Farm and

Agriculture
Engineering
 Flow of content

▪ Farm machinery
▪ Types of Power
▪ Storarge of agri produce
▪ Controlled and modified storage
 Q.
Agricultural engineering

▪ Application of engineering in agriculture

▪ Farm power is used for operating different types of machinery like tillage, planting, plant
protection, harvesting and threshing machinery, and other stationary jobs like operating
irrigation equipment, threshers/ sellers/ cleaners/ graders, etc.
▪ Two types of farm power:
o Tractive work/Mobile Power such as seed bed preparation, cultivation, harvesting and
transportation etc.,
o Stationary work/Stationary Power like silage cutting, feed grinding, threshing, winnowing
and lifting of irrigation water - This kind of power can be provided by either the Stationary
engines or the electric motors. Stationary oil engines can be used for pumping water, flour
mill, cotton gins, sugarcane crusher, Thresher, Winnower etc.
 Q.
Human Power
A strong man can develop
maximum power of about 75
watts (0.1 hp) for doing farm
work.
The average human power
availability in sustained working
is as follows:
Male: 60 watts (0.06 kW)
Female: 48 watts (0.048 kW)
Children: 30 watts (0.030 kW)
Sources of farm power
Sources of farm power (Mobile)
Mechanical power
Mechanical work is done with
the help of engines in the
machinery.
Animal Power
In modern days, almost all the
The average force a draft animal tractors and power tillers are
can exert is nearly one-tenth of operated by diesel engines.
its body weight. Diesel engines are used for
operating irrigation pumps, flour
mills, oil ghanis, cotton gins,
chaff cutter, sugarcane crusher,
threshers, winnowers etc.
Q.
Classification of draught animals

The power available from draught animals is related to its body weight

▪ Buffaloes: About 12% of the body weight

▪ Bullocks: About 10% of the body weight
▪ Camels: About 18% of the body weight
▪ Donkeys: About 32% of the body weight

The classification of draught animals based on the body weight is as follows

▪ Heavy – Above 500 kg

▪ Large – 401 to 500 kg
▪ Medium – 301 to 400 kg
▪ Small – 200 to 300 kg
 Heat Engines

Heat engine is a machine for converting heat, developed by burning fuel into useful work. It can be said that heat engine is equipment
which generates thermal energy and transforms it into mechanical energy.

Classification of heat engines

1. Based on combustion of fuel - External combustion engine and Internal combustion engine.
External combustion engine
Here, the working medium, the steam, is generated in a boiler, located out side the engine and allowed in to the cylinder to operate the
piston to do mechanical work.
Internal combustion engine
In internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder and heat is generated within the cylinder. This
heat is added to the air inside the cylinder and thus the pressure of the air is increased tremendously. This high pressure air moves the
piston which rotates the crank shaft* and thus mechanical work is done
 Classification of heat engines

1. Based on combustion of fuel - External combustion engine and Internal combustion engine.
External combustion engine
Here, the working medium, the steam, is generated in a boiler, located out side the engine and allowed in to the cylinder to operate the
piston to do mechanical work.
Internal combustion engine
In internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder and heat is generated within the cylinder. This
heat is added to the air inside the cylinder and thus the pressure of the air is increased tremendously. This high pressure air moves the
piston which rotates the crank shaft* and thus mechanical work is done

*The crankshaft is an engine component that converts the linear (reciprocating) motion of the piston into rotary motion. The
crankshaft is the main rotating component of an engine and is commonly made of ductile iron.
2. Based on fuel used - Diesel engine, Petrol engine and Gas engine
▪ Diesel engine – Diesel is used as fuel
▪ Petrol engine – Petrol is used as fuel
▪ Gas engines – propane, butane or methane gases are used
3. Based ignition of fuel - Spark ignition engine (Carburetor type engines) and Compression ignition engine ( injector type engines)
▪ Spark ignition engine – a mixture of air and fuel is drawn in to the engine cylinder. Ignition of fuel is done by using a spark plug. The
spark plug produces a spark and ignites the air- fuel mixture. Such combustion is called constant volume combustion (C.V.C.).
▪ Compression ignition engine – In compression ignition engines air is compressed in to the engine cylinder,. Due to this the
temperature of the compressed air rises to 700-900 C. At this stage diesel is sprayed in to the cylinder in fine particles. Due to a very
high temperature, the fuel gets ignited. This type of combustion is called constant pressure combustion (CP.C.) because the pressure
inside the cylinder is almost constant when combustion is taking place.
4. Based on working cycle
▪ Four stroke cycle engine - When the cycle is completed in two revolutions of the crankshaft, it is called four stroke cycle engine.
▪ Two stroke cycle engine. - When the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft, it is called two stroke cycle engine
4 Stroke engines (DIESEL/ PETROL ENGINE)
 4 Stroke engines (DIESEL/ PETROL ENGINE)
▪ In four stroke cycle engines the four events namely suction, compression, power and exhaust take place inside the engine cylinder. The
four events are completed in four strokes of the piston (two revolutions of the crank shaft).
▪ This engine has got valves for controlling the inlet of charge and outlet of exhaust gases. The opening and closing of the valve is
controlled by cams, fitted on camshaft. The camshaft is driven by crankshaft with the help of suitable gears or chains.
▪ The camshaft runs at half the speed of the crankshaft. The events taking place in I.C. engine are as follows: 1. Suction stroke 2.
Compression stroke 3. Power stroke 4. Exhaust stroke
▪ Suction stroke - During suction stroke inlet valve opens and the piston moves downward. Only air or a mixture of air and fuel are
drawn inside the cylinder. The exhaust valve remains in closed position during this stroke. The pressure in the engine cylinder is less
than atmospheric pressure during this stroke.
▪ Compression stroke - During this stroke the piston moves upward. Both valves are in closed position. The charge taken in the cylinder
is compressed by the upward movement of piston. If only air is compressed, as in case of diesel engine, diesel is injected at the end of
the compression stroke and ignition of fuel takes place due to high pressure and temperature of the compressed air. If a mixture of air
and fuel is compressed in the cylinder, as in case of petrol engine, the mixture is ignited by a spark plug.
 4 Stroke engines (DIESEL/ PETROL ENGINE)
▪ Power stroke - After ignition of fuel, tremendous amount of heat is generated, causing very high pressure in the cylinder which
pushes the piston downward . The downward movement of the piston at this instant is called power stroke. The connecting rod
transmits the power from piston to the crank shaft and crank shaft rotates. Mechanical work can be taped at the rotating crank
shaft. Both valves remain closed during power stroke.
▪ Exhaust stroke - During this stroke piston moves upward. Exhaust valve opens and exhaust gases go out through exhaust valves
opening. All the burnt gases go out of the engine and the cylinder becomes ready to receive the fresh charge. During this stroke
inlet valve remains closed. Thus it is found that out of four strokes, there is only one power stroke and three idle strokes in four
stroke cycle engine. The power stroke supplies necessary momentum for useful work.
 2 Stroke engines (PETROL ENGINE)

▪ In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events i.e., suction, compression, power and exhaust are
completed in two strokes of the piston i.e. one revolution of the crankshaft. There is no valve in this type of engine.
Gas movement takes place through holes called ports in the cylinder. The crankcase of the engine is air tight in which
the crankshaft rotates.
Upward stroke of the piston (Suction/Induction + Compression)
▪ When the piston moves upward it covers two of the ports, the exhaust port and transfer port, which are normally
almost opposite to each other. This traps the charge of air- fuel mixture drawn already in to the cylinder. Further
upward movement of the piston compresses the charge and also uncovers the suction port. Now fresh mixture is
drawn through this port into the crankcase. Just before the end of this stroke, the mixture in the cylinder is ignited
by a spark plug (Fig 2 c &d). Thus, during this stroke both suction and compression events are completed.
 2 Stroke engines (PETROL ENGINE)

Downward stroke (Power/Ignition + Exhaust)

▪ Burning of the fuel rises the temperature and pressure of the gases which forces the piston to move down the
cylinder. When the piston moves down, it closes the suction port, trapping the fresh charge drawn into the
crankcase during the previous upward stroke. Further downward movement of the piston uncovers first the
exhaust port and then the transfer port. Now fresh charge in the crankcase moves in to the cylinder through the
transfer port driving out the burnt gases through the exhaust port. Special shaped piston crown deflect the
incoming mixture up around the cylinder so that it can help in driving out the exhaust gases . During the
downward stroke of the piston power and exhaust events are completed.
2 Stroke engines (PETROL ENGINE)
 Important Terminology

▪ Thermal efficiency of diesel engine varies from 32 to 38 percent, whereas that of petrol engine varies form 25 to 32 percent.
The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is the percentage of heat energy that is transformed into work. The efficiency of even
the best heat engines is low; usually below 50% and often far below.
▪ Horsepower (HP) - It is the rate of doing work. It is usually expressed in horsepower. Mathematically speaking, horsepower is
the force needed to move 550 pounds one foot in a second, or 33,000 pounds one foot in a minute.
▪ Conversion factors from work to power - 4500 kg m of work /minute = 1.0 hp ; 75 kg m of work /second = 1.0 hp. ; Roughly,
1.0 hp = 746 watts
▪ Indicated horse power (IHP) - It is the power generated in the engine cylinder and received by the piston. It is the power
developed in a cylinder without accounting frictional losses. OR It the power developed in the cylinders of an engine as
calculated from the average pressure of the working fluid, the piston area, the stroke, and the number of working strokes per
minute (without taking into account any friction loss, heat loss or entropy within the system).
 Important Terminology

