MODULE 3

Triangulation refers to the use of multiple methods or data sources in qualitative research to
develop a comprehensive understanding of phenomena (Patton, 1999). Triangulation also
has been viewed as a qualitative research strategy to test validity through the convergence
of information from different sources.

Data collection
An observation is a data collection method, by which you gather knowledge of the
researched phenomenon through making observations of the phenomena, as and when it
occurs. You should aim to focus your observations on human behavior, the use of the
phenomenon and human interactions related to the phenomenon.

Type 1# Participant Observation:

The participant observation means watching the events or situation or activities from inside
by taking part in the group to be observed. He freely interacts with the other group
members, participates in various activities of the group, acquires the way of life of the
observed group or his own, and studies their behaviour or other activities not as an outsider
but by becoming a member of that group.

Goode and Hatt define participant observation as “the procedure used when the
investigator can go disguise himself as to be accepted as a member of the group”. So in this
kind of observation the observer has to stay as a member in the group he wants to study.

According to P.V. Young, “the participant observer using non-controlled observation,

generally lives or otherwise shares in the life of the group which he is studying”.

Some of the examples of studies using the method of participant observation are: W.F.
White’s study of Cornville social and Athletic Club and P.V. Young’s study of Molokan
people. The famous studies of Margaret Mead on primitive societies were also based on
participant observation.

For the success of participant observation it is essential that the respondents being studied
should not have any doubt about the intention of the research worker. A fruitful result of
participant observation is very much dependent upon the resourcefulness, tactfulness,
personality manners and wit of the research worker.

Advantages of Participant Observation:

The following are the merits of participant observation:

(a) Observation of natural behaviour:

The natural behaviour of the respondent can be studied by participant observation. When a
group knows that they are going to be observed by a stranger, they feel conscious,
uncomfortable and therefore neutrality in their behaviour and activity is lost. But in case of
the participant observation, the respondents do not know that they are being observed. So
their behaviour is not constrained by the conscious feeling of being observed by a stranger.

(b) Closeness with the group:

In participant observation, the observer has a very good rapport with the respondents. He
has a very close primary relationship with the group members. Because of this he can
participate in all activities from a close angle and thus can better interpret the situation than
a non-participant observer.

(c) Studying the real character:

Often in order to study the actual behaviour, the group research requires close participation
and contact with the group members. Through participant observation the observer can
make an intensive and inclusive study of the group and can gain into the real character of
such group.

(d) Better Understanding:

In participant observation the observer can better understood the feeling of the
respondents than an outsider. For example, a person who is actually living in a slum area
can realise the feeling and hardship of the slum dwellers in a better way than an outsider.

(e) Participation provides opportunity to learn more about an event:

The chief advantage of participant observation is that in it the observer gets an opportunity
to interact with the group regarding various activities of them. He can thus learn the
significance of these activities that are actually not open for observation. For example, if an
observer participates in a religious ceremony of a tribe, viz. “Chaitra Parba” of Gadaba tribe,
he can not only observe different aspects of the ceremony but also clear his doubt by asking
various questions to the group members or learn more about that ceremony by discussing
with the group in this regard. It is generally easier for the respondent to describe about the
event on right occasion than before or after it.

Disadvantages of Participant Observation:

In-spite of above advantages of participant observation it has also many disadvantages.

The following are the disadvantages of the participant observation:

(a) Lack of objectivity:

By becoming members of a group and participating very closely in it, the observer may lose
his objectivity. His emotional and sentimental association with the group kills his impartiality
and unbiased analysis. He may develop some soft corner for that group member and
because of this; he may often justify their evil activities as just activity.

(b) Often close association brings biased interpretation:

Because of his close association and emotional participation with the group members the
researcher creates a special position for himself in that group. He may be influenced or
pleased by this and begins to support them blindly. Due to this he observes the things from
his own personal point of view rather than scientific point of view.

(c) Misses important issues due to familiarity:

Due to much familiarity many crucial events appear to the participant observer as of little or
no significance. Therefore, he misses many of the important issues. But a stranger pays
much attention even to a small thing, as this appears new to him.

(d) Limited range of experience:

In participant observation the observer is confines himself to a particular group. So his

experience becomes very deep, but the range of his experience becomes very limited.

