Basic Concepts in Human Growth and Development

 Growth refers to the dimensional increase, cellular multiplication, and/or quantitative (measurable)
bodily changes that is mostly influenced by heredity (i.e., increase in size, weight and height, etc.). It
culminates in maturation, and is, by nature, a physical, external and specific change. Growth pertains to the
structural change happens in an individual.
 Development is a pattern of qualitative (i.e., immeasurable but observed) change that begins from
conception and continues throughout the lifespan. It is characterized by a series of progressive, orderly and
meaningful overall change resulting in an improved functioning of the individual. If growth is structural,
development is functional.
 Maturation is the process of unfolding of the potentials (i.e., the internal ripening of the physical
equipment that leads to change in the capacity to perform) of an individual. It comes out of growth
(qualitative change/ external), development (qualitative change/ internal) and experience (Gurugubilly,
2018). It is the product of growth and aging that occurs naturally without any conscious effort on the part of
an individual. If growth is structural, development is functional, then, maturation is operational. Some
psychologist also attached the term ―readiness” to maturation.
 Learning is the process of acquiring Values, attitudes and preferences, knowledge, skills, and habits
(VAKHS) leading to a change in behavior as a consequence of experience.
 Sometimes, despite all the efforts and practice invested by an individual to learn, there‘s a time where it
seems that there is no significant progress taking place. This stagnation towards learning is called learning
plateau – a long flat and horizontal stretch that represents a stationary stage in the learning curve.

Principles of Human Development

 It is an interaction between Nature (Heredity) and Nurture (Environment). In layman,
development follows the dictum ―Nature imposes, nurture disposes‖ which means that neither heredity
alone, nor the mere nurture is the potent factor in the development of an individual. The to work hand in
hand from the very conception. However, it is not possible to indicate exactly in what proportion heredity
and environment contribute to the development of an individual.

 It involves change. People undergo changes (i.e., changes in size, proportions, disappearance of old
features and acquisition of new features etc.) from the moment of conception to the time of death that is
geared towards self-realization/ self-actualization. Each individual is equipped with certain abilities and
potentialities at birth. By utilizing the innate or inborn abilities one tries to realize and strive for self-
actualization during the total life period

 It is a continuous/ lifelong process. The process of development follows a never ending cycle that
occurs throughout the lifespan. One stage of development is the basic framework for the next stage of
development. A child has limited knowledge and experiences about his environment. But as he develops, he
acquires more information through explorations and adds to the skills already acquired and the new skills
become the basis for further achievement and mastery of skills.

 It follows a direction and uniform pattern in an orderly manner. The process of

development proceeds from head to toe pattern (Cephalocaudal) then later proceeds from center of the body
towards the extremities such as limbs (Proximodistal). This explains why the children learn to walk then run
prior to holding a pen and writing their names.

 It proceeds general to specific responses. This can be observed in the behavior of infants and
young children. New-born infant moves his whole body at one time instead of moving only one part of it.
The baby waves his arms in general and makes random movements before he is capable of specific response
such as reaching out for a specific object.
 It is predictive process. Although development is influenced by both genetic and environmental
factors, it takes place in a pre-defined manner. It moves through the stages of prenatal, infancy, childhood,
adolescence, and adulthood.

 The rate of development for each children is unique/ individualized. Even though the
pattern of development is cut across all children, the rate/ speed in demonstrating/ attaining such
development milestone is individualized (i.e., varies among children). These variations are due to the
biological factors and environmental situations that impact their development individually.

 It is a gradual process. Development does not come all on a sudden. It is cumulative in nature. This
explains why Jack and Rose won‘t grow into adults overnight.

 It proceeds from simple to complex. Simple skills must be acquired before more complex ones
can be attempted (e.g., Children eat with their fingers before attempting to use a spoon or fork; Children
when able to hold pencil, first starts draw circles then squares then letters and lastly, words; etc.).

 It involves social expectations/ developmental tasks. Development is determined by social

norms and expectations of behaviors that form each child. Children learn customs, traditions and values of
the society and also what behaviors are expected from them. They realize from the approval or disapproval
of their behavior. Social expectations/ Developmental tasks arise mainly
(a) as a result of physical maturation, (b) form the cultural pressures of society, (c) out of the personal values
and aspirations of the individual. These remain the same from one generation after another in a particular
culture and are helpful for children to be motivated to learn and for parents to guide their children well.