▪ Brake horse power (BHP) - It is the power delivered by the engine at the end of the crankshaft. It is measured by a
dynamometer. A dynamometer, also known as a "dyno", is a device that measures force, torque or power. So, IHP
denotes the actual power generated inside the cylinder after the combustion of fuel and BHP is the power to the
crankshaft for the transmission to the vehicle. The difference between both is the power wasted due to heat and friction.
Indicated horse power less frictional horse power is Brake horse power. IHP = BHP + FHP
▪ Frictional horse power (FHP) - It is the power required to run the engine at a given speed without producing any useful
work. It represents the friction and pumping losses of an engine. Engine loses some of its power while overcoming its
own friction. This friction is known as the Frictional Horse Power.
▪ Power take-off horse power (PTO HP) - The PTO horsepower is the amount of horsepower available for running
implements with the tractor, like for example a bush hog. Most of the tractors have a Power Take Off Shaft, which is
what connects to the implements to power them. Because the shaft draws power from the engine, the PTO horsepower
indicates how much power is available to run various implements. The PTO hp is around 80-85% of tractor engine power
(PTO-Power take off).
Q.
Crop production steps

Land/Soil Preparation

Sowing of Seeds

Irrigation practices

Fertilization - Plant growth measures

Plant protection measures – Controlling Pests/Insects/Weeds

Harvesting Crops

Post Harvest operations - Storage and Preserving the produce

 Land levelling

▪ Land levelling is a measure used in surface irrigation,

such as basin and furrow irrigation. It consists of:

▪ Preparing the irrigation plot in a way that no high

and/or low spots disturb the uniform distribution of
irrigation water on the field, and
▪ Ensuring the optimal slope for water movement
across a field when irrigated.
▪ The characteristics of a good seedbed are: uniformly firm soil to depth of 5 inches (12.7
centimeters), adequate soil moisture, and weed free.
▪ Each of these characteristics help the seed to have the best chance to germinate and flourish.
▪ A seedbed that is weed free allows the desired crop to grow without the fierce competition for
nutrients, space, and sunlight. Adequate soil moisture triggers the enzymatic changes needed to
grow.
▪ The seedbed needs to be firm because that indicates that moisture down in the soil can be
brought up for seed germination.
 Land levelling

Soil Scoop - Soil scoops are used for excavating ditches, clearing
drains and doing cut and fill jobs in land leveling. The angle of the
cutting blade varies from 12° to 15° angle.

▪ Buck Scraper - Animal drawn buck scraper is used for land

grading and leveling fields of smaller and medium sizes. Buck
scraper is a simple implement for land grading. The operator can
control the depth of cut depends upon the load on scraper.
▪ The operator stands on the scraper board to allow deeper cut.
Some time it is used to move the soil.
▪ The parts of the buck scrapers are the front board, the tail board,
joints, handle and hitch.
 Land levelling – Levelling board

▪ A ratio of 40kg weight/meter width of leveling board

gives the best results.

▪ It is a wooden board of length 2.0m, width 0.4m and

thickness 0.3m provided with side wings, hitching braces
and handle.
 Leveler - tractor, power tiller and bullock drawn types are
available. Heavy duty machinery. Meant for initial cutting and
filling of land undulations

Precision land leveler- to provide desired grade either level or

gently sloping. 8, 10, 12 13, 15- and 15-feet width of cut, 8 to 18
yards. Tractor HP 120 meant for farm use. Laser leveling systems
are commonly used in agricultural applications in Australia,
Japan and the United States.
Using laser leveling results in a much more level field because
accuracy can be improved by as much as 50% compared with the
other systems.
A laser transmitter transmits a laser beam, which is intercepted
by the laser receiver mounted on the leveling bucket.
The control panel mounted on the tractor interprets the signal
from the receiver and raises or lowers the bucket. This way the
soil gets shifted to the right places to make the entire field
level.

Leveler with ripper attachment - rippers loosen the soil prior to

moving the soil.

Scrapers - tractor drawn animal drawn types available for

smooth leveling. Used after Initial leveling is completed using
 Scrapers - tractor drawn animal drawn types available for
smooth leveling. Used after Initial leveling is completed using
a leveler. It is also used to fill the pits by bringing soil/sand
from another place. The scraper too is attached behind to any
tractor. When the bucket of scraper is filled with soil/sand pull
the chain by to empty the bucket. The rear part has a vertically
moveable hopper (also known as the bowl) with a sharp
horizontal front edge. The hopper can be hydraulically lowered
and raised.
Scrap plane -It is a type of scraper which is used to create table
top finish

Drag scrapers - It is also a type of scraper where it gives a

precision finish and final touch up. Suitable for small areas
Weight boxes are used to add weight to increase depth of cut.

Box scraper - Box scrapers are used to smooth and level the
ground. Rear Wheel makes the unit a mini land-plane. Skid
shoes control depth of cut. Hitching adjustment for more or less
cutting force to suit job.
 Primary Tillage Implements

Types of Primary Tillage implements

Animal drawn implements
Ex: Indigenous ploughs and Mould-board ploughs.

Tractor drawn implements

Ex: Mould-board ploughs, disc ploughs, subsoil ploughs, chisel ploughs
and other similar implements.
 Indigenous Plough

▪ Animal drawn plough. Penetrates into the soil and breaks it open.
▪ Forms V shaped furrows with 15-20 cm top width and 12-15 cm depth. It can
be used for ploughing in dry land, garden land and wetlands.
▪ Field capacity is around 0.4 ha per day of 8 hours.
▪ The functional components include share, body, shoe, handle and beam.
Except share all other parts are made up of wood.
▪ Also called as country ploughs.
▪ Lowering or raising the free end of the beam with respect to the plough body
results in an increase or decrease in the share angle with respect to the
horizontal surface which in turn increase or decrease the depth of ploughing.
▪ Changing the length of the beam between plough body and yoke of the
animals will also alter the depth of ploughing. Reducing the beam length will
decrease the depth of cut and vice versa.
No. of bottoms two-Four
Capacity (ha/day) 1.5-2.0 Mouldboard plough

▪ One of the oldest of all agricultural implements and is generally considered

to be the important tillage implement.
▪ They are available for animals, power tiller and tractor operation.
▪ While working, it does four jobs namely - cutting the furrow slice - lifting
the furrow slice - inverting the furrow slice - pulverizing the furrow slice.
▪ Mouldboard is the curved part which lifts and turns the furrow slice.
▪ Land side is the flat plate which bears against and transmits the rear side
lateral thrust of the plough bottom to the furrow wall.
▪ Frog is the part to which other components of the plough bottom are
attached.
▪ Tail piece is an adjustable extension, which can be fastened to the rear of a
mould board to help in turning a furrow slice.
 Types of MB Plough

Mouldboard having medium curvature lying between stubble and sod types. The mouldboard is fairly
General purpose MB Plough long with a gradual twist, the surface being slightly convex. The sloping of the surface is gradual. It turns a
well defined furrow slice and pulverizes the soil thoroughly.

It is short but broader mouldboard with a relatively abrupt curvature which lifts, breaks and turns the
furrow slice. This is best suited to work in stubble soil that is under cultivation for years together. Stubble
Stubble type MB Plough
soil is that soil in which stubble of the plants from the previous crop is still left on the land at the time of
ploughing. This type of mouldboard is not suitable for lands with full of grasses.

It is a long mould board with gentle curvature which lifts and inverts the unbroken furrow slice. It turns
Sod or Breaker type MB over thickly covered soil. This is very useful where complete inversion of soil is required by the farmer.
Plough This type has been designed for used in sod soils (soil with much of grass).

It is a mouldboard whose surface is made of slats placed along the length of the mouldboard, so that
Slat type MB Plough there are gaps between the slats. This type of mouldboard is often used, where the soil is sticky, because
the solid mouldboard does not scour well in sticky soils.
Types of MB Plough
 Disc plough

▪ It cuts, turns and in some cases breaks furrow slices by means of separately
mounted large steel discs.
▪ It is designed with a view to reduce friction by making a rolling plough bottom
instead of sliding plough bottom.
▪ It is specially used where M.B. Plough is not useful such as hard and dry soil.
▪ Model disc plough is designed to operate as 2, 3 or 4 bottoms, by adding or
removing sub beams the sub beam assemblies according to requirement.
▪ Two types - Standard Disc plough (Regular) and Vertical Disc plough (VDP)
▪ VDP is a plough which combines the principle of the regular disc plough and
the disc harrow (one of the secondary tillage implement) and is used for
shallow working in the soil. Also called Harrow plough or One way disc plough.
The size of the disc varies from 50 to 65cm and the disc angle varies from 40◦ to
45◦.
 Parts of Disc plough

▪ Disc is a circular, concave revolving steel plate used for cutting and inverting the soil.
▪ Disc angle is the angle at which the plane of the cutting edge of the disc is inclined to the direction of travel.
Usually the disc angle of good plough varies between 42 to 45◦.
▪ Tilt angle is the angle at which the plane of the cutting edge of the disc is inclined to a vertical line. The tilt angle
varies from 15◦ to 25◦ for a good plough.
▪ Scraper is device to remove the soil that tend to stick to the working surface of disc.
 Comparison Standard Disc Plough Vertical Disc Plough
Mounting of disc Individual axis Common axis
Number of discs 1-6 5-24
Sizes of discs 60-75 cm 40-60 cm
Spacing 18-30 cm 18-22 cm
Concavity More Less
Depth of cut 30-40 cm 8-10 cm
Angle to direction of travel 42-45 degree 35-60 degree
Tilt angle 15-25 degree 0 degree
Weight/disc 200-600 kg 50-100 kg
Draft requirement High Low
 Ridge plough

