing.

(e) Cover the patient with a blanket.

22. First Aid in Case of Strangulation or Hanging.

(a) Cut the constriction.

(b) Clear the air passage.

(c) Start artificial respiration.

(d) Give inhalations if possible.

(e) Make the patient warm and comfortable.

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23. First Aid in Case of Choking. Bend the casualty‘s head and shoulders
forward, to dislodge the obstructions. In case of small child hold him upside
down and thump his back hard between the shoulder blades or encourage
vomiting by passing two fingers to the back of the throat.

24. First Aid in Case of Suffocation by Poisonous Gas. Protect yourself and
remove the casualty from the gas as early as possible.

25. First Aid in Case of Electric Shocks.

(a) Switch off or break the current, if possible.

(b) Remove the casualty from contact with the current, if possible. Stand
on some insulating material such as rubber soled shoes or boots or
piles of news papers.
(c) Give artificial respiration.
(d) Treat for shock and burns.

26. Insensibility or unconsciousness is caused due to interruption of the

action of the brain, through some interference with the functions of the central
nervous system.

 29

27. Stages of Unconsciousness.

Delirium – When the restlessness of body and

(a) 1st Stage mind arepresent.

Patient responds to loud commands, gives

nd
(b) 2 Stage maximum response to minimum stimulus.

Semi- Coma - Patient responds to painful

stimuli only (minimum response to maximum
(c) 3rd Stage stimulus).

When the patient makes no response to any

th
(d) 4 Stage Stimulus.

28. Causes of Unconsciousness or Coma.

(a) Head injury and brain Hemorrhage.

(b) Hypoglycemia.
(c) Heart failure.
(d) Physical agents such as heat strokes, electric shocks.
(e) Epilepsy.

29. General Rules of First Aid in Casualties of Unconsciousness.

(a) Make the patient lie down with head turned to one side. Pull out his
tongue.
(b) Loosen the clothing, ensure fresh air.
(c) If breathing has stopped or is irregular, start artificial respiration.
(d) Keep the air passage clear.
(e) Nothing should be given by mouth. Remove false teeth, if any.

30. If there is any irregularity in breathing or a cardiac arrest, artificial

respiration is given. If it is given correctly and in time, the patient‘s life can be
saved. There are three methods for providing artificial respiration, but we will tell
you only about the most common one.

31. Mouth to Mouth Respiration. This is the most common and simple
method and is given immediately. This can be given by following way:-

 30

(a) Casualty should be in supine

position.

(b) Clean the mouth and throat to

maintain clear air passage.

(c) Extend the neck to straighten

the air passage.

(d) Cover the patient‘s mouth with

clean gauze and blow directly and
slowly into it. (10 – 12 times per
minutes).

 31

33. First Aid

In Case of Simple Fracture. The first aid to be rendered is:-

(a) Reassure the patient and make him comfortable.

(b) Apply splints with any common article like stick or ply board or card
board to immobilize the fracture.

(c) Relieve him of discomfort and pain and keep the patient warm.

In Case of Compound Fracture. The first aid to be rendered is:-

(a) Bleeding should be stopped immediately.

(b) Remove foreign objects, if any, but do not meddle too much.

(c) Cover the wound with a clean pad with light bandage.

(d) Apply appropriate splints.

(e) Transfer the patient to the nearest hospital immediately.

34. A traction splint most commonly refers to a splinting device that

uses straps attaching over the pelvis or hip as an anchor, a metal rod(s) to mimic
normal bone stability and limb length, and a mechanical device to
apply traction (used in an attempt to reduce pain, realign the limb, and minimize
vascular and neurological complication) to the limb. A traction splint is commonly
used to treat complete long bone fractures of the thigh, femur and not
for tibia and fibula area. Their use is common in pre-hospital care. Evidence to
support their usage however is poor.

 32

35. Treatment for Fracture of the Jaw Bone.

(a) Apply Barrel Bandage.

(b) Warn the patient not to speak.

(c) Instruct the patient to sit.

(d) In lying cases, place patient on his chest, his head projecting outside
the stretcher canvas, properly supported with bandages secured on stretcher
handle.

36. Fracture of the Clavicle. In fracture of the clavicle we need to:-

(a) Support the arm of injured side by passing a narrow folded bandage
under the arm pit and tying it on the back of the shoulder.

(b) Put a pad in arm pit, apply greater arm sling and fix the arm with a
narrow fold bandage tied across the elbow to lower chest.