 Early development is more critical than later development. A number of researches

revealed that the preschool years (i.e., ages 2-5) are most important years of development as basic
foundation is laid down during this period which is difficult to change or the formative years of a child.

Paul Baltes’ Assertion on the Principles of Development (Life-span Perspective)

 It is multidirectional (i.e., includes growth and decline). Throughout life, some dimensions or
components of dimensions expand or shrink, (e.g., an individual becomes wiser by age but becomes dull in
memorization).
 It is multidimensional. Involves the dynamic interaction of factors like physical, emotional, and
psychosocial development.
 It is plastic (i.e., can be modified). It implies characteristics are malleable or changeable and that
development is possible re-training (e.g., an individual can maintain his proper health by doing different
exercises even in old age).
 It is contextual. Development varies from person to person and is dependent on factors such as a
person‘s biology, family, school, church, profession, nationality, and ethnicity.
 It involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Development involves conflicts and competition
between these 3 goals (e.g., as individuals reach middle and late adulthood the maintenance and regulation
of loss takes center stage away from growth; similarly, when individuals are on the early childhood, growth
takes the center stage while maintenance and regulation are still not the focused)

Factors Affecting Growth and Development

1. Teratogens. It is derived from the Ancient Greek term ―tera‖ meaning ―monster‖. Teratogens pertain to
any substance that disturbs the development of an embryo or fetus human resulting to birth (congenital)
defect in the child.
Corpuz, et.al, (2010) enumerated several examples of teratogens:
 Prescription and Non-prescription drugs (e.g., diet pills, aspirin, coffee and some tranquilizer such as
thalidomide, etc.);
 Psychoactive drugs (e.g., nicotine and caffeine, etc.);
 Prohibited drugs (e.g., cocaine, marijuana and heroin);
 Environmental hazards (e.g., environmental pollutants, radiation, and prolonged exposure to heat in
saunas and bath tubs);
 History of illness (e.g., Rubella or German measles, Syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS); and
 Other factors that affects the development of organism inside the womb such as alcoholic drinks, maternal
age (too early, too late, or beyond 30), high anxiety and stress and the like. According to teratology (the
study of the causes of birth defects), the Fetal Alcoholic Syndrome (FAS) is one of the known effects of
teratogens obtained from too much exposure to alcohol by mothers during pregnancy. FAS is the cluster of
abnormalities (i.e., facial deformities and defective limbs, face and heart) that appears to children of mothers
who are heavy drinkers (Santrock, 2002; Corpuz et al., 2015).
2. Maternal Nutrition. Diet during pregnancy and lactation has been thought to be one of the factors that
influences an infant`s immune response to early exposure (Boccella and Carvalho, 2017). Maternal
undernutrition contributes to 800 000 neonatal deaths annually though small for gestational age births
(Bhutta et al., 2013). Because prenatal life is a critical period for the development of the immune system, the
role of intrauterine exposure from the diet during pregnancy has been proposed to influence fetal immune
responses that might predispose the fetus to allergy in childhood (Devereaux et al., 2002 in Boccella and
Carvalho, 2017).
3. Child Nutrition. This pertains to the dietary needs of children 2-11 years of age. Research conducted by
Bhutta et al., (2013) revealed that stunting, wasting, and micronutrient deficiencies are estimated to underlie
nearly 3.1 million child deaths annually, the number that is much greater than the effects of maternal
undernutrition. This number is traced to the labor force participation of mothers on dietary and to the time
inputs on child care that impacts children‘s nutritional status. Another factor affecting growth and
development under child nutrition is famine. Famine, according to Merriam Webster Dictionary is shortly
defined as an extreme shortage of food resulting to prolong hunger which in return has a buffering effect to
fetal metabolism and pre-natal development as a whole.
4. Early sensory stimulation. Recent study conducted by Weill Cornell shown that early sensory
stimulations provided to a child during critical period or the formative years (birth-7 years) impacts child‘s
development of normal behavior. Understanding ―how‖ and ―when‖ inter-neural connections develop is
vital due to increasing evidences that link abnormal interneuron activity to disorders such as autism and
childhood epilepsy.
―If the neural circuits needed for responding to sensory inputs do not form correctly in early life, the
deficits can lead to abnormal responses to sensory inputs and impaired social relationship in adults.‖ – Dr.
Natalia De Marco Garcia, Assistant Professor, Neuroscience Department, Feil Family Brain and Mind
Research Institute.
Salient Points in the Brian Development.
 The Human Brain. It is one of the largest and most complex organ in the body that controls all functions
of the body, interprets information from the outside world, and embodies the essence of the mind and soul.
The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
 Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres. It performs
higher functions like interpreting touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions, learning,
and fine control of movement.
 Cerebellum is located under the cerebrum. Its function is to coordinate muscle movements, maintain
posture, and balance.
 Brainstem acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It performs
many automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake and sleep cycles, digestion,
sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing.