▪ Ridge plough has two mould boards, one for turning the soil to the right and another to the left. The share is common for both the
mould boards i.e. double winged. These mould boards are mounted on a common body.
▪ It is used to split the field into ridges and furrows and for earthing up of crops.
▪ Ridge ploughs are used to make broad bed and furrows by attaching two ridge ploughs on a frame at 150cm spacing between
them.
 Two way or Reversible plough

▪ It is a mouldboard plough which turns furrow slice to the right or left

side of direction of travel as required.
▪ Such ploughs have two sets of opposed bottoms.
▪ In such a plough, all furrows can be turned towards the same side of the
field by using one bottom for one direction of travel and the other bottom
on the return trip.
▪ Two sets of bottom are so mounted that they can be raised or lowered
independently or rotated along an axis.
▪ Two way ploughs have the advantage that they neither upset the slope of
the land nor leave dead furrows or back furrows in the middle of the field.
▪ Also, this adjustment saves the trouble of turning the plough in hilly
tracts, but yet facilitates inversion of the furrow slice to one side only.
 Chisel Plough

▪ It is primary tillage deep plough, working up to 20" (60-70 cm) to

ensure development of crop root system at proper depth and
environment.
▪ It is an ideal implement where top soil is fertile but subsoil is not
productive
▪ It is used to cut through hard soils by means of a number of narrow
tynes.
▪ It is used before using the regular plough.
▪ It is useful for breaking hard layers of soil just below the regular
ploughing depth. This layer of soil which is called Hard Pan or Plough
sole is very tough and hard.
 Subsoiler

▪ It is a plough designed to penetrate the soil to depths more than

those achieved during normal ploughing operation.
▪ The plough depth maybe 40 cm or more up to 100 cm.
▪ It helps in breaking up of hard pan helping to drain heavy soil,
simulating deep rooted growth to help crops withstand in
drought conditions and aeration of soil.
 Rotary plough

▪ It is a plough used to cut and pulverize soil by impact forces by means of a number of rotary tynes or
knives which are mounted on a horizontal rotor and suitable for shallow cultivation and weed control.
▪ It is also known as Rotary tiller.
Types of blades used in rotary tillers.

'L' type blade - Works well in trashy conditions. More effective

in cutting weeds and but do not pulverize the soil much.

Twisted blade - Suitable for deep tillage in relatively clean

grounds but clogging and wrapping of trashes on the tynes and
shafts needs frequent cleaning.

Straight blade - Employed on mulchers designed mainly for

secondary tillage.
 Harrow

▪ Harrow is used for harrowing, which is a secondary tillage operation, which pulverizes, smoothens and
packs the soil in seed bed preparation and to control weeds.
▪ cuts the soil to a shallow depth for smoothening and pulverizing the soil as well as to cut the weeds and
to mix materials with soil. Used to break the clods after ploughing, to collect trash from the ploughed
land and to level the seed bed.
o Disc harrow
o Spring tooth harrow
o Spike tooth harrow
o Blade harrow (Bakhar)
o Guntaka
o Triangular harrow
o Bodela ; Zig-zag harrow
o Bindha ; Other harrows
 Disc harrow

▪ It is a harrow, which performs the harrowing operation by means of a set of rotating discs, each set being mounted on a
common shaft.
▪ Disc harrow is found very suitable for hard ground with full of stalks and grasses.
▪ It cuts the lumps of soil, clods and roots.
Single action Disc harrow
 Double action Disc harrow
▪ A set of one or two gangs follow behind the set of the other one or two, arranged in such a way that the front and back gangs
throw the soil in opposite directions.
▪ Thus the entire field is worked twice in each strip.

Tandem Double action Disc harrow Off set Double action Disc harrow
 Spike toothed harrow

▪ Spike tooth harrow has teeth resembling long spikes that stir the soil.
▪ These harrows are also known as peg tooth harrow, drag harrow, section
harrow, or smoothing harrow.
▪ Its principal use is to smoothen and level the soil directly after ploughing.
▪ It will stir the soil to a depth of about 5 cm, if weighted.

Types of Spike tooth harrows

▪ Rigid Type - The animal drawn spike tooth harrow are usually of rigid type.
There may or may not be provision for changing the angles of spikes in
operating conditions.

▪ Flexible type - Tractor drawn implements are usually of flexible type. It has
got advantage of being rolled up for transporting purpose.
 Spring toothed harrow

▪ Spring tooth harrows are made in sections somewhat like spike tooth
harrows.
▪ The sections vary in width from 0.9 to 1.7m.
▪ Spring tooth harrows are adapted for use in rough and stony ground.
▪ They are also used extensively to loosen previously ploughed soil
ahead of grain drill seeding rice or small grains.
▪ The teeth will penetrate deeper than those on spike tooth harrow, and
they will give when obstructions are struck.
▪ Spring tooth harrow is also called as quack grass, and Bermuda grass
eradicator, since the teeth penetrate deeply, tear out and bring the
roots to the surface.
 Acme harrow

▪ It is a special type of animal drawn harrow having a

transverse horizontal frame with stiff curved blades.
Also known as curved knife-tooth harrow.
 Patela

▪ It is a wooden plank used for smoothening the soil and crushing the clods.
It is also used for removing the weeds.
▪ The size of the Patela varies in the range of 1200 to 3000 mm.
▪ The weight of Patela varies between 45 to 55 kg only.
▪ The main components of Patela are: Plank and Weeding hooks.

Triangular harrows

▪ It is a spike tooth harrow with triangular frame. The frame is made

of wood and pointed spikes are fitted in the frame. The teeth of
the spikes are fixed and not adjustable.
▪ It is used for breaking the clods and smoothening the soil surface.
 Blade harrow

▪ It is used to prepare seedbeds mostly in clayey soils.

▪ It works like a sweep, which moves into top surface of
the soil without inverting the soil.
 Power harrow

▪ It pulverizes the upper and lower layer

of soil without turning them upside
down and thus it forms a good seed bed
as well as good soil mulch.
▪ The pegs are spaced 200 mm wide and
are staggered with respect to each
cross bar.
▪ The width of the operation is 2000 mm
and the field capacity is around 1.5
ha/day.
 Implements for Puddling

▪ Cage wheel is an iron wheel, lugged with L angles.

▪ The tractor will not work satisfactorily in ploughing /
puddling of rice fields due to slippage of rubber wheels.
▪ To overcome this difficulty iron wheels are introduced
which are called cage wheel.
▪ The width of full cage wheel is 1 m and that of the half
cage wheel is 0.5 m
 Implements for Puddling

▪ Puddler is used for churning the soil with standing water while
preparing fields for paddy transplantation.
▪ It is used after completing an initial ploughing with iron plough or
country plough.
▪ It breaks up the clods and churns the soil.
▪ The main purpose of puddling is to reduce percolation and
leaching losses of water, to kill weeds by decomposition and to
facilitate transplantation of paddy seedlings by making the soil
softer.
▪ Puddling is done in standing water of 5-10 cm depth
Q. Rotavator

▪ Rotavator is nothing but Rotary tiller only with minor changes.

▪ Used in both dry land and wet land conditions. It is also suitable for
incorporating straw and manure in the field. The power requirement
will vary depending upon the width of the rotavator.
▪ Used as both primary and secondary tillage operations. A good
seedbed and pulverization of the soil is achieved in a single pass of
the rotavator.
▪ The blades are of L-shape, made from medium carbon steel or alloy
steel, hardened and tempered to suitable hardness It uses the power
from tractor PTO.
 Seed drill

▪ Seed drill is a machine used for placing the seeds in a continuous

stream in furrows at uniform rate and at controlled depth with an
arrangement of covering the seeds with soil.
▪ In manually metered seed drills a person drops the seeds in the
furrows, in mechanically metered seed drills a mechanical device
called seed metering mechanism is used to meter the seeds.
▪ Seed drills fitted with fertilizer dropping attachments are called seed-
cum-fertilizer drills.
 Seed cum fertilizer drill

▪ Seed cum fertilizer drills (bullock drawn, or tractor drawn) facilitate

line sowing and proper application of seed and fertilizer in the field,
saving 10-15% inputs.
▪ Tractor drawn seed-cum-fertilizer drill equipped with inverted ‘T’
type furrow openers are suitable for sowing of seeds without seed
bed preparation directly after paddy harvest under zero tillage
programme.
▪ The furrow openers are provided in a seed drill for opening a furrow. The seed tube conducts the seed from the
feed mechanism into the boot from where they fall into the furrows.

Types of furrow openers

▪ The furrow openers are provided in a seed drill for opening a furrow.
▪ The seeds travel through the seed tube and reach the furrow.

