DIPMAT41

Maharaja Education Trust (R), Mysuru
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore

Belawadi, Sriranga Pattana Taluk, Mandya – 571 477
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi,

Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi & Recognized by Government of Karnataka
Lecture Notes on
ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II
(18MATDIP41)
Prepared by
Department of Mathematics
Maharaja Education Trust (R), Mysuru
Belawadi, Sriranga Pattana Taluk, Mandya – 571 477
Vision/ ಆಶಯ
“To be recognized as a premier technical and management institution promoting extensive education
fostering research, innovation and entrepreneurial attitude"
ಸಂಶೆ ೋಧನೆ, ಆವಿಷ್ಕಾರ ಹಕಗೂ ಉದ್ಯಮಶೋಲತೆಯನ್ನು ಉತೆತೋಜಿಸನವ ಅಗರಮಕನ್ಯ ತಕಂತ್ರರಕ ಮತ್ನತ ಆಡಳಿತ್ ವಿಜ್ಞಕನ್ ಶಕ್ಷಣ
ಕೆೋಂದ್ರವಕಗಿ ಗನರನತ್ರಸಿಕೊಳ್ಳುವುದ್ನ.
Mission/ ಧ್ಯೇಯ
 To empower students with indispensable knowledge through dedicated teaching and collaborative
learning.
ಸಮರ್ಪಣಕ ಮನೊೋಭಕವದ್ ಬೊೋಧನೆ ಹಕಗೂ ಸಹಭಕಗಿತ್ವದ್ ಕಲಿಕಕಕರಮಗಳಿಂದ್ ವಿದ್ಕಯರ್ಥಪಗಳ್ನ್ನು ಅತ್ಯತ್ೃಷ್ಟ
ಜ್ಞಕನ್ಸಂರ್ನ್ುರಕಗಿಸನವುದ್ನ.
 To advance extensive research in science, engineering and management disciplines.

ವೆೈಜ್ಞಕನಿಕ, ತಕಂತ್ರರಕ ಹಕಗೂ ಆಡಳಿತ್ ವಿಜ್ಞಕನ್ ವಿಭಕಗಗಳ್ಲಿಿ ವಿಸೃತ್ ಸಂಶೆ ೋಧನೆಗಳೆೊ ಡನೆ ಬೆಳ್ವಣಿಗೆ ಹೊಂದ್ನವುದ್ನ.
 To facilitate entrepreneurial skills through effective institute - industry collaboration and interaction
with alumni.
ಉದ್ಯಮ ಕ್ೆೋತ್ಗಳೆೊ ಡನೆ ಸಹಯೋಗ, ಸಂಸ್ೆೆಯ ಹಿರಿಯ ವಿದ್ಕಯರ್ಥಪಗಳೆೊ ಂದಿಗೆ ನಿರಂತ್ರ ಸಂವಹನ್ಗಳಿಂದ್ ವಿದ್ಕಯರ್ಥಪಗಳಿಗೆ
ಉದ್ಯಮಶೋಲತೆಯ ಕೌಶಲಯ ರ್ಡೆಯಲನ ನೆರವಕಗನವುದ್ನ.
 To instill the need to uphold ethics in every aspect.

ಜಿೋವನ್ದ್ಲಿಿ ನೆೈತ್ರಕ ಮೌಲಯಗಳ್ನ್ನು ಅಳ್ವಡಿಸಿಕೊಳ್ಳುವುದ್ರ ಮಹತ್ವದ್ ಕನರಿತ್ನ ಅರಿವು ಮೂಡಿಸನವುದ್ನ.
 To mould holistic individuals capable of contributing to the advancement of the society.

ಸಮಕಜದ್ ಬೆಳ್ವಣಿಗೆಗೆ ಗಣನಿೋಯ ಕೊಡನಗೆ ನಿೋಡಬಲಿ ರ್ರಿರ್ೂಣಪ ವಯಕ್ತತತ್ವವುಳ್ು ಸಮರ್ಪ ನಕಗರಿೋಕರನ್ನು
ರೂಪಿಸನವುದ್ನ.
Vision / ಆಶಯ
To promote a comprehensive, innovative and dynamic learning and research environment.
Mission / ಧ್ಯೇಯ
 To encourage the students to develop reasoning ability, analytical skills and an

awareness of logic and also to inculcate research culture in them.
 To provide an exemplary Mathematics program to prepare students not only for

competence in their academics/professions but also for life long learning.
Program Outcomes
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design
system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the
public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with
an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms
of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear
instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader
in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
Subject: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Subject Code: 18DIPMATAT41
Course Overview
To familiarize the important tools of Linear Algebra, Probability and Higher order ODE’s
required to analyze the engineering problems and apply the knowledge of
interpolation/extrapolation and numerical integration technique whenever analytical
methods fail or very complicated, to offer solutions.
SEE Question paper pattern:

The SEE question paper will be set for 100 marks and the marks scored will be
proportionately reduced to 60.
 The question paper will have ten full questions carrying equal marks.
 Each full question carries 20 marks.
 There will be two full questions (with a maximum of four sub questions) from
each module.
 Each full question will have sub questions covering all the topics under a
module.
 The students will have to answer five full questions, selecting one full question
from each module.

IA Question paper pattern:
 The question paper will have four questions.
 Each full Question consisting of 15 marks.
 There will be 2 full questions (with a maximum of three sub questions) from
each module.
 Each full question will have sub questions covering all the topics under a
module.
The students will have to answer any 2 full questions, selecting one full
question from each module
Course Objectives
 To provide essential concepts of linear algebra, second & higher order

differential equations along with methods to solve them.
 To provide an insight into elementary probability theory and numerical

methods.
Department of MATHEMATICS
Course Outcomes
CO’s DESCRIPTION OF THE OUTCOMES

18DIPMAT41.1 Solve systems of linear equations using matrix algebra
18DIPMAT41.2 Apply the knowledge of numerical methods in modelling and solving engineering
problems.
18DIPMAT41.3 Make use of analytical methods to solve higher order differential equations.
18DIPMAT1.4 Classify partial differential equations and solve them by exact methods.
18DIPMAT1.5 Apply elementary probability theory and solve related problems.
CO/PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
18DIPMAT41.1 3 -
18DIPMAT41.2 3 -
18DIPMAT41.3 3 -
18DIPMAT1.4 - 3
18DIPMAT1.5 3
Average 3 3
of CO’S
Faculty Signature
Dr. A H Srinivasa Nataraj K
Ajay Kumar M Indumathi R S Seema S
Sindhushree M V Ajay C K Purushothama S Vinayak Bhandari
Institute Level
Criteria 8 Main Coordinator Principal

NBA Convener
Syllabus
Module-1
Linear Algebra
Introduction - rank of matrix by elementary row operations - Echelon form. Consistency of system of
linear equations - Gauss elimination method. Eigen values and Eigen vectors of a square matrix.
Problems.
Module-2
Numerical Methods
Finite differences. Interpolation/extrapolation using Newton’s forward and backward difference
formulae (Statements only)-problems. Solution of polynomial and transcendental equations –
Newton-Raphson and Regula-Falsi methods (only formulae)- Illustrative examples. Numerical
integration: Simpson’s one third rule and Weddle’s rule (without proof) Problems.
Module-3
Higher order ODE’s
Linear differential equations of second and higher order equations with constant coefficients.
Homogeneous /non-homogeneous equations. Inverse differential operators.[Particular Integral
restricted to R(x)=eax, sin ax/cos ax for f(D)y=R(x).]
Module-4
Partial Differential Equations (PDE’s)
Formation of PDE’s by elimination of arbitrary constants and functions. Solution of non-
homogeneous PDE by direct integration. Homogeneous PDEs involving derivative with respect to
one independent variable only.
Module-5
Probability
Introduction. Sample space and events. Axioms of probability. Addition & multiplication theorems.
Conditional probability, Bayes’s theorem, problems.
Syllabus
Subject:- Additional Mathematics - II Subject Code:- 18MATDIP41
MODULE - 1
Linear Algebra
Rank of a matrix-echelon form. Solution of system of linear equations – consistency.

Gauss-elimination method,
Eigen values and Eigenvectors
Index
SL.
Contents Page No.
No.
1 Rank of a matrices – Echelon form 2-8
2 Solution of system of linear equations – consistency 8-19
3 Gauss-elimination method 20-24
4 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 25-29

Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mathematics
RANK OF A MATRIX
Let A be a non-zero matrix of order 𝐦 × 𝐧 then a positive integer 𝐫 is said to
be rank of A if the following conditions are satisfied:
(i) There exists atleast one minor of order 𝐫 which does not vanish.
(ii) All the minors of order greater than 𝐫 must be equal to zero.
Rank of a matrix A is denoted by 𝛒(𝐀). The Rank of matrix A in echelon form is equal
to the no. of non-zero rows.
The Rank of a matrix is the order of the largest non-zero minor of a matrix.
EXAMPLES:-
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟎
1. 𝐀 = [𝟎 𝟏 𝟐] 3. 𝐀 = [𝟐 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑
𝟏 𝟕 𝟗 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓
2. 𝐀 = [𝟎 𝟏 𝟒] 4. 𝐀 = [𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟐 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟐
PROBLEMS:-
Find the Rank of the following matrices by applying elementary row transformations:-
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟐
1. [𝟐 𝟑 𝟓 𝟏]
𝟏 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟐
Solution:- Let 𝐀 = [𝟐 𝟑 𝟓 𝟏]
𝟏 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓
Subject Name: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Module No 1

Module Name: Linear Algebra Page |2
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟐
𝐀 = [𝟎 𝐑 𝟐 ′ = 𝐑 𝟐 − 𝟐𝐑 𝟏
−𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟑]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝐑𝟑′ = 𝐑𝟑 − 𝐑𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟐
𝐀 = [𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑] 𝐑 𝟐 ′ = (−𝟏)𝐑 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
∴ 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟐
−𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟑 −𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 −𝟏
2. [ ]
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
−𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟑 −𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 −𝟏
Solution:- Let 𝐀 = [ ]
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
Applying 𝐑 𝟏 ↔ 𝐑 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 −𝟏
−𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟑 −𝟏
𝐀=[ ]
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐑 𝟏 and 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝐑 𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 −𝟏
𝟎 𝟑 𝟑 −𝟑
𝐀=[ ]
𝟎 −𝟐 −𝟐 𝟐
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟐 and 𝐑′ 𝟑 = − 𝐑 𝟑
𝟑 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 −𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
𝐀=[ ]
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏

Applying 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝐑 𝟐 and 𝐑′ 𝟒 = 𝐑 𝟒 − 𝐑 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 −𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
𝐀=[ ]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
∴ 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟎
𝟐 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐
3. [ ]
𝟑 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
𝟔 𝟖 𝟕 𝟓
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟎
𝟐 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐
𝟑 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
𝟔 𝟖 𝟕 𝟓
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟒 = 𝐑 𝟒 − (𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑 ) we get,
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟎
𝟐 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐
𝐀=[ ]
𝟑 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟐 − 𝟐𝐑 𝟏 and 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝟑𝐑 𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟑 𝟐
𝐀=[ ]
𝟎 −𝟒 −𝟖 𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
Applying 𝐑 𝟐 ↔ 𝐑 𝟑 we get,
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟎
𝟎 −𝟒 −𝟖 𝟑
𝐀=[ ]
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟑 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟐 = − 𝐑 𝟐 and 𝐑′ 𝟑 = − 𝐑 𝟑
𝟒 𝟑

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 −𝟑𝟒
𝐀=[ 𝟑
]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
∴ 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑
𝟒 𝟎 𝟐 𝟏
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
4. Find the rank of the matrix [ ] using elementary row operation by
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟕
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
reducing it to echelon form.
𝟒 𝟎 𝟐 𝟏
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟕
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
Applying 𝑹𝟏 ↔ 𝑹𝟐 we get,
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
𝟒 𝟎 𝟐 𝟏
𝐀=[ ]
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟕
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 − 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝑹′ 𝟑 = 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹′ 𝟒 = 𝑹𝟒 − 𝑹𝟏 we get,
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
𝟎 −𝟐 −𝟒 −𝟕
𝐀=[ ]
𝟎 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
𝟎 𝟐 −𝟐 𝟎
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟑 = 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟐 and 𝑹′ 𝟒 = 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟐 we get,
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
𝟎 −𝟐 −𝟒 −𝟕
𝐀=[ ]
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟑 −𝟒
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟔 −𝟕
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟒 = 𝑹𝟒 − 𝟐𝑹𝟑 we get,

𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
𝟎 −𝟐 −𝟒 −𝟕
𝐀=[ ]
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟑 −𝟒
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟏 = 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹′ 𝟐 = − 𝑹𝟐 and 𝑹′ 𝟑 = − 𝑹𝟑 we get,
𝟐 𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝟕
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐
𝐀=[ 𝟐
𝟒
]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
∴ 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟒
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏
5. Reduce the matrix [ ] to the echelon form and find its rank.
𝟎 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑
𝟑 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏
𝟎 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑
𝟑 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒 𝟐
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟐 − 𝟐𝐑 𝟏 and 𝐑′ 𝟒 = 𝐑 𝟒 − 𝟑𝐑 𝟏 we get,
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
𝟎 −𝟑 𝟏 −𝟒 −𝟕
𝐀=[ ]
𝟎 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑
𝟎 −𝟓 𝟎 −𝟓 −𝟏𝟎
𝟏
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟒 = − 𝐑 𝟒 we get,
𝟓
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
𝟎 −𝟑 𝟏 −𝟒 −𝟕
𝐀=[ ]
𝟎 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐
Applying 𝐑 𝟐 ↔ 𝐑 𝟒 we get,

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐
𝐀=[ ]
𝟎 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑
𝟎 −𝟑 𝟏 −𝟒 −𝟕
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝟐𝐑 𝟐 and 𝐑′ 𝟒 = 𝐑 𝟒 + 𝟑𝐑 𝟐 we get,
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐
𝐀=[ ]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟒 = 𝐑 𝟒 − 𝐑 𝟑 we get,
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐
𝐀=[ ]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
∴ 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑
6. Find the values of 𝐤 such that the following matrix A may have rank equal to
(𝐢)𝟑 (𝐢𝐢)𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐀 = [𝟏 𝟐 𝟒 𝐤]
𝟏 𝟒 𝟏𝟎 𝐤𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Solution:- Given 𝐀 = [𝟏 𝟐 𝟒 𝐤]
𝟏 𝟒 𝟏𝟎 𝐤𝟐
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟐 − 𝐑 𝟏 and 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝐑 𝟏 we get,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐀 = [𝟎 𝟏 𝟑 (𝐤 − 𝟏) ]
𝟎 𝟑 𝟗 (𝐤 𝟐 − 𝟏)
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝟑𝐑 𝟐 we get,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐀 = [𝟎 𝟏 𝟑 (𝐤 − 𝟏) ]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 (𝐤 𝟐 − 𝟑𝐤 + 𝟐)
(i) Rank of A can be 3 if the equivalent form of A has three non-zero

rows.
This is possible if (𝐤 𝟐 − 𝟑𝐤 + 𝟐) ≠ 𝟎
(𝐤 − 𝟏)(𝐤 − 𝟐) ≠ 𝟎
𝐤 ≠ 𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐤 ≠ 𝟐
∴ 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑 if 𝐤 ≠ 𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐤 ≠ 𝟐
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 −𝟐
7. 𝐀 = [𝟒 𝟎 𝟐 𝟔 ] Answer:- 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟐
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏
𝟖 𝟏 𝟑 𝟔
8. 𝐀=[ 𝟎 𝟑 𝟐 𝟐] Answer:- 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑
−𝟖 −𝟏 −𝟑 𝟒
𝟏 𝟎 𝟐 𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 −𝟐 𝟏
9. 𝐀=[ ] Answer:- 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟒 𝟎
−𝟐 𝟐 𝟔 𝟎
CONSISTANCY OF A SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATION
A system of equations in which all the unknowns appear in the first degree only
is called a 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 system of equations.
Consider a system of ′𝐦′ linear simultaneous equations in ′𝐧′ unknown as

follows:
𝐚𝟏𝟏 𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐚𝟏𝟐 𝐱 𝟐 + ⋯ 𝐚𝟏𝐧 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐛𝟏

𝐚𝟐𝟏 𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐𝟐 𝐱 𝟐 + ⋯ 𝐚𝟐𝐧 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐛𝟐
------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
------------------------------------------
𝐚𝐦𝟏 𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐚𝐦𝟐 𝐱 𝟐 + ⋯ 𝐚𝐦𝐧 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐛𝐦
− − − − − − − − − − (𝟏)
Where 𝐚𝐢𝐣 ′ 𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐛𝐢 ′ 𝐬 are real constants
Equation (𝟏) can be written in matrix form as follows:

𝐚𝟏𝟏 𝐚𝟏𝟐 −−−−−− 𝐚𝟏𝐧 𝐱𝟏 𝐛𝟏
𝐚𝟐𝟏 𝐚𝟐𝟐 −−−−−− 𝐚𝟐𝐧 𝐱𝟐 𝐛𝟐
−− −− −− −− − −
−− −− −− −− − =
−
−−− −−− −−− −−− − −
( 𝐚𝐦𝟏 𝐚𝐦𝟐 −−−−−− 𝐚𝐦𝐧 ) (𝐱 𝐧 ) (𝐛𝐦 )
⟹ 𝐀𝐗 = 𝐁 − − − − − − − − − − (𝟐)
NOTE:-
(i) Equation (2) is called homogeneous system of equations if 𝐁 ≠ 𝟎 (Null

matrix of order 𝐦 × 𝟏)
(ii) If 𝐁 ≠ 𝟎 then Equation (2) is called a system of non - homogeneous
system of equations.
C0-EFFICIENT MATRIX:-
The matrix which consists of co–efficient of unknown is called co–efficient matrix.

