GROUP 1A - QH2021D2 - TOPIC 1 - Discourse, Vocabulary & Background Knowledge

Discourse,
Vocabulary &
Background Knowledge
Lecturer: Dr. Huynh Anh Tuan
Group 1A - QH2021D2
21045217 Thành Hữu Hà Anh
21045218 Nguyễn Hải Âu
21045220 Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Chi
21045221 Phạm Thị Linh Chi
21045222 Đỗ Mai Chi

Group 1A
21045224 Trịnh Thị Chinh members
21045225 Vũ Thị Kim Cúc
21045226 Lê Thị Thu Cúc
21045228 Phạm Tâm Đan
21045303 Đồng Thị Thơm

Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Chi Thành Hữu Hà Anh Nguyễn Hải Âu
Phạm Thị Linh Chi Đỗ Mai Chi

Trịnh Thị Chinh Vũ Thị Kim Cúc Lê Thị Thu Cúc
Phạm Tâm Đan Đồng Thị Thơm

Table of contents
1 Cohesion vs. Coherence 2
Cohesion
3 Coherence 4 Background knowledge
5 Schema 6 Script
7 Discourse & Language 8 Quiz

Table of contents
1 Cohesion vs. Coherence 2 Cohesion
By Nguyễn Hải Âu
By Đồng Thị Thơm
& Thành Hữu Hà Anh
3 Coherence & Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Chi
By Phạm Thị Linh Chi 4 Background knowledge

By Đỗ Mai Chi
Table of contents
5 Schema 6 Script
By Trịnh Thị Chinh By Vũ Thị Kim Cúc
7 Discourse & Language 8 Quiz

By Lê Thị Kim Cúc By Phạm Tâm Đan
1
Cohesion vs. Coherence
What are the similarities and differences of

cohesion and coherence?
Coherence & Cohesion

Similarity: They are both about the
semantic relation between different
elements of a discourse.

Cohesion Coherence
The grammatical and lexical The semantic relation between

relationship between different different elements of a discourse
elements of a text or a discourse which is logically integrated.
which hold it together.

Cohesion Coherence
It is indicated by 2 kinds of device: It is indicated by elements such as

grammatical or lexical devices that topic sentences, supporting
can be found among or between sentences and concluding
elements (phrases, clauses or sentences, etc.
sentences) of a text.

Cohesion Coherence
Cohesion depends on the internal Coherence depends on the shared

relationship of a discourse background knowledge of the
(grammatical devices or lexical speaker/writer and the
devices) listener/reader.

Is the following paragraph cohesive?
The most important part of an essay is the thesis statement.

The thesis statement introduces the argument of the essay.
Additionally, it also helps to create a structure for the essay.
Therefore, one should always begin with a thesis statement
while writing an essay.

The most important part of an essay is the thesis statement.
The thesis statement introduces the argument of the essay.
Additionally, it also helps to create a structure for the essay.
Therefore, one should always begin with a thesis statement
while writing an essay.
- Repetition: an essay/ the essay; thesis statement

- Conjunction: additionally, therefore
=> A cohesive paragraph

Is the following paragraph coherent?
The most important part of an essay is the thesis

statement. The thesis statement introduces the
argument of the essay. Additionally, it also helps to
create a structure for the essay. Therefore, one should
always begin with a thesis statement while writing an
essay.

The most important part of an essay is the thesis Topic sentence
statement. The thesis statement introduces the
argument of the essay. Additionally, it also helps to Supporting sentences
create a structure for the essay. Therefore, one
Concluding sentence
should always begin with a thesis statement while
writing an essay.
=> A coherent paragraph.

2
Cohesion
Definition of cohesion
Cohesion is the semantic relation between one element and
another in a text (Halliday & Hasan, 1976)
Cohesion occurs when the interpretation of one item depends on
the other, i.e. one item presupposes the other (Halliday & Hasan,
1976)
2.1
Grammatical
cohesion
By Nguyễn Hải Âu & Thành Hữu Hà Anh
1. Reference
Reference items are most commonly expressed by:
● pronouns (he, she , it, him, her, they, etc.)
● demonstratives (this , that , these, those)
Endophoric Exophoric
Anaphoric Cataphoric
Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014

1. Reference - Endophoric reference
An endophoric reference is a reference in a text to something inside the
text.
Endophoric reference includes anaphoric and cataphoric reference.
● Anaphoric reference: refers to something in the preceding text
Example: I haven’t seen Sam since Monday. I wonder if she’s sick.
● Cataphoric reference: forwards to something in the following text
Example: When she has free time, Sam goes to the mall.