52. Fracture of the Ribs. When ribs are fractured following action is taken:-

(a) Uncomplicated. Restrict the movement of chest on fracture side,

with broad-fold bandage, one above and one below the fracture side, half
overlapping each other. Support the arm of injured side with greater arm sling.

 33

(b) Complicated. Put the patient on the affected side and support
the position by long fold blankets. Send the patient immediately to the
nearest hospital.

53. Fracture of the Shoulder Blade and the Upper Limb. Fix the elbow to
the affected side and put the finger in a position touching the opposite shoulder.
Secure the hand in position by cuff sling. Secure the limb firmly to the chest
by two broad bandages one on shoulder and the other at the elbow level and
knot on opposite side.

54. Fracture of the Lower Limb.

(a) Fix the injured limb to the sound limb with four narrow folds.

(b) Apply long wooden splint from axilla to just beyond the foot on each
side. Secure them by seven broad folds bandages tied at chest, pelvis,
ankles, both thighs below the fracture, both legs, and knees.

(c) In case of fracture of the pelvis, apply Thomas splint if available,

otherwise the methods described in (a) and (b) should be used for
immobilization of lower limb before evacuation of injured person to the nearest
hospital.

55. Fracture of the Spine. Fractures of spine are to be very carefully handled.
We have to:-

(a) Treat any case of back injury as a fracture of the spine. There
will be severe pain and shock in all cases.

(b) Make the patient still. Do not allow the patient to move about.

(c) If unconscious see that the tongue does not fall back and choke
the patient.

(d) Get medical aid at the earliest.

(e) Apply broad bandages for thigh and knees.

(f) Carry the patient face downwards on a board placed lengthwise

on the stretcher.

 34

56. Fracture of the Skull. It may injure the brain, nervous system or the
arteries and cause concussion and compression. It may be caused by direct or
indirect blow.

(a) If Breathing is Normal. Lay the casualty on back with shoulders

and head raised with cushions. Turn the head to one side.

(b) If Breathing is Abnormal. Lay the casualty in a three quarter

prone position. Apply pads under the chest and draw up the upper knee.

(i) Do not give anything to drink.

(ii) Do not disturb the patient.

(iii) Keep air passage clear.

(iv) Treat for shock.

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TREATMENT AND CARE OF WOUNDS

1. A wound is a type of injury which happens relatively quickly in which skin is
torn, cut, or punctured (an open wound), or where blunt force trauma causes
a contusion (a closed wound). In pathology, it specifically refers to a sharp injury
which damages the dermis of the skin.

2. Wounds can be defined as a break in continuity of the skin or muscles

membrane. It is caused by violence.
3. Classification of wounds. According to level of contamination, a wound
can be classified as under:-
(a) Inside Wound. It is wound caused by a sharp instrument like
knife, razor and soon. Its edges are clean.
(b) Lacerated Wound. It is caused by blunt instrument. The edges are
torn or uneven.

(c) Open Wound/ Punctured Wound. It is a deep narrow wound

caused by a pointed instrument like knife, bayonet. The wound is small on the
surface but may be very deep causing injuries to internal organs.

(d) Closed Wound/ Contusion. A contusion is an injury or a bruise in

which some of the tissues or a part is irregularly torn or ruptured but, the skin
may not be broken. It is caused by a blow or blunt instrument.
4. Classification of Open Wounds. Open wounds can be classified
according to the object that caused the wound:-

(a) Incisions or Incised Wounds. Caused by a clean, sharp-edged

object such as a knife, razor, or glass splinter.
(b) Lacerations. Irregular tear-like wounds caused by some blunt
trauma. Lacerations and incisions may appear linear (regular) or stellate
(irregular). The term laceration is commonly misused in reference to
incisions.

(c) Abrasions (Grazes). Superficial wounds in which the topmost

layer of the skin (the epidermis) is scraped off. Abrasions are often caused
by a sliding fall onto a rough surface.

(d) Avulsions. Injuries in which a body structure is forcibly detached

from its normal point of insertion. A type of amputation where the extremity
is pulled off rather than cut off.

(e) Puncture Wounds. Caused by an object puncturing the skin,

such as a splinter, nail or needle.

(f) Penetration Wounds. Caused by an object such as a knife

entering and coming out from the skin.

 36

(g) Gunshot Wounds. Caused by a bullet or similar projectile

driving into or through the body. There may be two wounds, one at the site of
entry and one at the site of exit, generally referred to as a "through-and-
through."