(e) Involvement in groupism:

The active participation and proximity of the observer with the group may involve him in
quarrels and group factionalism. He cannot avoid taking side of one faction. But if he does
so, he loses his status as an impartial observer whom everybody is ready to co-operate. So it
destroys the very purpose of the research and the researcher finds it very difficult to get
proper information from the group.

(f) Limits of participant observation:

There are certain situations in which the participant observation is not possible. For
example, it is not possible to observe criminals or prisoners.

Type 2# Non-Participant Observation:

When the observer observes the group passively from a distance without participating in
the group activities, it is known as non-participant observation. Here he does not try to
influence them or take part in the group activities.

However, purely non-participant observation is extremely difficult. One cannot penetrate

into the heart of a matter without proper participation in it. One really cannot imagine a
kind of relationship, when the researcher is always present but never participates. This
situation is hardly conducive for both the observer and the group. A combination of both
participant and non-participant method is sometimes selected.

The observer actively participates in some of the ordinary activities and observes passively
from distance in others. Many sociologists therefore treat a non-participant observation in
practice as only a quasi-participant observation. It is easier for the observer to perform both
the roles than to disguise himself completely.
Advantages of Non-Participant Observation:
However, non-participant observation also has some advantages.

Following are the merits of participant observation:

(a) Objectivity and neutrality:

If an observer participates in the event actively and emotionally he may try to justify the evil
things of the group as just things. In this frame of mind he cannot analyze the phenomena
with neutrality. But in non-participant observation, the objectivity or neutrality can be
maintained. The observer in this type of observation gives a detached and unbiased view
about the group.

(b) Command respect and co-operation:

In case of non-participant observation the researcher plays an impartial role. Therefore
every member of the group gives him a special status and co-operate with his study.

(c) More willingness of the respondent:

Often people do not feel shy to disclose their secrets, weaknesses or informal things to a
stranger. But they always become reluctant to disclose these things to a known person.

(d) Careful analysis:

In participant observation because of the much familiarity with the events, sometimes the
observer does not realize the significance of same events and neglects them. But in non-
participant observation the researcher does not even miss a minute thing. He carefully
judges the merits and demerits of each and every phenomenon under study.

(e) Freedom from groupism:

In non-participant observation the researcher always maintains his impartial status. His
aloofness from petty conflicts helps him to carry his research work more smoothly.

Disadvantages of Non-Participant Observation:

The following are the disadvantages of non-participant observation:

(a) Subjectivity:

In non-participant observation the observer does not have clarity about certain events on
activities. He cannot clear his doubts by asking various questions to the group members.
Therefore he has to simply understand and interpret what he sees. This lack of
understanding may make some of his findings biased and colored by his personal prediction,
belief and pre-conception.

(b) Inadequate observation:

The observer can observe only those events which take place in front of him. But that is not
enough and only a part of the phenomena as a vast range of information required for the
research. He can know many things about the group when he participates in the group and
interacts with the group members.

(c) Unnatural and formal information:

The members of a group become suspicious of a person who observes them objectively. In
front of an outsider or stranger they feel conscious and provide only some formal
information’s in an unnatural way. It creates bias and what the observer collects is not
actual or normal thing but only formal information’s.

(d) Inconvenience to the respondents:

The members of a particular group always feel uncomfortable when they know that their
behaviors is critically analyzed by an outsider. Therefore in some cases the tribal do not
allow an outsider to watch their socio-cultural activities. It is always better for a researcher
to become a member of the group in order to learn much about it.

Interview
1. Conduct an unstructured, open-ended interview and take interview notes.
2. Conduct an unstructured, open-ended interview, audiotape the interview, and
transcribe the interview.
3. Conduct a semi-structured interview, audiotape the interview; and transcribe
the interview.
4. Conduct a focus group interview, audiotape the interview, and transcribe the
interview.
5. Conduct· different types of interviews: e-mail, face-to-face, focus group,
online focus group, telephone interviews.

Structured Interviews

What is a structured interview? In structured interviews, questions are planned and created
in advance. All candidates are asked the same questions in the same order.

Since in structured interviews all the candidates are asked the same questions, it is easy to
compare their answers and hire the right job candidate. You can evaluate candidates in an
objective and fair way, which also makes structured interviews more legally defensible.
On the other hand, structured interviews are harder and more complicated to develop. You
have to test them and make sure interviewers follow them precisely. You also risk your
interview questions leaking out, which means future candidates can come prepared.
Moreover, a one-size-fits-all interview can seem a bit cold and unpersonalised, making it
harder to really get to know the candidate.