𝐚𝟏𝟏 𝐚𝟏𝟐 −− 𝐚𝟏𝐧

𝐚𝟐𝟏 𝐚𝟐𝟐 −− 𝐚𝟐𝐧
−− −− −− −−
𝐢. 𝐞. , 𝐀 = −− −− −− −− is the co-efficient matrix.
−−− −−− −− −−−
( 𝐚𝐦𝟏 𝐚𝐦𝟐 −− 𝐚𝐦𝐧 )
AUGMENTED MATRIX:-
𝐚𝟏𝟏 𝐚𝟏𝟐 −− 𝐚𝟏𝐧 𝐛𝟏
𝐚𝟐𝟏 𝐚𝟐𝟐 −− 𝐚𝟐𝐧 𝐛𝟐
−− −− −− − −| −
The matrix [𝐀: 𝐁] = −− −− −− −− − is called Augmented matrix.
|
−−− −−− −− −− −
( 𝐚𝐦𝟏 𝐚𝐦𝟐 −− 𝐚𝐦𝐧 𝐛𝐦 )
SOLUTION OF SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS:-
The set of values of unknowns (𝐱 𝟏 , 𝐱 𝟐 , … . . , 𝐱 𝐧 ) which satisfy all the equations

simultaneously is called the solution of system of equations.
CONSISTANCY OF SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS:-
A system of linear equations is said to be consistent if it possess at least

one solution. A system of linear equations is said to be inconsistent if it does not possess
any solution.
The necessary and sufficient condition for a system of non – homogeneous

equations 𝐀𝐗 = 𝐁 is consistent (has a solution) is
𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐱 = 𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐨𝐟 𝐀𝐮𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐱
𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁)
The system of non – homogeneous equations 𝐀𝐗 = 𝐁 is inconsistent (does not

have a solution) if 𝛒(𝐀) ≠ 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁)
Suppose 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝐫 , then the conditions for various types of solutions as
follows:-

Module Name: Linear Algebra P a g e | 10
1. Unique Solution:- 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝐫 = 𝐧 where ′𝐧′ represents no. of

unknowns.
2. Infinite(multiple) Solution:- 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝐫 < 𝑛
In this case (𝒏 − 𝒓) unknowns can take arbitrary values.
WORKING PROCEDURE:-
1. Write down the 𝐀𝐮𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐱 [𝐀: 𝐁] which contains co-efficient matrix.
2. Reduce the Augmented matrix to echelon form by using only elementary row
transformations. Then we are able to write 𝛒(𝐀) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) which will decide
the consistency of the given system of equations.
3. The Echelon form of [𝐀: 𝐁] is converted back in the equation form and the
solution will be easily obtained by backward substitution method.
PROBLEMS:-
1. Test for consistency and solve:
𝐱+𝐲+𝐳=𝟔
𝐱 − 𝐲 + 𝟐𝐳 = 𝟓
𝟑𝐱 + 𝐲 + 𝐳 = 𝟖
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏𝟔
[ ]
Solution:- Let 𝐀: 𝐁 = (𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐|𝟓) is the Augmented matrix
𝟑 𝟏 𝟏𝟖
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟐 − 𝐑 𝟏 and 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝟑𝐑 𝟏 we get,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟔
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 −𝟐 𝟏 |−𝟏)
𝟎 −𝟐 −𝟐 𝟏𝟎
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝐑 𝟐 we get,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟔
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 −𝟐 𝟏 |−𝟏)
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟑 −𝟗
From this we have,
𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟑

Since 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟑 = 𝐧 = 𝐧𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧𝐬 (𝐢. 𝐞. , 𝐫 = 𝐧 = 𝟑)
The given system of equations is consistent and will have Unique Solution.
Rewriting the above Augmented matrix in equation format we get,
𝐱+𝐲+𝐳=𝟔
−𝟐𝐲 + 𝐳 = −𝟏
−𝟑𝐳 = −𝟗
Solving the above equations we get,
(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳) = (𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑) is the required Unique Solution.
2. Show that the system of equations

𝒙+𝒚+𝒛=𝟒
𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 − 𝒛 = 𝟏
𝒙 − 𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛 = 𝟐 is consistent and hence find the solution.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒
Solution:- Let [𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏|𝟏) is the Augmented matrix
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 − 𝟐𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹′ 𝟑 = 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 we get,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 −𝟏 −𝟑|−𝟕)
𝟎 −𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟑 = 𝑹𝟑 − 𝟐𝑹𝟐 we get,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 −𝟏 −𝟑|−𝟕)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟕 𝟏𝟐
From this we have,
𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟑
Since 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟑 = 𝐧 = 𝐧𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧𝐬 (𝐢. 𝐞. , 𝐫 = 𝐧 = 𝟑)

The given system of equations is consistent and will have Unique Solution.
𝒙+𝒚+𝒛 =𝟒
−𝒚 − 𝟑𝒛 = −𝟕
𝟕𝒛 = 𝟏𝟐

𝟑 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟐
(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) = ( , , ) is the required Unique Solution.
𝟕 𝟕 𝟕

𝐱 + 𝟐𝐲 + 𝟑𝐳 = 𝟏𝟒
𝟒𝐱 + 𝟓𝐲 + 𝟕𝐳 = 𝟑𝟓
𝟑𝐱 + 𝟑𝐲 + 𝟒𝐳 = 𝟐𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏𝟒
Solution:- Let [𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟒 𝟓 𝟕|𝟑𝟓) is the Augmented matrix
𝟑 𝟑 𝟒 𝟐𝟏
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟐 − 𝟒𝐑 𝟏 and 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝟑𝐑 𝟏 we get,
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏𝟒
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 −𝟑 −𝟓|−𝟐𝟏)
𝟎 −𝟑 −𝟓 −𝟐𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏𝟒
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 −𝟑 −𝟓|−𝟐𝟏)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
From this we have,
𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟐
Here 𝐫 = 𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐧 = 𝟑
Since 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟐 < 3(𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑟 < 𝑛)

The given system of equations is consistent and will have Infinite Solution.
Here (𝐧 − 𝐫) = (𝟑 − 𝟐) = 𝟏 and hence one of the variables can take arbitrary

values
𝐱 + 𝟐𝐲 + 𝟑𝐳 = 𝟏𝟒
−𝟑𝐲 − 𝟓𝐳 = −𝟐𝟏
Let 𝐳 = 𝐤 be arbitrary value.
−𝟑𝐲 − 𝟓𝐤 = −𝟐𝟏
𝟓𝐤 𝐤
𝐲=𝟕− 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐱 =
𝟑 𝟑

𝐤 𝟓𝐤
(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳) = ( , 𝟕 − , 𝐤) represents infinite solutions
𝟑 𝟑

𝟓𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 + 𝟕𝒛 = 𝟒
𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐𝟔𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛 = 𝟗
𝟕𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟏𝟎𝒛 = 𝟓
𝟓 𝟑 𝟕 𝟒
[ ]
Solution:- Let 𝐀: 𝐁 = (𝟑 𝟐𝟔 𝟐 |𝟗) is the Augmented matrix
𝟕 𝟐 𝟏𝟎 𝟓
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟐 = 𝟓𝑹𝟐 − 𝟑𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹′ 𝟑 = 𝟓𝑹𝟑 − 𝟕𝑹𝟏 we get,
𝟓 𝟑 𝟕 𝟒
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟏 −𝟏𝟏| 𝟑𝟑 )
𝟎 −𝟏𝟏 𝟏 −𝟑
𝟏
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 we get,
𝟏𝟏
𝟓 𝟑 𝟕 𝟒
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏𝟏 −𝟏| 𝟑 )
𝟎 −𝟏𝟏 𝟏 −𝟑

Applying 𝑹′ 𝟑 = 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟐 we get,
𝟓 𝟑 𝟕 𝟒
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏𝟏 −𝟏|𝟑)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
From this we have,
𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟐
Here 𝒓 = 𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏 = 𝟑
Since 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟐 < 3(𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑟 < 𝑛)
The given system of equations is consistent and will have Infinite Solution.
Here (𝐧 − 𝐫) = (𝟑 − 𝟐) = 𝟏 and hence one of the variables can take arbitrary

values
𝟓𝐱 + 𝟑𝐲 + 𝟕𝐳 = 𝟒
𝟏𝟏𝐲 − 𝐳 = 𝟑
Let 𝐳 = 𝐤 be arbitrary value.
𝟏𝟏𝐲 − 𝐤 = 𝟑
𝟑+𝐤 𝟕−𝟏𝟔𝐤
𝐲= 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐱 =
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏

𝟕−𝟏𝟔𝐤 𝟑+𝐤
(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳) = ( , , 𝐤) represents infinite solutions
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
5. Show that the following system of equations does not possess any solution
𝟓𝐱 + 𝟑𝐲 + 𝟕𝐳 = 𝟓
𝟑𝐱 + 𝟐𝟔𝐲 + 𝟐𝐳 = 𝟗
𝟕𝐱 + 𝟐𝐲 + 𝟏𝟎𝐳 = 𝟓
𝟓 𝟑 𝟕 𝟓
Solution:- Let [𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟑 𝟐𝟔 𝟐 |𝟗) is the Augmented matrix
𝟕 𝟐 𝟏𝟎 𝟓

Applying 𝐑′ 𝟐 = 𝟓𝐑 𝟐 − 𝟑𝐑 𝟏 and 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝟓𝐑 𝟑 − 𝟕𝐑 𝟏 we get,

𝟓 𝟑 𝟕 𝟒
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟏 −𝟏𝟏| 𝟑𝟎 )
𝟎 −𝟏𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏𝟎
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝟏𝟏𝐑 𝟑 + 𝐑 𝟐 we get,
𝟓 𝟑 𝟕 𝟒
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏𝟏 −𝟏| 𝟑𝟎 )
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟖𝟎
From this we have,
𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟑
Since 𝛒(𝐀) ≠ 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) the given system of equations is inconsistent and hence
does not possess any solution.
6. Investigate the values of 𝝀 𝒂𝒏𝒅 µ such that the system of equations

𝒙+𝒚+𝒛=𝟔
𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟑𝒛 = 𝟏𝟎
𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 + 𝝀𝒛 = µ may have
(𝒊) Unique solution (𝒊𝒊) Infinite solution (𝒊𝒊𝒊) No solution
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟔
Solution:- Let [𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟏 𝟐 𝟑|𝟏𝟎) is the Augmented matrix
𝟏 𝟐 𝝀 µ
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹′ 𝟑 = 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 we get,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟔
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 | 𝟒 )
𝟎 𝟏 (𝝀 − 𝟏) (µ − 𝟔)
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟑 = 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐 we get,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟔
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 | 𝟒 )
𝟎 𝟎 (𝝀 − 𝟑) (µ − 𝟏𝟎)

(𝒊) Unique solution:-
We must have 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟑
𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑 will be 3 if (𝝀 − 𝟑) ≠ 𝟎 since the other two entries in the last row of
A are zero. If (𝝀 − 𝟑) ≠ 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝝀 ≠ 𝟑 irrespective of the value of µ, 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) will also
be 3
(𝒊𝒊) Infinite solution:-
Here we have n = 3 and we need 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝐫 < 3 We must have 𝒓 = 𝟐

since the first and second rows are non-zero.
𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟐 < 3 only when the last row of [𝐀: 𝐁] is completely zero. This is
possible if (𝝀 − 𝟑) = 𝟎, (µ − 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟎
∴ the system will have infinite solution if 𝝀 = 𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 µ = 𝟏𝟎
(𝒊𝒊𝒊) No solution:-
We must have 𝛒(𝐀) ≠ 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) By case (i) 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑 𝐢𝐟 𝝀 ≠ 𝟑 and hence

if 𝝀 = 𝟑 we obtain 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟐
If we impose (µ − 𝟏𝟎) ≠ 𝟎 then 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟑
∴ the system will have infinite solution if 𝝀 = 𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 µ ≠ 𝟏𝟎
7. Find for what values of 𝐤 the system of equations

𝐱+𝐲+𝐳=𝟏
𝐱 + 𝟐𝐲 + 𝟒𝐳 = 𝐤
𝐱 + 𝟒𝐲 + 𝟏𝟎𝐳 = 𝐤 𝟐 possesses a solution. Solve completely in each
case.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Solution:- Let [𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟏 𝟐 𝟒 | 𝐤 ) is the Augmented matrix
𝟏 𝟒 𝟏𝟎 𝐤 𝟐
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟐 − 𝐑 𝟏 and 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝐑 𝟏 we get,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏 𝟑| (𝐤 − 𝟏) )
𝟎 𝟑 𝟗 (𝐤 𝟐 − 𝟏)
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝟑𝐑 𝟐 we get,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏 𝟑| (𝐤 − 𝟏) )
𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 (𝐤 − 𝟑𝐤 + 𝟐)
𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟐 and for the system to be consistent we must have 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟐
This is possible if (𝐤 𝟐 − 𝟑𝐤 + 𝟐) = 𝟎
Solving we get, 𝐤 = 𝟏, 𝐤 = 𝟐
Hence we conclude that the system possesses a solution if 𝐤 = 𝟏, 𝟐
Since 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟐 < 3 for the cases 𝐤 = 𝟏, 𝟐 the system will have
infinite solution and the same are as follows:
Case(i):- 𝐤 = 𝟏 The system of equations are
𝐱+𝐲+𝐳=𝟏
𝐲 + 𝟑𝐳 = 𝟎
Let 𝐳 = 𝐤 𝟏 be arbitrary value.
𝐲 = −𝟑𝐤 𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐱 = 𝟏 + 𝟐𝐤 𝟏
(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳) = (𝟏 + 𝟐𝐤 𝟏 , −𝟑𝐤 𝟏 , 𝐤 𝟏 ) represents infinite solutions
Case(ii):- 𝐤 = 𝟐 The system of equations are
𝐱+𝐲+𝐳=𝟏

𝐲 + 𝟑𝐳 = 𝟏
Let 𝐳 = 𝐤 𝟐 be arbitrary value.
𝐲 = 𝟏 − 𝟑𝐤 𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐱 = 𝟐𝐤 𝟐
(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳) = (𝟐𝐤 𝟐 , 𝟏 − 𝟑𝐤 𝟐 𝟑𝐤 𝟏 , 𝐤 𝟐 ) represents infinite solutions

𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝒛 = −𝟑
𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚 − 𝟐𝒛 = −𝟐
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒𝒚 + 𝟕𝒛 = 𝟕 (Answer:- Inconsistent)
𝒙+𝒚+𝒛=𝟗
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓𝒚 + 𝟕𝒛 = 𝟓𝟐
𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 − 𝒛 = 𝟎 Answer:-(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) = (𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓)
10. Investigate the values of 𝝀 𝒂𝒏𝒅 µ such that the system of equations
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 + 𝟓𝒛 = 𝟗
𝟕𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 − 𝟐𝒛 = 𝟖
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 + 𝝀𝒛 = µ may have
(𝒊) Unique solution (𝒊𝒊) Infinite solution (𝒊𝒊𝒊) No solution

GAUSS ELIMINATION METHOD
Gauss elimination method aims in reducing the coefficient matrix A to an upper

triangular matrix.
PROBLEMS:-
1. Solve by Gauss elimination method
𝐱+𝐲+𝐳 =𝟒
𝟐𝐱 + 𝐲 − 𝐳 = 𝟏
𝐱 − 𝐲 + 𝟐𝐳 = 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒
Solution:- Let [𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏| 𝟏 ) is the Augmented matrix
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟐 − 𝟐𝐑 𝟏 and 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝐑 𝟏 we get,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 −𝟏 −𝟑| −𝟕 )
𝟎 −𝟐 𝟏 −𝟐
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝟐𝐑 𝟐 we get,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 −𝟏 −𝟑| −𝟕 )
𝟎 𝟎 𝟕 𝟏𝟐
The system of equations as follows:
𝐱+𝐲+𝐳=𝟒
−𝐲 − 𝟑𝐳 = −𝟕
7z= 𝟏𝟐

𝟑 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟐
(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳) = ( , , ) is the required solution
𝟕 𝟕 𝟕

𝟐𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟒𝐱 𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐

𝟒𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏𝐱 𝟐 − 𝐱 𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑
𝟖𝐱 𝟏 − 𝟑𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐱 𝟑 = 𝟐𝟎
𝟐 𝟏 𝟒 𝟏𝟐
Solution:- Let [𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟒 𝟏𝟏 −𝟏| 𝟑𝟑 ) is the Augmented matrix
𝟖 −𝟑 𝟐 𝟐𝟎
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟐 − 𝟐𝐑 𝟏 and 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝟒𝐑 𝟏 we get,
𝟐 𝟏 𝟒 𝟏𝟐
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟗 −𝟗 | 𝟗 )
𝟎 −𝟕 −𝟏𝟒 −𝟐𝟖
𝟏 𝟏
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 and 𝑹′ 𝟑 = − 𝑹𝟑 we get,
𝟗 𝟕
𝟐 𝟏 𝟒 𝟏𝟐
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏 −𝟏| 𝟏 )
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟒
𝟐 𝟏 𝟒 𝟏𝟐
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏 −𝟏| 𝟏 )
𝟎 𝟎 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟒𝐱 𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐
𝐱𝟐 − 𝐱𝟑 = 𝟏
𝟑𝐱 𝟑 = 𝟑
(𝐱 𝟏 , 𝐱 𝟐 , 𝐱 𝟑 ) = (𝟑, 𝟐, 𝟏) is the required solution.

𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐱 𝟑 + 𝟒𝐱 𝟒 = −𝟔
𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟕𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐱 𝟑 + 𝐱 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟐
𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟔𝐱 𝟑 + 𝐱 𝟒 = −𝟓
𝟓𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐱 𝟑 + 𝐱 𝟒 = 𝟒

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒 −𝟔
𝟏 𝟕 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏𝟐
Solution:- Let [𝐀: 𝐁] = ( | ) is the Augmented matrix
𝟏 𝟏 𝟔 𝟏 −𝟓
𝟓 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏 𝑹′ 𝟑 = 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹′ 𝟒 = 𝑹𝟒 − 𝟓𝑹𝟏 we get,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒 −𝟔
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟔 𝟎 −𝟑 𝟏𝟖
| )
𝟎 𝟎 𝟓 −𝟑 𝟏
𝟎 𝟒 −𝟒 −𝟏𝟗 𝟑𝟒
𝟏
𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒 −𝟔
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟐 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟔
| )
𝟎 𝟎 𝟓 −𝟑 𝟏
𝟎 𝟒 −𝟒 −𝟏𝟗 𝟑𝟒
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟒 = 𝑹𝟒 + 𝟐𝑹𝟐 we get,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒 −𝟔
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟐 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟔
| )
𝟎 𝟎 𝟓 −𝟑 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟒 −𝟐𝟏 𝟒𝟔
Applying 𝑹′ 𝟒 = 𝟓𝑹𝟒 + 𝟒𝑹𝟑 we get,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒 −𝟔
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟐 𝟎 −𝟏
|
𝟔
)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟓 −𝟑 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏𝟏𝟕 𝟐𝟑𝟒
𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐱 𝟑 + 𝟒𝐱 𝟒 = −𝟔
𝟐𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟎𝐱 𝟑 − 𝐱 𝟒 = 𝟔
𝟓𝐱 𝟑 − 𝟑𝐱 𝟒 = 𝟏

−𝟏𝟏𝟕𝐱 𝟒 = 𝟐𝟑𝟒
(𝐱 𝟏 , 𝐱 𝟐 , 𝐱 𝟑 , 𝐱 𝟒 ) = (𝟏, 𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟐) is the required solution.