Lobes of the Brain
The cerebral hemispheres have distinct fissures, which divide the brain into lobes. Each hemisphere has four
lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital.
1. Frontal lobe
 Personality, behavior, emotions
 Judgment, planning, problem solving
 Speech: speaking and writing (Broca‘s area)
 Body movement (motor strip)
 Intelligence, concentration, self-awareness
2. Parietal lobe
 Interprets language, words
 Sense of touch, pain, temperature (sensory strip)
 Interprets signals from vision, hearing, motor, sensory and memory
 Spatial and visual perception
3. Occipital lobe
 Interprets vision (color, light, movement)
4. Temporal lobe
 Understanding language (Wernicke‘s area)
 Memory
 Hearing
 Sequencing and organization
Facts about Human Brain
a. It contains 50 billion neurons at birth
b. The average brain weight of an adult ranges from 1,300 g to 1,400 g
c. The newborn‘s brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight
d. At age 2, children have developed half of the brain cell connections
e. Critical Period. It is the time during early postnatal life when the development and maturation of
functional properties of the brain, and its plasticity is strongly dependent on experience or
environmental influences.
f. Plasticity also known as neuroplasticity, is a term that refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt
as a result of experience.
Stages in the Life-span Development
Prenatal. Conception occurs and development begins. There are three stages of prenatal development:
germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of
the mother is of primary concern.
1. Germinal Period (0-2 weeks after conception).
This is the stage where the zygote (single-celled living organism) is formed through the union of the egg and
sperm cell in the process called fertilization.
Germinal period is characterized by rapid cell division (cleavaging) of the zygote that culminates in its
implantation in the uterine wall. Cell differentiation occurs starts when the inner layer (blastocyst) and the
outer layer (trophoblast) are formed. The blastocyst will later develop into the embryo while the trophoblast
develops as a large portion of the placenta.
2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception).
This stage lasts from implantation until week 8 of pregnancy.
After the process of implantation, zygote become embryo and another two layers of mass cells are formed:
1.) the inner (endoderm) and the outer (ectoderm and mesoderm). The developed endoderm forms the
digestive and respiratory system; the mesoderm as the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and
reproductive systems; and, the ectoderm as the nervous system, sensory receptors, and skin parts. This
process if organ formation during the embryonic period is called organogenesis.
Embryonic period outlines the following series of developments:
a. Intensification of cell differentiation
b. Development of life support for the embryo (i.e., the placenta, umbilical cord, and amnion.
c. Appearance of organs
3. Fetal Period (2 months to 9 months after conception).
Drastic change happens during this period. To wit:
 3rd month – the fetus is about 3 inches long and 1 ounce in weight; the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin,
upper and lower arms, hands and lower limbs are now distinguishable; genitals can now be identified as
either male or female.
 4th month – the fetus is about 6 inches long and 4-7 ounces in weight; growth spurts occur in the body’s
lower parts; pre-natal reflexes are stronger; mother feels arm and leg movements for the first time.
 5th month – the fetus is about 12 inches long and approximately 1 pound in weight; fingernails and
toenails have formed.
 6th month – the fetus is about 14 inches long and 1.5 pound in weight eyes and eyelids are completely
formed; fine layers of hair cover the head; grasping reflex is present; and irregular movement occur.
 7 th month - the fetus is about 16 inches long and 3 pounds in weight.
 8th- 9th month – the fetus grow longer and gains substantial weight, about 4 pounds.
 Infancy and Toddlerhood. It is the first year and a half to two years of life that is characterized by a
dramatic growth and change (e.g., a newborn, with many involuntary reflexes and a keen sense of hearing
but poor vision, is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time, etc.);
brain development happens at a remarkable rate as does language development.
Infants have their own temperaments and approaches to play. Interactions with primary caregivers (and
others) undergo changes influenced by possible separation anxiety and the development of attachment
styles.
 Early Childhood. It is referred to as the preschool years, consisting of the years that follow toddlerhood
and precede formal schooling, roughly from around ages 2 to 5 or 6. As preschoolers children are busy
learning the language (i.e., they are observed with amazing growth in vocabulary); gaining a sense of self
and greater independence; and, beginning to learn the workings of the physical world.
 Middle-Late Childhood. The ages of 6-11 comprise middle childhood and much of what children
experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. The brain reaches its
adult size around age seven, but it continues to develop. Growth rates slow down and children are able to
refine their motor skills at this point in life. Children also begin to learn about social relationships beyond
the family through interaction with friends and fellow students; same-sex friendships are particularly salient
during this period.
 Adolescence. This occurs roughly around the ages 12-18. Individuals at this stage usually experience
emotional disequilibrium; growth spurt; and drastic body changes such as breast enlargement in females and
broadening of shoulders and appearance of Adams apple in males. The adolescents typically seek for sense
of identity, love and care; and establishes a network of friends.