Unstructured Interviews

An unstructured interview is a type of interview in which the interviewer asks questions

which are not prepared in advance. Instead, questions arise spontaneously in a free-flowing
conversation, which means that different candidates are asked different questions.

The main advantage of an unstructured interview is its personalised approach. This is

especially useful for technology roles where the experience of candidates can vary
dramatically. Additionally, since unstructured interviews allow for a free-flowing
conversation, they feel more casual, which puts the candidates at ease, resulting in a more
natural and honest interview.

Because different candidates are asked different questions however, it is harder to compare
their answers and evaluate candidates equally and objectively. If you need a programmer
for a specific software integration, it will be useful to compare like for like answers regarding
their approach.

Semi-structured Interviews

What about semi-structured interviews? A semi-structured interview is a type of interview

in which the interviewer asks only a few predetermined questions while the rest of the
questions are not planned in advance.

Since semi-structured interviews combine both the structured and unstructured interview
styles, they can offer the advantages of both. They allow for the objective comparison of
candidates, while also providing an opportunity to spontaneously explore topics relevant to
that particular candidate.

But compared with structured interviews, semi-structured interviews are less objective and
legally harder to defend.

A qualitative interview is an interaction between an interviewer and a respondent in which

the interviewer has a general plan of inquiry but not a specific set of questions that must be
asked in particular words and in a particular order. A qualitative interview is essentially a
conversation in which the interviewer establishes a general direction for the conversation
and pursues specific topics raised by the respondent.
Focused Group Discussion

Focus group
A focus group is a qualitative research method in which a trained moderator conducts a
collective interview of typically six to eight participants from similar backgrounds, similar
demographic characteristics, or both.

• Focus‐group interview

• A group interview with 3–12 participants that is marked by group discussion, question and
answer, interactive dialogue, and other activities.

• FGDs serve as a mini interaction laboratory, allowing the researcher to observe how
people can articulate their ideas as they grapple with others’ interruptions, starts and stops,
and compete for talk time

• A key consideration is that participants share a significant experience, identity, history, or

goal in common
Steps in FGD

 prepare the venue for the event ahead

 Any recording technology should be double‐checked, with a substitute option
available in case of malfunction
 As participants arrive, greet them warmly, provide informed consent
 if they are unknown by you or others in the group, name‐ tag
 confidentiality concerns, you might encourage participants to
 provide an overview that includes a self‐ introduction, the general purpose of the
research, and the specific objectives for the day
 explain interaction ground rules which may include that there is no right answer, to
talk clearly one at a time, to silence/put away electronic devices, and that a variety
of input is welcome
 Facilitate the discussion

Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of
observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to sample from a
larger population depends on the type of analysis being performed, but it may include simple
random sampling or systematic sampling.

non-probability sampling, the sample is selected based on non-random criteria, and not every
member of the population has a chance of being included. Common non-probability sampling
methods include convenience sampling, voluntary response sampling, purposive sampling,
snowball sampling, and quota sampling.

Non-probability sampling is a sampling method in which not all members of the population
have an equal chance of participating in the study, unlike probability sampling. Each member
of the population has a known chance of being selected. Non-probability sampling is most
useful for exploratory studies like a pilot survey (deploying a survey to a smaller sample
compared to pre-determined sample size). Researchers use this method in studies where it is
impossible to draw random probability sampling due to time or cost considerations.

Types of non-probability sampling

Here are the types of non-probability sampling methods:

 Convenience sampling:

Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where samples are selected

from the population only because they are conveniently available to the researcher.
Researchers choose these samples just because they are easy to recruit, and the researcher
did not consider selecting a sample that represents the entire population.
Ideally, in research, it is good to test a sample that represents the population. But, in some
research, the population is too large to examine and consider the entire population. It is one
of the reasons why researchers rely on convenience sampling, which is the most common
non-probability sampling method, because of its speed, cost-effectiveness, and ease of
availability of the sample.

 Consecutive sampling:

This non-probability sampling method is very similar to convenience sampling, with a slight
variation. Here, the researcher picks a single person or a group of a sample, conducts
research over a period, analyzes the results, and then moves on to another subject or group
if needed. Consecutive sampling technique gives the researcher a chance to work with many
topics and fine-tune his/her research by collecting results that have vital insights.