𝟐𝐱 𝟏 − 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟑𝐱 𝟑 = 𝟏
−𝟑𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟒𝐱 𝟐 − 𝟓𝐱 𝟑 = 𝟎
𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟑𝐱 𝟐 − 𝟔𝐱 𝟑 = 𝟎
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑 𝟏
Solution:- Let [𝐀: 𝐁] = (−𝟑 𝟒 −𝟓| 𝟎 ) is the Augmented matrix
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟔 𝟎
Applying 𝐑 𝟏 ↔ 𝐑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟔 𝟎
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (−𝟑 𝟒 −𝟓| 𝟎 )
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑 𝟏
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝟑𝐑 𝟏 and 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝟐𝐑 𝟏 we get,
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟔 𝟎
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏𝟑 −𝟐𝟑| 𝟎 )
𝟎 −𝟕 𝟏𝟓 𝟏
𝟏
𝟏𝟑
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟔 𝟎
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏 𝟐𝟑
− |𝟎)
𝟏𝟑
𝟎 −𝟕 𝟏𝟓 𝟏
Applying 𝐑′ 𝟑 = 𝐑 𝟑 + 𝟕𝐑 𝟐 we get,
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟔
𝟐𝟑
𝟎
[𝐀: 𝐁] = (𝟎 𝟏 −
𝟏𝟑|𝟎)
𝟑𝟒
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏𝟑

𝟐𝐱 𝟏 − 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟑𝐱 𝟑 = 𝟏
𝟐𝟑
𝟒𝐱 𝟐 − 𝐱 =𝟎
𝟏𝟑 𝟑
𝟑𝟒
𝐱 =𝟏
𝟏𝟑 𝟑
𝟗 𝟐𝟑 𝟏𝟑
(𝐱 𝟏 , 𝐱 𝟐 , 𝐱 𝟑 ) = ( , , ) is the required solution.
𝟑𝟒 𝟑𝟒 𝟑𝟒

𝟒𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐱 𝟑 = 𝟒
𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟒𝐱 𝟐 − 𝟐𝐱 𝟑 = 𝟒
𝟑𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟐𝐱 𝟐 − 𝟒𝐱 𝟑 = 𝟔
Answer(𝐱 𝟏 , 𝐱 𝟐 , 𝐱 𝟑 ) = (𝟏, 𝟎. 𝟓 , −𝟎. 𝟓 )

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Definition. Consider the square matrix A . We say that is an eigen value of A if there exists a non-zero vector
X such that AX= 𝛌𝐗 In this case, Xis called an eigenvector (corresponding to ), and the pair ( ,x) is called an
eigenpair for A.
Characteristic equation: |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0 is the characteristic equation of the square matrix 𝐴. Roots are called
Characteristic roots or Eigen values or latent roots of 𝐴.
Any vector 𝑋 satisfying [𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼]𝑋 = 0 is called Eigen vector corresponding to the Eigen value.
Note:
Consider 𝑨𝑿 = 𝝀𝑿where A is a square matrix, X is a column vector and  is a scalar. If u is non-
zero vector then we call u an eigenvector belonging (or corresponding) to the eigenvalue  of the
matrix A.
The following equation |𝐀 − 𝛌𝐈| = 𝟎 is called the characteristic equation.
To find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors we use the following procedure:
1. Solve the characteristic equation for the scalar  .
2. For the eigenvalue  determine the corresponding eigenvector u by solving the system (𝑨 − 𝝀𝑰)𝑿 = 𝑶.
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏
𝑰𝒇 𝑨 = [ 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐 ] 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐬
𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒄𝟑
𝜆3 − (𝑎1 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐3)𝜆2 + (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ 𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎1, 𝑏2&𝑐3)𝜆 − |𝐴| = 0
1) Find the Eigen values and Eigen vectors of the following matrices.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟑
n
Sol : [𝟏 𝟓 𝟏] Characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0 .
𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
(𝟏 − 𝛌 ) 𝟏 𝟑
[ 𝟏 (𝟓 − 𝛌 ) 𝟏 ]=𝟎 ,
𝟑 𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝛌 )
𝜆3 − (𝑎1 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐3)𝜆2 + (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ 𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎1, 𝑏2&𝑐3)𝜆 − |𝐴| = 0
⟹ 𝜆3 − ( 7 )𝜆2 + ( 0 )𝜆 − ( −36) = 0 ∑𝐷=1+5+1=7

⟹ 𝜆3 − 7𝜆2 + 0𝜆 + 36 = 0 . ∑ 𝑀 𝐷 = 4 − 8 + 4 = 0 , |𝐴| = −36

(𝟏 − 𝛌)𝐱 − 𝐲 + 𝟑𝐳 = 𝟎 , 𝐱 + (𝟓 − 𝛌 )𝐲 + 𝐳 = 𝟎 , 𝟑𝐱 + 𝐲 + (𝟏 − 𝛌 )𝐳 = 𝟎 … (1)
𝜆1 = −2 𝜆2 =3 𝜆3 = 6
3𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0 −2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0 −5𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0
𝑥 + 7𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 𝑥−𝑦+𝑧=0
⟹ cross multiplication rule ⟹cross multiplication rule ⟹ cross multiplication rule
𝒙 −𝒚 𝒛 𝒙 −𝒚 𝒛 𝒙 −𝒚 𝒛
= = = = = =
𝟏 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏 |𝟏 𝟑| |
−𝟐 𝟑
| |
−𝟐 𝟏
| 𝟏 𝟑 −𝟓 𝟑 −𝟓 𝟏
| | | | | | | | | | | |
𝟕 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟕 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
= = = = = =
−𝟐𝟎 𝟎 𝟐𝟎 −𝟓 −𝟓 −𝟓 𝟒 −𝟖 𝟒
∴ 𝑋1 = [-1, 0, 1]′ 𝑋2 = [-1, 1, - 1]′ 𝑋3 = [1, 2, 1]′
Eigen values are (𝜆)= −2, 3 and 6 , the corresponding Eigen vectors are
[1, 0, −1]′ , [1, −1, 1]′ and [1, 2, 1]′ respectively.
𝟖 −𝟔 𝟐
2) If A=[−𝟔 𝟕 −𝟒]
𝟐 −𝟒 𝟑
Sol : Characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
n
𝜆3 − (𝑎1 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐3)𝜆2 + (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎1, 𝑏2&𝑐3)𝜆 − |𝐴| = 0
𝟖−𝛌 −𝟔 𝟐
⟹ A=[ −𝟔 𝟕−𝛌 −𝟒 ] = 𝟎
𝟐 −𝟒 𝟑−𝛌
∑ 𝐷 = 8 + 7 + 3 = 18.
⟹ 𝜆 − ( 18
3 )𝜆2 + ( 45 )𝜆 − ( 0) = 0 ∑ 𝑀 𝐷 = 5 + 20 + 20 = 45
⟹ 𝜆3 − 18𝜆2 + 45𝜆 + 0 = 0 |𝐴| = 0
Roots are 𝜆 = ( 0, 3, 15)

(𝟖 − 𝛌)𝐱 − 𝟔𝐲 + 𝟐𝐳 = 𝟎 , −𝟔𝐱 + (𝟕 − 𝛌 )𝐲 − 𝟒𝐳 = 𝟎 , … …. (1)
𝜆1 = 0 𝜆2 = 3 𝜆3 = 15
8𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0 5𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0 −7𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
−6x + (7)y − 4z = 0 −6x + (4)y − 4z = 0 −6x + (−8)y − 4z = 0
⟹ cross multiplication rule ⟹cross multiplication rule ⟹ cross multiplication rule

𝑥 −𝑦 𝑧 𝒙 −𝒚 𝒛 𝒙 −𝒚 𝒛
−6 2 = 8 2 = 8 −6 −𝟔 𝟐 = 𝟓 𝟐 = 𝟓 −𝟔 −𝟔 𝟐 = −𝟕 𝟐 = −𝟕 −𝟔
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
7 −4 −6 −4 −6 7 𝟒 −𝟒 −𝟔 −𝟒 −𝟔 𝟒 −𝟖 −𝟒 −𝟔 −𝟒 −𝟔 −𝟖
= = = = = =
𝟏𝟎 −𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟔 −𝟖 𝟏𝟔 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟎
𝑋1= [1, 2, 2]′ 𝑋2= [2, 1, −2]′ 𝑋3= [1, −1, 0.5]′
Eigen values are 𝜆 = 0, 3 and 15 , the corresponding Eigen vectors
X= [1, 2, 2]′ , [2, 1, −2]′ and [2, −2, 1]′ respectively
1. Find the Eigen values and Eigen vectors 𝐀 = [−𝟏𝟗 𝟕 ]

−𝟒𝟐 𝟏𝟔
Solution:- The characteristic equation of 𝐀 𝐢𝐬 |𝐀 − 𝛌𝐈| = 𝟎
W. K. T 𝛌 𝟐 − (∑ 𝐝)𝛌 + |𝐀| = 𝟎
Here ∑ 𝐝 = −𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 |𝐀| = −𝟏𝟎
Now, 𝛌 𝟐 + 𝟑𝛌 − 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎
Solving we get, 𝛌 = 𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 − 𝟓 are the Eigen values of A
Now consider,

[𝐀 − 𝛌𝐈] [𝐗] = [𝟎]
(−𝟏𝟗 − 𝛌) 𝟕 𝐱 𝟎
[ ] [𝐲] = [ ]
−𝟒𝟐 (𝟏𝟔 − 𝛌) 𝟎
(−𝟏𝟗 − 𝛌)𝐱 + 𝟕𝐲 = 𝟎
−𝟒𝟐𝐱 + (𝟏𝟔 − 𝛌)𝐲 = 𝟎
Case (i):- Let 𝛌 = 𝟐
The system of equations reduces to – 𝟐𝟏𝐱 + 𝟕𝐲 = 𝟎

𝐱 𝐲
𝟑𝐱 = 𝐲 𝐨𝐫 =
𝟏 𝟑
𝟏
∴ 𝐗 𝟏 = [ ] is the Eigen vector corresponding to 𝛌 = 𝟐
𝟑
Case (ii):- Let 𝛌 = −𝟓
The system of equations reduces to – 𝟏𝟒𝐱 + 𝟕𝐲 = 𝟎

𝐱 𝐲
𝟐𝐱 = 𝐲 𝐨𝐫 =
𝟏 𝟐
𝟏
∴ 𝐗 𝟐 = [ ] is the Eigen vector corresponding to 𝛌 = −𝟓
𝟐
Eigen values are 𝜆 = 2 , 5 , the corresponding Eigen vectors X= [1, 3 ]′ , [1 , 2]′
𝟒 𝟏
2 ) Find the Eigen values and Eigen vectors 𝐀 = [ ]
𝟐 𝟑
Solution:- The characteristic equation of 𝐀 𝐢𝐬 |𝐀 − 𝛌𝐈| = 𝟎
W. K. T 𝛌 𝟐 − (∑ 𝐝)𝛌 + |𝐀| = 𝟎

Here ∑ 𝐝 = 𝟕 𝐚𝐧𝐝 |𝐀| = 𝟏𝟎

Now, 𝛌 𝟐 − 𝟕𝛌 + 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎
Solving we get, 𝛌 = 𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟓 are the Eigen values of A
Now consider,
[𝐀 − 𝛌𝐈] [𝐗] = [𝟎]
(𝟒 − 𝛌) 𝟏 𝐱 𝟎
[ ] [𝐲] = [ ]
𝟐 (𝟑 − 𝛌) 𝟎
(𝟒 − 𝛌)𝐱 + 𝐲 = 𝟎
𝟐𝐱 + (𝟑 − 𝛌)𝐲 = 𝟎
Case (i):- Let 𝛌 = 𝟐
The system of equations reduces to 𝟐𝐱 + 𝐲 = 𝟎

𝐱 𝐲
𝟐𝐱 = −𝐲 𝐨𝐫 =
−𝟏 𝟐
−𝟏
∴ 𝐗 𝟏 = [ ] is the Eigen vector corresponding to 𝛌 = 𝟐
𝟐
Case (ii):- Let 𝛌 = 𝟓
The system of equations reduces to –𝐱 + 𝐲 = 𝟎

𝐱 𝐲
𝐱 = 𝐲 𝐨𝐫 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏
∴ 𝐗 𝟐 = [ ] is the Eigen vector corresponding to 𝛌 = 𝟓
𝟏
Eigen values are 𝜆 = 2 , 5 , the corresponding Eigen vectors X= [-1, 2 ]′ , [1 , 1]′
3) Find the Eigen values and Eigen vectors of the following matrices
𝟔 −𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 1 𝟏
−𝟏 𝟑 −𝟏 𝟑
a) 𝐀 = [ ] b) 𝐀 = [ ] c) 𝑨 = [𝟐 𝟑 −𝟏] d ) 𝑨 = [𝟏 𝟑 −𝟏]
−𝟐 𝟒 −𝟐 𝟒
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟑

Syllabus
Subject:- Additional Mathematics - II Subject Code:- 18MATDIP41
NUMERICAL METHODS
(MODULE - II)
Finite differences:- Interpolation/extrapolation using Newton’s forward and

backward difference formulae.
Solution of polynomial and transcendental equations – Newton-Raphson and

Regula-Falsi methods (only formulae)- Illustrative examples.
Numerical Integration:- Simpson’s (1/3)rd and (3/8)th rules, Weddle’s rule
(without proof ) –Problems.
Index
SL. No. Contents Page No.

Finite difference:- Forward and Backward difference, Interpolation
1 2
(definitions)
Newton’s Forward and Backward Interpolation Formula for equal
2 3-8
intervals – Problems
Solution of polynomial and transcendental equations :– Newton-Raphson and
3 8-14
Regula-Falsi methods
𝟏 𝒓𝒅 𝟑 𝒕𝒉
4 Numerical Integration:- Simpson’s (𝟑) rule, Simpson’s ( )
𝟖
rule 14-21
Weddle’s rule
MODULE - II
NUMERICAL METHODS
Finite difference:-
Consider a function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) and let 𝐱𝟎 , 𝐱𝟏 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝐡, 𝐱𝟐 = 𝐱𝟏 + 𝐡, 𝐱𝟑 =
𝐱𝟐 + 𝐡 … , 𝐱𝐧 = 𝐱𝐧−𝟏 + 𝐡 be a set of points at a common interval ‘h’. Let the
corresponding function of 𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) be 𝐲𝟎 = 𝐟(𝐱𝟎 ), 𝐲𝟏 = 𝐟(𝐱𝟏 ), 𝐲𝟐 = 𝐟(𝐱𝟐 ), … , 𝐲𝐧 =
𝐟(𝐱𝐧 )
Forward difference:-
The first forward difference of 𝐟(𝐱) is denoted by ∆𝐟(𝐱) and is defined as
∆𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐟(𝐱) − 𝐟(𝐱 − 𝐡) where ∆ is forward difference operator.
Backward difference:-
The first backward difference of 𝐟(𝐱) is denoted by 𝛁𝐟(𝐱) and is defined as
𝛁𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐡) − 𝐟(𝐱) where 𝛁 is backward difference operator.
Interpolation:-
If 𝐲𝟎, 𝐲𝟏, 𝐲𝟐, 𝐲𝟑, … . , 𝐲𝐧 be a set of values of a function 𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) corresponding to
the values of 𝐱: 𝐱𝟎 , 𝐱𝟏 , 𝐱𝟐 , 𝐱𝟑, … . , 𝐱𝐧 The process of finding or estimating the value of 𝐲
for a given value of 𝐱 between 𝐱𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐱𝐧 is called Interpolation.
Also the process of finding the value of 𝒚 outside the given range of 𝒙 is called
Extrapolation.
In general Interpolation includes Extrapolation also.
Forward and Backward difference formula for equal intervals:-

Let 𝐲𝟎 , 𝐲𝟏, 𝐲𝟐 , 𝐲𝟑, … . , 𝐲𝐧 be a set of values of a function 𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) corresponding to
the equi-distant values of 𝐱: 𝐱𝟎 , 𝐱𝟏 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝐡, 𝐱𝟐 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝟐𝐡, 𝐱𝟑 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝟑𝐡 … , 𝐱𝐧 = 𝐱𝟎 +
𝐧𝐡 Thus we have two interpolation formula as follows:-
Subject Name: Additional Mathematics – II (18MATDIP41) Module No. 2

Module Name: Numerical Methods P ag e |2
Newton’s Forward Interpolation Formula (NFIF):-

The value of 𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) at 𝐱 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝐫𝐡 is approximately given by
𝐫 𝐫(𝐫 − 𝟏) 𝟐 𝐫(𝐫 − 𝟏)(𝐫 − 𝟐) 𝟑

𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝐲𝟎 + ∆ 𝐲𝟎 + ∆ 𝐲𝟎
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!
𝐫(𝐫 − 𝟏) … [𝐫 − (𝐧 − 𝟏)] 𝐧
+ ⋯.+ ∆ 𝐲𝟎
𝐧!
𝐱− 𝐱𝟎
Where 𝐫 = and 𝐫 = 𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐨.
𝐡
𝐱 = 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐰𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐡 𝐲 𝐡𝐚𝐬 𝐭𝐨 𝐛𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝
𝐱𝟎 = 𝐟𝐢𝐫𝐬𝐭 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐱
𝐡 = 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥
Newton’s Backward Interpolation Formula (NBIF):-

The value of 𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) at 𝐱 = 𝐱𝐧 + 𝐫𝐡 is approximately given by
𝐫 𝐫(𝐫 + 𝟏) 𝟐 𝐫(𝐫 + 𝟏)(𝐫 + 𝟐) 𝟑

𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐲𝐧 + 𝛁𝐲𝐧 + 𝛁 𝐲𝐧 + 𝛁 𝐲𝐧
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!
𝐫(𝐫 + 𝟏) … [𝐫 + (𝐧 − 𝟏)] 𝐧
+ ⋯.+ 𝛁 𝐲𝐧
𝐧!
𝐱− 𝐱𝐧
Where 𝐫 = and 𝐫 = 𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐨.
𝐡
𝐱 = 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐰𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐡 𝐲 𝐡𝐚𝐬 𝐭𝐨 𝐛𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝
𝐱𝐧 = 𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐱
𝐡 = 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥
PROBLEMS:-
1. Find 𝐟(𝟏. 𝟒) using the data given below:

𝐱 1 2 3 4 5
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) 10 26 58 112 194
Solution:-Here we need to find y at x = 1.4 and since the value of x lies in the first
half of the table we use NFIF. Let us construct the following table:

𝒙 𝒚 ∆𝒚 ∆𝟐 𝒚 ∆𝟑 𝒚 ∆𝟒 𝒚
𝒙𝟎 = 𝟏 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎
∆𝒚𝟎 = 𝟏𝟔
2 26 ∆𝟐𝒚𝟎 = 𝟏𝟔
32 ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟔
3 58 22 ∆𝟒 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟎
54 6
4 112 28
82
5 194
By NFIF we have,
𝐫 𝐫(𝐫−𝟏) 𝐫(𝐫−𝟏)(𝐫−𝟐) 𝐫(𝐫−𝟏)(𝐫−𝟐)(𝐫−𝟑)
𝒚 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝟐𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝟑 𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝟒 𝐲𝟎
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑! 𝟒!
𝐱− 𝐱 𝟎 𝟏.𝟒 −𝟏
Where 𝐫 = = = 𝟎. 𝟒
𝐡 𝟏
𝟎.𝟒 𝟎.𝟒(𝟎.𝟒−𝟏) 𝟎.𝟒(𝟎.𝟒−𝟏)(𝟎.𝟒−𝟐)

𝐲 = 𝐟(𝟏. 𝟒) = 𝟏𝟎 + (𝟏𝟔) + (𝟏𝟔) + (𝟔) +
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!
𝟎.𝟒(𝟎.𝟒−𝟏)(𝟎.𝟒−𝟐)(𝟎.𝟒−𝟑)
(𝟎)
𝟒!
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝟏. 𝟒) = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟖𝟔𝟒
2. Construct the interpolating polynomial for the data given below:

𝐱 0 1 2
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) 0 5 2
Solution:- The interpolating polynomial can be found either by NFIF or NBIF.

In this problem we use NFIF. Let us construct the following table:
𝐱 𝐲 ∆𝐲 ∆𝟐 𝐲
𝐱𝟎 = 𝟎 𝐲𝟎 = 𝟎
∆𝐲𝟎 = 𝟓
1 5 ∆𝟐 𝐲𝟎 = −𝟖
-3
2 2
By NFIF we have,

𝐫 𝐫(𝐫−𝟏)
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝟐𝐲𝟎
𝟏! 𝟐!
𝐱− 𝐱 𝟎 𝐱 −𝟎
Where 𝐫 = = =𝐱
𝐡 𝟏
𝐱 𝐱(𝐱−𝟏)
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝟎 + (𝟓) + (−𝟖)
𝟏! 𝟐!
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝟓𝐱 + (𝐱𝟐 − 𝐱)(−𝟒)
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = −𝟒𝐱𝟐 + 𝟗𝐱 is the required Interpolating polynomial.
3. Construct the interpolating polynomial for the data given below and also find
𝐲 𝐚𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟓
𝐱 0 1 2 3
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) 1 3 7 13
Solution:- The interpolating polynomial can be found either by NFIF or NBIF.