 Early Adulthood. This covers the late teens (i.e. 19) to early 30s. This the stage where individuals
establish their personal and economic independence. It is the time of focusing on the future and putting a lot
of energy into making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of others. Love and
work are the primary concerns at this stage of life (i.e., the best time of choosing a partner in life and settling
to build a family).
 Middle Adulthood. The middle-late thirties (or age 40) through the age 60 is referred to as middle
adulthood. This is the period in which physiological aging that began earlier becomes more noticeable and a
period at which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period of gaining
expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency
than before. It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life; of recognizing the
difference between what is possible and what is likely.
 Late Adulthood. This spans from ages 60 to old age until death. This is the life stage known as the last
stage of physical change. Organ‘s functionality decreases: hearing loss, vision declines, Loss of memory is
evident, decline in intellectual capacity, shrinkage of muscle strength and mobility. This is also the age of
retirement and adjustment to new social roles.
 Robert Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks/Milestones
Havighurst emphasized that learning is basic and that it continues throughout life span.
Growth and Development occurs in six stages.
 Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5)
1. Learning to walk
2. Learning to take solid foods
3. Learning to talk
4. Learning to control the elimination off body wastes
5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
6. Acquiring concepts and language to describe social and physical reality
7. Learning to distinguish right from wrong and developing a conscience
 Middle Childhood (6-12)
1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
2. Building a wholesome attitude towards oneself
3. Learning to get along with age-mates
4. Learning an appropriate sex role
5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating,
6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
8. Achieving personal independence
9. Developing acceptable attitude toward society
 Adolescence (13-18)
1. Achieving mature relations with both sexes
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
3. Accepting one’s physique
4. Achieving emotional independence of adults
5. Preparing for marriage and family life
6. Preparing for an economic career
7. Acquiring values and ethical system to guide behavior
8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior
 Early Adulthood (19-29)
1. Selecting a mate
2. Learning to live with a partner
3. Starting a family
4. Rearing children
5. Managing a home
6. Starting an occupation
7. Assuming civic responsibility
 Middle Adulthood (30-60)
1. Helping teenage children to become happy and responsible adults
2. Achieving adult social and civic responsibility
3. Satisfactory career achievement
4. Developing adult leisure time activities
5. Relating to one’s spouse as a person
6. Accepting the physiological changes of middle age
7. Adjusting to aging parent
 Later Maturity (61 and above)
1. Adjusting to decreasing strength and health
2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
3. Adjusting to death of spouse
4. Establishing relations with one’s own age group
5. Meeting social and civic obligations
6. Establishing satisfactory living quarters.
 Avram Noam Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device and the Universal Grammar Avram Noam
Chomsky, a well-known linguist and hailed as the “Father of Modern Linguistics”, believes every human
being has this metaphorical organ known as Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that enables one to learn
language. This innate capacity for language
―prepares the child to make sense of language and to discover its structure‖ (Piper, pp. 76). However,
Chomsky argues that children will never acquire the tools needed for processing an infinite number of
sentences if the language acquisition mechanism was dependent on language input alone. There, he then
introduced the Universal Grammar theory – an idea of innate, biological grammatical categories (e.g., a
noun category and a verb category, and the like) that facilitate the entire language development in children
and overall language processing in adults.
The Universal Grammar theory is considered to contain all the information needed to combine grammatical
categories (e.g. noun and verb), into phrases and that the child‘s task is just to learn the words of his
language.
Language Learning is best during the “critical period/ sensitive period” (0-7, or 8, sometimes 9, years of
age). Beyond this age, language acquisition is still feasible yet a lot harder.
Stages of Language Development
The following outlines the development of language of an individual within the first five years of life:
1. Cooing. This is the soft vocalizations around 3 months of age comprised largely of vowels sounds.
2. Babbling. This are more elaborate vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language (i.e.,
guttural sounds, clicks, consonants, and vowel sounds). Children at this stage, spontaneously produce all
sorts of nonsensical, unrelated sounds. No real words are yet formed, instead beginning to put sounds
together in order to form words.
3. Holophrase(s). These are 1-word utterances with vowels and consonants used by infants to convey
intentions, desires, and even demands.
4. Two-word utterances. These are the combination of holophrases.
5. Telegraphic speech. It is combination of 2-word utterances that exhibits the rudimentary syntax but lacks
articles, prepositions, and, others factors to form complete sentences. The language under this stage is
getting a little more complex.
6. Basic Adult sentences structure. This stage is characterized by the establishment of simple complete
sentences by children four years of age and above.