1. Reference - Exophoric reference
Exophoric reference occurs when a word or phrase refers to something
outside the discourse.
Example: The Queen gave a moving speech about education.

2. Substitution
Substitution refers to the replacement of an item with another item.
It can be used refer backwards or forwards. Backward substitution is more

common.

2. Substitution
Three types: nominal, verbal, and clausal.
● Nominal substitution: the substitution of a noun or a nominal group
Example: The car is broken. I’ll buy a new one.
● Verbal substitution: the substitution of a verb or a verbal group
Example: I love it as much as he does.
● Clausal substitution: the substitution of a clause or part of a clause
Example: Is he upset? I don’t think so.

3. Ellipsis
Ellipsis refers to the omission of an unnecessary item.
Three types: nominal, verbal, and clausal.
● Nominal ellipsis: the omission of a noun
Example: My sisters are tall. Both (sisters) are over 6'0″.
● Verbal ellipsis: the omission of a verb
Example: Have you done the laundry yet? Yes, I have (done it).
● Clausal ellipsis: the omission of a clause or part of a clause
Example: Is he at school? Yes (he is at school)

4. Conjunction
“A conjunction is a word or group that
either links (paratactic) or binds
(hypotactic) the clause in which it
occurs structurally to another clause”
(Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014, p. 107)
p. 615
Figure and text from Halliday’s Introduction to Grammar (4th edition)
p. 108
4. Conjunction - Elaboration
(a) Apposition: an element is re-presented or restated by exposition
or by example
Example: They need to stop smoking. I mean, if they don’t, they’re
going to ruin their health.
(a) Clarification: an element is reinstated, summarized, made more
precise or in some other way clarified for purposes of the discourse.
Seven subtypes: corrective, distractive, dismissive, particularizing,
resumptive, summative, verifactive.
Example: A: What about skateboarding? That sounds fun.
– B: It’s not my thing. Anyway, um – I was thinking… [dismissive]

4. Conjunction - Extension
Extension entails addition or variation.
(a) Addition
- Positive
e.g. Cycling is a great form of cardio. Furthermore, it is pollution-free.
- Negative
e.g. Jake didn’t complete his task nor did he remember his manager’s
notes.
- Adversative
e.g. I’d like a job with more benefits, but on the other hand, I get to have
more autonomy here.

4. Conjunction - Extension
Extension entails addition or variation.
(a) Variation
- Replacive
e.g. Jo hasn’t started on her assignment yet. Instead, she has been
painting.
- Subtractive
e.g. The apartment should be close to the school, but, apart from that, an
empty room would suffice.
- Adversative
e.g. You’ll need a ticket to get in. Alternatively, a backstage pass is
accepted.
4. Conjunction - Enhancement
(a) Spatio-temporal
Examples:
On those grounds, the deal is off. [spatial - metaphorical space]
I cut my finger while trying to cook the meal. [temporal]
(b) Manner: cohesion is created by comparison or by reference to means
Examples:
The first book centered around the concept of minimalism. Similarly, the second
one dealt with minimalist lifestyles. [comparison]

(c) Causal-conditional:
- Cause expressions: result, reason, purpose
Example: Heavy snow is expected to hit the region soon. As a result, several
schools have undergone closure. [result]
- Conditionals: positive, negative, concessive
Example: He needs to rest. Otherwise, he’ll end up in the ICU. [negative]

(d) matter: positive or negative
Examples:
Without chlorine in the antarctic stratosphere, there would be no ozone hole. (Here
“hole” refers to a substantial reduction below the naturally occurring concentration of
ozone over Antarctica.) [positive]
The serial dilutions of the serum are made in AB serum and the standard cells are
suspended in 30 percent bovine albumin. In all other respects the method is identical
with technique No. 17. [negative]
Examples by Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014

2.2
Lexical cohesion
By Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Chi
a. Definition of lexical cohesion

b. Classification of lexical cohesion
c. Communicative Competence
a. Definition of lexical cohesion
● “Lexical cohesion happens when two words in a text are semantically related in
some way; in other words, they are related in terms of their meaning”
Nunan (1993: 28).
● “The role played by the selection of vocabulary in organizing relation within a text.”
Baker (2018).
● “Related vocabulary items occur across clause and sentence boundaries in written
texts and across act, move and turn boundaries in speech and are a major
characteristic of coherent discourse.”
Halliday and Hasan (1976)
Original classification
Lexical
cohesion
General
Repetition Synonymy Superordinate Collocation
word
New classification
Lexical
cohesion
Reiteration Collocation
Repetition Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy Meronymy