▪ Different type of furrow openers are

▪ (1) Shovel type (2) Shoe type (3) hoe type 4) Disc Type

Shovel type Shovel type openers are best suited for stony and root infested fields
Shoe Type Suited for Black soil
Hoe Type Suited for loose soil
Disc Type Single disc type: Works better in sticky soil; Double Disc: trashy soil
Name of the implement Work capacity Work capacity

Ha/h hr/ha
Manually operated
Mustard seed rill 0.1 10-12
Animal operated
CIAE 2-3 row seed-cum-fertilizer drill 0.1 10-12
0.125 8-8.5
CRIDA drill plough 0.04 20-25
CIAE mustard drill 0.125 8-8.5
CIAE 2-3 row planter 0.155 6-7
IISR sugarcane planter 0-125 8
Potato planter 0-125 8
Power tiller operated
Seed-cum-fertilizer drill 0.164 6-6.5
0-21 5-5.5
Tractor operated
Seed-cum-fertilizer drill 0.75 1.25-1.5
No till drill 0.75 1.25-1.5
Strip-till-drip 0.25 4-5
Sugarcane cutter planter 0.25 4
Potato planter 0.25 4
▪ Hand hoe is the most popular manually operated weeding
tool used in the farm.
▪ It consists of an iron blade and a wooden handle.
▪ The operator holds the handle and cuts the soil with the
blade to a shallow depth of 2-3 cm thereby weeds are cut
and soil is stirred.
▪ The handle is short (30-40cm long) and hence the operator
uses the tool in bending posture.
▪ The coverage is 5-7 cents per day.
▪ Khurpi is the most versatile hand hoe for removal of
weeds.
▪ It takes 300-700 man-hours to cover one hectare,
depending upon crop, soil and weed infestation.
▪ The yield is affected to the extent of 20-60% if weeds are
not controlled.
▪ Use of long handle weeders, (wheel hoe and peg type
weeders) reduce this weeding time to 25-110 hours per
hectare.
 Weeding implements

▪ The wheel hoe is a widely accepted weeding tool for weeding

and intercultural in row crops. It is a long handled tool operated
by pushes and pull action.
▪ straight blade, V -blade, sweep, shovel, etc. can be used for
different works namely weeding , soil mulching, stirring etc.
The coverage is 0.05 ha/day.

▪ Cono weeder is useful for uprooting and burying weeds

in line planted rice fields in wetlands. It disturbs the
topsoil and increases aeration.
▪ Operation triggers root growth. The float prevents the
unit from sinking into the soil. Soil should be moist and
little firm at the time of using the weeder. The coverage is
0.05 ha/day.
▪ Hand hoes exert greater strain on the operator because of the short handle which necessitates the operator to do weeding job in
bent posture.
▪ To avoid this nowadays long handles are used in hoes and hence they are called as long handle weeders.
▪ The popular long handle weeders available are a) star type weeder b) peg type weeder.
▪ These weeders are also called as dry land weeders since they are used in dry lands.
▪ Star type weeder: It is suitable for weeding in dry lands. It can be used in garden lands also when the soil moisture is low (10-
15%). Star wheel is designed for loamy soils. The operating width of the blade is 120 mm. The coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
▪ Peg type weeder: It is suitable for weeding in dry lands. It can be used in garden lands also when the soil moisture is low (10-
15%). Peg type wheel is designed for clayey soils. The operating width of the blade is 120 mm. The coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
Name of the implement Work capacity
Manually operated ha/h h/ha
Gruber 0.012 80
Dryland peg weeder 0.025 40
CIAE twin wheel hoe 0.025 40
PAU wheel hoe 0.035 30
Animal operated
Dora 0.1 10
Three tyned sweep/cultivator 0.2 5
Power tiller operated
3 tyned cultivator/sweep 0.2 5
Tractor operated
9-11 tyned tiller 0.45 2-2.5
5 tyned sweep 0.45 2-2.5
Self-propelled weeder
CIAE/TNAU power weeder 0.125 8
 Cultivator
▪ It is an implement used for inter cultivation with laterally
adjustable tines or discs to work between crop rows.
▪ This can be used for seed bed preparation and for sowing
with seeding attachment.
Types of cultivators
▪ Disc cultivator (It is a cultivator fitted with disc)
▪ Rotary cultivator (It is a cultivator with tines or blades
mounted on a power-driven horizontal shaft)
▪ Tine cultivator (It is a cultivator fitted with tines having
shovels)
Duck foot type or Sweep cultivator
▪ It is a type of rigid cultivator which is used mostly for
shallow ploughing, destruction of weeds and
retention of moisture.
▪ It consists of steel frame and rigid tines to which
sweeps are attached.
▪ The sweeps are fabricated from high carbon steel.
▪ It is a tractor-mounted implement and depth of
operation is controlled by hydraulic system.
▪ The sweep cultivator is popular in black cotton soils.
▪ This cultivator is mostly used in hard soils for shallow
ploughing.
 Farm Processing
Uses
Equipment
Chaff Cutter Machine used for cutting fodder
Farm products are reduced in sizes by cutting or crushing operations.
Feed Grinders Two types of grinders are used for the grinding of materials:
Hammer Mill; Burr Grinder
It is used to break the product by means of revolving beaters. They are usually operated at the
Hammer Mill
speed of 1500 to 4000 rev/min.
Grinders using burrs are called Burr Grinder.
Burr Grinder
It operates between 650 to 750 rev/min.
• Ginning is the process of separation of cotton seed from the lint.
• After the cotton has been picked, it is ginned in order to separate the fibres or lint from the
seeds and short fibres.
Farm processing Ginning of cotton • The equipment for cotton ginning is called Gin.
equipments The gins are usually of two types:
✓ Roller Gin;
✓ Saw Gin;
• Grain drying is the process of conditioning the grains for safe storage.
• Important point to be noted is: Grain is a living organism and during the drying process,
its life must be fully safeguarded.

Grain Drying is based on two principles:

• Thin layer drying (It refers to the drying of grains which are entirely exposed to the air,
moving through the grains; Grain depth is not more than 20 cm)
Grain Driers
• Deep bed drying (It includes bin or batch type driers)
• In this process, the drying air has to pass through a layer of more than 20 cm thickness of
grain.
• In this process, grain does not move.
• It is contained in a bin.
• The natural or heated air is forced through the bottom of the bin upward through the wet
grain).
 Grain Drying is based on two principles:
• Thin layer drying (It refers to the drying of grains which are entirely exposed to the air,
moving through the grains; Grain depth is not more than 20 cm)
Grain Driers
• Deep bed drying (It includes bin or batch type driers)
• In this process, the drying air has to pass through a layer of more than 20 cm thickness of
grain.
• In this process, grain does not move.
• It is contained in a bin.
Farm Processing • The natural or heated air is forced through the bottom of the bin upward through the wet
Uses
Equipment grain).
Chaff Cutter Machine used
Important for cuttingused
machineries fodder
in dairy industry are:
Farm products
✓ Milking machine; are reduced in sizes by cutting or crushing operations.
Feed Grinders Two types of grinders are used for the grinding of materials:
✓ Heater;
Hammer Mill; Burr Grinder
✓ Pasteuriser;
Farm processing Dairy Equipments It✓isBottle
used to break
filling the product by means of revolving beaters. They are usually operated at the
unit;
Hammer Mill
equipments speed
✓ Bottleof 1500
cappingto 4000
unit; rev/min.
✓ Bottleusing
Grinders and canburrs are called
washing unit;Burr Grinder.
Burr Grinder
It✓operates between 650 to 750 rev/min.
Cream separator;
•✓ Refrigerator
Ginning is the process of separation of cotton seed from the lint.
• Afterthe
heating the milk
cotton uphas
to been picked,
specified it is ginned infor
temperature order to separate the duration
a predetermined fibres or lint
of from
time the
for
seeds and short
removing fibres.
bacteria and harmful organism from the milk - Heating the milk upto 61◦C and
Pasteurization
• The itequipment
Ginning of cotton holding for cotton ginning
at that temperature is called Gin.
for 30 minutes OR Heating the milk upto atleast 71◦C and
The ginsitare
holding usually
at that of two types:
temperature for at least 15 seconds
✓ Roller Gin;
✓ Saw Gin;
• Grain drying is the process of conditioning the grains for safe storage.
• Important point to be noted is: Grain is a living organism and during the drying process,
its life must be fully safeguarded.

Grain Drying is based on two principles:

 Government initiatives towards improving
Agriculture/Farm mechanization in India
Agriculture Infrastructure Fund

▪ GoI has launched a financing facility of Rs.1 lakh crore under the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund(central sector scheme,
duration of - 10 years till 2029-30), covering Agri-entrepreneurs, Startups, Agri-tech players, Farmer groups for post-harvest
management, Nurturing farm assets.
▪ It aims to provide medium - long term debt financing facility for investment in viable projects for post-harvest
management Infrastructure and community farming assets.
▪ The fund will be managed and monitored through an online Management Information System (MIS) platform.