DEVELOPMENT OF EMOTIONS
 Attachment. It is a deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and
space (Ainsworth, 1973; Bowlby, 1969). It does not have to be reciprocal. One person may have an
attachment to an individual which is not shared. Attachment is characterized by specific behaviors in
children, such as seeking proximity to the attachment figure when upset or threatened (Bowlby, 1969).
Stages of Attachment
1. Asocial (0 - 6 weeks). Very young infants are asocial in that many kinds of stimuli, both social and non-
social, produce a favorable reaction, such as a smile.
2. Indiscriminate Attachments (6 weeks to 7 months). Infants indiscriminately enjoy human company,
and most babies respond equally to any caregiver. They get upset when individuals stop to interact with
them. From 3-months infants smile more at familiar faces and can be easily comfortable by a regular
caregiver.
3. Specific Attachment (7 - 9 months). Special preference for a single attachment figure. The baby looks to
particular people for security, comfort, and protection. It shows fear of strangers (stranger fear) and
unhappiness when separated from a special person (separation anxiety). Some babies show stranger fear and
separation anxiety much more frequently and intensely than others, nevertheless, they are seen as evidence
that the baby has formed an attachment. This has usually developed by one year of age.
4. Multiple Attachment (10 months and onwards). The baby becomes increasingly independent and
forms several attachments. By 18 months the majority of infants have formed multiple attachments.
 Daniel Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence is the ability to perceive, access and generate emotions to
 assist thought,
 understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and
 reflectively regulate emotions in order to promote emotional and intellectual growth (Mayer &
Salovey, 1997 in Goleman, 1999)
There are five components of Emotional Intelligence:
1. Self-awareness. It is the ability to recognize and understand personal moods and emotions and drives, as
well as their effect on others characterized by self-confidence, realistic self-assessment, and a modest sense
of humor.
2. Self-regulation (Self-management). It is the ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses and moods,
and the propensity to suspend judgment and to think before acting. Its hallmarks include trustworthiness and
integrity; comfort with ambiguity; and openness to change.
3. Empathy (Social awareness). It is the ability to understand the emotional makeup of other people and/or
the skill in treating people according to their emotional reactions. Empathy is observed when there is
expertise in building and retaining talent, cross-cultural sensitivity, and service to clients and customers.
4. Social skills (Relationship management). It is the proficiency in managing relationships and building
networks, and an ability to find common ground and build rapport. Hallmarks of social skills include
effectiveness in leading change, persuasiveness, and expertise building and leading teams.
5. Motivation (Internal Motivation). It is the passion to work for internal reasons that go beyond external
rewards (i.e., inner vision of what is important in life, a joy in doing something, curiosity in learning, a flow
that comes with being immersed in an activity, propensity to pursue goals with energy and persistence).
Motivation (Internal motivation is embedded across the first four parameters of emotional intelligence.
Figure 1 presents the components of Emotional Intelligence.
* Note: The arrows represent the Internal Motivation
Figure 1: Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
 Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory of Development
This theory stresses the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition as community
plays a central role in the process of ―making meaning‖ (Vygotsky, 1978).
The following are the key components of Socio-cultural Theory of development:
• Social interaction. Effective learning happens through participation in social activities; thus, social
context of learning crucial. For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will influence how
they think and what they think about.
• Culture and the “Tools of Intellectual Adaptation”. Like Piaget, Vygotsky claimed that infants are born
with the basic materials/abilities for intellectual development known as the “elementary mental functions”
(i.e., attention, sensation, perception, and memory). Through interaction within the sociocultural
environment, these or “tools of intellectual adaptation” are developed into more sophisticated and
effective mental processes/strategies which Vygotsky referred to as “higher mental functions”. These
culturally determined tools (i.e., vary from culture to culture – as in the memory, for example) allow
children to use the basic mental functions more effectively/adaptively (e.g., memory mnemonics, mind
maps, acrostics, etc.).
• Language. Contrary to Piaget‘s view that thought comes before language, Vygotsky posited that the
thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years
of age, producing verbal thought (inner speech) that helps children regulate and reflect in their own thinking.
There are times that children are observed to be talking to themselves, e.g., ―Gagawin ko itong kotse
(holding a piece of lego blocks) tapos ito naman yung magiging mga gulong (holding four round plastic
cups)‖. This ―talking-to-oneself‖ indicate what is in the mind of the child which will eventually lead to
private speech – a form of self-talk that guide’s children’s thinking and actions.
• Scaffolding. It is the temporary support or assistance given to enable children accomplish task he cannot
accomplish independently. It consists of the activities provided by MKO to support/ assist/ guide a learner
as he is led through the zone of proximal development. And as the learner become more and more
proficient and that he is able to complete the task again on his own, scaffold is tapered off (i.e. withdrawn)
gradually as it becomes unnecessary. This is called fade-away technique. Scaffolding is most effective when
the support is matched to the needs of the learner.
• More Knowledgeable Others (MKO). They are the competent adults (i.e., teachers, parents, older
siblings, elderly, etc.), or more advanced peers that provides scaffolding to the child, thus helping him
perform at greater competence.
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This pertains to the difference between what a learner can do
alone or the Zone of Actual Development (ZAD) and what he or she can achieve with guidance and
encouragement from a skilled partner (Potential Development).
 Mildred Parten’s Stages of Play
Play is an important component of children‘s healthy development. It is the main agenda of children in the
preschool years. Through play, children learn where they fit in in the world around them, that is, they learn
academics (math, science, reading, language and literacy), social skills (effective communication, conflict
resolution, problem solving and cooperation), and most importantly, they learn about themselves – they get
to know their personalities including their likes and dislikes, strengths and interests.