➢ Reiteration
❖ Repetition
Repetition is one kind of reiteration. Lexical items which are
already present in the previous sentences are repeated in the
following sentence in the text. Repetition is just the simple
repetition of a word, within a sentence or a poetical line, with no
particular placement of the words.
E.g: I have a cat. The cat is cute but naughty.
➢ Reiteration
❖ Synonymy
- Synonymy in semantics is the relation among synonyms.
Synonyms are words of the same part of speeches and with
similar or identical meanings. Words that are synonyms are
stated to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is
called synonymy.
- Synonymy consists of absolute synonyms and near-synonyms.
E.g: Do you think she is beautiful?
Yes, she is so attractive!
➢ Reiteration
❖ Antonymy
Antonymy is the name for “oppositeness relation” (Gao & Zheng
(2014)). Antonymy in semantics is the relation among antonyms.
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech that are opposite in
meanings. Many words, especially those denoting concrete objects
have no antonyms.
E.g: Many people are so happy. Meanwhile, I’m so sad.
➢ Reiteration
❖ Hyponymy
Hyponymy denotes a relation between a word referring to a general
class (superordinate) and a word (hyponym) referring to one of its
subtypes or sub-categories.
E.g: He can’t control his feelings. He can switch from being happy to really
angry all of a sudden.
➢ Reiteration
❖ Meronymy
Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relation between
lexical items. A meronym denotes a constituent part or an aspect of a
complete whole.
E.g: He is building his body. Right now, he is working on his legs.
➢ Collocation
“A pair of lexical items that are associated with each other in the language
in some way.”
Examples of collocations:
➔ break rules
➔ make mistakes
➔ pay a visit
E.g: powerful car & strong tea : suitable collocations.
strong car & powerful tea : inappropriate
➢ The term communicative competence refers to both the tacit
knowledge of a language and the ability to use it effectively. It's also
called communication competence, and it's the key to social
acceptance.
➢ In "Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second
Language Teaching and Testing" (Applied Linguistics, 1980), Michael
Canale and Merrill Swain identified these four components of
communicative competence.
By Bachman (1990)
Four components of communicative competence:
➔ Grammatical competence
➔ Sociolinguistic competence
➔ Discourse competence
➔ Strategic competence
➔ Communicative competence is the general ability to

communicate accurately and effectively in different contexts
using cohesion and coherence.
➔ Grammatical competence
● The knowledge of grammar, lexis, phonology, morphology,
syntax, and semantics.
● The ability to produce and recognize well-formed phrases and
sentences.
E.g: I speak gooder than you. => Ungrammatical
I speak better than you do. => Grammatical
➔ Sociolinguistic competence
● The social context is where there are some specific norms,

values, beliefs, and behavioral patterns of a culture.
● Ability to recognize the effect of context on strings of linguistic
events and to use language appropriately in specific social
situations.
● The social context affects what you say, when you say it, how you
say it, and the person you’re saying it to.
➔ Discourse competence
● The ability to connect sentences coherently.

● The two main aspects of discourse competence are cohesion &
coherence.
● Cohesion refers to using linking expressions, such as
conjunctions or adverbial phrases to connect ideas. A coherent
text is one that makes sense.
➔ Strategic competence
● It refers to the ability to overcome difficulties when

communication breakdowns occur.
● Breakdown is a failure of malfunction in the flow of
communication.
● Types of barriers -> physical barrier, mental barrier, and
linguistic barrier.
● Remedies -> comprehension checks, paraphrase, conversation
fillers.
3
Coherence
By Phạm Thị Linh Chi
COHERENCE
3.1 3.2
Definition The importance of
coherence
3.3 3.4
How to create ⇒ How to apply coherence
coherence in teaching writing
3.1 Definition of coherence
“Coherence refers to how clear and logical ideas are organized. A central idea
underlying in a paragraph helps the reader understands each sentence easier.”
Carrigan (2019). Cohesion & Coherence
“He perceives the coherence of a discourse as “the relationship between the
illocutionary acts which propositions, not always overtly linked, are being used to
perform.”
Widdowson (1978, p.29)
Coherence refers to the type of semantic or rhetorical relationships that
underline texts.
Coherence is the relationships which link the meanings of

utterances in a discourse or of the sentence in a text.
3.2
The importance of coherence
- Coherence plays a crucial part in writing quality. “Without coherence,
a text is not properly a text.”
Hatch (1992, p.32)
- “Coherence is a product of many different factors, which combine to
make every paragraph, every sentence, and every phrase contribute to the
meaning of the whole piece.
- Coherence itself is the product of two factors – paragraph unity and
sentence cohesion.”
Kies (1995)
Coherence ensures that the ‘bigger picture’ is clear.