In this problem we use NBIF. Let us construct the following table:
𝐱 𝐲 𝛁𝐲 𝛁𝟐 𝐲 𝛁𝟑 𝐲
0 1
2
1 3 2
4 𝛁𝟑 𝐲𝐧 = 𝟎
2 7 𝛁𝟐 𝐲𝐧 =𝟐
𝛁𝐲𝐧 = 𝟔
𝐱𝐧 = 𝟑 𝐲𝐧 = 𝟏𝟑
By NBIF we have,
𝐫 𝐫(𝐫+𝟏) 𝐫(𝐫+𝟏)(𝐫+𝟐)
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐲𝐧 + 𝛁𝐲𝐧 + 𝛁𝟐 𝐲𝐧 + 𝛁𝟑 𝐲𝐧
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!
𝐱− 𝐱 𝐧 𝐱 −𝟑
Where 𝐫 = = =𝐱−𝟑
𝐡 𝟏
(𝐱−𝟑) (𝐱−𝟑)(𝐱−𝟐) (𝐱−𝟑)(𝐱−𝟐)(𝐱−𝟏)

𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝟏𝟑 + (𝟔) + (𝟐) + (𝟎)
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝟏𝟑 + 𝟔𝐱 − 𝟏𝟖 + 𝐱𝟐 − 𝟑𝐱 − 𝟐𝐱 + 𝟔
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐱𝟐 + 𝐱 + 𝟏 is the required interpolating polynomial.
Put 𝐱 = 𝟓 in the above equation we get,

𝐲 = 𝐟(𝟓) = 𝟑𝟏
4. From the following table estimate the no. of students those who are obtained the
marks in between 40 and 45
Marks 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80
No. of Students 31 42 51 35 31
Solution:- Here we re-construct the given table according to the marks scored
by the students
Students who scored less than 40 marks = 31 students
Students who scored less than 50 marks = 31+42 = 73 students
Students who scored less than 70 marks = 124+ 35 = 159 students
In this problem we use NFIF. Let us construct the following table:
Less than ′𝒚′ ∆𝒚 ∆𝟐 𝒚 ∆𝟑 𝒚 ∆𝟒 𝒚

′𝒙′ marks No. of
students
𝒙𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟑𝟏
∆𝒚𝟎 = 𝟒𝟐
50 73 ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟗
51 ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎
60 124 -16 = −𝟐𝟓 ∆𝟒 𝒚𝟎
35 = −𝟑𝟕
70 159 -4 12
31
80 190
By NFIF we have,
𝐫 𝐫(𝐫−𝟏) 𝐫(𝐫−𝟏)(𝐫−𝟐) 𝐫(𝐫−𝟏)(𝐫−𝟐)(𝐫−𝟑)
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝟐 𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝟑𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝟒𝐲𝟎
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑! 𝟒!
𝐱− 𝐱 𝟎 𝟒𝟓−𝟒𝟎
Where 𝐫 = = = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝐡 𝟏𝟎
𝟎.𝟓 𝟎.𝟓(𝟎.𝟓−𝟏) 𝟎.𝟓(𝟎.𝟓−𝟏)(𝟎.𝟓−𝟐)

𝐲 = 𝐟(𝟒𝟓) = 𝟑𝟏 + (𝟒𝟐) + (𝟗) + (−𝟐𝟓) +
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!
𝟎.𝟓(𝟎.𝟓−𝟏)(𝟎.𝟓−𝟐)(𝟎.𝟓−𝟑)
(−𝟑𝟕)
𝟒!
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝟒𝟓) = 𝟑𝟏 + 𝟐𝟏 − 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎 − 𝟏. 𝟓𝟔𝟐𝟓 − 𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟓𝟑
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝟒𝟓) = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟖𝟔𝟕𝟐 ≃ 𝟒𝟖 𝐬𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

Now from the table we have the no. of students scoring less than 40 marks = 31
students Hence the no. of students those who are obtained the marks in between
40 and 45 =
= (48 – 31)
= 17 students
5. Find the cubic polynomial which takes the following values and hence find
𝐟(𝟒) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐟(𝟓)
𝐱 0 1 2 3
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) 1 2 1 10
Solution:- The interpolating polynomial can be found either by NFIF or NBIF. In

this problem we use NFIF. Let us construct the following table:
𝐱 𝐲 ∆𝐲 ∆𝟐 𝐲 ∆𝟑 𝐲
𝐱𝟎 = 𝟎 𝐲𝟎 = 𝟏
∆𝐲𝟎 = 𝟏
1 2 ∆𝟐𝐲𝟎 = −𝟐
-1 ∆𝟑𝐲𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐
2 1 10
9
3 10
By NFIF we have,
𝐫 𝐫(𝐫−𝟏) 𝐫(𝐫−𝟏)(𝐫−𝟐)
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝟐 𝐲𝟎 + ∆𝟑𝐲𝟎
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!
𝐱− 𝐱 𝟎 𝐱−𝟎
Where 𝐫 = = =𝐱
𝐡 𝟏
𝐱 𝐱(𝐱−𝟏) 𝐱(𝐱−𝟏)(𝐱−𝟐)
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝟏 + (𝟏) + (−𝟐) + (𝟏𝟐)
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝟏 + 𝐱 − 𝐱𝟐 + 𝐱 + 𝟐𝐱𝟑 − 𝟔𝐱𝟐 + 𝟐𝐱
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝟐𝐱𝟑 − 𝟕 𝐱𝟐 + 𝟒𝐱 + 𝟏 is the required Interpolating polynomial.

Put 𝐱 = 𝟒 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐱 = 𝟓 in the above equation we get,
𝐟(𝟒) = 𝟑𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐟(𝟓) = 𝟏𝟎𝟏
6. Find the no. of men’s getting wages below Rs 15/- from the following data:
Wages in Rs/- 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40

No. of men’s 9 30 35 42
(Answer:- 47 men’s)
7. Using NFIF find the value of 𝐟(𝟏. 𝟔) for the data given below:
𝐱 1 1.4 1.8 2.2
𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) 3.49 4.82 5.96 6.5
(Answer:- 5.4393)
Solution of polynomial and Transcendental equations
Algebraic equation:-
An equation involving the terms like 𝐱, 𝐱𝟐 , 𝐱𝟑 , 𝟔𝐱𝟔 , … are called Algebraic

equations
Examples:- (𝐢)𝐱𝟑 + 𝟐𝐱𝟐 + 𝐱 + 𝟓 = 𝟎

(𝐢𝐢)𝐱𝟓 + 𝟏𝟒𝐱𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐𝐱 + 𝟐𝟑𝟓 = 𝟎
Transcendental equation:-
An equation involving the terms like 𝐞 𝐱 , 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐱, 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐱, 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝐱, 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱 … are called
Transcendental equations
Examples:- (𝐢) 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐱 + 𝐞 𝐱 = 𝟎

(𝐢𝐢) 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐱 − 𝐱 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐱 = 𝟎
NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

Let 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝟎 be a given equation (Algebraic or transcendental) and let

𝐱𝟎 be an approximate root of the equation and hence by Newton-Raphson iterative
formula we have
𝐟(𝐱 𝐧)
𝐱𝐧+𝟏 = 𝐱𝐧 − where 𝐧 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
𝐟 ′ (𝐱 𝐧)
PROBLEMS:-
1. Using Newton-Raphson method find the real root of the equation 𝐱𝟑 − 𝟐𝐱 − 𝟓 =
𝟎 correct to four decimal places.
Solution:- Let 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐱𝟑 − 𝟐𝐱 − 𝟓 and 𝐟 ′ (𝐱) = 𝟑𝐱𝟐 − 𝟐
when 𝐱 = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝐟(𝟎) = −𝟓
when 𝐱 = 𝟏 ⟹ 𝐟(𝟏) = −𝟔
when 𝐱 = 𝟐 ⟹ 𝐟(𝟐) = −𝟏 < 0 (nearer to zero)
when 𝐱 = 𝟑 ⟹ 𝐟(𝟑) = 𝟏𝟔 > 0
∴ Root lies between (2, 3)
Now,
when 𝐱 = 𝟐. 𝟏 ⟹ 𝐟(𝟐. 𝟏) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟏 > 0
∴ Root lies between (2, 2.1)
Let 𝐱𝟎 = 𝟐 is the approximate root

Let us construct the following table:-
Trail 𝐱𝐧 𝐟(𝐱𝐧 ) = 𝐱𝐧 𝟑 − 𝟐𝐱𝐧 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝐧 ) = 𝟑𝐱𝐧 𝟐 𝐟(𝐱𝐧 )

𝐱𝐧+𝟏 = 𝐱𝐧 −
No. −𝟓 −𝟐 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝐧 )
𝐟(𝐱𝟎 ) = 𝐱𝟎 𝟑 − 𝟐𝐱𝟎 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟎 ) = 𝟑𝐱𝟎 𝟐 𝐟(𝐱𝟎)

𝐱𝟏 = 𝐱𝟎 −
𝐧=𝟎 𝐱𝟎 = 𝟐 −𝟓 −𝟐 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟎 )
𝐱𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟏
𝐟(𝐱𝟎 ) = −𝟏 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟎 ) = 𝟏𝟎
𝐟(𝐱𝟏 ) = 𝐱𝟏 𝟑 − 𝟐𝐱𝟏 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟏 ) = 𝟑𝐱𝟏 𝟐 𝐟(𝐱𝟏 )

𝐱𝟐 = 𝐱𝟏 −
𝐧=𝟏 𝐱𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟏 −𝟓 −𝟐 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟏 )
𝐱𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟓𝟕
𝐟(𝐱𝟏 ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟏 𝐟 ′ (𝐱 𝟏) = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟑

𝐟(𝐱𝟐 ) = 𝐱𝟐 𝟑 − 𝟐𝐱𝟐 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟐 ) = 𝟑𝐱𝟐 𝟐 𝐟(𝐱𝟐 )

𝐱𝟑 = 𝐱𝟐 −
𝐧=𝟐 𝐱𝟐 −𝟓 −𝟐 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟐 )
= 𝟐. 𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟓𝟕 𝐱𝟑 = 2.09455
′(
𝐟(𝐱𝟐 ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟏 𝐟 𝐱𝟐 )
= 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟔𝟕
Hence the required root of the equation is 𝟐. 𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟓𝟓 ≃ 𝟐. 𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟔
2. Using Newton-Raphson method find the real root of the equation 𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐱 +
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐱 = 𝟎 𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐱 = 𝛑 Carry out four iteration correct to four decimal places.
Solution:- Let 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐱 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐱 and 𝐟 ′ (𝐱) = 𝐱 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐱
Given 𝐱𝟎 = 𝛑 is the approximate root
Trail 𝐱𝐧 𝐟(𝐱𝐧 ) = 𝐱𝐧 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝐱𝐧 + 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝐧 ) = 𝐱𝐧 cos 𝐱𝐧 𝐟(𝐱𝐧 )

𝐱𝐧+𝟏 = 𝐱𝐧 −
No. 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝐱𝐧 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝐧 )
𝐟(𝐱𝟎)
𝐱𝟏 = 𝐱𝟎 − ′
𝐧=𝟎 𝐱𝟎 = 𝝅 𝐟(𝐱𝟎) = −𝟏 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟎) = −𝝅 𝐟 (𝐱𝟎)
𝐱𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐𝟑𝟖𝟐
𝐟(𝐱𝟏 )
𝐱𝟐 = 𝐱𝟏 − ′
𝐧=𝟏 𝐱𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐𝟑𝟖𝟐 𝐟(𝐱𝟏) = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟏𝟖 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟏) = −𝟐. 𝟔𝟖𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝐟 (𝐱𝟏)
𝐱𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟗𝟖𝟔𝟎
𝐟(𝐱𝟐 )
𝐱𝟑 = 𝐱𝟐 −
𝐧=𝟐 𝐱𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟗𝟖𝟔𝟎 𝐟(𝐱𝟐) = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟔 𝐟 ′ (𝐱 𝟐 ) = −𝟐. 𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟓𝟗 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟐)
𝐱𝟑 = 2.79839
𝐟(𝐱𝟑 )
𝐱𝟒 = 𝐱𝟑 −
𝐧=𝟑 𝐱𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟓𝟕 𝐟(𝐱𝟑) = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟑) = −𝟐. 𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟏𝟗 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟑)
𝐱𝟒 = 2.79839
Hence the required root of the equation is 𝟐. 𝟕𝟗𝟖𝟑𝟗 ≃ 𝟐. 𝟕𝟗𝟖𝟒
3. Using Newton-Raphson method find the real root of the equation 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐱 =
𝐱 𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐱 = 𝟒. 𝟓 correct to four decimal places.
Solution:- Let 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐱 − 𝐱 and 𝐟 ′ (𝐱) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝐱 − 𝟏 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝐱
Given 𝐱𝟎 = 𝟒. 𝟓 is the approximate root

Module Name: Numerical Methods P a g e | 10
Trail 𝐱𝐧 𝐟(𝐱𝐧 ) = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝐱𝐧 − 𝐱𝐧 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝐧 ) = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝐱𝐧 𝐟(𝐱𝐧 )

No. 𝐱𝐧+𝟏 = 𝐱𝐧 −
𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝐧 )
𝐟(𝐱𝟎)
𝐱𝟏 = 𝐱𝟎 − ′
𝐧=𝟎 𝐱𝟎 = 𝟒. 𝟓 𝐟(𝐱𝟎) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟑𝟑 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟎) = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟓𝟎𝟒𝟖𝟓 𝐟 (𝐱𝟎 )
𝐱𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟗𝟑𝟔𝟏
𝐟(𝐱𝟏)
𝐱𝟐 = 𝐱𝟏 − ′
𝐧=𝟏 𝐱𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟗𝟑𝟔𝟏 𝐟(𝐱𝟏) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟓 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟏) = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟖𝟗𝟕 𝐟 (𝐱𝟏)
𝐱𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟗𝟑𝟒𝟏
𝐟(𝐱𝟐)
𝐱𝟑 = 𝐱𝟐 − ′
𝐧=𝟐 𝐱𝟐 𝐟(𝐱𝟐) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟐) = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟖𝟑 𝐟 (𝐱𝟐)
= 𝟒. 𝟒𝟗𝟑𝟒𝟏 𝐱𝟑 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟗𝟑𝟒𝟏
Hence the required root of the equation is 𝟒. 𝟒𝟗𝟑𝟒𝟏 ≃ 𝟒. 𝟒𝟗𝟑𝟒
4. Using Newton-Raphson method find the real root of the equation 𝐱 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝐱 =
𝟏. 𝟐 by taking initial approximation as 3 correct to four decimal places.
𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐱
Solution:- Let 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐱 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝐱 − 𝟏. 𝟐 and 𝐟 ′ (𝐱) = +
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎
Given 𝐱𝟎 = 𝟑 is the approximate root
Trail 𝐱𝐧 𝐟(𝐱𝐧 ) = 𝐱𝐧 log10 𝐱𝐧 − 1 log 𝐱𝐧 𝐟(𝐱𝐧 )

No. 1.2 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝐧 ) = + 𝐱𝐧+𝟏 = 𝐱𝐧 −
log 10 log 10 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝐧 )
𝐟(𝐱𝟎 )
𝐱𝟏 = 𝐱𝟎 − ′
𝐧=𝟎 𝐱𝟎 = 𝟑 𝐟(𝐱𝟎) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟏𝟑𝟔 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟎) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟐 𝐟 (𝐱𝟎 )
𝐱𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟏𝟔𝟓
𝐟(𝐱𝟏)
𝐱𝟐 = 𝐱𝟏 − ′
𝐧=𝟏 𝐱𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝐟(𝐱𝟏) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟏) = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟑𝟎𝟐 𝐟 (𝐱𝟏 )
𝐱𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟎𝟔𝟓
𝐟(𝐱𝟐)
𝐱𝟑 = 𝐱𝟐 −
𝐧=𝟐 𝐱𝟐 𝐟(𝐱𝟐) = 𝟎 𝐟 ′ (𝐱
𝟐) = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟐𝟏𝟓 𝐟 ′ (𝐱𝟐 )
= 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟎𝟔𝟓 𝐱𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟎𝟔𝟓
Hence the required root of the equation is 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟎𝟔𝟓 ≃ 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟎𝟕
5. Using Newton-Raphson method find the real root of the equation 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 =
𝟑. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 by taking initial approximation as 2.9 correct to four decimal places.
(Answer:-2.91096)
6. Using Newton-Raphson method find the real root of the equation 𝒙𝒆𝒙 − 𝟐 = 𝟎
correct to four decimal places.
(Answer:-0.8526)

REGULA-FALSI METHOD
Let 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝟎 be a given equation (Algebraic or transcendental). To find the root of the
𝐚 𝐟(𝐛)−𝐛 𝐟(𝐚)
equation by Regula-Falsi method we have 𝐜=
𝐟(𝐛)− 𝐟(𝐚)
This method is also called method of False Position.
PROBLEMS:-
7. Find the fourth root of 12 correct to four decimal places using Regula-Falsi
method.
𝟒
Solution:- Let 𝐱 = √𝟏𝟐
𝐱𝟒 = 𝟏𝟐
𝐱𝟒 − 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎
Let 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐱𝟒 − 𝟏𝟐
when 𝐱 = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝐟(𝟎) = −𝟏𝟐
when 𝐱 = 𝟏 ⟹ 𝐟(𝟏) = −𝟏𝟏 < 0
when 𝐱 = 𝟐 ⟹ 𝐟(𝟐) = 𝟒 > 0 (nearer to zero)
∴ Root lies between (1, 2)
Now,
when 𝐱 = 𝟏. 𝟗 ⟹ 𝐟(𝟏. 𝟗) = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟏𝟎 > 0
when 𝐱 = 𝟏. 𝟖 ⟹ 𝐟(𝟏. 𝟖) = −𝟏. 𝟓𝟎𝟐𝟒 < 0
∴ Root lies between (1.8, 1.9)
Iteration 𝒂 𝒃 𝒇(𝒂) 𝒇(𝒃) 𝒄 𝒇(𝒄) = 𝒄𝟒 − 𝟏𝟐

(−𝒗𝒆 ) (+𝒗𝒆 ) 𝒂 𝒇(𝒃) − 𝒃 𝒇(𝒂)
=
𝒇(𝒃) − 𝒇(𝒂)
1 1.8 1.9 -1.50240 1.03210 1.85928 -0.04969
2 1.85928 1.9 -0.04969 1.03210 1.86115 -0.00154
3 1.86115 1.9 -0.00154 1.03210 1.86121 0.00001
Hence the required root of the equation is 𝟏. 𝟖𝟔𝟏𝟐𝟏 ≃ 𝟏. 𝟖𝟔𝟏𝟐
8. Obtain the root of the equation 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐱 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐡𝐱 = 𝟎 which lies between 2 and 3
carry out 4 iteration using Regula-Falsi method
Solution:- Let 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐱 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐡𝐱 and root lies between (𝟐, 𝟑)