FARMS-app (Farm Machinery Solutions-app)

▪ Union Agriculture ministry has developed a Multi lingual Mobile App, 'CHC (Custom Hiring Centers) - Farm Machinery'
which connects farmers with Custom Hiring Service Centers situated in their locality.
▪ It encourages small and marginal farmers to take machines on rental basis for agriculture practices without them having to
purchase such high priced machines.
▪ The app has been further modified and been given the acronym of FARMS-app.
 Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization
(SMAM)

▪ Launched in 2014-15 by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare. Subsidy is provided for purchase of
various types of agricultural equipment and machinery to the extent of 40-50% for States other than NER (North
Eastern Region) States and for NER States it is 100% limited to Rs.1.25 lakhs per beneficiary.
▪ The agriculture ministry has also developed a Multilingual Mobile App, 'CHC (Custom Hiring Centres)- Farm
Machinery' which connects farmers with Custom Hiring Service Centres situated in their locality.
▪ Major aim is to increase the reach of farm mechanization to small and marginal farmers and to the regions and
difficult areas where farm power availability is low.
▪ Promoting ‘Custom Hiring Centres’ and ‘Hi-tech Hubs of High-Value Machines’ to offset the adverse economies
of scale arising due to small and fragmented landholding and high cost of individual ownership.
▪ Creating awareness among stakeholders through demonstration and capacity building activities.
▪ Ensuring performance testing and certification of agricultural machines at designated testing centres located all
over the country.
 Storage

▪ Refrigeration - Can substantially reduce the rate at which food will deteriorate. Low temperatures slow down the
growth of microorganisms and the rate of chemical (including enzymatic) changes in food. These are two of the
main causes of food spoilage.
▪ Cartons - When sending perishable goods, small Thermochron data loggers can be put into strategically chosen
boxes clearly marked with Alert Tape. The Thermochrons are easy to return to shipper if they are put in fobs tied to
tags with return address. And they are not so expensive that it would be a disaster to lose one.
▪ Cold Storage - Availability of proper cold storages are important for preserving perishable commodities like milk,
meat, eggs, vegetables, fruits, ornamental flowers and other floricultural goods. These cold storages give
perishable food items a longer shelf life by preventing them from rotting due to humidity, high temperature and
micro-organisms. This results in a substantial decrease in loss due to spoilage.
▪ Warehouse - Three public sector agencies are involved in building large-scale storage and warehousing capacities
in the country. These are as follows
 Storage

▪ Food Corporation of India (FCI) - The FCI has the largest agricultural warehousing systems with over 30.52 million
tonnes+ of storage capacity in over 1820+ godowns located all over India. This includes owned as well as hired
warehouses.
▪ Central Warehousing Corporation (CWC) - The CWC was founded in 1957 to provide logistics support to the agricultural
sector. Currently, it operates around 465 warehouses across the country with a huge storage capacity. Other than
storage and handling, CWC also offers services such as disinfestations, pest control, fumigation, clearing and forwarding,
handling and transportation, procurement and distribution.
▪ State Warehousing Corporations (SWCs) - State Warehousing Corporations exist in 17 States to provide storage facilities
and pest control services for various agricultural commodities belonging to farmers of that State. These warehouses
work under different Warehousing Acts enacted by the respective State Governments. While the FCI uses its warehouses
mainly for storing food grains, the storage capacities with CWC and SWCs are used for the storage of food grains as well
as other items.
 Morai type storage structures is used for the storage of paddy, maize and sorghum (jowar) in the rural areas of eastern and
southern regions of India. Its capacity varies from 3·5 to 18 tonnes. These structures are very similar to the shape of an inverted
cone. They are placed on a raised platform supported on wooden or masonry pillars.
Bukhari type storage structures are cylindrical in shape and are used for storage of sorghum, wheat, paddy, Bengalgram,
maize etc. Bukhari structures generally have capacities between 3.5 to 18 tonnes, however, smaller capacity structures also exist.
This may be made by mud alone or by mud and bamboo.
Kothar type storage structures -These are used to store paddy, maize, sorghum, wheat etc. Their capacity varies between 9 to
35 tonnes. The storage structure is box like made of wood and raised on pillars. Both the floor and walls are made of wooden
planks whereas the thatched or tiled roof is placed over it to protect the grains from the sun or rain.
Mud Kothi (Mud bin) - These storage structures are quite common in rural areas for storage of grains and other seeds. The
capacity of such storage structures varies from 1 to 50 tonnes. These are made from mud mixed with dung and straw. These
Kothies are generally rectangular in shape but cylindrical Kothi is also common in some region.
Muda type of storage Structure - These are in use for storing grains in the rural areas of Bihar. The capacity of muda varies
Traditional storage between 1 to 3 tonnes. It is being made of "Narai" ropes. The shape of muda is cylindrical and being made in various sizes.
Kanaj type of Storage Structure - These storage structures are very common in the rural areas of Karnataka and Maharashtra
structures for storage of grains. The capacity of Kanaj varies between 1 to 20 tonnes. It is being made by bamboo splits. The shape of
storage structure is cylindrical.
Kuthla - These storage structures are very much common in rural areas of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. These structures are kept
inside and made of burnt mud.
Bag Storage Structure - These structures are generally used for the storage of 25 to 500 tonnes of grain. The length of the
structure is about twice the width or greater than that. A typical floor plan of such a structure large enough to store about
6000 bags (500 tonnes) of grain. Bags of different capacities (35, 50, 75 and 100 kg) with or without inside plastic lining are used.
The standard size of a 100 kg bag is 100 cm x 60 cm x 30 cm i.e. length of bag is 100 cm, width of bag is 60 cm and height of
filled bag is 30 cm. This bag can store 93 Kg of Wheat and 75 Kg of Paddy.
Metal Bin - Bins made of steel, Aluminium R.C.C are used for storage of grains inside and outside the house. These bins are fire
and moisture proof. The bins have long durability and produced on commercial scale. The capacity ranges from 50 kg to 10
tonnes.
 Pusa bin is just like other traditional storage structure and is made of mud. To make this storage structure moisture
proof, a plastic film is used on inner side of the bin. A platform of mud bricks is made, first. On this platform, a sheet of
700 gauge plastic is spread in such a way that it overlaps the platform on all sides by atleast 6 cm. For unloading of
grains, an inclined wooden or steel pipe is fixed in such a way that grains may come out of structure by gravity.
Brick and cement bins -These storage structures are very strong and therefore, the effect of season on them is
negligible. The bin is made on a platform raised at 60 cm above the ground. A ladder is provided on one side of the bin
for loading of the grains. A hole of about 60 cm diameter is provided on the roof for the purpose of loading the material i.e.
grains. The walls of bin are about 23 cm thick with cement plastered on both the sides. Roof is made of R.C.C. The base of
bin is made inclined and an outlet is provided for unloading of grains. The capacity of such bin is usually between 1.5 to 60
tonnes.
Modern storage Bunker storage structure is used for long term storage of a larger volume of grains. The structure is successful as a means
of storing grains safely, securely and economically. By controlling insects and the moisture, the losses in stored grains can
structures be reduced upto 0.5%. In this type of storage structure, the grain is stored on a plastic sheet which is spread over ground and
top covered with plastic sheet
CAP' Storage structures - The 'CAP' is used for cover and plinth storage. The word plinth is means plinth from the bottom
and cover means cover from the top. This type of open storage is considered as intermediate storage and serves the
purpose of storage of food grains in bags for short period. This type of storage facility is cheaper as compared to
conventional bag storage godowns. The cover is rectangular in shape having five sides and made from polyethylene film
of 1000 gauge, leaving the bottom side open. Sometimes smaller covers are used for covering the stacks in covered
varandah of conventional godowns. Such covers are called "Varandah covers". For storage of food grains under
varandah covers, the stacks are built to a height up to 7 bags having an average capacity of 24 tonnes.
Hapur Tekka - It is a cylindrical rubberised cloth structure supported by bamboo poles on a metal tube base, and has a small
hole in the bottom through which grain can be removed.
The PAU bin designed by Punjab Agricultural University is a galvanized metal iron structure and the capacity ranges from 1.5
to 15 quintals.
 Grain silos

▪ The modern facilities for storing grains in bulk are 'silo'. Silos are
constructed from steel or reinforced concrete.
▪ There are a cluster of adjoining silos in any modern large
capacity processing plant. These silos are generally circular
with conical bottom.
▪ The advantages of modem storage bins are, (1) less expensive
and easier handling and quality control, (2) lesser space
requirement, (3) savings of cost of bags, (4) provision of
automation and mechanization for quicker handling and
maintaining quality of stored product, (5) protection from losses
due to birds and rodents.
 Shallow bin and Deep bin

▪ Shallow grain bin - the depth of grain is less or equal to the equivalent diameter. The equivalent diameter is taken as four
times the hydraulic radius of the bin. Hd < 4R , Where Hd is depth of grain.
▪ Squat silos come under shallow bins. A squat silo has a wall height to diameter ratio 0.5 or even less. Squat silo can compete
with sheds for low-cost quality storage.

▪ Deep bin - the depth of grain is greater than the equivalent diameter. The equivalent diameter is taken as four times the
hydraulic radius of the bin. Hd >= 4R , Where Hd is depth of grain.
▪ Vertical Silos are comes under this type of storage structures. There are two types of vertical silos a) Flat bottom vertical silo
and b) Hopper bottom vertical silo.
 Storage of Perishable commodities

▪ Controlled Atmospheric Storage is done for the preservation/storage of grains as well as fruits and vegetables for
a long time under controlled conditions.
▪ As the desired gas composition (i.e. high carbon dioxide level and low oxygen level) changes due to metabolic activity
of fruits and vegetables, it is possible to add fresh air or nitrogen to achieve pre-determined (desired) gaseous
composition.
▪ The normal composition of air is 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with the balance made up of carbon dioxide
(0.035%), other gases and water vapour.
▪ Higher the respiration rate, shorter is the shelf life for agriculture produce especially fruits and Vegetables. So,
decreasing O2 and increasing CO2 increases the shelf life of the same.
▪ Oxygen concentrations as low as 0%, and carbon dioxide concentrations of 20% or higher can destroy insects and
inhibit mould growth. An increase in the proportion of carbon dioxide and/or a reduction in the proportion of
oxygen within specified limits maintains the original product quality and extends the product shelf life.
 Some important tables

Disadvantages of CAS
▪ May cause irregular ripening of fruits
(banana, mango, pear, and tomato,
at O2 below 2%, CO2 above 5% for >
1 month).
 MAP - modified atmosphere packaging

▪ We can change the composition of gas in a container with a fixed gas mixture.
▪ Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP) (or CAS) - we have control over the storage atmosphere (which
is in fact air tight).
▪ In MAP, the store is made airtight, and respiratory activity of fresh foods is allowed to change the
atmosphere as oxygen is used up and CO2 is produced.
▪ The greatest use of MAP is for fresh-cut products (to maintain 2-5% O2 and 8-12% CO2).
▪ It is possible to improve gas control in MAP by adding absorbers of ethylene, carbon dioxide and oxygen.
o Oxygen absorber: Iron powder is used commercially as the active ingredient. Ex. FeO2, Fe2O , Fe3 O4
o Carbon dioxide absorber: Lime(freshly hydrated high calcium lime (Ca(OH)2),activated charcoal,
magnesium oxide)
o Ethylene absorber: Potassium permanganate, builder clay powder, hydrocarbons, silicones
 Q. Renewable energy

▪ It is the energy obtained from biomass, sun and wind.