Example of a text having cohesion but not having
coherence (in writing)
“I bought some hummus to eat with celery. Green vegetables

can boost your metabolism. The Australian Greens is a
political party. I couldn’t decide what to wear to the new
year’s party.”
Coherence can be achieved through devices such as cohesive

ties, formatting techniques, inference, logical ordering of
information, semantic patterning and consistency.
3.3. How to create coherence
in a paragraph
A. Use Repetition to Link ideas, sentences, and paragraphs

- help the reader remain focused and headed in the right
direction.
Sentence example:
Most students are intimidated by the works of William Shakespeare.
They believe Shakespeare’s sonnets and plays are far too
complicated to read and understand.
in a paragraph
B. Use Transitional Expressions to link ideas, sentences, and
paragraphs
- Serve as signals to know the previous idea, sentence, or paragraph
connected to what follows.
Example:
Many students believe they cannot write a good essay because they are not
writers. However, as they practice writing and work on developing their
writing skills, most students are able to gain the needed confidence to start
thinking of themselves as writers.
in a paragraph
C. Use Pronouns to link sentences
- Help create paragraphs that are easy to read by eliminating
wordiness and unnecessary repetition.
Example:
Mr. Thompson agreed to meet with members of the worker’s union
before he signed the contract. He was interested in hearing their
concerns about the new insurance plan.
in a paragraph
D. Use Synonyms to link ideas and create variety
Provide alternative word choices: add variety to an essay &
eliminate unnecessary repetition.
Example:
Teenagers face an enormous amount of peer pressure from friends
and schoolmates. As a result, many young adults are exhibiting signs
of severe stress or depression at an early age.
in a paragraph
E. Use Synonyms to link ideas and create variety
Important note
It is important to carefully choose the synonyms for substitution
in a paragraph
F. Use Parallel Structures to link ideas, sentences, and paragraphs
Parallel structures allow the reader to flow smoothly from one idea,
sentence, or paragraph to the next and to understand the relationships
and connections between ideas.
Example:
Usually, the children spend the summer weekends playing ball in the park,
swimming in the neighbor’s pool, eating ice cream under the tree, or
camping in the backyard.
At the museum, the class attended a lecture where the speaker
demonstrated how the Native Americans made bows and arrows. They
also attended a lecture where a sword smith demonstrated how the
Vikings crafted swords.
3.4. Practice in teaching Writing
Before writing, it’s necessary to guide students to:
- Identify the text functions

To suit different
Why ? reader’s knowledge
- Identify the target audience and purposes
to choose the suitable range topic related vocabulary

and increase the communicative purposes of the text
A. - Identify the text functions

- To pass on factual information to other people
- To persuade other people to do something
- To entertain ourselves or other people
- To express our membership in a particular group
- To express our individuality
- To express our moods and emotions
- To maintain good (or bad) relations with other people
- To construct mental representations of the world
B. Identify the target audience

1. What is your focus?
Design the document according to the needs of the target
audience,
2. Decide exactly what you want to do for your audience
3. Problems caused by not understanding your target audience
1. What is the text functions?
2. What is the target audience of the text?
3. Does the text have the coherence? How does it work?
On the other hand, there are many better ways of tackling this problem.
Interest in sport is not universal, and additional facilities might simply
attract the already fit, not those who most need them. Physical activity
could be encouraged relatively cheaply, for example by installing
exercise equipment in parks, as my local council has done. This has the
added benefit that parents and children often use them together just for
fun, which develops a positive attitude to exercise at an early age.
Cambridge IELTS 9 (2013, p.159)
1. What is the text functions?
2. What is the target audience of the text?
3. Does the text have the coherence? How does it work?
On the other hand, there are many better ways of tackling this
problem. Interest in sport is not universal, and additional facilities
might simply attract the already fit, not those who most need them.
Physical activity could be encouraged relatively cheaply, for example
by installing exercise equipment in parks, as my local council has done.
This has the added benefit that parents and children often use them
together just for fun, which develops a positive attitude to exercise at
an early age. Cambridge IELTS 9 (2013, p.159)
4
Background knowledge
By Đỗ Mai Chi
4.1. Definition
- In pragmatics, background knowledge is identified as
comprising assumptions necessary for the interpretation of a
text but unstated by it. (Giltrow, 1992)
- Background knowledge is information that is not in a text,
but is used from memory by a reader to understand the text.
(Yule, 1985)
4.1. Definition
- Prior knowledge that underpins our understanding of discourse &
virtually every aspect of our experience (Brown & Yule, 2012;
Richards & Schmidt, 2014)
Prior knowledge
World knowledge Past experiences