Iteration 𝐚 𝐛 𝐟(𝐚) 𝐟(𝐛) 𝐜

(−𝐯𝐞 ) (+𝐯𝐞 ) 𝐚 𝐟(𝐛) − 𝐛 𝐟(𝐚) 𝐟 ( 𝐜)
= = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐜 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐡𝐜
𝐟(𝐛) − 𝐟(𝐚)
1 2 3 -1.22101 0.85251 2.58886 0.37191
2 2 2.58886 -1.22101 0.37191 2.45137 0.15955
3 2 2.45137 -1.22101 0.15955 2.39921 0.06618
4 2 2.39921 -1.22101 0.06618 2.37868 0.02696
Hence the required root of the equation is 𝟐. 𝟑𝟕𝟖𝟔𝟖 ≃ 𝟐. 𝟑𝟕𝟖𝟕
9. Find the real root of the equation 𝐞 𝐱 − 𝐱 = 𝟐 which lies between 1 and 1.4 carry
out 4 iteration using Regula-Falsi method
Solution:- Let 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐞 𝐱 − 𝐱 − 𝟐 and root lies between (𝟏, 𝟏. 𝟒)

Iteration 𝐚 𝐛 𝐟(𝐚) 𝐟(𝐛) 𝐚 𝐟(𝐛) − 𝐛 𝐟(𝐚)
(−𝐯𝐞 ) (+𝐯𝐞 ) 𝐜= 𝐟 ( 𝐜) = 𝐞𝐜 − 𝐜 − 𝟐
𝐟(𝐛) − 𝐟(𝐚)
1 1 1.4 -0.28172 0.65520 1.12027 -0.05459
2 1.12027 1.4 -0.05459 0.65520 1.14178 -0.00944
3 1.14178 1.4 -0.00944 0.65520 1.14545 -0.00159
4 1.14545 1.4 -0.00159 0.65520 1.14007 -0.00026
Hence the required root of the equation is 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟕 ≃ 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟏
10. Find the real root of the equation 𝐞 𝐱 = 𝟒𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐱 which lies between 0 and 1 using
Regula-Falsi method
Solution:- Let 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐞 𝐱 − 𝟒𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐱 and root lies between (𝟎, 𝟏)

Iteration 𝐚 𝐛 𝐟(𝐚) 𝐟(𝐛) 𝐜

(+𝐯𝐞 ) (−𝐯𝐞) 𝐚 𝐟(𝐛) − 𝐛 𝐟(𝐚) 𝐟 ( 𝐜 ) = 𝐞𝐜 −
= 𝟒𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐜
𝐟(𝐛) − 𝐟(𝐚)
1 0 1 1 -0.64760 0.60694 -0.44662
2 0 0.60694 1 -0.44662 0.41956 -0.10814
3 0 0.41956 1 -0.10814 0.37862 -0.01829
Hence the required root of the equation is 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟖𝟔𝟐 ≃ 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟖𝟔
11. Find the real root of the equation 𝐱𝟑 − 𝟓𝐱 − 𝟕 = 𝟎 correct to four decimal
places using Regula-Falsi method.
(Answer:- 2.74735)
12. Using Regula-Falsi method obtain the root of the equation 𝟑𝐱 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐱 + 𝟏
correct to four decimal places.
(Answer:- 0.60710)
NUMERICAL INTEGRATION
𝐛
Consider a definite integral 𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 and the interval [𝐚, 𝐛] is divided into ′𝐧′ equal
𝐛−𝐚
parts of width 𝐡 =
𝐧
The points of division are 𝐚 = 𝐱𝟎 , 𝐱𝟏 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝐡, 𝐱𝟐 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝟐𝐡, 𝐱𝟑 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝟑𝐡, . , 𝐱𝐧 = 𝐱𝟎 +
𝐧𝐡 = 𝐛
Let 𝐲𝟎 = 𝐟(𝐱𝟎 ), 𝐲𝟏 = 𝐟(𝐱𝟏), 𝐲𝟐 = 𝐟(𝐱𝟐 ), … , 𝐲𝐧 = 𝐟(𝐱𝐧 ) be the corresponding value of 𝐟(𝐱)
Construct the following table using the values of 𝐱 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐲 as follows:
x 𝐱𝟎 𝐱𝟏 𝐱𝟐 …………….. 𝐱𝐧
y=f(x) 𝐲𝟎 𝐲𝟏 𝐲𝟐 …………….. 𝐲𝐧
𝟏 𝐫𝐝
1. Simpson’s ( ) rule:-
𝟑

𝐛 𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [(𝐲𝟎 + 𝐲𝐧 ) + 𝟒(𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟑 + 𝐲𝟓 + ⋯ + 𝐲𝐧−𝟏 ) + 𝟐(𝐲𝟐 + 𝐲𝟒 + 𝐲𝟔 + ⋯ +
𝟑
𝐲𝐧−𝟐)]
𝟑 𝐭𝐡
2. Simpson’s ( ) rule:-
𝟖
𝐛 𝟑𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [(𝐲𝟎 + 𝐲𝐧 ) + 𝟑(𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 + 𝐲𝟒 + ⋯ + 𝐲𝐧−𝟏 ) + 𝟐(𝐲𝟑 + 𝐲𝟔 + 𝐲𝟗 + ⋯ +
𝟖
𝐲𝐧−𝟑)]
3. Weddle’s rule for 𝐧 = 𝟔:-

𝐛 𝟑𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [𝐲𝟎 + 𝟓𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 + 𝟔𝐲𝟑 + 𝐲𝟒 + 𝟓𝐲𝟓 + 𝐲𝟔]
𝟏𝟎
𝟏 𝐫𝐝
NOTE:- (i) To apply Simpson’s ( ) rule ‘n’ must be a multiple of 2
𝟑
𝟑 𝐭𝐡
(ii) To apply Simpson’s ( ) rule ‘n’ must be a multiple of 3
𝟖
(iii) To apply Weddle’s rule ‘n’ must be a multiple of 6
PROBLEMS:-
𝟔
1. Evaluate ∫𝟎 𝟑𝐱𝟐 𝐝𝐱 by dividing the interval [0,6] into six equal parts using (i)
𝟏 𝐫𝐝 𝟑 𝐭𝐡
Simpson’s ( ) rule (ii) Simpson’s ( ) rule (iii) Weddle’s rule
𝟑 𝟖
𝟔
Solution:- Let 𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝟑𝐱𝟐 and a = 0, b = 6 , n = 6
𝐛−𝐚 𝟔−𝟎
width(𝐡) = = =𝟏
𝐧 𝟔
The points of division are 𝐚 = 𝐱𝟎 , 𝐱𝟏 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝐡, 𝐱𝟐 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝟐𝐡, 𝐱𝟑 = 𝐱𝟎 +

𝟑𝐡, … . , 𝐱𝟔 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝟔𝐡 = 𝐛
∴ 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔 are the points of division.

𝐱 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
𝐲 = 𝟑𝐱𝟐 0 3 12 27 48 75 108
𝐲𝟎 𝐲𝟏 𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟑 𝐲𝟒 𝐲𝟓 𝐲𝟔
𝟏 𝐫𝐝
(i) Simpson’s ( ) rule for n = 6 is
𝟑
𝐛 𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [(𝐲𝟎 + 𝐲𝟔 ) + 𝟒(𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟑 + 𝐲𝟓 ) + 𝟐(𝐲𝟐 + 𝐲𝟒)]
𝟑
𝟔 𝟏
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝟑𝐱𝟐 𝐝𝐱 = [(𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟖) + 𝟒(𝟑 + 𝟐𝟕 + 𝟕𝟓) + 𝟐(𝟏𝟐 + 𝟒𝟖)]
𝟑
𝟔
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝟑𝐱𝟐 𝐝𝐱 = 𝟐𝟏𝟔
𝟑 𝐭𝐡
(ii) Simpson’s ( ) rule for n = 6 is
𝟖
𝐛 𝟑𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [(𝐲𝟎 + 𝐲𝟔 ) + 𝟑(𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 + 𝐲𝟒 + 𝐲𝟓 ) + 𝟐(𝐲𝟑 )]
𝟖
𝟔 𝟑(𝟏)
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝟑𝐱𝟐 𝐝𝐱 = [(𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟖) + 𝟑(𝟑 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟒𝟖 + 𝟕𝟓) + 𝟐(𝟐𝟕)]
𝟖
𝟔
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝟑𝐱𝟐 𝐝𝐱 = 𝟐𝟏𝟔
(iii) Weddle’s rule for 𝐧 = 𝟔:-

𝐛 𝟑𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [𝐲𝟎 + 𝟓𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 + 𝟔𝐲𝟑 + 𝐲𝟒 + 𝟓𝐲𝟓 + 𝐲𝟔]
𝟏𝟎
𝟔 𝟑(𝟏)
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝟑𝐱𝟐 𝐝𝐱 = [𝟎 + 𝟓(𝟑) + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟔(𝟐𝟕) + 𝟒𝟖 + 𝟓(𝟕𝟓) +
𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟖]
𝟔
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝟑𝐱𝟐 𝐝𝐱 = 𝟐𝟏𝟔
𝟔 𝐝𝐱 𝟏 𝐫𝐝 𝟑 𝐭𝐡
2. Evaluate ∫𝟎 𝟐
by using (i) Simpson’s ( ) rule (ii) Simpson’s ( ) rule
𝟏+𝐱 𝟑 𝟖
(iii) Weddle’s rule
𝐛−𝐚
Solution:- Divide the interval (𝟎, 𝟔)into six parts each of width 𝐡 where 𝐡 =
𝐧

𝟔−𝟎
Here 𝐚 = 𝟎, 𝐛 = 𝟔 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐧 = 𝟔 and 𝐡 = =𝟏
𝟔

𝟑𝐡, … . , 𝐱𝟔 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝟔𝐡 = 𝐛
∴ 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔 are the points of division.
𝐱 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
𝟏 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.0588 0.0385 0.027
𝐲=
𝟏 + 𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟎 𝐲𝟏 𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟑 𝐲𝟒 𝐲𝟓 𝐲𝟔
𝟏 𝒓𝒅
(i)Simpson’s ( ) rule for n = 6 is
𝟑
𝐛 𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [(𝐲𝟎 + 𝐲𝟔 ) + 𝟒(𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟑 + 𝐲𝟓 ) + 𝟐(𝐲𝟐 + 𝐲𝟒)]
𝟑
𝟔 𝒅𝒙 𝟏
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 = [(𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟕) + 𝟒(𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟖𝟓) + 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟐 +
𝟏+𝒙𝟐 𝟑
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟖𝟖)]
𝟔 𝒅𝒙
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔𝟔𝟐
𝟏+𝒙𝟐
𝟑 𝒕𝒉
(ii) Simpson’s ( ) rule for n = 6 is
𝟖
𝐛 𝟑𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [(𝐲𝟎 + 𝐲𝟔 ) + 𝟑(𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 + 𝐲𝟒 + 𝐲𝟓 ) + 𝟐(𝐲𝟑 )]
𝟖
𝟔 𝒅𝒙 𝟑(𝟏)
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 = [(𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟕) + 𝟑(𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟖𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟖𝟓) +
𝟏+𝒙𝟐 𝟖
𝟐(𝟎. 𝟏)]
𝟔 𝒅𝒙
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝐝𝐱 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟕𝟎
𝟏+𝒙𝟐
(iii)Weddle’s rule for 𝐧 = 𝟔 is

𝐛 𝟑𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [𝐲𝟎 + 𝟓𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 + 𝟔𝐲𝟑 + 𝐲𝟒 + 𝟓𝐲𝟓 + 𝐲𝟔]
𝟏𝟎
𝟔 𝐝𝐱 𝟑(𝟏)
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 = [𝟏 + 𝟓(𝟎. 𝟓) + 𝟎. 𝟐 + 𝟔(𝟎. 𝟏) + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟖𝟖 + 𝟓(𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟖𝟓) +
𝟏+𝐱 𝟐 𝟏𝟎
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟕]
𝟔 𝐝𝐱
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟎𝟓𝟔
𝟏+𝐱 𝟐

𝛑⁄ 𝟏 𝐫𝐝
3. Find an approximate value of ∫𝟎 𝟐 √𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 𝐝𝛉 by Simpson’s ( ) rule by
𝟑
taking 7 ordinates.
Solution:- Here 7 ordinates means the given interval must be divided into 6 equal
parts
𝛑⁄ 𝛑
Let 𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝟐 √𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 𝐝𝛉 and a = 0, b = , n = 6 (keep calculator in radians)
𝟐
𝐛−𝐚 𝛑⁄ −𝟎 𝛑
𝟐
width(𝐡) = = =
𝐧 𝟔 𝟏𝟐

𝟑𝐡, … . , 𝐱𝟔 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝟔𝐡 = 𝐛
𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝟑𝛑 𝟒𝛑 𝟓𝛑 𝟔𝛑
∴ 𝟎, , , , , , are the points of division.
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
𝐱 𝟎 𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝟑𝛑 𝟒𝛑 𝟓𝛑 𝛑
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟐
𝐲 = √𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 1 0.9828 0.9306 0.8409 0.7071 0.5087 0

𝐲𝟎 𝐲𝟏 𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟑 𝐲𝟒 𝐲𝟓 𝐲𝟔
𝟏 𝐫𝐝
Simpson’s ( ) rule for n = 6 is
𝟑
𝐛 𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [(𝐲𝟎 + 𝐲𝟔 ) + 𝟒(𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟑 + 𝐲𝟓 ) + 𝟐(𝐲𝟐 + 𝐲𝟒)]
𝟑
𝛑⁄
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝟐
√𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 𝐝𝛉 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟑
𝟑 𝐭𝐡 𝛑⁄
𝟐 𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱
4. Evaluate by using Simpson’s ( ) rule given ∫𝟎 𝐝𝐱 by dividing the
𝟖
interval into 6 parts
𝛑⁄ 𝛑
Solution:- Let 𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝟐 𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱 𝐝𝐱 and a = 0, b = , n = 6 (keep calculator in
𝟐
radians)
𝐛−𝐚 𝛑⁄ −𝟎 𝛑
𝟐
width(𝐡) = = =
𝐧 𝟔 𝟏𝟐

𝟑𝐡, … . , 𝐱𝟔 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝟔𝐡 = 𝐛
𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝟑𝛑 𝟒𝛑 𝟓𝛑 𝟔𝛑
∴ 𝟎, , , , , , are the points of division.
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝐱 𝟎 𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝟑𝛑 𝟒𝛑 𝟓𝛑 𝛑
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟐
𝐲 = 𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱 1 1.2954 1.6487 2.0281 2.3774 2.6272 2.7183
𝐲𝟎 𝐲𝟏 𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟑 𝐲𝟒 𝐲𝟓 𝐲𝟔
𝟑 𝐭𝐡
𝟖
𝐛 𝟑𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [(𝐲𝟎 + 𝐲𝟔 ) + 𝟑(𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 + 𝐲𝟒 + 𝐲𝟓 ) + 𝟐(𝐲𝟑 )]
𝟖
𝛑⁄
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝟐 𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱 𝐝𝐱 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟑
𝟑 𝐭𝐡 𝟏.𝟒
5. Evaluate by using Simpson’s ( ) rule given ∫𝟎.𝟐 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐱 + 𝐞 𝐱 ) 𝐝𝐱 by taking 7
𝟖
ordinates.
Solution:- Here 7 ordinates means the given interval must be divided into 6 equal parts
𝟏.𝟒
Let 𝐈 = ∫𝟎.𝟐 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐱 + 𝐞 𝐱 ) 𝐝𝐱 and a = 0.2, b = 𝟏. 𝟒 , n = 6 (keep calculator in
radians)
𝐛−𝐚 𝟏.𝟒−𝟎.𝟐
width(𝐡) = = = 𝟎. 𝟐
𝐧 𝟔
The points of division are 𝐚 = 𝐱𝟎 , 𝐱𝟏 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝐡, 𝐱𝟐 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝟐𝐡, 𝐱𝟑 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝟑𝐡, … . , 𝐱𝟔 =

𝐱𝟎 + 𝟔𝐡 = 𝐛
∴ 𝟎. 𝟐, 𝟎. 𝟒, 𝟎. 𝟔, 𝟎. 𝟖, 𝟏, 𝟏. 𝟐, 𝟏. 𝟒 are the points of division.
𝐱 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

3.0295 2.7975 2.8976 3.1660 3.5598 4.0698 4.7042
𝐲
= (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐱 𝐲𝟎 𝐲𝟏 𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟑 𝐲𝟒 𝐲𝟓 𝐲𝟔
+ 𝐞𝐱)
𝟑 𝐭𝐡
𝟖
𝐛 𝟑𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [(𝐲𝟎 + 𝐲𝟔 ) + 𝟑(𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 + 𝐲𝟒 + 𝐲𝟓 ) + 𝟐(𝐲𝟑 )]
𝟖
𝟏.𝟒
𝐈 = ∫𝟎.𝟐 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐱 + 𝐞 𝐱 ) 𝐝𝐱 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟎

𝟏 𝐱
6. Evaluate ∫𝟎 𝐝𝐱 by using Weddle’s rule by taking 7 ordinates and hence find
𝟏+𝐱 𝟐
the value of 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝟐
Solution:- Here 7 ordinates means the given interval must be divided into 6 equal
parts
𝟏 𝐱
Let 𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝐝𝐱 and a = 0, b = 𝟏 , n = 6
𝟏+𝐱 𝟐
𝐛−𝐚 𝟏−𝟎 𝟏
width(𝐡) = = =
𝐧 𝟔 𝟔

𝟑𝐡, … . , 𝐱𝟔 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝟔𝐡 = 𝐛
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓
∴ 𝟎, , , , , , 𝟏 are the points of division.
𝟔 𝟔 𝟔 𝟔 𝟔
𝐱 0 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 1
𝟔 𝟔 𝟔 𝟔 𝟔
0 0.1622 0.3 0.4 0.4615 0.4918 0.5
𝐱 𝐲𝟎 𝐲𝟏 𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟑 𝐲𝟒 𝐲𝟓 𝐲𝟔
𝐲=
𝟏 + 𝐱𝟐
Weddle’s rule for 𝐧 = 𝟔 is

𝐛 𝟑𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [𝐲𝟎 + 𝟓𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 + 𝟔𝐲𝟑 + 𝐲𝟒 + 𝟓𝐲𝟓 + 𝐲𝟔]
𝟏𝟎
𝟏 𝐱
𝐈 = ∫𝟎 𝐝𝐱 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟔
𝟏+𝐱 𝟐
Consider,
𝟏 𝒙
∫𝟎 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟔
𝟏+𝒙𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒙
∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟔
𝟐 𝟎 𝟏+𝒙𝟐
𝟏
[𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟐] = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟔
𝟐
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟐
𝟓.𝟐
7. Evaluate ∫𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐱 𝐝𝐱 by using Weddle’s rule by taking six equal parts
𝟓.𝟐
Solution:- Let 𝐈 = ∫𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐱 𝐝𝐱 and a = 4, b = 𝟓. 𝟐 , n = 6

𝐛−𝐚 𝟓.𝟐−𝟒
width(𝐡) = = = 𝟎. 𝟐
𝐧 𝟔

𝟑𝐡, … . , 𝐱𝟔 = 𝐱𝟎 + 𝟔𝐡 = 𝐛
∴ 𝟒, 𝟒. 𝟐, 𝟒. 𝟒, 𝟒. 𝟔, 𝟒. 𝟖, 𝟓, 𝟓. 𝟐 are the points of division.
𝐱 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.2
1.3863 1.4351 1.4816 1.5261 1.5686 1.6094 1.6487

𝐲= 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐱 𝐲𝟎 𝐲𝟏 𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟑 𝐲𝟒 𝐲𝟓 𝐲𝟔
Weddle’s rule for 𝐧 = 𝟔 is

𝐛 𝟑𝐡
𝐈 = ∫𝐚 𝐲 𝐝𝐱 = [𝐲𝟎 + 𝟓𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 + 𝟔𝐲𝟑 + 𝐲𝟒 + 𝟓𝐲𝟓 + 𝐲𝟔]
𝟏𝟎
𝟓.𝟐
𝐈 = ∫𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐱 𝐝𝐱 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟐𝟕𝟗
𝟏 𝐫𝐝 𝟎.𝟔 𝟐
8. Using Simpson’s ( ) rule solve ∫𝟎 𝐞 −𝐱 𝐝𝐱 by taking 7 ordinates.
𝟑
(Answer:- 0.5351)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝐫𝐝
9. Evaluate ∫𝟎 𝐝𝐱 by using Simpson’s ( ) rule by taking 7 ordinates and
𝟏+𝐱 𝟑
hence find the value of 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝟐
(Answer:- 0.6932 and 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟐)

𝟑
10. Evaluate ∫−𝟑 𝐱𝟒 𝐝𝐱 using Weddle’s rule by taking six equal parts.
(Answer:- 97.2)
𝛑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱
11. Evaluate ∫𝟎 ( ) 𝐝𝐱 using Weddle’s rule by taking seven ordinates.
𝐱
(Answer:- 1.8519)


Syllabus
Subject: Additional Mathematics-II Subject Code: 18MATDIP41
MODULE-3
Higher order ODE’s:
Linear differential equations of second and higher order equations with constant
coefficients. Homogeneous /non-homogeneous equations. Inverse differential
operators.
Index

1 Introduction 2
2 Linear differential equations of second and higher order equations 3-4

with constant coefficients, Homogeneous equations.
3 Inverse differential operator and particular integral 5
4 Non-homogeneous equations 6-7
5 Special forms of the particular integral examples 8-14
Subject Name: Additional Mathematics-II Module No 3

Module Name : Higher order ODE’s Page 1
Differential Equations
Differential Equations of higher order
INTRODUCTION:
In this module, we study differential equations of second and higher orders. Differential
equations of second order arise very often in physical problems, especially in connection with
mechanical vibrations and electric circuits.