 Quota sampling:

Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of male and female
employees in an organization. There are 500 employees in the organization, also known as
the population. To understand better about a population, the researcher will need only a
sample, not the entire population. Further, the researcher is interested in particular strata
within the population. Here is where quota sampling helps in dividing the population into
strata or groups.

 Judgmental or Purposive sampling:

In the judgmental sampling method, researchers select the samples based purely on the
researcher’s knowledge and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only those
people who they deem fit to participate in the research study. Judgmental or purposive
sampling is not a scientific method of sampling, and the downside to this sampling
technique is that the preconceived notions of a researcher can influence the results. Thus,
this research technique involves a high amount of ambiguity.

 Snowball sampling:

Snowball sampling helps researchers find a sample when they are difficult to locate.
Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and not easily available. This
sampling system works like the referral program. Once the researchers find suitable
subjects, he asks them for assistance to seek similar subjects to form a considerably good
size sample.

Non-probability sampling examples

Here are three simple examples of non-probability sampling to understand the subject
better.
 1. An example of convenience sampling would be using student volunteers known to
the researcher. Researchers can send the survey to students belonging to a
particular school, college, or university, and act as a sample.
2. In an organization, for studying the career goals of 500 employees, technically, the
sample selected should have proportionate numbers of males and females. Which
means there should be 250 males and 250 females. Since this is unlikely, the
researcher selects the groups or strata using quota sampling.
3. Researchers also use this type of sampling to conduct research involving a
particular illness in patients or a rare disease. Researchers can seek help from
subjects to refer to other subjects suffering from the same ailment to form a
subjective sample to carry out the study.

When to use non-probability sampling?

 Use this type of sampling to indicate if a particular trait or characteristic exists in a

population.
 Researchers widely use the non-probability sampling method when they aim at
conducting qualitative research, pilot studies, or exploratory research.
 Researchers use it when they have limited time to conduct research or have budget
constraints.
 When the researcher needs to observe whether a particular issue needs in-depth
analysis, he applies this method.
 Use it when you do not intend to generate results that will generalize the entire
population.

Advantages of non-probability sampling

Here are the advantages of using the non-probability technique

 Non-probability sampling techniques are a more conducive and practical method for
researchers deploying surveys in the real world. Although statisticians prefer
probability sampling because it yields data in the form of numbers, however, if
done correctly, it can produce similar if not the same quality of results.
 Getting responses using non-probability sampling is faster and more cost-effective
than probability sampling because the sample is known to the researcher. The
respondents respond quickly as compared to people randomly selected as they
have a high motivation level to participate.

Data saturation refers to the quality and quantity of information in a qualitative research
study. Researchers usually define data saturation as the point when “no new information or
themes are observed in the data”

Saturation means that no additional data are being found whereby the sociologist can
develop properties of the category. ... 30)—and causes the researcher to 'combine sampling,
data collection and data analysis, rather than treating them as separate stages in a linear
process' (Bryman 2012: p. 18).
qualitative researchers plan their approach to data recording. The qualitative proposal or
project should identify the procedures the researcher will use for recording data.

Observation protocol. Plan to develop and use a protocol for recording observations in a
qualitative study. Researchers often engage in multiple observations during the course of a
qualitative study and use an observational protocol for recording information while
observing. This may be a single page with a dividing line down the middle to separate
descriptive notes (portraits of the participants, a reconstruction of dialogue, a description of
the physical setting, accounts of particular events, or activities) from reflexive notes (the
researcher’s personal thoughts, such as “speculation, feelings, problems, ideas, hunches,
impressions, and prejudices”; Bogdan & Biklen, 1992, p. 121). Also written on this form
might be demographic information about the time, place, and date of the field setting
where the observation takes place.

Interview protocol. Plan to develop and use an interview protocol for asking questions and
recording answers during a qualitative interview. Researchers record information from
interviews by making handwritten notes, by audiotaping, or by videotaping. Even if an
interview is taped, we recommend that researchers take notes in the event that recording
equipment fails. If audiotaping is used, researchers need to plan in advance for the
transcription of the tape.