Background knowledge and Discourse
4.2. The process of using background knowledge
Enable top-down processing
Background knowledge and Discourse
Make predictions
o Relevant features of context
o What is likely to happen
o Topics likely to be raised
o Attitudes likely to be expressed
Shared knowledge to interpret the discourse

❖ Shared knowledge = Background knowledge that participants
have in common
❖ Extent of shared knowledge will influence effectiveness of
communicative interaction
❖ Misjudgment of shared knowledge may create minor or serious
miscommunication
Example: John was on his way to school

last Friday. He was really worried about
the math lesson.
→ Most readers may think that John is
probably a schoolboy (This piece of
information is not directly stated in the
text, it must be an inference.
→ Other inferences, for other readers,
think that John is walking or he is on a bus.
Example: Last week, he had been able to

control the class.
→ Most readers decide that John must
be a teacher and that he is not very
happy. Many may believe that he is
probably driving a car to school.
Example: It was unfair of the math

teacher to leave him in charge
→ John reverts to his schoolboy status,
and the inference that he is a teacher is
quickly abandoned.
→ The final sentence : After all, it is not a
normal part of a janitor’s duties.
The exercise provides us with some insight

into the way in which we “build”
interpretations of what we read by using
more information than is presented in the
words on the page. We actually create what
the text is about, based on our expectations
of what normally happens.
4.3. Pedagogical implications
- Consider learners’ acquisition of background

knowledge when designing courses/ planning
curriculum/lesson.
- Take learners’ background knowledge into account
when designing tests → increase tests’ reliability and
validity.
- Monitor degree of exophoric references in material
texts.
4.3. Pedagogical implications
Implications for teaching reading, writing & speaking
- Teaching reading: Research has revealed that background
knowledge plays a significant contributor to reading comprehension.
→ Activate learner’ prior knowledge
+ brainstorming & pre-reading discussion questions
+ pre-teaching vocabulary
- Teaching writing: Help learners develop strategies for a
“reader-based” approach & familiarize with genre types
- Teaching speaking: Help learners familiarize with sociocultural
conventions & interaction management
5
Schema
By Trịnh Thị Chinh
1. Definition 2. Schema theory
3. Schema’s characteristics 4. Influence on our thinking

and functions
5. Application
5.1 Definition
A schema is...
+ A cluster/a group of related pieces of information, knowledge or
memory that are stored in the mind.
+ Cognitive frameworks as they are a system for categorizing and
organizing information and memory.
*The plural of schema is ‘’schemata’’ or ‘’schemas’’.
The price of oil goes up and down
5.2 Schema theory
Schema theory is trying to explain how our minds organize information,
knowledge and memories.
5.2 Schema theory
‘’Schema theory is the theory that in comprehending language, people activate
relevant schemata allowing them to process and interpret new experiences
quickly and effectively.
Schemata serve as a reference store from which a person can retrieve relevant
existing knowledge and into which new information is assimilated.’’
Eg: Earthquake
- A person’s knowledge of the
structure of a particular genre, such
as news reports or journal articles.
-The rhetorical structure of
language
5.2 Schema theory
‘’I’m in my bathroom.’’ ‘’I’m in love.’’
5.3 Characteristics and Functions
● Characteristics
- Long - lasting
- Difficult to change (not impossible)
● Functions
- Comprehend new information - improve information processing and
comprehension.
- Help us make sense of the complex world of information
- Generalize about situations, people and places - help us save our cognitive
energy.
5.4 Influence on our thinking
● Tannen (1979: 138) uses the
description 'structures of
expectation' (adopted from Ross,
1975) to characterise the influence
of schemata on our thinking.
● Schemata/ schemas can be seen as
the organised background
knowledge which leads us to expect
or predict aspects in our
interpretation of discourse.
Ex: What do you expect when coming
to a restaurant?
5.4 Influence on our thinking
● Different cultural backgrounds can result in different schema for the description of
witnessed events.
● Confirmation bias: We tend to focus on, remember and believe the information that
is consistent with existing beliefs.
For example: thinking of racial prejudice, as the manifestation of some fixed way of thinking
about newly encountered individuals:
1. Blonde hair. (Stupid)