 37

5. Closed Wound. Closed wounds have fewer categories, but are just as
dangerous as open wounds:

(a) Hematomas (or blood tumor). Caused by damage to a blood

vessel that in turn causes blood to collect under the skin.

(i) Hematomas that originate from internal blood vessel

pathology are petechiae, purpura, and ecchymosis. The different
classifications are based on size.

(ii) Hematomas that originate from an external source of

trauma are contusions, also commonly called bruises.

(b) Crush Injury. Caused by a great or extreme amount of force

applied over a long period of time.

6. The method for giving first aid for different types of wounds are:-

(a) Place the patient in a comfortable position.

(b) Stop the bleeding, if any.

(c) Remove any foreign body, if it is easily visible and can be easily
removed.

(d) Prevent the entry of germs by applying sterilized dressing like first field
or shell dressing.

(e) Give rest to the injured part by sling.

(f) Immobilize the part, if wound is large or complicated by fracture.

(g) Treat the patient for shock.

 38

(h) Send the patient to nearest hospital.

7. Dressing of wounds. A wound is to be cleaned with antiseptic lotion and

covered with cotton or gauze piece with medication, before applying the bandage.

Aim. The aim of dressing a wound is as under:-

(a) To protect the wound from infection.

(b) To reduce swelling and early healing.
(c) To support the effected part.
(d) To enable the individual to carry out his day to day routine.
(e) To stop the bleeding.

8. List Articles Required for Dressing of Wounds.

(a) Anti septic (A/S) lotion.

(b) Cotton / Gauze piece
(c) Scissors.
(d) Bandages of different size and band aid.
(e) A/S ointment or powder.

9. Procedure for Dressing of Wounds.The following procedure is to be

adopted while dressing of wounds:-

(a) Reassure the patient and place him in comfortable position.

(b) Stop the bleeding, remove foreign body and clean the wound with A/S
lotion and cotton.
(c) Apply A/S ointment or powder and cover it with gauze. Select suitable
bandage, Start bandaging clock wise from outer aspect to inner aspect
by covering 1/3 of previous lining.

(d) Put the knot away from the wound.

(e) Bandaging should not be either too tight or loose.

 39

YOGA AND EXERCISES

1. Yoga is a commonly known activity for physical, mental, and spiritual

disciplines which originated in ancient India.
2. One of the most detailed and thorough expositions on the subject are the Yog
Sutras of Patanjali.
3. UNO has declared 21 June as the International Day of yoga.
4. Yoga is one of the six systems of Vedic philosophy.

5. Maharishi Patanjali is called “The father of Yoga” compiled and refined

various aspects of Yoga systematically in his “Yoga Sutras. He advocated the
eight folds path of Yoga, popularly known as “Ashtanga Yoga” for all round
development of human beings. They are – Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama,
Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi.

6. Yoga is a disciplined method utilized for attaining a goal. In the sense the
physical postures of yoga are to alleviate health problems, reduce stress and
make the spine supple. Yoga is also used as a complete exercise program and
physical therapy routine.
7. The characteristics of Yoga are given below:-

(a) The Yogic system of health involves the exercise of skeletal as well as
the deep seated smooth muscles of the body.
(b) The intra-thoracic and intra-abdominal pressure may be mentioned as
special characteristics of the yoga system of health.
(c) Little expenditure of energy and money is involved in the Yoga
practices.
(d) The rich as well as poor, and men and women of all ages can practice
Yogic practices.
(e) Every school of Yoga emphasized specific practices, but their aim
always remained the same; but the highest level of integration through the
control of the modification of mind.
(f) The nature of Yogic practices is psycho-neurophysical.
(g) All yogic practices are complementary.

 40

8. Benefits of yoga

(a) Many yoga practitioners have reported musculoskeletal and mental

health improvements, as well as reduced symptoms of asthma in asthmatics.
Regular yoga practice increases brain Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
levels and has been shown to improve mood and anxiety more than some
other metabolically matched exercises, such as walking.

(b) The three main focuses of yoga (exercise, breathing, and meditation)
make it beneficial to those suffering from heart disease.

(c) For chronic low back pain, specialist Yoga for Healthy Lower Backs
has been found 30% more beneficial.

(d) Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR).This program includes

yoga as amind-body technique to reduce stress.

(e) Yoga has also been studied as a treatment for schizophrenia.

(f) The practice of yoga in Indian tradition also has psychological benefits,
allowing one to develop control over one's mind and body.