The interview protocol should be about two pages in length. There should be some spaces
between the questions for the interviewer to write short notes and quotes in case the
audio-recording device does not work. The total number of questions should be somewhere
between 5 and 10, although no precise number can be given. It should be prepared in
advance of the interview, and used consistently in all of the interviews. It is helpful for the
interviewer to memorize the questions so that he or she does not appear to be simply
reading the interview protocol. The interview protocol consists of several important
components. These are basic information about the interview, an introduction, the
interview content questions with probes, and closing instructions (see also Creswell, 2016).

Data analysis
Qualitative Data Analysis
Analyzing your data is vital, as you have spent time and money collecting it. It is an essential
process because you don’t want to find yourself in the dark even after putting in so many
efforts. However, there are no set ground rules for analyzing qualitative data; it all begins
with understanding the two main approaches to qualitative data.
Two Main Approaches to Qualitative Data Analysis
1.  Deductive Approach
The deductive approach involves analyzing qualitative data based on a structure that is
predetermined by the researcher. A researcher can use the questions as a guide for
analyzing the data. This approach is quick and easy and can be used when a researcher has a
fair idea about the likely responses that he/she is going to receive from
the sample population.
2.  Inductive Approach
The inductive approach, on the contrary, is not based on a predetermined structure or set
ground rules/framework. It is more time consuming and a thorough approach to qualitative
data analysis. An inductive approach is often used when a researcher has very little or no
idea of the research phenomenon.  
5 Steps to Qualitative Data Analysis
Whether you are looking to analyze qualitative data collected through a one-to-one
interview or qualitative data from a survey, these simple steps will ensure a robust data
analysis.
Step 1: Arrange your Data
Once you have collected all the data, it is largely unstructured and sometimes makes no
sense when looked at a glance. Therefore, it is essential that as a researcher, you first need
to transcribe the data collected. The first step in analyzing your data is arranging it
systematically. Arranging data means converting all the data into a text format. You can
either export the data into a spreadsheet or manually type in the data or choose from any of
the computer-assisted qualitative data analysis tools.
Step 2: Organize all your Data
After transforming and arranging your data, the immediate next step is to organize your
data. There are chances you most likely have a large amount of information that still needs
to be arranged in an orderly manner. One of the best ways to organize the data is by going
back to your research objectives and then organizing the data based on the questions asked.
Arrange your research objective in a table, so it appears visually clear. At all costs, avoid
temptations of working with unorganized data. You will end up wasting time, and there will
be no conclusive results obtained.
Step 3: Set a Code to the Data Collected
Setting up proper codes for the collected data takes you a step ahead. Coding is one of the
best ways to compress a tremendous amount of information collected. The coding of
qualitative data simply means categorizing and assigning properties and patterns to the
collected data. Coding is an important step in qualitative data analysis, as you can derive
theories from relevant research findings. After assigning codes to your data, you can then
begin to build on the patterns to gain in-depth insight into the data that will help make
informed decisions.
Step 4: Validate your Data
Validating data is one of the crucial steps of qualitative data analysis for successful research.
Since data is quintessential for research, it is imperative to ensure that the data is not
flawed. Please note that data validation is not just one step in qualitative data analysis; this
is a recurring step that needs to be followed throughout the research process. There are
two sides to validating data:
1. Accuracy of your research design or methods.
2. Reliability, which is the extent to which the methods produce accurate data
consistently. 
Step 5: Concluding the Analysis Process
It is important to finally conclude your data, which means systematically presenting your
data, a report that can be readily used. The report should state the method that you, as a
researcher, used to conduct the research studies, the positives, and negatives and study
limitations. In the report, you should also state the suggestions/inferences of your findings
and any related area for future research.