2. Black people (slaves .…)
5.5 Schema’s application
‘’Education and especially literacy (reading and writing skills)
researchers use many elements of schema theory in their
research. By understanding how existing knowledge can influence
comprehension of new information could help design better
reading programs and help kids develop better reading
comprehension skills.’’
Source: Ielts with Fiona
5.5 Schema’s application
● Discussing the reading topic to build general background
knowledge of the task
● Using visuals: activate the students' relevant schemata
necessary for the comprehension of the text
● Asking questions : Set up to use prior knowledge by asking
questions
Source: Explore Our World 3
6
Script
By Vũ Thị Kim Cúc
Examples
Example: Script about “going to the cinema”
1. Go to the cinema
2. Stand in line
3. Read the list of film at the cinema
4. Choose the film and order the ticket
5. Order snacks and drink
6. Pay the bill
7. Watch the film
Examples
Example: Script about “going to the cinema”
1. Go to the cinema → A script is a way of
recognizing some
2. Stand in line expected sequence of
3. Read the list of film at the cinema action in an event.
Because most of the
4. Choose the film and order the ticket details of scripts are
assumed to be known,
5. Order snacks and drink
they are unlikely to be
6. Pay the bill stated.
7. Watch the film
6.1 Definition
a. Script theory
● Script theory is a psychological theory which posits that human
behaviour largely falls into patterns called "scripts".
● In script theory, the basic unit of analysis is called a "scene", defined
as a sequence of events linked by the effects triggered during the
experience of those events.
(Tomkins, Silvan - 1987)
6.1 Definition
b. Script
● A script is a pre- existing knowledge structure involving event

sequences.
George (1996)
● By scripts, we mean “a dynamic background knowledge structure
stored in memory involving event sequences”.
(Yule 1996: 86)
6.2 Comparison
Schema Script
- A conventional knowledge - A dynamic schema
structure that exists in
memory Eg: going to the dentist, eating at
Eg: the supermarket experience a restaurant
- A set of typical fixed feature - A series of conventional
actions that take place
- A static representation of - A narrative representation of
knowledge knowledge
6.3 Examples
Example 1:
Context: You are reading a story.
The tortoise plodding on overtook him and soon finished the
race, emerging as the undisputed champ. The rabbit woke up and
realized that he'd lost the race.”
6.3 Examples
Example 2:
Script: Cough syrup medicine
Fill the measure cup to line and repeat every 2 to 3 hours.
6.3 Examples
Example 3:
Context: You are listening to reports from the Sea Games 2022
Yonhap said the Games remained quite balanced with the two teams playing
out a 0-0 draw in the first half. Nham Manh Dung headed the ball into
Thailand’s net in the 83rd minute to open the score. The goal into the far left
corner sent the home crowd wild and Vietnam held on to its narrow lead until
the end of the match.
6.4 Notes
● The script may vary from one place to the other.
● Assumptions of shared knowledge can lead to
misunderstanding.
● Clarification is needed if one violates the normal script.
6.5 Script in teaching
● Scripted teaching or scripted instruction refers to commercial
reading programs that have highly structured lessons, often with
specific time allotments for teaching specific skills, and often
word-for-word scripts of what the teacher is to say.
● Teaching scripts are a valuable tool to "seize the teaching moment"

through delivery of learner-centered, organized, timely, and
effective teaching during rounds.
6.5 Script in teaching
● Write down goals for teaching the lesson.
● Write on a new piece of paper.
● Divide the lesson into three sections.
● Write the script for the first section.
● Practice writing
6.5 Script in teaching- Examples
6.5 Script in teaching- Examples
Script of a WRITING lesson:
● Warm up
● Teachers introduce topic
● Teachers provide vocabulary and
expressions
● Analyze sample writing
● Guide ss to make an outline of
writing
● Students practice writing
● Teachers provide feedbacks,
students- students feedback
7
Discourse & Vocabulary
By Lê Thị Kim Cúc
a. Using discourse analysis in vocabulary teaching
b. Lexical cohesion
c. Vocabulary for larger textual patterns of discourse
d. Register and signaling vocabulary
e. Modality
- “The efficient reader activates the necessary frameworks to assist in
decoding the text being read.” (McCarthy, 1991)
- “One of the skills of efficient readers of English is the ability to recognise
typical patterns of organization in the texts.” (McCarthy and Carter,
1994).
Implications for teaching: Students are able to ….
● predict how a text will develop and understand the context more
precisely (decode the text) => Know how to use vocabulary
correctly and effectively
● gain awareness of broader and more nuanced uses of language