9. The suryanamaskara, a series of 12 poses is said to be one of the best

ways to lose weight. Yoga lowers levels of adrenalin, cortisol, blood pressure,
pulse rate and cholesterol. Additionally, total body awareness attained from yoga is
essential to preventing bodily injuries.

10. Research shows that yoga helps in reducing symptoms of certain neuro-
psychiatric disorders like schizophrenia; also but not limited to Post-Traumatic Stress
Disorder (PTSD) and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD). Regular practitioners
of yoga are happier and more peaceful due to the release of Endorphin or the
happiness hormone. It helps in getting better sleep and better digestive health and
improves intuitive ability.

10. Certain health problems associated with yoga have been brought to the
attention of the general public. Yoga has been criticised for being potentially
dangerous and being a cause for a range of serious medical conditions including
thoracic outlet syndrome, degenerative arthritis of the cervical spine, spinal injuries,
retinal tears, damage to the common fibular nerve, knee injuries, and headaches are
common ailments which may result from yoga practice.

11. Research in the countries which have advanced medical research and
development facilities do not recommend, Yoga exercises for children under 16
because their bodies‘ nervous and glandular systems are still growing, and the
effect of Yoga exercises on these systems may interfere with natural growth.

 41

Asanas
(a) Padmasana. This asan is useful for Jaap, Dhyana and Samadhi. This
asan also helps in curing diseases like asthama, hysteria and insomnia.

(b) Baddha Padmasana. This asana improves nervous system

and the abdomen. It also cures
drowsiness, sleepiness, laziness and
night discharge.

(c) Siddhasana. The main function of this asana is to awaken the power
of Kundalini. This asana helps the mind to be firm, attentive and alert.

 42

(d) Gyan Mudra. This asana is most suitable for pranayam and dhyana.

(e) Trikonasana.. This asana is useful to the eyes, spinal cord, neck and
mental power. Timings 3 – 6 sec. 4 –
6 times.

(f) Ardha Chandrasana. This asana improves the functioning of heart,

liver, intestine, stomach, lungs and make the body flexible. Timing 4 -6 sec
and 4-5 times.

(g) Suryanamaskara. Suryanamaskara is a combined sequence of 12

positions. By this sequence of 12 positions, the whole body is well exercised.
While practicing Suryanamaskara recite the different names of Sun god at
each position.
(g) Shavasana. The main aim of this asana is releasing the mind from
the body. By this asana we can achieve relaxation in the shortest possible
time. This asana provides relief in disease like blood pressure, weakness of
nerves and other ailments.

 43

(h) Gomukhasana.

(j) Vijrasana. This helps digestion and eliminates gas troubles. Timing 1-
3 minutes.

(k) Dhanurasana. This asana provides good exercise to the abdominal

muscles, lower back and thighs

(l) Bhujangasana. This asana is good for the spine, the chest, the neck
and the head. Timing 20-30 sec. 4-6 times.

 44

(m) Chakrasana. This asana helps in making the spine supple. Timing ½ -
1 min, 1-2 times.

(n) Sarvangasana. This asana improves circulatory, respiratory and

alimentary systems of the body. Timings: ½ -1 minute.

(o) Halasana. This asana stimulates blood circulation and makes the
spine flexible and elastic.

 45

12. The Ministry of AYUSH was formed on 9th November 2014 to ensure the
optimal development and propagation of AYUSH systems of health care. Earlier it
was known as the Department of Indian System of Medicine and Homeopathy which
was created in March 1995 and renamed as Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and
Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy (AYUSH) IN November 2003, with
focused attention for development of Education and Research in Ayurveda, Yoga
and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy.

13. International Yoga Day

14. National Cadet Corps (NCC) was presented the certificate by Limca Book of
Records for the 'Largest Yoga performance simultaneously by a single uniformed
youth organisation' at multiple venues on International Day of Yoga (June 21). The
certificate has been presented by Mr Vijaya Ghose, Editor Limca Book of Records to
Lt Gen A Chakravarty in the presence of Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar.

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SUMMARY

➢ The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body. The bones give
shape and firmness to the body, as also it protects the vital organs like brain, heart,
lungs and spinal cord. It is composed of around 300 bones at birth – this total
decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones have fused
together.
.
➢ The human skeleton performs six major functions; support, movement,
protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.

➢ Classification of Bones:-

➢ Long Bones, Short Bones, Flat Bones.

➢ Irregular Bones, Sesamoid Bones.