In 1932s, Mildred Parten published her thesis in which she outlined the six (6) stages of play.
1. Unoccupied Play (Birth – 3 months). This stage of play is defined as sensory activities that lack focus or
narrative and social interaction making language use non-existent or very limited (e.g., a child hitting and
giggling at a play mobile in a crib, etc.) In the first few months of life, this play helps children orient
themselves in the world. They learn to master their limbs and motor skills. They develop depth perception,
tactile skills, and object permanence.
2. Solitary Play (3 months – 2 1⁄2 years). It is play that involves a child playing alone and with little
interest in toys outside of their immediate vicinity. This stage is characterized by increased focus and
sustained attention on toys; emerging play narratives, such as use of symbolic play (using objects to
represent other objects, such as push around a block to represent a car); and, disinterest in other children or
adults during play (e.g., two children playing with their lego but never looking at or showing any interest in
each other; a child who has developed the ability to sustain interest in one toy for more than 60 seconds,
etc.) Even after a child has gotten older and mastered more advanced forms of play, solitary play continues
to be employed. Even in adulthood, playing alone enable individuals to recharge, reflect and explore new
ideas on their own.
3. Onlooker Play (2 1⁄2 years – 3 1⁄2 years). Children at this stage, show interest in other children play
(i.e., they observe other‘s play without getting involved themselves). They will often sit within earshot so
they can hear other children play conversations. Withholding themselves from play is due to fear, disinterest,
or hesitation (e.g., a shy child watching others play without getting involved herself due to timidity, etc.).
4. Parallel Play (3 1⁄2 years – 4 years). This stage is described as children playing in proximity to one
another but not together (i.e., children observe one another from a distance). Tendency to share resources is
observed but not the sharing the same game play or goals while playing. This stage of play is characterized
by independent exploration and discovery, observing and mimicking, having separate goals and focuses
during play, and minimal communication with other children (e.g., a siblings playing with the same Lego
set, but constructing different buildings; children sharing brushes and paints, but painting on different
canvases, etc.)
5. Associative Play (4 – 4 1⁄2 years). This emerges when children begin acknowledging one another and
working side-by-side, but not necessarily together. Children at this stage begin to share, acknowledge, copy
and work with one another, however, they do not yet share common goal. In layman, they‘re not yet playing
̳together‘ in any cohesive way (e.g., children realizing there are limited resources in the play area, so
negotiating with one another for which resources to use, etc.).
Key characteristics of this stage include negotiation in sharing of resources, emergence of chatter and
language skills, inquiry on each other’s play, playing independently with different objectives and strategies,
and continuing mimics and observation but at a closer proximity.
6. Cooperative Play (4 1⁄2 years and up). This emerges shortly after associative play and represents fully
integrated social group play. Children at this stage are expected to be playing together, sharing the same
game, assigning one another roles in the game, and collaborating to achieve their set game play goals. (e.g.,
board games where children need to take turns in order for the game to proceed according to shared and
agreed upon rules, organized sports, etc.) This stage represents the achievement of socialization (i.e., the
developing social skills). Its key characteristics include working together on a shared game, having team
roles or personas during game play, and possible presence of the element of compromise and sacrifice for
the common good of the game.