b. Lexical cohesion
- Related vocabulary items across a text, with influence on the meaning of the text
and affecting the coherency of the text (McCarthy, 1991)
- Lexical cohesive devices (repetition, synonyms, super-ordinates, general words)
create semantic relations between words in texts bringing about coherence of
the whole discourse.

There was a fine old rocking-chair that his father used to sit in, a desk where he wrote
letters, a nest of tables and a dark, imposing bookcase. Now all this furniture/ items/
objects/ things were/was to be sold, and with it his own past. (reiteration by a
superordinate)
b. Lexical cohesion
Implications for teaching: Students are able to ….
● Make careful choices whether to repeat, or find a synonym, or a
superordinate when writing/ speaking
● Group lexical items together when learning vocabulary. => enhance
both the fluency and efficiency of the language production.
● Find lexical relations in text => improve skimming speed &
comprehension.
- Certain lexical items are frequently used in specific patterns of discourse like
those used to state problem, cause, solution, agreement / disagreement,
certainty / uncertainty….
- There have been checklists of these items compiled by linguists
Problem concern, difficulty, dilemma, drawback, hamper, hind(er/ance),

obstacle, problem, snag
Response change, combat (vb), come up with, develop, find, measure(s),

respon(d/se)
Solution / Result answer, consequence, effect, outcome, result, solution, (re)solve

- Certain lexical items are frequently used in specific patterns of discourse like those used
to state problem, cause, solution, agreement / disagreement, certainty / uncertainty….
Headline: TV Violence: No Simple Solution
Opening sentence: There is no doubt that one of the major concerns of both viewers and
broadcasters is the amount and nature of violence on our television screens.
(main text)
Closing sentence: The chief 'lesson' of all our viewing, reading and discussion is that there
is no simple solution to the problem of violence on television.
(The Observer, 16 November 1986: 42)

Implications for teaching: Students are able to have ….
● An awareness of the wide vocabulary
● Vocabulary records items that regularly occur in similar context.
● Such lists which can be added frequently to build up a rich, textually-based
vocabulary
● Another alternative to the random vocabulary list and the decontextualized,
semantically motivated list.

- Register: a SPEECH VARIETY used by a particular group of people, usually
sharing the same occupation (e.g. doctors, lawyers) or the same interests (e.g.
stamp collectors, baseball fans)
- Lexical choices depend a lot on the subject matter (formal, informal, scientific,
literary…), context (book, magazine, internet forum…), intended audience (age,
sex, demographic, level of education) or how the content is to be delivered
(written vs oral)
It is with great pleasure that I read about I am very glad to hear that you were
your promotion to the Accounting promoted to the Accounting Manager
Manager position. Congratulations on Congrats!
this well-deserved promotion!
Implications for teaching:
● In most cases , precision and variation in register can only be produced by

high level users.
● For students, being aware of learning to produce language in a particular
register can lead to more productive study periods than if they study a
broader range and variety of language.
e. Modality
- Lexical items that convey the intention, purpose and attitude of the sender of the
utterance.
- Divided into root modality (volition, permission, obligation) and epistemic modality
(degree of certainty and possibility)
Root Epistemic
She must swim only when a lifeguard is on Her goggles are not here, so she must be
duty swimming.
(It’s imperative that she swim only when a (Her goggles are not here, so she is certainly
lifeguard is on duty) swimming.)
e. Modality
- Modality is often thought of as the province of the closed class of
modal verbs. (must, can, will, may, etc.) and treated as part of the
grammar of English, but a large number of 'lexical' words (nouns,
adjectives, verbs and adverbs) carry the same or similar meanings to
the modal verbs.
● If you have not signed a contract, you ought not to pay them any money.
● If you have not signed a contract, you are under no obligation to pay them any
money.
● If you have not signed a contract, it is not necessary to pay them any money.
e. Modality
Implications for teaching:
● Learners will need to be alerted to the various ways in which different