➢ The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal,

smooth and cardiac muscles. It permits movement of the body, maintains posture,
and circulates blood throughout the body.

➢ Classification of Muscles: Voluntary, Involuntary and Cardiac.

➢ The Circulatory System consists of the Heart, Blood Vessels and blood.

➢ Respiration is a process by which oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is

given out.

➢ Digestion is a mechanical and chemical process by which complex food

substances are converted into simple substances so that they can be easily
absorbed by blood and utilized by the various tissues of the body according to their
requirements.

➢ The nervous system may be divided into three main parts:-

➢ Central Nervous System.

➢ Peripheral Nervous System

➢ Autonomic Nervous System

➢ Maintaining hygiene and sanitation is necessary for many reasons; personal,

social, health, psychological or simply as a way of life. Keeping a good standard of
hygiene helps to prevent the development and spread of infections, illnesses and
bad odours.

➢ Personal hygiene involves those practices performed by an individual to care

for one's bodily health and well being, through cleanliness.

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➢ Sanitation means keeping the living area and its surroundings neat and clean.
This involves removal of waste products and refuse.

➢ Components of Personal Hygiene.

➢ Proper sleep.

➢ Regular Bathing.

➢ Moderate eating and drinking.

➢ Care and cleanliness of skin, hair and teeth.

➢ Regular Exercise.

➢ Physical and Mental Health.

➢ Physical health is the absence of disease and infirmity and it is
assessed by taking health state measurement of the body.

➢ Mental health refers to the successful performance of mental function

resulting in productive activities.

➢ Elements of Good Health.

➢ Absence of disease.
➢ Ability to work hard with efficiency and enthusiasm.
➢ Ability to endure stress and strain.
➢ Cheerfulness.
➢ Courage.
➢ Freedom from anxiety.
➢ Self control and self confidence.
➢ Sense of well being.
➢ Wholesome mental attitude

➢ A disease is a particular abnormal condition, a disorder of a structure or

function, that affects part or entire body.

➢ Classification of Communicable diseases.

➢ Excremental Diseases

➢ Droplet Infection

➢ Contact Diseases

➢ Insect Borne Diseases

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➢ Water Borne Diseases

➢ Animal Borne Diseases

➢ All the contagious diseases can be prevented by adapting certain preventive

measures such as keeping the atmosphere, water bodies, and home surroundings
clean by using various cleaning and safe disposal processes and periodical
inoculation and vaccination right from infancy.

➢ First aid is the assistance given to any person suffering a sudden illness or
injury, with care provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening,
and/or promote recovery. A NCC cadet who reaches the victim must first quickly
investigate the cause and type of injury before attempting to administer first aid.

➢ In Case of Simple Fracture. The first aid to be rendered is:-

➢ Reassure the patient and make him comfortable.

➢ Apply splints with any common article like stick or ply board or card
board to immobilize the fracture.

➢ Relieve him of discomfort and pain and keep the patient warm.

➢ In Case of Compound Fracture. The first aid to be rendered is:-

➢ Bleeding should be stopped immediately.

➢ Remove foreign objects, if any, but do not meddle too much.

➢ Cover the wound with a clean pad with light bandage.

➢ Apply appropriate splints.

➢ Transfer the patient to the nearest hospital immediately.

➢ Symptoms are observed in case of internal injuries:-

➢ Cold clammy skin.

➢ Weak or rapid pulse.

➢ Shallow sighing and breathing.

➢ Face pinched and pale.

➢ Eyes deeply sunken with dark rings around them.

➢ Patient usually restless and anxious and may lose consciousness.

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➢ First Aid in Snake Bite.

➢ Make the victim lie down comfortably.

➢ Give convincing reassurance against fear of death.

➢ Apply a light constricting tourniquet with hand kerchief.

➢ Wash with soap and water.

➢ Use water freely.

➢ Evacuate the patient quickly to the nearest dispensary or hospital.

➢ If breathing fails, start artificial respiration.

➢ A wound is a type of injury which happens relatively quickly in which skin is

torn, cut, or punctured (an open wound), or where blunt force trauma causes
a contusion (a closed wound). NCC cadets by virtue of their routine are prone
to injuries and hence must pass this basic knowledge to help fellow cadets or friends
in school or at home.

➢ Classification of Wounds.

➢ Inside wound.

➢ Lacerated wounds.

➢ Open/ Puncture wound.

➢ Closed/ Contusion.

➢ The method for giving first aid for different types of wounds are:-

➢ Place the patient in a comfortable position.