SOLUTION OF A HOMOGENEOUS SECOND ORDER LINEAR

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION


INVERSE DIFFERENTIAL OPERATOR AND PARTICULAR INTEGRAL

SPECIAL FORMS OF THE PARTICULAR INTEGRAL OF NON-HOMOGENEOUS

EQUATIONS



Type2:
1.





Practice Problems:
d 2x dx
1. Solve: 2
 6  9x  0
dt dt
2. Solve: ( D  2D  4) 2 y  0
2
3. Solve: ( D 2  1) 3 y  0
4. Solve: ( D 3  D 2  4D  4)  0
d3y d2y dy
5. Solve: 3
 3 2  3  y  5e2 x  6e x  7
dx dx dx
6. Solve: y  6 y  13 y  e2 x  2 x
t
7. Solve: 4 x(t )  x(t )  e 2
 12cosh t
d2y dy
8. Solve: 2
 6  9 y  6e3 x  7e2 x  log 2
dx dx
9. Find the P.I of ( D 2  5D  6) y  e x
10. Find the P.I of ( D 3  1) y  cos(2 x  1)
d3y dy
11. Find the P.I of 3
4  sin 2 x
dx dx
d 2 y dy
12. Find the P.I of   x 2  2x  4
dx 2 dx
d2y dy
13. Solve: 6 2
 17  12 y  e x
dx dx
14. Solve: ( D3  D2  4D  4) y  sinh(2 x  3)
15. Solve: ( D3  8) y  x 4  2 x  1
d3y d 2 y dy
16. Solve:  2   x3
dx3 dx 2 dx

Syllabus
Module-4
Partial Differential Equations (PDE’s)
Formation of PDE’s by elimination of arbitrary constants and functions. Solution

of non homogeneous PDE by direct integration. Homogeneous PDEs involving
derivative with respect to one independent variable only.
Index
1 INTRODUCTION - DEFINITIONS 2-3
2 FORMATION OF PDE BY ELIMINATORY ARBITRARY CONSTANTS 4-5
3 FORMATION OF PDE BY ELIMINATORY ARBITRARY FUNCTIONS 6-11
4 SOLUTION OF NON HOMOGENEOUS PDE BY DIRECT INTEGRATION 11-16
SOLUTION OF HOMOGENEOUS PDE INVOLVING DERIVATIVES WITH

5 RESPECT TO ONE INDECENT VARIABLE ONLY 16-20
INTRODUCTION:-
PDEs are used to model this type of functions with many factors very precisely.
Suppose if we want to deal with temperature vary with accordance to time, i.e. how
likely the temperature vary with respect to time, we take derivative w. r. t time by
keeping other parameters as constants. Similarly if we want temperature with
respect to altitude, we take derivative with respect to altitude by keeping time as
constant.
PDEs are the most beautiful equations in mathematics. They are the core topics in
multi-variable calculus. They are used to describe the evolution of gases in fluid
dynamics, formation of galaxies, describing the nature of quantum mechanics and
so on…
Many problems in vibration of strings, heat conduction, and electrostatics involve

two or more variables. Analyses of these problems lead to partial derivatives and
equations involving them. In this unit we first discuss the formation of PDE
analogous to that of formation of ODE. Later we discuss some methods of solving
PDE also, discuss wave and heat equations.
Definitions: -An differential equation involving one or more partial derivatives

with respect to more than one variables is called partial differential equation
Example:- If z is a function of two independent variable in x and y
Subject Name Additional Mathematics-II Module No 4.
Module Name: Partial Differential Equations (PDE’s) Page |2

Order of PDE:-The order is the highest derivative present in the equation called
order of PDE.
Degree of PDE:- The positive integral power (or degree) of the highest order
derivative in the equation called PDE.
Homogeneous and Non- Homogeneous PDE:-In a PDE each term contains either
the dependent variable or one of its partial derivatives, the PDE is said to be
homogeneous. Otherwise it is non homogeneous PDE
Examples:-
Formation of PDE by eliminatory arbitrary constants and arbitrary functions
Eliminatory arbitrary constants:-Consider the relation of the form
f(x,y,z,a,b) = 0, where z is a function two independent variable x and y and

arbitrary constants a, b. Differentiate z partially with respect x and y and eliminate
arbitrary constant a, b to form PDE.
Note: - 1.If number of arbitrary constant < number of independent variables then
PDE required First order derivative

2. If number of arbitrary constant > number of independent variables then PDE

required second and higher order derivative
Notations: The following notations when z is a function of two independent

variable x, y will be used
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕2 𝑧
= 𝑝, = 𝑞, = 𝑟, = 𝑠, =𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2
Form a PDE by eliminating the arbitrary constants
Examples:
𝟏.
𝒛 = (𝒙 + 𝒂)(𝒚 + 𝒃)
Solution:𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏, 𝒛 = (𝒙 + 𝒂)(𝒚 + 𝒃) − −(𝟏)
Diff; partiallyw.r.t𝒙and𝒚
𝛛𝒛
= 𝒑 = (𝒚 + 𝒃) − −(𝟐)
𝛛𝒙
𝛛𝒛
= 𝒒 = (𝒙 + 𝒂) − −(𝟑),Substitute(𝟐)and (𝟑) ⥂⥂ in (𝟏)
𝛛𝒚
𝛛𝒛 𝛛𝒛
we get 𝒛 = ( ) ( ) = 𝒑𝒒 is the requrid PDE
𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒚
𝟐.
𝒛 = (𝒙 + 𝒂)𝟐 + (𝒚 + 𝒃)𝟐
Solution:𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏, 𝒛 = (𝒙 + 𝒂)𝟐 + (𝒚 + 𝒃)𝟐 − −(𝟏)

𝛛𝒛
= 𝒑 = 𝟐(𝒙 + 𝒂) − − − − − − − − − − − − − (𝟐)
𝛛𝒙
𝛛𝒛
= 𝒒 = 𝟐(𝒚 + 𝒃) − − − − − − − − − − − − − (𝟑)
𝛛𝒚
Substitute(𝟐)and (𝟑) ⥂⥂ in (𝟏)
we get 4𝒛 = 𝒑𝟐 + 𝒒𝟐 is the requrid PDE
𝟑
. 𝒛 = 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ) + 𝒃
Solution:𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏, 𝒛 = 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ) + 𝒃 − −(𝟏)
𝛛𝒛 𝟐𝒂𝒙
=𝒑= 𝟐 − −(𝟐)
𝛛𝒙 𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐
𝛛𝒛 𝟐𝒂𝒚
=𝒒= 𝟐 − −(𝟑),now, (𝟐)/ (𝟑) ⥂⥂
𝛛𝒚 𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐
we get 𝒑𝒚 − 𝒒𝒙 = 𝟎 is the requrid PDE
. 𝟒.
𝒛 = 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ) + 𝒃
Solution:𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏, 𝒛 = 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ) + 𝒃 − −(𝟏)
𝝏𝒛 𝟐𝒂𝒙
=𝒑= 𝟐 − −(𝟐)
𝝏𝒙 𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐
𝝏𝒛 𝟐𝒂𝒚
=𝒒= 𝟐 − −(𝟑),now, (𝟐)/ (𝟑) ⥂⥂
𝝏𝒚 𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐
we get 𝒑𝒚 − 𝒒𝒙 = 𝟎 is the requrid PDE

ii) Form a PDE by eliminating the arbitrary function

NOTE:-
If PDE obtained by elimination of arbitrary functions, then the order is equal
to the number of arbitrary function eliminated
𝟏.
𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 )
Solution:𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏, 𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 ) − −(𝟏)
Differentiating (𝟏); partiallyw.r.t𝒙and𝒚
𝝏𝒛
= 𝒑 = 𝒇′ (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 )(𝟐𝒙) − − − −(𝟐)
𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝒛 (𝟐 )
= 𝒒 = 𝒇′ (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 )(−𝟐𝒚) − − − −(𝟑),Now,
𝝏𝒚 (𝟑 )
we get 𝒑𝒚 + 𝒒𝒙 = 𝟎 is the requrid PDE
𝟐.
𝟏
𝒛 = 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒇 ( + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒚)
𝒙
𝟏
Solution:𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏, 𝒛 = 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒇 ( + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒚) − −(𝟏)
𝒙
𝝏𝒛 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒑 = 𝟐𝒇′ ( + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒚) (− 𝟐 ) − − − −(𝟐)
𝝏𝒙 𝒙 𝒙
𝝏𝒛 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒒 = 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒇′ ( + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒚) ( ) − − − −(𝟑),
𝝏𝒚 𝒙 𝒚
1  1 
q  2 y  2 f   log y      (3) now ,
2
x  y  3
px 2
we get  1
q  2 y  y
px 2  q  2 y  y
px 2 q  2 y  y  0
px 2  qy  2 y 2 is the requried PDE

𝟑.
𝒍𝒙 + 𝒎𝒚 + 𝒏𝒛 = 𝝋(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 )
Solution:𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏, 𝒍𝒙 + 𝒎𝒚 + 𝒏𝒛 = 𝝋(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 ) − − − (𝟏)
𝒍 + 𝒏𝒑 = 𝝋′ (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 )(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐𝒛𝒑) − − − −(𝟐)
(𝟐)
𝒎 + 𝒏𝒒 = 𝝋′ (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 )(𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛𝒒) − − − −(𝟑),Now,
(𝟑)
𝒍 + 𝒏𝒑 𝒙 + 𝒛𝒑
= on simplification
𝒎 + 𝒏𝒒 𝒚 + 𝒛𝒒
(𝒎𝒛 − 𝒏𝒚)𝒑 + (𝒏𝒙 − 𝒍𝒛)𝒒 = 𝒍𝒚 − 𝒎𝒙is the requrid PDE
𝟒.
𝝋(𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝒛, 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒛𝟐 ) = 𝟎
Solution:𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏, 𝝋(𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝒛, 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒛𝟐 ) − − − (𝟏)
Let us assume , 𝒖 = 𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝒛 𝒗 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒛𝟐
Differentiating (𝒖, 𝒗); partially w.r.t 𝒙and𝒚
𝒖𝒙 = 𝟏 + 𝒑 𝒗𝒙 = 𝟐(𝒙 − 𝒛𝒑)
𝒖𝒚 = 𝟏 + 𝒒 𝒗𝒚 = 𝟐(𝒚 − 𝒛𝒒)
𝒖𝒙 𝒗𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒑 𝟐(𝒙 − 𝒛𝒑)
Now, = , = on simplification
𝒖𝒚 𝒗𝒚 𝟏 + 𝒒 𝟐(𝒚 − 𝒛𝒒)
(𝒚 + 𝒛)𝒑 − (𝒙 + 𝒛)𝒒 = 𝒙 − 𝒚is the requrid PDE
𝟓.
𝝋(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒚𝒛, 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒛𝒙) = 𝟎
Solution:𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏, 𝝋(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒚𝒛, 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒛𝒙) = 𝟎 − − − (𝟏)
Let us assume , 𝒖 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒚𝒛 𝒗 = 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒛𝒙
Differentiating (𝒖, 𝒗); partially w.r.t 𝒙and𝒚
𝒖𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚𝒑 𝒗𝒙 = 𝟐(𝒛 + 𝒙𝒑)
𝒖𝒚 = 𝟐(𝒚𝒒 + 𝒛) 𝒗𝒚 = (𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙𝒒)

𝒖𝒙 𝒗𝒙 𝒙 + 𝒚𝒑 𝒛 + 𝒙𝒑
Now, = , = on simplification
𝒖𝒚 𝒗𝒚 𝒚𝒒 + 𝒛 𝒚 + 𝒙𝒒
(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒛𝒙)𝒑 + (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝒛)𝒒 = (𝒛𝟐 − 𝒙𝒚)is the requrid PDE
Form a PDE by eliminating the arbitrary functions

𝟏.
𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒂𝒕) + 𝒈(𝒙 − 𝒂𝒕) − − − −(𝟏)
Differntiate z partially w.r.t x and y
𝒛𝒙 = 𝒑 = 𝒇′ (𝒙 + 𝒂𝒕) + 𝒈′ (𝒙 − 𝒂𝒕)
𝒛𝒙𝒙 = 𝒓 = 𝒇″(𝒙 + 𝒂𝒕) + 𝒈″ (𝒙 − 𝒂𝒕) − −(𝟐)
𝒛𝒚 = 𝒒 = 𝒇′ (𝒙 + 𝒂𝒕)(𝒂) + 𝒈′ (𝒙 − 𝒂𝒕)(−𝒂)
𝒛𝒚𝒚 = 𝒒 = 𝒇′ (𝒙 + 𝒂𝒕)(𝒂)𝟐 + 𝒈′ (𝒙 − 𝒂𝒕)(−𝒂)𝟐
𝒛𝒚𝒚 = 𝒕 = 𝒂𝟐 [𝒇″(𝒙 + 𝒂𝒕) + 𝒈″ (𝒙 − 𝒂𝒕)] − −(𝟑)
substitute (𝟐) in (𝟑) we get
𝒛𝒚𝒚 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒛𝒙𝒙 or r = 𝒂𝟐 𝒕 is the requried PDE
𝟐.
𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙)
Sol:𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙)
Differentiate 𝒛 partially w.r.t 𝒙 and 𝒚
𝒛𝒙 = 𝒑 = 𝒇′ (𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝟐𝒈′ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙)
𝒛𝒚 = 𝒑 = 𝒇′ (𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝒈′ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙)
𝒛𝒙𝒙 = 𝒓 = 𝒇″(𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝟒𝒈″ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙) − − − (𝟏)
𝒛𝒙𝒚 = 𝒕 = 𝒇″(𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝟐𝒈″ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙) − − − (𝟐)
𝒛𝒚𝒚 = 𝒕 = 𝒇″(𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝒈″ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙) − − − (𝟑)
(𝟏) − (𝟐)will gives, 𝒓 − 𝒔 = 𝟐𝒈″ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙) − −(𝟒)
(𝟐) − (𝟑)will gives, 𝒔 − 𝒕 = 𝒈″ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙) − − − (𝟓)
(𝟒) 𝒓−𝒔 𝟐
will gives, =
(𝟓) 𝒔−𝒕 𝟏
𝒓 − 𝒔 = 𝟐(𝒔 − 𝒕) or 𝒓 − 𝟑𝒔 + 𝟐𝒕 = 𝟎

𝒛𝒙𝒙 − 𝟑𝒛𝒙𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎
𝟑.
𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) + 𝒈(𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙)
Sol:𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) + 𝒈(𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙)
𝒛𝒙 = 𝒑 = −𝟐𝒇′ (𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) − 𝒈′ (𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙)
𝒛𝒚 = 𝒒 = 𝒇′ (𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) + 𝟐𝒈′ (𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙)
𝒛𝒙𝒙 = 𝒓 = 𝟒𝒇″(𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) + 𝒈″ (𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙) − − − (𝟏)
𝒛𝒙𝒚 = 𝒕 = −𝟐𝒇″(𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) − 𝟐𝒈″ (𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙) − − − (𝟐)
𝒛𝒚𝒚 = 𝒕 = 𝒇″(𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) + 𝟒𝒈″ (𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙) − − − (𝟑)
𝟐 × (𝟏) + (𝟐)will gives, 𝟐𝒓 + 𝒔 = 𝟔𝒇″ (𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) − −(𝟒)
𝟐 × (𝟐) + (𝟑)will gives, 𝟐𝒔 + 𝒕 = −𝟑𝒇″(𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) − − − (𝟓)
(𝟒) 𝟐𝒓 + 𝒔 −𝟐
will gives, =
(𝟓) 𝟐𝒔 + 𝒕 𝟏
𝟐𝒓 + 𝒔 = −𝟐(𝟐𝒔 + 𝒕) or 𝟐𝒓 + 𝟓𝒔 + 𝟐𝒕 = 𝟎
𝟐𝒛𝒙𝒙 + 𝟓𝒛𝒙𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎 is the requried PDE.
4. 𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙)

Sol:𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙)
𝒛𝒙 = 𝒑 = 𝒇′ (𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝟐𝒈′ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙)
𝒛𝒚 = 𝒒 = 𝒇′ (𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝒈′ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙)
𝒛𝒙𝒙 = 𝒓 = 𝒇″ (𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝟒𝒈″ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙) − − − (𝟏)
𝒛𝒙𝒚 = 𝒔 = 𝒇″ (𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝟐𝒈″ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙) − − − (𝟐)
𝒛𝒚𝒚 = 𝒕 = 𝒇″ (𝒚 + 𝒙) + 𝒈″ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙) − − − (𝟑)
(𝟏) − (𝟐)will gives, 𝒓 − 𝒔 = 𝟐𝒈″ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙) − −(𝟒)
(𝟐) − (𝟑)will gives, 𝒔 − 𝒕 = 𝒈″ (𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙) − − − (𝟓)
(𝟒) 𝒓−𝒔 𝟐
will gives, =
(𝟓) 𝒔−𝒕 𝟏
𝒓 − 𝒔 = 𝟐(𝒔 − 𝒕) or 𝒓 − 𝟑𝒔 + 𝟐𝒕 = 𝟎
𝒛𝒙𝒙 − 𝟑𝒛𝒙𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎

𝟓.
𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) + 𝒈(𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙)
Sol:𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) + 𝒈(𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙)
Differentiate 𝒖 partially w.r.t 𝒙 and 𝒚
𝒛𝒙 = 𝒑 = −𝟐𝒇′ (𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) − 𝒈′ (𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙)
𝒛𝒚 = 𝒒 = 𝒇′ (𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) + 𝟐𝒈′ (𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙)
𝒛𝒙𝒙 = 𝒓 = 𝟒𝒇″ (𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) + 𝒈″ (𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙) − − − (𝟏)
𝒛𝒙𝒚 = 𝒔 = −𝟐𝒇″ (𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) − 𝟐𝒈″ (𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙) − − − (𝟐)
𝒛𝒚𝒚 = 𝒕 = 𝒇″ (𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) + 𝟒𝒈″ (𝟐𝒚 − 𝒙) − − − (𝟑)
𝟐 × (𝟏) + (𝟐)will gives, 𝟐𝒓 + 𝒔 = 𝟔𝒇″ (𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) − −(𝟒)
𝟐 × (𝟐) + (𝟑)will gives, 𝟐𝒔 + 𝒕 = −𝟑𝒇″ (𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) − − − (𝟓)
( 𝟒) 𝟐𝒓 + 𝒔 −𝟐
will gives, =
( 𝟓) 𝟐𝒔 + 𝒕 𝟏
𝟐𝒓 + 𝒔 = −𝟐(𝟐𝒔 + 𝒕) or 𝟐𝒓 + 𝟓𝒔 + 𝟐𝒕 = 𝟎
𝟐𝒛𝒙𝒙 + 𝟓𝒛𝒙𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎 is the requried PDE.
𝟔.
𝟏
𝒗= [𝒇(𝒓 − 𝒂𝒕) + 𝑭(𝒓 + 𝒂𝒕)]
𝒓
Sol:𝒗𝒓 = [𝒇(𝒓 − 𝒂𝒕) + 𝑭(𝒓 + 𝒂𝒕)] − − − −(∗)
Differentiate (∗) partially w.r.t 𝒓
𝒗(𝟏) + 𝒓𝒗𝒓 = 𝒇′ (𝒓 − 𝒂𝒕) + 𝑭′ (𝒓 + 𝒂𝒕)
again diff partially w.r.t r
𝒗𝒓 + 𝒓𝒗𝒓𝒓 + 𝒗𝒓 = 𝒇″ (𝒓 − 𝒂𝒕) + 𝑭″ (𝒓 + 𝒂𝒕)
𝟐𝒗𝒓 + 𝒓𝒗𝒓𝒓 = 𝒇″ (𝒓 − 𝒂𝒕) + 𝑭″ (𝒓 + 𝒂𝒕) − − − (𝟏)
Differentiate (∗) partially w.r.t. t 2 times
𝒓𝒗𝒕 = 𝒇′ (𝒓 − 𝒂𝒕)(−𝒂) + 𝑭′ (𝒓 + 𝒂𝒕)(𝒂)
𝒓𝒗𝒕𝒕 = 𝒇″ (𝒓 − 𝒂𝒕)(−𝒂)𝟐 + 𝑭″ (𝒓 + 𝒂𝒕)(𝒂)𝟐
𝒓𝒗𝒕𝒕 = [𝒇″ (𝒓 − 𝒂𝒕) + 𝑭″ (𝒓 + 𝒂𝒕)](𝒂)𝟐
𝒓𝒗𝒕𝒕 = (𝒂)𝟐 [𝟐𝒗𝒓 + 𝒓𝒗𝒓𝒓 ] using eq.(𝟏)
𝝏𝟐 𝒗 𝟐 [𝟐
𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝟐 𝒗
we get, 𝒓 𝟐 = 𝒂 + 𝒓 𝟐 ] requrid PDE
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓
Module Name: Partial Differential Equations (PDE’s) P a g e | 10

Ex.7. z  xf ( x  t )  g ( x  t )
Sol : z  xf ( x  t )  g ( x  t )
Differenti ate z partially w.r.t x 2 times
z x  p  xf ( x  t )  f ( x  t )  g ( x  t )
z xx  r  xf ( x  t )  f ( x  t )  f ( x  t )  g ( x  t )
r  xf ( x  t )  2 f ( x  t )  g ( x  t )    (1)
Differenti ate z partially w.r.t. t 2 times
z t  q  xf ( x  t )  g ( x  t )
z tt  t  xf ( x  t )  g ( x  t )      (2)
diff z t partially w.r.t x
z tx  s  xf ( x  t )  f ( x  t )  g ( x  t )  (3)
add (1)  (2)
z xx  z tt  2 xf ( x  t )  2 f ( x  t )  2 g ( x  t )
z xx  z tt  2 z tx
Solution PDE
A solution or integral of a PDE is any relation connecting the dependent and

independent variables satisfies the equation identically .
𝐸𝑥: − 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 is a solution of the PDE

𝑧 = 𝑥𝑝 + 𝑦𝑞 + 𝑝2 + 𝑞2
For a first order PDE 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑝, 𝑞) = 0, a solution of the form
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑎, 𝑏) = 0 which contains two arbitrary
constants is called a complete solution or complete integral.
Any relation of the type 𝜑(u,v) = 0, where 𝜑 is arbitrary function and
u and v are known functions of x,y, z, which provides a solution
of a first order PDE is called a general solution or general integral of the equation.

Solution of Non Homogeneous PDE by Direct Integration

The PDE which can be solved by direct integration, In the place of usual
constants of integration, we must, however, use arbitrary functions of the
variable held are fixed.
𝛛𝟐 𝒛
𝟏.Solve: 𝟐 = 𝒙 + 𝒚
𝛛𝒙
𝛛𝟐 𝒛
Solution: 𝟐 = 𝒙 + 𝒚
𝛛𝒙
Integrating twice with respect to 𝒙 (keeping 𝒚 fixed)
𝛛𝒛 𝒙𝟐
= + 𝒚𝒙 + 𝒇(𝒚)
𝛛𝒙 𝟐
𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝒙𝟐
𝒛= + + 𝒙𝒇(𝒚) + 𝒈(𝒚) is the required solution
𝟔 𝟐
𝛛𝟐 𝒛 𝒙
2.Solve: = +𝒂
𝛛𝒙𝛛𝒚 𝒚
Solution:Integrating w.r.t 𝒙 (keeping 𝒚 fixed)
𝛛𝒛 𝟏 𝒙𝟐
= ( ) + 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒇(𝒚)
𝛛𝒚 𝒚 𝟐
Integrating w.r.t 𝒚 (keeping 𝒙 fixed)
𝒙𝟐
𝒛 = ( ) 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒚 + 𝒂𝒙𝒚 + ∫ 𝒇(𝒚) 𝒅𝒚 + 𝒈(𝒙)
𝟐
𝛛𝟑 𝒛
𝟑.Solve: 𝟐 + 𝟏𝟖𝒙𝒚𝟐 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚) = 𝟎
𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒚
Solution:Integrating twice w.r.t 𝒙 (keeping 𝒚 fixed)
𝛛𝟐 𝒛 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚)
+ 𝟗𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 − = 𝒇(𝒚)
𝛛𝒙𝛛𝒚 𝟐

𝛛𝒛 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚)
+ 𝟑𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟐 − = 𝒙𝒇(𝒚) + 𝒈(𝒚)
𝛛𝒚 𝟒
Integrating w.r.t 𝒚 (keeping 𝒙 fixed)
𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚)
𝒛 + 𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 − = 𝒙 ∫ 𝒇(𝒚) 𝒅𝒚 + ∫ 𝒈(𝒚)𝒅𝒚 + 𝒘(𝒙)
𝟒
𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚)
𝒛 + 𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 − = 𝒙𝑭(𝒚) + 𝑮(𝒚) + 𝒘(𝒙)
𝟒
is the required solution
𝛛𝟐 𝒛 𝛛𝒛
𝟒.Solve: = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒚 for which = −𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒚 when 𝒙 = 𝟎,
𝛛𝒙𝛛𝒚 𝛛𝒚
and z = 0 if 𝒚 is odd multiples of 𝝅⁄𝟐 .
𝛛𝒛
= − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝒇(𝒚) − − − −(𝟏)
𝛛𝒚
𝛛𝒛
Given, = −𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒚 when 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝛛𝒚
−𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒚 = − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟎 + 𝒇(𝒚)
−𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒚 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒚)
- 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒚)
(𝟏) becomes
𝛛𝒛
= − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒚 − − − −(𝟐)
𝛛𝒚
integrate w.r.t y
𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒚 + 𝒈(𝒙)
given, z = 0 if y = (2n + 𝟏) 𝝅⁄𝟐 in eq𝒏 (𝟐)
we get 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎
𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒚 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝟏)
𝛛𝟐 𝒛 𝛛𝒛
𝟓.Solve: 𝟐 = 𝒙𝒚 for which = 𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝟏 + 𝒚) when 𝒙 = 𝟏,
𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒙

and z = 0 𝒘hen 𝒙 = 0
Solution:Integrating twice w.r.t 𝒙 (keeping 𝒚 fixed)
𝛛𝒛 𝒚𝒙𝟐
= + 𝒇(𝒚) − − − −(𝟏)
𝛛𝒙 𝟐
𝛛𝒛
Given, = 𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝟏 + 𝒚) when 𝒙 = 𝟏
𝛛𝒙
𝒚
𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝟏 + 𝒚) = + 𝒇(𝒚)
𝟐
𝒚
𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝟏 + 𝒚) - = 𝒇(𝒚)
𝟐
(𝟏) becomes
𝛛𝒛 𝒚𝒙𝟐 𝒚
= + 𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝟏 + 𝒚) - − − − −(𝟐)
𝛛𝒙 𝟐 𝟐
integrate w.r.t 𝒙
𝒚𝒙𝟑 𝒚
𝒛= + (𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝟏 + 𝒚) - ) 𝒙 + 𝒈(𝒚)
𝟔 𝟐
given, 𝒛 = 0 𝒘hen 𝒙 = 0
we get 𝒈(𝒚) = 𝟎
𝒚𝒙𝟑 𝒚
𝒛= + (𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝟏 + 𝒚) - ) 𝒙
𝟔 𝟐
𝛛𝟐 𝒛
𝟔.Solve the equation: + 𝟗𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚) given that
𝛛𝒙𝛛𝒚
𝛛𝒛
𝒛 = 0 when y = 0 and = 𝟎 when x = 𝟎
𝛛𝒚
𝛛𝒛 𝟐
𝒙𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚)
+ 𝟗𝒚 ( ) = + 𝒇(𝒚)
𝛛𝒚 𝟑 𝟐
𝛛𝒛 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚) 𝛛𝒛
+ 𝟑𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟐 = + 𝒇(𝒚) − − − (𝟏) Given = 𝟎 when x = 0
𝛛𝒚 𝟐 𝛛𝒚
𝒔𝒊𝒏( − 𝒚)
𝟎= + 𝒇(𝒚)
𝟐

𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝒚)
𝒇(𝒚) = Eq. (𝟏) becomes
𝟐
𝛛𝒛 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚) 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝒚)
+ 𝟑𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟐 = +
𝛛𝒚 𝟐 𝟐
Integrate w.r.t. y (keeping x constant)
𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚) 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝒚)
𝒛 + 𝟑( )=− ( )− + 𝒈(𝒙)
𝟑 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝒚)
𝒛 + 𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 = + 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚) − + 𝒈(𝒙) − − − (𝟐)
𝟐 𝟐
Given z = 0 when y = 0
𝟏 𝟏
𝟎 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐 𝒙 − + 𝒈(𝒙)
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙
𝒈(𝒙) = (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐 𝒙) = = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙
𝟐 𝟐
𝒛 = −𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚) − + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙
𝟐 𝟐
𝛛𝟐 𝒛
requrid PDE𝟕.Solve the equation: + 𝟗𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚) given that
𝛛𝒙𝛛𝒚
𝛛𝒛
𝒛 = 0 when y = 0 and = 𝟎 when x = 𝟎
𝛛𝒚
𝛛𝒛 𝟐
𝒙𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚)
+ 𝟗𝒚 ( ) = + 𝒇(𝒚)
𝛛𝒚 𝟑 𝟐
𝛛𝒛 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚) 𝛛𝒛
+ 𝟑𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟐 = + 𝒇(𝒚) − − − (𝟏) Given = 𝟎 when x = 0
𝛛𝒚 𝟐 𝛛𝒚
𝒔𝒊𝒏( − 𝒚)
𝟎= + 𝒇(𝒚)
𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝒚)
𝒇(𝒚) =
𝟐
Eq. (𝟏) becomes
𝛛𝒛 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚) 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝒚)
+ 𝟑𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟐 = +
𝛛𝒚 𝟐 𝟐

Integrate w.r.t. y (keeping x constant)

𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚) 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝒚)
𝒛 + 𝟑( )=− ( )− + 𝒈(𝒙)
𝟑 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟐
𝒛 + 𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 = + 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚) − + 𝒈(𝒙) − − − (𝟐)
𝟐 𝟐
Given z = 0 when y = 0
𝟏 𝟏
𝟎 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐 𝒙 − + 𝒈(𝒙)
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙
𝒈(𝒙) = (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐 𝒙) = = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙
𝟐 𝟐
𝒛 = −𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔( 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚) − + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙
𝟐 𝟐
requrid PDE
Solution of homogeneous PDE involving derivatives with

respect to one indecent variable only
Suppose that the dependent variable has been differentiated partially w.r.t. one
independent variable say x only. Then PDE can be treated as an ordinary
differential equation (ODE).The arbitrary constants in the solution are then
replaced by arbitrary function of the other variable (y) giving a solution of the PDE
𝝏𝟐 𝒛 𝝏𝒛
𝟏.Solve: 𝟐 = 𝒛 given that z = 𝟎 and = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 ,when 𝒚 = 𝟎,
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚
Solution:
Here 𝒛 is function of 𝒚 only. The PDE can be assume
in the form ODE

𝒅𝟐 𝒛 𝟐
𝒅
− 𝒛 = 𝟎 or (𝑫 − 𝟏 ) 𝒛 = 𝟎 where =𝑫
𝒅𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒚
Auxillary Equation is
𝑫𝟐 − 𝟏 = 𝟎 or 𝑫𝟐 = 𝟏
𝑫 = ±√𝟏 = ±𝟏(𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 and different 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒔)
complementary function
z = c𝟏 𝒆𝒚 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝒚 (for ODE)
The solution for PDE, replace c𝟏&𝒄𝟐 by function y
z = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒆𝒚 + 𝒈(𝒙)𝒆−𝒚 -----(𝟏)
Now find the value of 𝒇(𝒙)&𝒈(𝒙) using the given data
When 𝒚 = 𝟎, 𝒛 = 𝟎 hence 𝒆𝒒(𝟏)becomes
𝟎 = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒆𝟎 + 𝒈(𝒙)𝒆𝟎
𝟎 = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙) − − − −(𝟐)
𝝏𝒛
Also by data, when 𝒚 = 0 , = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
𝝏𝒚
differentiate Eq.(𝟏) w.r.t. 𝒚 partially we get
𝝏𝒛
= 𝒇(𝒙)𝒆𝒚 − 𝒈(𝒙)𝒆−𝒚
𝝏𝒚
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒆𝟎 − 𝒈(𝒙)𝒆𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
Eq.(𝟐) + Eq.(𝟑) 𝒇(𝒚) =
𝟐
− 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
Eq.(𝟐) − Eq.(𝟑) 𝒈(𝒙) =
𝟐
Eq.(𝟏) becomes
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
𝒛 = 𝒆𝒚 ( ) + 𝒆−𝒚 ( )
𝟐 𝟐
𝒆𝒚 − 𝒆−𝒚
𝒛=( ) 𝒔in𝒙
𝟐
𝒛 = (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒚) 𝒔in𝒙 is the required solution
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙) − − − −(𝟑)
solve Eq.(𝟐) and Eq.(𝟑)

𝝏𝟐 𝒛 𝝏𝒛
𝟐.Solve: 𝟐 + 𝟑 − 𝟒𝒛 = 𝟎 subject to conditions that
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝒛
𝒛 = 𝟏 and = 𝒚 when 𝒙 = 𝟎,
𝝏𝒙
Solution:
Here 𝒛 is function of 𝒙 only. The PDE can be assume
in the form ODE
𝒅𝟐 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 𝒅
𝟐 +𝟑 − 𝟒𝒛 = 𝟎 or (𝑫𝟐 + 𝟑𝑫 − 𝟒)𝒛 = 𝟎 where =𝑫
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝑫𝟐 + 𝟑𝑫 − 𝟒 = 𝟎
𝑫 = 𝟏, 𝑫 = −𝟒, (𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 and different 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒔)
z = c𝟏 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝟒𝒙 (for ODE)
z = 𝒇(𝒚)𝒆𝒙 + 𝒈(𝒚)𝒆−𝟒𝒙 -----(𝟏)
Now find the value of 𝒇(𝒚)&𝒈(𝒚) using the given data
When 𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝒛 = 𝟏 hence 𝑬𝒒. (𝟏)becomes
𝝏𝒛
𝟏 = 𝒇(𝒚) + 𝒈(𝒚) − − − −(𝟐) Also by data, = 𝒚,when 𝒙 = 0 ,
𝝏𝒙
differentiate Eq.(𝟏) w.r.t. 𝒙 partially we get
𝝏𝒛
= 𝒇(𝒚)𝒆𝒙 − 𝟒𝒈(𝒚)𝒆−𝟒𝒙
𝝏𝒙
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒚𝒆𝟎 − 𝟒𝒈(𝒚)𝒆𝟎
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒚) − 𝟒𝒈(𝒚) − − − −(𝟑)
solve Eq.(𝟐) and Eq.(𝟑)
solveing Eq.(𝟐) & Eq.(𝟑)
𝟒+𝒚 𝟏−𝒚
𝒇(𝒚) = &𝒈(𝒚) =
𝟓 𝟓
𝟒+𝒚 𝒙 𝟏 − 𝒚 −𝟒𝒙
𝒛=( )𝒆 + ( ) 𝒆 is the required solution
𝟓 𝟓

𝝏𝟐 𝒛 𝝏𝒛
𝟑.Solve: 𝟐 = 𝒛 given that when 𝒚 = 𝟎, z = 𝒆𝒙 and = 𝒆−𝒙
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚
Solution:
Here 𝒛 is function of 𝒚 only. The PDE can be assume
in the form ODE
𝒅𝟐 𝒛 𝟐
𝒅
− 𝒛 = 𝟎 or (𝑫 − 𝟏 ) 𝒛 = 𝟎 where =𝑫
𝒅𝒚𝟐 dx
𝑫𝟐 − 𝟏 = 𝟎 or 𝑫𝟐 = 𝟏
𝑫 = ±√𝟏 = ±𝟏(𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 and different 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒔)
z = c𝟏 𝒆𝒚 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝒚 (for ODE)
z = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒆𝒚 + 𝒈(𝒙)𝒆−𝒚 -----(𝟏)
Now find the value of 𝒇(𝒙)&𝒈(𝒙) using the given data
When 𝒚 = 𝟎, 𝒛 = 𝒆𝒙 hence 𝑬𝒒. (𝟏)becomes
𝒆𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒆𝟎 + 𝒈(𝒙)𝒆𝟎
𝒆𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙) − − − −(𝟐)
𝝏𝒛
Also by data, when 𝒚 = 0 , = 𝒆−𝒙
𝝏𝒚
differentiate Eq.(𝟏) w.r.t. 𝒚 partially we get
𝝏𝒛
= 𝒇(𝒙)𝒆𝒚 − 𝒈(𝒙)𝒆−𝒚
𝝏𝒚
𝒆−𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒆𝟎 − 𝒈(𝒙)𝒆𝟎
𝒆−𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙) − − − −(𝟑)
Solve Eq.(𝟐) and Eq.(𝟑)
Eq. (𝟐) + Eq. (𝟑)
𝟐𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙
𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙
𝒇(𝒙) = = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒙
𝟐

eq (𝟐) − eq (𝟑)
𝟐𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙
𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙
𝒈(𝒙) = = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒙
𝟐
𝒛 = 𝒆𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒙 is the required solution

Syllabus
Subject: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II

Subject Code: 18MATDIP41
Module-5
Probability:
Introduction. Sample space and events. Axioms of probability. Addition & multiplication
theorems. Conditional probability, Bayes’s theorem, problems.
Index
1 INTRODUCTION 2
2 Addition & multiplication theorems. Conditional probability. 3
3 Bayes’s theorem 4
4 Problems 5-8
Probability
The experiments (trials) when performed repeatedly giving different results (outcomes) are called
random experiments.
A set S consisting of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called a sample space, which
corresponds to the universal set.
If a sample space has finite number of elements, then it is called a finite sample space otherwise it is
called an infinite sample space.
An event E is a subset of the sample space S. A particular outcome that is an element in S is called a sample.
A set of events is said to be exhaustive if it includes all the possible events.