shades of meaning can be construed
● Understanding how to use lexical markers of modality will add significant
variety to the learner’s utterances, seeing as there is a very limited number
of modal verbs but a much wider variety of open lexical items that convey
the same level of meaning.
8
Quiz
By Phạm Tâm Đan
Q1. Can you tell the difference
between coherence and cohesion?
Q2. What are the cohesive devices
used in this text?
My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving
every penny he could. That car would be worth a fortune
nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay for my college
education. Sometimes, I think I’d rather have the convertible.
Q3. What is the problem with this text?
My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. The car driven by the

police was red. The color doesn’t suit her. She consists of three
letters. However, a letter isn’t as fast as a telephone call.
Q4. What is the problem with this
conversation?
A: Telephone!
B: I’m in the bath.
A: Okay!
Q5. What is the role of lexical
competence in communicative
competence?
Q6. What can you infer from these
two sentences?
We got some beer out of the truck. The beer was warm.
Q7. Point out content
schemata and formal
schemata of an academic
journal article?
Q8. Read the text. Is this a
demonstration of schema or script?
Why?
I stopped to get some groceries, but there weren’t any baskets left
so by the time I arrived at the checkout counter, I must have looked
like a juggler having a bad day.
Q9. Why did we mention schema and
script in our presentation?
References
1. Halliday, M., & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
2. Halliday, M.A.K. & Matthiessen, C. (2014). Halliday's Introduction to Functional Grammar (4th ed.).
Routledge.
3. Hoey.M (2000).Textual interaction, Chapter 7, Schemata and scripts (p.119)
4. Nunan, David. 1993. Discourse Studies: An Introductory Text-book
5. Michael Hoey, Textual interaction, Chapter 7, Schemata and scripts (p.119)
6. McCarthy, M. (1991). Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press
7. McCarthy, M. and R. A. Carter (1994). Language as Discourse: Perspectives for Language
Teaching. London, Longman.
8. Unubi, A. (2019). Conjunctions in English: Meaning, Types and Uses.
9. Tomkins, Silvan. "Script Theory". The Emergence of Personality. Eds. Joel Arnoff, A. I. Rabin, and
Robert A. Zucker. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 1987. 147–216.

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Discourse,

21045218 Nguyễn Hải Âu

21045220 Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Chi

21045221 Phạm Thị Linh Chi

21045222 Đỗ Mai Chi

21045226 Lê Thị Thu Cúc

21045228 Phạm Tâm Đan

21045303 Đồng Thị Thơm

Phạm Thị Linh Chi Đỗ Mai Chi

Phạm Tâm Đan Đồng Thị Thơm

3 Coherence 4 Background knowledge

7 Discourse & Language 8 Quiz

& Thành Hữu Hà Anh

3 Coherence & Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Chi

By Phạm Thị Linh Chi 4 Background knowledge

7 Discourse & Language 8 Quiz

What are the similarities and differences of

Coherence & Cohesion

Coherence & Cohesion

The grammatical and lexical The semantic relation between

Coherence & Cohesion

It is indicated by 2 kinds of device: It is indicated by elements such as

Coherence & Cohesion

Cohesion depends on the internal Coherence depends on the shared

Coherence & Cohesion

The most important part of an essay is the thesis statement.

Coherence & Cohesion

- Repetition: an essay/ the essay; thesis statement

Coherence & Cohesion

The most important part of an essay is the thesis

Coherence & Cohesion

=> A coherent paragraph.

Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014

Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014

Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014

It can be used refer backwards or forwards. Backward substitution is more

Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014

Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014

Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014

Figure and text from Halliday’s Introduction to Grammar (4th edition)

Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014

Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014

Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014

Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014

Examples by Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014

a. Definition of lexical cohesion

Repetition Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy Meronymy

➔ Communicative competence is the general ability to

● The social context is where there are some speciﬁc norms,

● The ability to connect sentences coherently.

● It refers to the ability to overcome difﬁculties when

Coherence is the relationships which link the meanings of

Coherence ensures that the ‘bigger picture’ is clear.

“I bought some hummus to eat with celery. Green vegetables

Coherence can be achieved through devices such as cohesive

A. Use Repetition to Link ideas, sentences, and paragraphs

Before writing, it’s necessary to guide students to:

- Identify the text functions

to choose the suitable range topic related vocabulary

A. - Identify the text functions

B. Identify the target audience

World knowledge Past experiences