Instrumentation: Static

characteristics
 Static or steady state characteristics
• Relationships between the O and the I of an
element when I is either at a constant value or
changing slowly

Systematic char.
• Static char.
Statistical char.
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 Systematic characteristics
• Characteristics that can be exactly quantified by
mathematical or graphical means.
• Range of a sensor is specified by the minimum and
maximum values of I or O
• Span is the maximum variation in input or output
• Linearity: An element is said to be linear if
corresponding values of I and O lie on a straight line

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 Systematic characteristics-2
• Non-Linearity can be defined in terms of a
function N(I ) which is the difference between
actual and ideal straight-line behaviour, i.e.
N(I ) = O(I ) − (KI + a)
or
O(I ) = KI + a + N(I)
• often quantified in terms of the maximum non-
linearity ; expressed as a percentage of full-scale
deflection (f.s.d.), i.e. as a percentage of span

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 Non-linearity
• c

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 Systematic characteristics-3
• Sensitivity is the change ΔO in output O for
unit change ΔI in input I, i.e. it is the ratio
ΔO/ΔI. In the limit that ΔI tends to zero, the
ratio ΔO/ΔI tends to the derivative dO/dI
• Environmental effects: In general, the output
O depends not only on the signal input I but
on environmental inputs
• There are two main types of environmental
input.

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 Environmental inputs
• A modifying input IM causes the linear sensitivity of
an element to change
• An interfering input II causes the straight line
intercept or zero bias to change

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 Hysteresis
• Hysteresis: For a given value of I, the output O
may be different depending on whether I is
increasing or decreasing.
• Hysteresis is the difference between these two
values of O

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 Systematic characteristics-4
• Resolution is the largest change in I that can
occur without any corresponding change in O
• Wear and ageing: These effects can cause the
characteristics of an element, e.g. K and a, to
change slowly but systematically throughout
its life.

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 Error bands
• Non-linearity, hysteresis and resolution effects in transducers
are so small that it is difficult and not worthwhile to exactly
quantify each individual effect
• The manufacturer defines the performance of the element in
terms of error bands
• The manufacturer states that for
any value of I, the output O will
be within ±h of the ideal
straight-line value OIDEAL.

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 Statistical characteristics
• Repeatability is the ability of an element to
give the same output for the same input,
when repeatedly applied to it
• Lack of repeatability is due to random effects
in the element and its environment
• Tolerance: Statistical variations amongst a
batch of similar elements

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 Tolerance
• In a batch of 100 resistance temperature
sensors, If one measures the resistance R0 of
each sensor at 0 °C the resistance values are
not all equal to the manufacturer’s quoted
value of 100.0 Ω.
• According to specification, R0 lies within ±0.15
Ω of 100 Ω, Known as tolerance. Thus all
sensors with R0 < 99.85 Ω and R0 > 100.15 Ω
are to be rejected
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 Tolerance: user choice
• The user has two choices:
• He can design his measurement system using R0
= 100.0 Ω and accept that any individual system,
with R0 = 100.1 Ω say, will have a small
measurement error. This is the usual practice.
• He can perform calibration test for each element.
This theoretically removes the error due to
uncertainty but is time-consuming and expensive.
There is still small remaining uncertainty in the
value of R0 due to the limited accuracy of the
calibration equipment.

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 Steady state system
• Error of any meas. system depends on the non-ideal characteristics
e.g. non-linearity, environmental and statistical effects of every
element in the system
• One of the most common methods of correcting a non-linear
element is to introduce a compensating non-linear element into
the system
• The most obvious method of reducing the effects of environmental
inputs is that of isolation, i.e. to isolate the transducer from
environmental changes
• Another obvious method is that of zero environmental sensitivity,
where the element is completely insensitive to environmental
inputs
• A more successful method of coping with environmental inputs is
that of opposing environmental inputs

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• There are two main types of environmental input.
• A modifying input IM causes the linear sensitivity
of an element to change. K is the sensitivity at
standard conditions when IM = 0. If the input is
changed from the standard value, then IM is the
deviation from standard conditions
• An interfering input II causes the straight line
intercept or zero bias to change. a is the zero bias
at standard conditions when II = 0. If the input is
changed from the standard value, then II is the
deviation from standard conditions,

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 Identification of static characteristics
– calibration
• The static characteristics of an element can be found
experimentally by measuring corresponding values of the input I,
the output O and the environmental inputs IM.
• This type of experiment is referred to as calibration, and the
measurement of the variables I, O, IM and II must be accurate if
meaningful results are to be obtained.
• The instruments and techniques used to quantify these variables
are referred to as standards
• The accuracy of a measurement of a variable is the closeness of the
measurement to the true value of the variable
• Ultimate or primary measurement standards for key physical
variables such as time, length, mass, current and temperature are
maintained at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL). Time and freq
in NPL NDelhi

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O versus I with IM = II = 0

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