▪ The energy obtained from these renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a is used for many agricultural and
domestic purposes. Ex: Solar energy/Wind energy/Bio energy can be used for lighting, cooking, water heating, water distillation,
food processing, water pumping, diesel engine operation with supplementary fuel and electrical generation on small scale.
o Solar energy- Solar dryers, lantern, cooker, solar still, solar refrigeration, solar lighting etc
o Wind energy- Water pumping, electricity generation etc.
o Biomass energy- Gasifiers to produce producer gas, pyrolysis to produce liquid fuels, Biogas etc
o Tidal energy – electricity generation
o Geothermal energy- Heat and electricity production
• The availability of wind power for farm work is quite limited. Where the wind velocity is more than 32 kmph, wind mills can be
used for lifting water.
• Modern residential solar power systems use photovoltaic (PV) to collect the sun’s energy. “Photo” means “produced by light,” and
“voltaic” is “electricity produced by a chemical reaction.” PV cells use solar energy to generate a chemical reaction that produces
electricity.
 Biofuels

▪ Any hydrocarbon fuel i.e. Solid, Liquid or Gas, that is produced from an organic matter which may be living or once living
material, in a short period of time is considered a biofuel.
▪ Ex - Solid: Wood, manure; Liquid: Bioethanol and Biodiesel; Gaseous: Biogas
▪ Biofuels can be produced from biomass, such as corn or sugar, vegetable oils or waste feedstocks.
▪ As biofuels emit less carbon dioxide (CO2) than conventional fuels they can be blended with existing fuels as an effective way of
reducing CO2 emissions in the transport sector.
▪ Biofuels represent around 3% of road transport fuels in use around the world.

Biofuels

1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation 4th Generation

 1st generation Biofuels

• First Generation biofuels are produced directly from food crops by

abstracting the oils for use in biodiesel or producing
bioethanol through conventional methods like fermentation.
• Crops such as wheat and sugar are the most widely used feedstock
for bioethanol while rapeseed oil has proved a very effective crop for
use in biodiesel.
• First generation biofuels have a number of associated problems.
• These biofuels can produce Negative Net energy gains, releasing
more carbon in their production than their feedstock’s capture in
their growth.
• The most contentious issue with first generation biofuels is ‘fuel vs
food’.
• Biofuels from foodgrains has been blamed for the increase in food
prices over the last couple of years.
 2nd generation Biofuels

▪ They are produced from non-food crops such as wood, organic

waste, food crop waste and specific biomass crops, therefore
eliminating the main problem with first generation biofuels.
▪ Second Generation biofuels are also aimed at being more cost
competitive in relation to existing fossil fuel.
▪ Life cycle assessments of second-generation biofuels have also
indicated that they will increase Positive net energy gains over
coming another of the main limitations of first-generation
biofuels.
 3rd generation Biofuels

▪ The Third Generation of biofuels takes advantage of specially

engineered energy crops such as algae.
▪ The algae are cultured to act as a low-cost, high-energy and entirely
renewable feedstock.
▪ It is predicted that algae will have the potential to produce more
energy per acre than conventional crops.
▪ Algae can also be grown using land and water unsuitable for food
production.
▪ A further benefit of algae-based biofuels is that the fuel can be
manufactured into a wide range of fuels such as diesel, petrol and
jet fuel.
▪ It is potentially carbon neutral (the same amount of carbon is
absorbed and emitted).
 4th generation Biofuels

• Four Generation Bio-fuels are aimed at not only producing sustainable

energy but also a way of capturing and storing CO2.
• Biomass materials, which have absorbed CO2 while growing, are converted
into fuel using the same processes as second-generation biofuels.
• This process differs from second and third generation production as at all
stages of production the carbon dioxide is captured using processes such as
oxy-fuel combustion.
• The carbon dioxide can then be geo-sequestered by storing it in old oil and
gas fields or saline aquifers.
• This carbon capture makes fourth generation biofuel production carbon
negative rather than simply carbon neutral, as it is locks away more carbon
than it produces.
• This system not only captures and stores carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere but it also reduces CO2 emissions by replacing fossil fuels.
Type of Generation
Characteristics Characteristics
Biofuels
Produced from food crops like maize, corn, Impose significant costs on food security by demanding a
sugar cane, rapeseed, palm, and soybean share of staple crops, traditionally used solely for food
FIRST
into ethanol and biodiesel, using a similar and feed. Resulting in a conflict between fuel and food
process to that used in beer and wine-making. security. At the same time, lift the price of staple crops
Produced from non-food crops and Grasses like switchgrass, non-edible oil seeds like
SECOND
organic agricultural waste, which contain Jatropha, castor seed can be transformed into biofuels.
Derived from algae. Also known as The list of fuels that can be derived from
THIRD
green hydrocarbons algae includes: Bio-diesel, Ethanol, and Jet-fuel.
At all stages of production, the CO2 is captured using
Produce sustainable energy as well as various processes.Rather than simply being
capture and store CO2 by converting carbon neutral, the fourth generation biofuel production
FOURTH
biomass materials, which have absorbed is carbon negative, since it ‘locks’ away more carbon than
CO2 while growing, into fuel. it produces and also lowers CO2 emissions by substituting
fossil fuels.
 Bioethanol

• Bioethanol (aka ethanol or ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH)) is an alcohol produced from

starch and sugar crops.
• It is commonly blended with petrol.
• Bioethanol is mainly produced by fermentation and by reacting ethylene with
steam.
• Ethanol is a clear colourless liquid.
• It is biodegradable, low in toxicity and causes little environmental pollution.
• Ethanol burns to produce carbon dioxide and water.
• Ethanol is a high-octane fuel and has replaced lead as an octane enhancer in
petrol.
• By blending ethanol with gasoline, we can also oxygenate the fuel mixture so it
burns more completely and reduces polluting emissions.
 Biodiesel

• It is produced through a biochemical process called “Transesterification.”

• Biodiesel is made from renewable sources such
as vegetable/plant/animal oils for use in diesel engines.
• Vegetable oils are chemically called triglycerides (fats).
• Biodiesel comprises esters of long chain fatty acids derived from these
oils.
• To make biodiesel, fats in the vegetable oil (triglycerides) are reacted
with alcohol — usually methanol.
• In this reaction, glycerine (in triglycerides) is replaced by methanol to
produce methyl ester (biodiesel).
• Biofuel development in India centres around the cultivation of Jatropha
plant seeds — rich in oil (40%).
 Biobutanol

• Biobutanol is a four-carbon alcohol produced by the fermentation of biomass.

• The production of biobutanol can be carried out in ethanol production facilities.
• The primary use of biobutanol is as a fuel in internal combustion engines.
• Its properties are similar to that of gasoline.
• Some gasoline-powered vehicles can even use biobutanol without being modified.
• It can be blended with gasoline in concentrations up to 11.5% by volume.
• However, it has a lower energy content, on average 10-20%, than that of gasoline,
which is a major disadvantage of biobutanol.
• Biobutanol exhibits the potential to reduce carbon emissions by 85% when
compared to gasoline, thus making it a viable and suitable alternative to gasoline
and gasoline-ethanol blended fuels.
Biogas

• Biogas is created as a by-product of

decomposing plant and animal waste in
environments with low levels of oxygen:
landfills, waste treatment facilities, and
dairies.
• It is produced by anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter.
• Biogas is made up primarily
of methane and carbon
dioxide (greenhouse gasses), thus the
natural incentives are strong to keep
biogas from entering the atmosphere.
 Advantages of biofuels

▪ Less Flammable - Biofuel is made from renewable resources and relatively less-flammable compared to fossil
diesel.
▪ Increases life of Vehicle Engine - Biofuels are adaptable to current engine designs and perform very well in most
conditions. They have higher cetane and better lubricating properties. This keeps the engine running for longer,
requires less maintenance and brings down overall pollution.
▪ Less Carbon Emission - Biofuel causes less harmful carbon emission compared to standard diesel. Studies suggest
that biofuels reduce greenhouse gases up to 65 percent.
▪ Easy to Source - Biofuels are made from many different renewable sources such as manure, waste from crops,
corn, switchgrass, soybeans, algae and plants grown specifically for the fuel.
▪ Economic Security - If more people start shifting towards biofuels, a country can reduce its dependence on fossil
fuels. Fuelling homes, businesses and vehicles with biofuels are less expensive than fossil fuels. More jobs will be
created with a growing biofuel industry, which will keep our economy secure.
 Advantages of biofuels