 Diana Baumrind’s Parenting/ Caregiving Styles

Parenting/ Caregiving styles are categorized based on two dimensions of parenting behavior:
 Demandingness (D).
It pertains to the level of control and expectations that the parents/ caregivers show to their child.
 Responsiveness (R).
It pertains to the expression of love (i.e., warm, care, and respect) that is communicated by parents/
caregivers to their child.
Diana Baumrind identified four distinct parenting/caregiving styles:
1. Authoritarian. This is a parenting style characterized by high degree of demanding with low degree of
responsiveness (HDLR). Children whose parents have an authoritarian parenting style can have the
following characteristics:
 have an unhappy disposition;
 be less independent;
 appear insecure;
 possess lower self-esteem;
 exhibit more behavioral problems;
 perform worse academically;
 have poorer social skills;
 be more prone to mental issues; and
 be more likely to have drug use problems.
2. Authoritative/ Democratic. This is a parenting style characterized by high degree of demanding with
relatively high degree of responsiveness (HDHR). Children of authoritative parents tend to:
 appear happy and content;
 are more independent;
 achieve higher academic success;
 develop good self-esteem;
 interact with peers using competent social skills;
 have better mental health — less depression, anxiety, suicide attempts, delinquency, alcohol and
drug use; and
 exhibit less violent tendencies.
3. Permissive/ Indulgent. This is a parenting style characterized by low degree of demanding but with high
degree of responsiveness (LDHR). Children of permissive parenting tend to have the following child
outcomes:
 cannot follow rules;
 have worse self-control;
 possess egocentric tendencies; and
 encounter more problems in relationships and social interactions.
4. Neglective/ Uninvolved. This is a parenting style characterized by low degree of demanding with
relatively low degree of responsiveness (LDLR). Children of neglectful parents are:
 are more impulsive;
 cannot self-regulate emotion;
 encounter more delinquency and addictions problems; and
 have more mental issues — e.g. suicidal behavior in adolescents.