Or events 𝐴1, 𝐴2, 𝐴3, … . 𝐴𝑛 are exhaustive events of the sample space 𝑆 , if 𝑆 = 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ … .∪ 𝐴𝑛
Mutually exclusive events: Two or more events are said to be mutually exclusive if the happening of one event
prevent the simultaneous happening of the others.
Or 𝐴1, 𝐴2, 𝐴3, … . 𝐴𝑛 are said to be mutually exclusive events of 𝑆, if 𝐴𝑖 ∩ 𝐴𝑗 = ∅ for all 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 .
Independent events: Two or more events are said to be independent if the happening or non happening of one
event does not prevent the happening or non happening of the others.
DEFINITION: If there are n exhaustive , mutually exclusive and equally possible cases of which m are
𝑚
favorable to an event E, then the probability (𝑃) of the happening of 𝐸 is 𝑃(𝐸) =
𝑛
Axioms of Probability (Axiomatic definition of probability):
Let 𝑆 be a sample space and 𝐴 be any event of 𝑆. Then a real valued function 𝑃(𝐴) known as the probability
of the event 𝐴 , if the following axioms are satisfied.
1. 𝑃(𝑆) = 1
2. For every event 𝐴 of 𝑆 , 0 ≤ 𝑃(𝐴) ≤ 1.
1. If 𝐴1, 𝐴2, 𝐴3, … . 𝐴𝑛 are mutually exclusive events of 𝑆
then ,𝑃(𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ … .∪ 𝐴𝑛) = 𝑃(𝐴1) + 𝑃(𝐴2) + ⋯ . +𝑃(𝐴𝑛)
These are known as the axioms of probability.
Subject Name: Additional Mathematics - II Module No 5.
Module Name: Probability Page |2

Addition rule: If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are any two events of 𝑆 then, 𝑃 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) – 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
Proof:
We prove the result using the following Venn diagram.
𝑆 𝐴 𝐵
𝐴∩𝐵
A∩𝐵 𝐴∩B
From the figure,

𝐴 = ( 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
𝐵 = ( 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
And 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = ( 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
Since R H S of above three expressions are unions of mutually exclusive events,
by the third axiom of probability ,
𝑃(𝐴) = 𝑃 ( 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) + 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
𝑃(𝐵) = 𝑃( 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) + 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃 ( 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) + 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) + 𝑃( 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
∴ 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) = 𝑃 ( 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) + 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) + 𝑃( 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) + 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

= 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) + 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).
And hence 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) – 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).
Conditional probability:
Let A and B be the two events. Probability of the happening of the event B when the event A has
already happened is called the conditional probability denoted by P(B/A).
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒉 𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨

P(B/A) = The probability of B given A =
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑨
𝑷(𝑨∩𝑩)
i.e. P(B/A) = ……………….(i)
𝑷(𝑨)
𝑷(𝑨∩𝑩)
Also P(A/B) =
𝑷(𝑩)

Multiplication rule:
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴). 𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) or 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐵). 𝑃(𝐴/𝐵) .
If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two independent events then 𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐵)

And hence 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴). 𝑃(𝐵)
Therefore 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴). 𝑃(𝐵) ⟺ 𝐴 and 𝐵 are independent.
Baye’s theorem:
Statement
Let 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 , … . 𝐴𝑛 be a set of exhaustive and mutually exclusive events of the sample space S with
P(𝐴𝑖 ) ≠ 0 for each i. If A is any other event associated with 𝐴𝑖
𝑷(𝑨𝒊 )𝑷(𝑨/𝑨𝒊 )
(𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴 ⊂ ⋃𝑛𝑖=1 𝐴𝑖 )𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑃(𝐴) ≠0 then P(𝑨𝒊 /A) = ∑𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝑷(𝑨𝒊 )𝑷(𝑨/𝑨𝒊 )
Proof: We have S = 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ … .∪ 𝐴𝑛 and A ⊂ 𝑆

∴ 𝐴 = 𝑆 ∩ 𝐴 = (𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ … .∪ 𝐴𝑛 ) ∩ 𝐴
Using distributive law in the R.H.S. we have
A = (𝐴1 ∩ 𝐴) ∪ (𝐴2 ∩ 𝐴) ∪ … .∪ (𝐴𝑛 ∩ 𝐴)
Since 𝐴𝑖 ∩ 𝐴 for i = 1 to n are mutually exclusive we have by applying the addition rule of probability
P(A) =P (𝐴1 ∩ 𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐴2 ∩ 𝐴) + ⋯ . +𝑃(𝐴𝑛 ∩ 𝐴)
Now applying multiplication rule onto each term in the R.H.S we have
P(A) = P(𝐴1)P(A/𝐴1)+ P(𝐴2)P(A/𝐴2)+……. +P(𝐴𝑛 )P(A/𝐴𝑛 )
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑃(𝐴) = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃(𝐴𝑖 )𝑃(𝐴/𝐴𝑖 ) ……………(i)

The conditional probability of 𝐴𝑖 for any i given A , is defined by
𝑃(𝐴𝑖 ∩𝐴) 𝑃(𝐴𝑖 )𝑃(𝐴/𝐴𝑖 )
P(𝐴𝑖 /A) = =
𝑃(𝐴) 𝑃(𝐴)
𝑷(𝑨𝒊 )𝑷(𝑨/𝑨𝒊 )
Using (i) in the denominator of the R.H.S we have P(𝑨𝒊 /A) = ∑𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝑷(𝑨𝒊 )𝑷(𝑨/𝑨𝒊 )

Problems:
1. From five positive and seven negative numbers, five numbers are chosen at random and multiplied.
What is the probability that the product is a (i) negative number (ii) positive number?
Soln: Sample space contains 12𝐶5 = 792 products (selection of 5 numbers from 12)
(i) If the product is negative number then odd numbers of negative numbers are selected.
Therefore number of negative numbers is 1 or 3 or 5.
Number of selection of 1 negative and 4 positive numbers= 7𝐶1 5𝐶4 = 35.
406 203
Totally there are 406 favorable cases. And hence required probability= = = 0.5126 .
792 396
(ii) Since there is no zero number, the product is either negative or positive.
193
Therefore probability that the product is positive = 1 − 0.5126 = 396
= 0.4874 .
2. Two fair dice are rolled. If the sum of the numbers obtained is 4, find the probability that number obtained
on both the dice are even.
Soln: Since the sum of the numbers obtained is 4, there are (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1) three cases, in which only one
1
case (2, 2) with number obtained on both the dice are even. And hence required probability =
3
3. What is the probability that a leap year selected at random will contain 53 Sundays?
Soln: A leap year consists of 366 days , so that there are 52 full weeks and two extra days. These two days can
be 1. Monday, Tuesday, 2. Tuesday, Wednesday, 3. Wednesday, Thursday, 4. Thursday, Friday,
5. Friday, Saturday, 6. Saturday, Sunday, 7. Sunday, Monday.
2
Of these 7 cases, the last two are favorable and hence the required probability =
7
4. An urn contains 5 red and 10 black balls. Eight of them are placed in another urn. What is the probability
that the latter then contains 2 red and 6 black balls?
Soln: The number of ways in which 8 balls can be drawn out of 15 balls is 15𝐶8.
Two red balls and 6 black balls can be drawn in 5𝐶2 × 10𝐶6 ways.
5𝐶 10
2× 𝐶6 140
∴ Required probability = 15𝐶
= .
8 429
Subject Name: Additional Mathematics - I Module No 5.

4 13 1
Then clearly 𝑃(𝐴) = , 𝑃(𝐵) = , 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) =
52 52 52
4 13 1 4
And hence by addition rule 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 52 + 52 + 52 = 13
5. A bag contains 8 white and 6 red balls. Find the probability of drawing two balls of the same colour.
Soln: Total number of outcomes = 14𝐶2 = 91.
Two white balls can be drawn in 8𝐶2 or two red balls can be drawn in 6𝐶2.
The number of ways of drawing two balls of the same colour =8𝐶2+ 6𝐶2
=43
43
And hence the required probability = .
91
6. A box A contains 2 white and 4 black balls. Another box B contains 5 white and 7 black balls. A ball is
transferred from the box A to box B. Then a ball is drawn from box B. Find the probability that is white.
Soln: Let 𝐴1 be the event that white ball is transferred from box A to box B, 𝐴2 be the event that
black ball is transferred from box A to box B and 𝑊 be the event that white ball is drawn from B.
1 2 6 5
𝑃 (𝐴1) = , 𝑃 (𝐴2) = , 𝑃 (𝑊/𝐴1) = , 𝑃 (𝑊/𝐴2) =
3 3 13 13
16
Therefore 𝑃 (𝑊 ) = 𝑃(𝑊/𝐴1) 𝑃(𝐴1)+ 𝑃(𝐴2 ) 𝑃(𝑊/𝐴2 ) =
39
3 1 1
7. Let A and B be any two events with 𝑃(𝐴) = , 𝑃(𝐵) = and 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = .
4 5 20
Find (𝑖) 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) (𝑖𝑖)𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) (𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) (𝑖𝑣)𝑃(𝐴/𝐵) (𝑣)𝑃(𝐴/𝐵).
3 1 1 9
Soln: (𝑖) 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵)– 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = + − = .
4 5 20 10
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴 ) + 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴 ) + 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 3/10
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴 ) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 7/10
P(A ∪ B)
(𝑖𝑣) 𝑃(𝐴/𝐵)= =1/4
𝑃(𝐵)

1 1 1
8. The probability that 3 students A, B, C solve a problem is , , respectively .If the problem is
2 3 4
simultaneously assigned to all of them, what is the probability that the problem is solved?
Soln: Probability that the problem is solved = 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
= 1 − 𝑃(̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∪ B ∪ C))
= 1 − 𝑃( 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵∩ 𝐶) (since they are independent)
̅̅̅ × 𝑃(𝐵)
=1−𝑃(𝐴) ̅̅̅ = 1−(1 × 2 × 3)= 3
̅̅̅̅ × 𝑃(𝐶)
2 3 4 4
9. If all the letters of the word ‘ENGINEER’ be written at random, what is the probability that all the
letters E are found together?
8!
Soln: Number of arrangements = 3!×2!
= 3360.
If 3 E’s are together, consider 3 E’s as one letter and arrange this with remaining 5 letters.
6!
Number of such arrangements = = 360.
2!
360 3
The probability that all the letters E are found together = 3360 = 28 .
10. In a certain college, 4% of the boys and 1% of the girls are taller than 1.8 m. Further more 60% of the
students are girls. If a student is selected at random and is found to be taller than 1.8 m., what is the
probability that the student is a girl?
Soln: Let 𝐵 be the event that the student is boy, 𝐺 be the event that the student is girl and 𝑇 be the event
that the student is taller than 1.8 m.
Given that 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.4, 𝑃(𝐺) = 0.6, 𝑃(𝑇/𝐵) = 0.04, 𝑃(𝑇/𝐺) = 0.01.
If a student is selected at random and is found to be taller than 1.8 m.,
By Baye’s theorem required probability = 𝑃(𝐺/𝑇)
𝑃(𝑇/𝐺)𝑃(𝐺)
=
𝑃(𝑇/𝐺)𝑃(𝐺) + 𝑃(𝑇/𝐵)𝑃(𝐵)
0.01×0.6 3
= = = 0.2727.
0.01×0.6+0.04×0.4 11

11. The chance that a doctor will diagnose a disease correctly is 60%. The chance that a patient will die after
The correct diagnose is 40% and the chance of death after wrong diagnose is 70%. If a patient dies, what
Is the probability that disease was correctly diagnosed?
Soln: Let 𝐴 be the event that doctor will diagnose a disease correctly, 𝐵 diagnose a disease wrongly and 𝐷 be
the event that patient will die.
Given that 𝑃(𝐴) = 0.6, 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.4 .
And 𝑃(𝐷 ∕ 𝐴) = 0.4 , 𝑃(𝐷 ∕ 𝐵) = 0.7 .
𝑃(𝐷⁄𝐴)𝑃(𝐴)
By Baye’s theorem required probability = 𝑃(𝐴 ∕ 𝐷) =
𝑃(𝐷⁄𝐴)𝑃(𝐴)+𝑃(𝐷⁄𝐵)𝑃(𝐵)
0.4×0.6 6
.
= =
0.4×0.6+0.7×0.4 13
12.Three machines A , B , C produce respectively 50 %, 30% and 20% of the items in a factory.
The percentage of defective outputs of these machines are 3, 4 and 5 respectively. An item selected at
random is found to be defective. Find the probability that it is from machine A.
Soln: Let 𝐴 , 𝐵 , 𝐶 are the event that item is from machines A , B , C respectively ,
and 𝐷 be the defective item.
Given that 𝑃(𝐴) = 0.5, 𝑃(𝐵) = 0.3, 𝑃(𝐶) = 0.2 .
And 𝑃(𝐷 ∕ 𝐴) = 0.03, 𝑃(𝐷 ∕ 𝐵) = 0.04, 𝑃(𝐷 ∕ 𝐶) = 0.05 .
𝑃(𝐷⁄𝐴)𝑃(𝐴)
By Baye’s theorem required probability = 𝑃(𝐴 ∕ 𝐷) =
𝑃(𝐷⁄𝐴)𝑃(𝐴)+𝑃(𝐷⁄𝐵)𝑃(𝐵)+𝑃(𝐷⁄𝐶)𝑃(𝐶)
(0.03)(0.5)
= = 0.4054
(0.03)(0.5)+(0.3)(0.04)+(0.2)(0.05)
13.. In a bolt factory, there are four machines A , B , C , D manufacturing 20%,15%,25% and
40%of the total output respectively. Of these outputs 5%, 4%, 3% and 2% in the same order are
defective bolts. A bolt is chosen at random from the factory’s production and found defective. What
is the probability that the bolt was manufactured by machine A or machine D?

Subject Name: Additional Mathematics - I

Module No 5.
Module Name: Probability

Pa ge |9

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Maharaja Education Trust (R), Mysuru

Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi,

 To advance extensive research in science, engineering and management disciplines.

ಉದ್ಯಮಶೋಲತೆಯ ಕೌಶಲಯ ರ್ಡೆಯಲನ ನೆರವಕಗನವುದ್ನ.

 To instill the need to uphold ethics in every aspect.

 To mould holistic individuals capable of contributing to the advancement of the society.

To promote a comprehensive, innovative and dynamic learning and research environment.

 To encourage the students to develop reasoning ability, analytical skills and an

 To provide an exemplary Mathematics program to prepare students not only for

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

Subject: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Subject Code: 18DIPMATAT41

SEE Question paper pattern:

 To provide essential concepts of linear algebra, second & higher order

 To provide an insight into elementary probability theory and numerical

Subject: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Subject Code: 18DIPMATAT41

CO’s DESCRIPTION OF THE OUTCOMES

Criteria 8 Main Coordinator Principal

Subject: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Subject Code: 18DIPMATAT41

Subject:- Additional Mathematics - II Subject Code:- 18MATDIP41

Rank of a matrix-echelon form. Solution of system of linear equations – consistency.

1 Rank of a matrices – Echelon form 2-8

2 Solution of system of linear equations – consistency 8-19

3 Gauss-elimination method 20-24

4 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 25-29

Subject Name: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Module No 1

Subject Name: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Module No 1

Subject Name: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Module No 1

Subject Name: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Module No 1

Subject Name: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Module No 1

Subject Name: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Module No 1

(i) Rank of A can be 3 if the equivalent form of A has three non-zero

Consider a system of ′𝐦′ linear simultaneous equations in ′𝐧′ unknown as

𝐚𝟏𝟏 𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐚𝟏𝟐 𝐱 𝟐 + ⋯ 𝐚𝟏𝐧 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐛𝟏

Subject Name: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Module No 1

𝐚𝟐𝟏 𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐𝟐 𝐱 𝟐 + ⋯ 𝐚𝟐𝐧 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐛𝟐

𝐚𝐦𝟏 𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐚𝐦𝟐 𝐱 𝟐 + ⋯ 𝐚𝐦𝐧 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐛𝐦

Where 𝐚𝐢𝐣 ′ 𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐛𝐢 ′ 𝐬 are real constants

Equation (𝟏) can be written in matrix form as follows:

(i) Equation (2) is called homogeneous system of equations if 𝐁 ≠ 𝟎 (Null

The matrix which consists of co–efficient of unknown is called co–efficient matrix.

Subject Name: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Module No 1

𝐚𝟏𝟏 𝐚𝟏𝟐 −− 𝐚𝟏𝐧

SOLUTION OF SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS:-

The set of values of unknowns (𝐱 𝟏 , 𝐱 𝟐 , … . . , 𝐱 𝐧 ) which satisfy all the equations

CONSISTANCY OF SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS:-

A system of linear equations is said to be consistent if it possess at least

The necessary and sufficient condition for a system of non – homogeneous

𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐱 = 𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐨𝐟 𝐀𝐮𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐱

The system of non – homogeneous equations 𝐀𝐗 = 𝐁 is inconsistent (does not

Subject Name: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Module No 1

1. Unique Solution:- 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝐫 = 𝐧 where ′𝐧′ represents no. of

𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟑

Subject Name: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Module No 1

Since 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟑 = 𝐧 = 𝐧𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧𝐬 (𝐢. 𝐞. , 𝐫 = 𝐧 = 𝟑)

Rewriting the above Augmented matrix in equation format we get,

Solving the above equations we get,

(𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳) = (𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑) is the required Unique Solution.

2. Show that the system of equations

𝛒(𝐀) = 𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟑

Since 𝛒(𝐀) = 𝛒(𝐀: 𝐁) = 𝟑 = 𝐧 = 𝐧𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧𝐬 (𝐢. 𝐞. , 𝐫 = 𝐧 = 𝟑)

Subject Name: ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS – II Module No 1

Rewriting the above Augmented matrix in equation format we get,

Solving the above equations we get,