▪ Economic Security - If more people start shifting towards biofuels, a country can reduce its dependence
on fossil fuels. Fuelling homes, businesses and vehicles with biofuels are less expensive than fossil fuels.
More jobs will be created with a growing biofuel industry, which will keep our economy secure.
▪ Lower Levels of Pollution - Biofuels are biodegradable that reduces the possibility of soil contamination
and contamination of underground water during transportation, storage or use.
▪ Cost-Benefit - As of now, biofuels cost the same in the market as gasoline does. However, the overall cost-
benefit of using them is much higher. They are cleaner fuels, which means they produce fewer emissions
on burning. With the increased demand, they have the potential of becoming cheaper in the future as
well.
 Disadvantages of biofuels

▪ High Cost of Production and Future Price - High Cost of Production: Biofuels are quite expensive to produce in the
current market. The interest and capital investment being put into biofuel production is fairly low. Constantly rising
prices may make the use of biofuels as harsh on the economy as the rising gas prices are doing right now.
▪ Industrial Pollution - The carbon footprint of biofuels is less than the traditional forms of fuel when burnt. However,
the process with which they are produced makes up for that. Large scale industries meant for churning out biofuel are
known to emit large amounts of emissions and cause small scale water pollution as well. Unless more efficient means of
production are put into place, the overall carbon emission does not get a very big dent in it. It also causes an increase in
NOx.
▪ Changes in Land Use and Pollution - Biofuel production can encourage monoculture. If the land is used to grow a
biofuel feedstock, it has to be cleared of native vegetation, which then leads to ecological damage done in three ways.
First, the damage is caused by destroying local habitant and reduces the overall health of natural resources of the
region. The native forest is almost always better at removing CO2 from the atmosphere than a biofuel feedstock partly
because the CO2 remains trapped and is never released by burning as with fuel stock.
 Disadvantages of biofuels

▪ Secondly, the damage is done in the carbon debt created. Estimates have shown that deforesting native
land can actually produce a carbon debt that can take up to 500 years to repay. Finally, changing land to an
agricultural status almost always means fertilizers are going to be used to get the most yields per area. The
problem is runoff and other agricultural pollution. Thus, creating more farmland is likely to damage
waterways and energy used in treatment plants, and other mitigation strategies lead to an even larger
carbon debt.
▪ Biofuel is less suitable for use in low temperatures - It is more likely to attract moisture than fossil diesel,
which creates problems in cold weather. It also increases microbial growth in the engine that clogs the
engine filters.
 National Policy on Biofuels 2018

▪ As per the policy, GOI aims at increasing the utilization of biofuels in the energy and transportation sectors by
promoting the production of biofuels from domestic feedstock in the coming decade.
▪ Larger goals such as the adoption of green fuels, national energy security, fighting CC, generating employment,
etc. would be facilitated through this policy.
▪ MNRE has set an indicative target of 20% blending of ethanol in petrol and 5% blending of biodiesel in diesel
to be achieved by 2030. (The percentage of the same currently stands at around 2% for petrol and less than
0.1% for diesel).
▪ The Ministry has also outlined a roadmap for the efficient realisation of the policy - Improve the current
production of ethanol and biodiesel by increasing domestic production; Set up second-generation (2G)
biorefineries; Develop new feedstock for biofuels; New technological developments to improve biofuel
production; Facilitate the blending of biofuels with conventional fuels
 National Policy on Biofuels 2018

▪ The Policy categorises biofuels as - Basic Biofuels – First Generation (1G) bioethanol & biodiesel and
Advanced Biofuels – Second Generation (2G) ethanol, Municipal Solid Waste to drop-in fuels, Third
Generation (3G) biofuels, bio-CNG etc.
▪ Categorization enables extension of appropriate financial and fiscal incentives under each category.
▪ The Policy expands the scope of raw material for ethanol production by allowing use of- Sugarcane
Juice, Sugar containing materials like Sugar Beet, Sweet Sorghum, Starch containing materials like
Corn, Cassava, etc.; Damaged food grains like wheat, broken rice, Rotten Potatoes, unfit for human
consumption.; Surplus food grains with the approval of National Biofuel Coordination Committee.
▪ Use of damaged food grains and surplus food grains for production of ethanol will increase its
availability for Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme.
 Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) programme

▪ The government of India launched Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) programme in 2003 for undertaking blending of
ethanol in Petrol to address environmental concerns due to fossil fuel burning, provide remuneration to farmers,
subsidize crude imports and achieve forex savings.
▪ EBP is being run in 21 States and 4 UTs of the country. Under the EBP programme, Oil Marketing Companies are to
blend up to 10% of ethanol in Petrol.
▪ Under the EBP Programme, the target for 2019-20 (Dec, 2019 to Nov, 2020) is 7% which has to be progressively
increased to 10% by 2021-22.
▪ As a step in this direction, Hon’ble Prime Minister has released the Report of Expert Committee on “Roadmap for
ethanol blending in India 2020-25” on World Environment Day – 5th of June, 2021.
 Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) programme

▪ An inter-ministerial committee under the Chairmanship of Additional Secretary, NITI Aayog was formed comprising
representatives from MoP&NG, DHI, MoRT&H, DFPD, IOCL, and ARAI . Subsequently, the target year for achieving
20% ethanol blending in petrol was advanced to 2025 by CCEA in the meeting held on 21.12.2020. The committee
noted that a very strong foundation for the ethanol blending program had been laid out by the following
initiatives: 1. Interest subvention scheme for molasses and grain-based distilleries (DFPD). 2. Setting of standards
for E5 (Ethanol 5%, Petrol 95%), E10 and E20 blends of Ethanol blended petrol (Bureau of India Standards, BIS). 3.
MoRT&H has notified GSR 156(E) on 8th March 2021 for adoption of E20 fuel as automotive fuel and issued mass
emission standards for it. MoRT&H has also notified Safety standards for ethanol blended fuels vide GSR 343(E)
dated 25th May, 2021 on the basis of Automotive Industry Standard (AIS 171). It lays down safety requirements for
type approval of pure ethanol, flex-fuel & ethanol-gasoline blended vehicles in India. 4. BS-VI Emission norms in
effect since 1st April 2020 are applicable for E-20 Vehicles.
 Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana

▪ In 2019, the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) has approved Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN
(Jaiv Indhan- Vatavaran Anukool fasal awashesh Nivaran) Yojana.
▪ The scheme will be supported financially by Viability Gap Funding (VGF) to Second Generation (2G)
Integrated Bioethanol Projects using lignocellulosic biomass and other renewable feedstock.
▪ The objective of the scheme is to create an ecosystem for setting up commercial projects and
boost to Research and Development in 2G Ethanol sector.
▪ Under the scheme funds have been allocated for supporting 12 Commercial projects, 10
Demonstration Projects:
o Phase-I (2018-19 to 2022-23) 6 Commercial and 5 demonstration projects will be supported.
o Phase-II (2018-19 to 2022-23) Remaining 6 Commercial and 5 demonstration projects will
be supported.
 Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana

▪ The ethanol produced by the scheme beneficiaries will be mandatorily supplied to Oil
Marketing Companies (OMCs) to further enhance the blending percentage under Ethanol
Blending Programme (EBP).
▪ Centre for High Technology (CHT), a technical body under the aegis of MoP&NG, will be
the implementation Agency for the scheme.
▪ This scheme is promoting Second Generation (2G) Biofuels Technology moving away from
food crops used in First Generation(1G) to feedstocks, nonfood crops agricultural residues
or waste.
▪ Making progressive Blending/Substitution of fossil fuels for achieving Green House Gas
emission reduction targets.
▪ Stopping burning of biomass/ crop residues & improve the health of citizens and improving
farmer income.
 Seed Processing

Seed processing aims at upgrading the quality of seed by removing foreign materials and undesirable seeds.
Seed should be of uniform size, free of damage and disease. It should be free of inert materials, weed seed
and other crop seed to obtain maximum production.
▪ Seed processing consists of Cleaning the seeds, Grading, Treating, Testing, Packaging
Phase of seed processing - There are three phases of seed processing.
▪ First phase of processing consists of – Scalping, Debearding (Debearder is used), Hulling
▪ Scalping refers to the process in which the particles which are larger than the seed size are screened out
and the seeds are separated in a vessel. The grading of seeds means arranging of the seeds according to
the size and quality.
▪ Debearder - Oats, barleys, some vegetables and flower seeds have appendages, hairs that make them
difficult to be processed. These can be removed by a vigorous rubbing or abrading action. The mechanical
device ‘Debearder’ is used to rub the seeds.
 Seed Processing

▪ Hulling - Sesame seeds have an exterior coat that can be removed. This coat is also known
as the hull or the husk. Hulled sesame seeds are seeds with the hulls removed. Removal of
hulls of the seeds is called Hulling. Hullers are used for this purpose. Example: Sesame huller
▪ Second phase consists of removal of inert materials, weed seed, other crop seed and
broken seed. Air-screen cleaner is used for this purpose.
▪ Third phase includes: Drying, Treating, Bagging
 Rice Processing

▪ Hulling - Process of removing husk and bran of the paddy in one

operation. Huller - Machine used for hulling operation. Some hullers
are hand operated and some are machine operated. In machine
operated hullers, we have Disc type huller and Roller Type hullers.
▪ Paddy separator - A machine which separates shelled paddy (brown
rice) from unshelled paddy and husk. It is usually of gravity type.
▪ Brown rice - When paddy is shelled, brown colour rice is obtained. This
is called brown rice.
▪ Paddy cleaner - It is a machine for removing foreign seeds, immature
grains, foreign materials, such as nails, dirt, stones, dust from paddy.
This is done prior to the process of shelling.
▪ Drying - The process of removal of moisture from the grain.
 Pasteurization

▪ It is defined as heating the milk up to specified temperature for a predetermined duration of time for
removing bacteria and harmful organism from the milk.