➢ Stop the bleeding, if any.

➢ Remove any foreign body, if it is easily visible and can be easily

removed.

➢ Prevent the entry of germs by applying sterilized dressing like first field
or shell dressing.

➢ Give rest to the injured part by sling.

➢ Immobilize the part, if wound is large or complicated by fracture.

➢ Treat the patient for shock.

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➢ Send the patient to nearest hospital.

➢ Procedure for Dressing of Wounds. The following procedure is to be

adopted while dressing of wounds:-

➢ Reassure the patient and place him in comfortable position.

➢ Stop the bleeding, remove foreign body and clean the wound with A/S
lotion and cotton.
➢ Apply A/S ointment or powder and cover it with gauze. Select suitable
bandage, Start bandaging clock wise from outer aspect to inner aspect by
covering 1/3 of previous lining.

➢ Put the knot away from the wound.

➢ Bandaging should not be either too tight or loose.

➢ Yoga

➢ Yoga is a disciplined method utilized for attaining a goal. In the sense

the physical postures of yoga are to alleviate health problems, reduce stress
and make the spine supple.

➢ The characteristics of Yoga are given below:-

➢ The Yogic system of health involves the exercise of skeletal as

well as the deep seated smooth muscles of the body.
➢ The intra-thoracic and intra-abdominal pressure may be
mentioned as special characteristics of the yoga system of health.
➢ Little expenditure of energy and money is involved in the Yoga
practices.
➢ The rich as well as poor, and men and women of all ages can
practice Yogic practices.
➢ Every school of Yoga emphasized specific practices, but their
aim always remained the same; but the highest level of integration
through the control of the modification of mind.
➢ The nature of Yogic practices is psycho-neurophysical.
➢ All yogic practices are complementary.

➢ National Cadet Corps (NCC) was presented the certificate by Limca Book of
Records for the 'Largest Yoga performance simultaneously by a single uniformed
youth organisation' at multiple venues on International Day of Yoga (June 21). The
certificate has been presented by Mr Vijaya Ghose, Editor Limca Book of Records
to Lt Gen A Chakravarty in the presence of Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar.

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Comprehension Questions

Q.1 Answer the following in about 15 words:

(a) Define Respiration.

(b) Define Digestion.

(c) Define Hygiene.

(d) Define Sanitation.

(e) Which two body systems in human are responsible for bringing about
control and co-ordination?

(f) How many bones are there in the human body?

(g) What is the record held by NCC for Yoga?

Q.2 Answer the following in about 50 words:

(a) What are elements of Good Health?

(b) What are the classification of Bones?

(c) What are five keys to safer food?

(d) What articles are required for dressing of wounds?

(e) What is the aim of dressing a wound?

(f) What first aid and treatment should be given in case of a foreign body
in the:

(i) Ear.

(ii) Nose.

(g) List important inoculations and vaccination.

(h) Write symptoms of internal injury?

(i) Write classification of wounds.

(j) What do you understand by Traction Splint?

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Q3. Answer the following in about 75 words:

(a) Write the classification of muscles in the body?

(b) What are types of blood vessels?

(c) Write a short note on Respiratory System.

(d) Write a short note on Digestive System.

(e) Write a short note on ‘Hygiene of Food Handlers’.

(f) What are the measures to improve Mental Health?

(g) Write a short note on ‘Prevention of Contact Disease’.

(h) Describe first aid in drowning?

(j) What are principles of open wound treatment?

(k) What do you understand by International Yoga Day?

Q.4 Answer the following in about 150 words:

(a) Steps to be followed during first aid for wound.

(b) What preventive steps can be taken to stop the spread of:

(i) Insect borne diseases.

(ii) Water borne diseases.

(c) What first are the causes of Asphyxia?

(d) Write a note on ‘Hygiene of Eating places’?

(e) Explain mouth to mouth respiration?

(f) Write Do’s and Don’ts during snakebite.

(g) Describe the First Aid to be given in case of simple fracture.

Q.5 Answer the following in about 250 words:

(a) Write down the classification of Contagious Diseases.

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(b) What are the preventive measures against Contagious Diseases?

(c) "Some of the practices that are useful in preventing infectious diseases
are maintaining personal hygiene and ensuring clean surroundings". List any
two more practices other than the ones mentioned, you think are effective in
preventing infectious diseases?

(d) Write in detail about the benefits of Yoga.

(e) Explain the different types of Asanas.