Coding in qualitative data

Qualitative data analysis software
Advances in natural language processing & machine learning have made it possible to
automate the analysis of qualitative data, in particular content and framework analysis .
While manual human analysis is still popular due to its perceived high accuracy, automating
the analysis is quickly becoming the preferred choice. Unlike manual analysis, which is prone
to bias and doesn’t scale to the amount of qualitative data that is generated today,
automating analysis is not only more consistent and therefore can be more accurate, but
can also save a ton of time, and therefore money.
The most commonly used software for automated qualitative data analysis is text analytics
software such as Thematic.
Why is it important to code qualitative data?
Coding qualitative data makes it easier to interpret customer feedback. Assigning codes to
words and phrases in each response helps capture what the response is about which, in
turn, helps you better analyze and summarize the results of the entire survey. 
Researchers use coding and other qualitative data analysis processes to help them make
data-driven decisions based on customer feedback. When you use coding to analyze your
customer feedback, you can quantify the common themes in customer language. This
makes it easier to accurately interpret and analyze customer satisfaction. 
Automated vs. Manual coding of qualitative data
Methods of coding qualitative data fall into two categories: automated coding and manual
coding. 
You can automate the coding of your qualitative data with thematic analysis software.
Thematic analysis and qualitative data analysis software use machine learning, artificial
intelligence (AI), and natural language processing (NLP) to code your qualitative data and
break text up into themes. 
Thematic analysis software is autonomous, which means…
 You don’t need to set up themes or categories in advance.
 You don’t need to train the algorithm — it learns on its own.
 You can easily capture the “unknown unknowns” to identify themes you may not
have spotted on your own.
…all of which will save you time (and lots of unnecessary headaches) when analyzing your
customer feedback.
Recently, thematic analysis software has been categorised as Unified Data Analytics.
What is thematic coding?
Thematic coding, also called thematic analysis, is a type of qualitative data analysis that
finds themes in text by analyzing the meaning of words and sentence structure.
When you use thematic coding to analyze customer feedback for example, you can learn
which themes are most frequent in feedback. This helps you understand what drives
customer satisfaction in an accurate, actionable way. 
To learn more about how thematic analysis software helps you automate the data coding
process, check out this article. 
How to manually code qualitative data
For the rest of this post, we’ll focus on manual coding. Different researchers have different
processes, but manual coding usually looks something like this:
1. Choose whether you’ll use deductive or inductive coding.
2. Read through your data to get a sense of what it looks like. Assign your first set of
codes.
3. Go through your data line-by-line to code as much as possible. Your codes should
become more detailed at this step. 
4. Categorize your codes and figure out how they fit into your coding frame.
5. Identify which themes come up the most — and act on them.
Let’s break it down a little further…
Deductive coding vs. inductive coding 
Before you start qualitative data coding, you need to decide which codes you’ll use.
What is Deductive Coding?
Deductive coding means you start with a predefined set of codes, then assign those codes
to the new qualitative data. These codes might come from previous research, or you might
already know what themes you’re interested in analyzing. Deductive coding is also called
concept-driven coding. 
For example, let’s say you’re conducting a survey on customer experience. You want to
understand the problems that arise from long call wait times, so you choose to make “wait
time” one of your codes before you start looking at the data. 
The deductive approach can save time and help guarantee that your areas of interest are
coded. But you also need to be careful of bias; when you start with predefined codes, you
have a bias as to what the answers will be. Make sure you don’t miss other important
themes by focusing too hard on proving your own hypothesis.  
What is Inductive Coding?
Inductive coding, also called open coding, starts from scratch and creates codes based on
the qualitative data itself. You don’t have a set codebook; all codes arise directly from the
survey responses.
Here’s how inductive coding works:
1. Break your qualitative dataset into smaller samples.
2. Read a sample of the data.
3. Create codes that will cover the sample.
4. Reread the sample and apply the codes.
5. Read a new sample of data, applying the codes you created for the first sample.
 6. Note where codes don’t match or where you need additional codes.
7. Create new codes based on the second sample.
8. Go back and recode all responses again.
9. Repeat from step 5 until you’ve coded all of your data.
If you add a new code, split an existing code into two, or change the description of a code,
make sure to review how this change will affect the coding of all responses. Otherwise, the
same responses at different points in the survey could end up with different codes.
Sounds like a lot of work, right? Inductive coding is an iterative process, which means it
takes longer and is more thorough than deductive coding. But it also gives you a more
complete, unbiased look at the themes throughout your data. 
Conclusion: 6 main takeaways for coding qualitative data
Here are 6 final takeaways for manually coding your qualitative data:
1. Coding is the process of labeling and organizing your qualitative data to identify
themes. After you code your qualitative data, you can analyze it just like numerical
data. 
2. Inductive coding (without a predefined code frame) is more difficult, but less prone
to bias, than deductive coding.
3. Code frames can be flat (easier and faster to use) or hierarchical (more powerful and
organized).
4. Your code frames need to be flexible enough that you can make the most of your
results and use them in different contexts.
5. When creating codes, make sure they cover several responses, contrast one another,
and strike a balance between too much and too little information.
6. Consistent coding = accuracy. Establish coding procedures and guidelines and keep
an eye out for definitional drift in your qualitative data analysis.