Pasteurization is mainly done in one of the following ways - Heating the milk upto 61◦C and holding it at that
temperature for 30 minutes; Heating the milk upto atleast 71◦C and holding it at that temperature for at least
15 seconds.

Main types of pasteurizers:

▪ Batch Type (Heating the milk upto 61◦C and holding it at that temperature for 30 minutes)
▪ High Temperature Short Time (HTST) pasteurizer (Heating the milk upto atleast 71◦C and holding it at that
temperature for at least 15 seconds; There is a similar pasteurizer called Ultra high temperature short time is
also used at some places in which milk is heated to 135◦C temperature and kept at that temperature for only
2 seconds)
▪ Vacreators - a machine by means of which dairy fats are pasteurized by a vacuum process
 Types of Pumps
Type of pump Pumping depth (m) Characteristics Advantage Disadvantage
It is a rotary machine in which there is
1) Smooth even flow 1) Looses primed water easily
an impeller rotating inside the casing.
It draws in the liquid at its centre and
throws out the liquid through an 2) It may pump water 2) Special care to maintain designed head and
opening at the side of the casing due to containing sand or silt speed
Centrifugal
3 to 4.6 m centrifugal force.
pump
3) Low starting torque
4) Reliable and good
service
5) Free from shocks and
vibrations.
Vertical turbine pumps (VTPs) are a type 1) Special care needed to maintain designed
1) Smooth even flow
of rotodynamic pump that use radial or head and speed
modified radial flow impellers in a 3) Requires a sufficiently straight well. Requires
vertical configuration. VTPs are 2) Low starting torque special care for making the shaft vertical in the
Vertical turbine
More than 7.5 m typically multistage pumps with well and alignment is difficult.
pump
several levels of impellers encased in a 4) Reliable and good
Not suitable for water containing sand or silt.
bowl assembly, and can further be service
classified as deep well or short set 5) Free from shocks and
Liable to abrasion from sand.
pumps. vibrations
 Types of Pumps
Type of pump Pumping depth (m) Characteristics Advantage Disadvantage
1) Short pump shaft to motor
2) Plumbness and alignment of well
Repair of unit requires complete removal from
Submersible The pump and motor remain fully not difficult.
More than 7.5 m well repair or replacement of motor and pump is
pump submerged in water 3) Less maintenance problem.
costly.
4) Lower installation cost.
5) Lower noise
These types of pumps are used where
Propeller pump 1 to 2.5 m high discharge of water is needed at 1) High discharge at low heads Its use is very limited due to less pumping depth.
low heads
1) Suitable for low capacity deep well
pumping.
2) It can be used for high suction lift
It is a pump which consists of a
where ordinary centrifugal pump
Jet pump 12 to 18 m centrifugal pump and a jet mechanism Efficiency is low
cannot be used.
(or ejector).
3) Simple in construction and easy in
maintenance.

It consists of a cylinder and a piston (or 1) Useful for home water supply 1) Capacity is low
Reciprocating a plunger). The piston moves in the air 2) It is positive displacement pump. 2) Not suitable for irrigation.
Upto 45 m
pump tight cylinder. Water is discharged due
3) Develops high head at low capacity
to reciprocating action of the piston.
 Submersi
ble Pump
Centrifugal Pump

Vertical Turbine Pump

 Miscellaneous farm machinery

▪ Post-Hole Digger - It consists of a frame, three-point hitch system and an auger. For operation of auger, it gets drive from tractor
PTO shaft. The diameter and the depth of hole can be changed by changing auger assembly. It is used to dig pits for planting trees as
well as digging pits for fencing purpose. Single and double pits post- hole diggers are also available. The double pit post hole diggers
are being used for planting sugarcane setts in the pits and studies have shown that sugarcane shown by pit method gives higher yield.
▪ Tractor operated turmeric harvester - The field capacity of the unit is 1.6 ha per day.
▪ The tractor-drawn canopy shake system- citrus harvester - The harvester can travel between one-half and one mile per hour and
have the capacity to harvest between 100 and 200 trees per hour.
▪ Self-propelled harvesting units- citrus harvester - 200 to 400 trees per hour to be harvested.
▪ Power tiller operated potato digger - The field capacity is 0.4 ha/day
▪ Paddy transplanter - It is an equipment used for transplanting mat type paddy seedlings in the main field. It is suitable for all types of
paddy varieties grown by transplanting
 Miscellaneous farm machinery

▪ Manual rice planter - The machine consists of a seedling tray, six numbers of forks, handle and skids. By pressing the handle,
the forks pick-up the seedlings and plant them in 6 rows. The row to row spacing is 200 mm. Plant to plant spacing can be
set as per space recommendation by pulling the unit manually to the required distance. It can cover 0.25 ha/ day.
▪ Self-propelled paddy transplanter - The machine maintains a row to row spacing of 28 cm to 30 cm and plant to plant
spacing of 14 to 16 cm. The planting capacity of the machine is about 0.05 to 0.1 hectare per hour Power requirement is
about 1.2 to 1.8 HP petrol engine. Plough the filed 20-25 cm deep for paddy transplantation. Apply Nitrogenous fertilizer 10-
15 cm deep to prevent its loss. To plant 1 ha (with 2 seedlings/hill at 20 X 20 cm spacing), use 18-25 kg good quality seeds
for modified mat nursery establishment. A modified mat nursery establishes seedlings in a layer of soil mix, arranged on a
firm surface. Seedlings are ready for planting within 15-20 days after seeding (DAS).
 Farm Silos
▪ Farm silos is a farm structure used to store and protect the animal fodder so that it is preserved in an ideal condition for
farm animals. Animal fodder is cut and packed in the air tight silo to allow a partial fermentation to occur. The storage
fodder is known as silage.
▪ The green fodder is filled in the silo either as such or after chopping and it is well packed to reduce air. Better packing may
be obtained by trampling with tractor or bullocks. The top must be covered with dry straw and then sealed with mud
plaster or covered by polythene or alkathene sheets.
▪ The silage will be ready after 4-6 weeks. A pit size of 20 x 20 x 20 feet is sufficient for 50-55 t of green fodder. One cubic
foot of settled silage will weigh about 15 kg. The rate of utilization of the ensiled material also has a bearing on the size of
the silo. Once is opened for feeding, then every day at least half a foot of the material have to be removed to avoid
spoilage if the silage.
▪ Pit, trench, bunker and tower silos are used for ensiling the green fodder. Various types and sizes are used depending
upon the availability of green fodder and the convenience of the farmer.
 Farm Silos
Tower silos
▪ Cylindrical Shape and made of masonary, wood or metal ; Cost of construction is comparatively much higher than
that of horizontal type.
▪ Loading of animal fodder is difficult. ; Mechanical loader or a large capacity of blower is essential. This type of
storage structures are not recommended under Indian conditions.
Horizontal silos
▪ In horizontal silos pit type, bunker type and trench or stake type of storage structures used for storage of animal
fodder. There are surface as well as below ground (underground) types of storage structures used on most of dairy
farms as temporary and permanent storage structures for silage. The spoilage of silage and dry matter losses of
these silos ranges between 20 to 30 percent.
 Pit Silos

▪ Permanent pit silo is a circular deep well which is lined all around the side, and sealed from
bottom, so that water may not rise in to it.
▪ Made in areas where the soil is deep and the water table is very low.
▪ Made of bricks, stones or concrete, and either cement or lime can be used as a binding
material. A 22.5 cm thick wall will be used satisfactory up to 15 meter depth.
▪ The entire surface which is coming in contact with the silage should be plastered to make it
smooth, air tight and water tight.
▪ Simple roof is made over the silo to protect the silage from sun and rain.
▪ Corrugated metal sheet dome or half pitch roof with ample overhang on all the sides are
most economical and provide more space for filling.
▪ Stairs may be built along with wall for removing silage from the silo.
▪ The diameter of a silo is usually limited to 6 m and its depth is kept 2 to 3 times that of
diameter. When the silo is opened for removing the silage, nobody should enter till the
gases are removed.
 Trench Silos

▪ A trench often dug into a bank or slope, sometimes lined with concrete, and used mostly in regions of low rainfall for making and
storing silage.
▪ Unlined trench silo can be made easily without involving any investment on building materials such as brick, cement and sand.
▪ Unlined silos give more spoilage and are likely to have caved side walls due to excessive rain and tend to become muddy at the
bottom. So, lined trench silos are therefore become popular. The walls of the trench silos can be lined with brick, concrete or cement
plaster with reinforcing wire mesh. If possible, the silo should be roofed.
▪ Drains should be made around trench to intercept surface water. To facilitate drainage, it is desirable to locate the trench silo on
slopping ground.
▪ Capacity is depending on size of herd and number of day the silage is fed in a year. It is always economical to construct only one
trench silo, even if it is quite larger. Sidewalls are given generally 33 per cent slope.