Group 5 Final Manuscript

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL
PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR DRIVEN COMMERCIAL PHOTOVOLTAIC
PANEL AND HYBRID PHOTOVOLTAIC-THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR
An Undergraduate Thesis Presented to the
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Cebu Technological University – Main Campus
Cebu City
In Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
By:
Winmar Jay R. Cumayas
Archie L. Parba
Carl Vincent A. Tapil
Rhoty C. Ybañez
Engr. Aian Rey A. Caladcad, MEME
Adviser
2022
APPROVAL SHEET
This Thesis Proposal entitled “COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ELECTRICAL

AND THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR DRIVEN COMMERCIAL
PHOTOVOLTAIC PANEL AND HYBRID PHOTOVOLTAIC-
THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR” prepared and submitted by Carl Vincent A.
Tapil, Winmar Jay R. Cumayas, Archie L. Parba, and Rhoty C. Ybañez in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Bachelor of Science in Mechanical
Engineering has been examined and approved for oral examination.
THESIS ADVISORY COMMITTEE
AIAN REY A. CALADCAD, ME, MEME

Department Chairperson
AIAN REY A. CALADCAD, ME, MEME AIAN REY A. CALADCAD, ME, MEME
Thesis Adviser Course Professor
APPROVED by the Committee on Oral Examination with grade of: _________.
THE PANEL OF EXAMINERS
JONATHAN A. MIRABALLES, ME, MSIT

Member
ALECRATES M. TUNDAG, ME JAMES A. HINAYON, ME

Member Member
ACCEPTED AND APPROVED in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree, BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
Date of Oral Examination: August 2022
iii
ABSTRACT
The study is a comparative analysis of the electrical and thermal performance of solar
driven commercial photovoltaic panel and photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator hybrid.
The Photovoltaic panel does not solely convert incident solar energy into electricity, it
also generates heat. A hybrid photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator which composed of
photovoltaic panel, thermoelectric generator (TEG) and a heatsink is designed to decrease
the cell temperature of PV panel by allowing heat flow and utilize waste heat before
dissipation. Panels were tilted and oriented using a level bar, 2-in-1 digital protractor
angle finder ruler, and a compass. And open circuit voltage, current, irradiance,
temperature, weather condition, and humidity, were gathered simultaneously using
various measuring instruments such as solar power meter, multi-meter with thermocouple
(2), hygrometer, anemometer, and pyrometer. The conventional panel produced a daily
average of 33.48 W, 38.95W, 22.52W, 25.68W, and 18.41W. While hybrid panel
produced a daily average output of 33.97W, 39.71W, 22.85W, 26W, and 18.51W. While
the average efficiency of the hybrid panel (neglecting TEG performance) was 17.5% and
the hybrid panel (considering TEG performance) was 17.56%, greater than conventional
panel which was 17.3%. Results showed that the hybrid system was more efficient
compared to the commercial PV Panel at higher cell temperatures. PV-TEG panel
therefore has potential in improving performance of a conventional panel.
iv
Keywords: photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid panel, conventional panel, waste
heat recovery, solar irradiance, Carnot efficiency, Seebeck effect, thermoelectric
generator
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The researchers are grateful to God for providing everything needed to complete
this project. It may not have been a direct support, but the project was thoroughly
completed with his spiritual guidance.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our adviser, Engr. Aian Rey
Caladcad for the continuous guidance with our research, for his patience, fast response,
motivation, and immense knowledge throughout the research journey. In particular with
his guidance in Solid works. It was a great privilege and honor to work under his
guidance. Besides our advisor, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to the
thesis panel committee: Engr. Jonathan Miraballes, Engr. James Hinayon, and Engr.
Alecrates Tundag for their insightful comments and suggestions during the proposal
hearing.
We are extending heartfelt thanks to the Cumayas family for letting us stay at
their humble home in Galaxy Compound, Danglag, Consolacion and their hospitality
during our stay for research work. The treatment we received was more than we
could ever have hoped for.
And a special thanks with our parents for their unconditional love, prayers,
caring and sacrifices for educating and continuous moral and financial support in
completing this thesis project successfully. Also, we express thanks to our sisters,
brothers, and friends who also supported us emotionally and financially.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPROVAL SHEET.........................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................................vi
LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................................x
LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................xvii
LIST OF EQUATIONS....................................................................................................xix
NOMENCLATURES.......................................................................................................xxi
DEFINITION OF TERMS.............................................................................................xxiii
CHAPTER 1 – THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE..........................................................1
1.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem......................................................................................3
1.3 Objectives..............................................................................................................4
1.4 Scopes and Limitations..........................................................................................5
1.5 Significance of the Study.......................................................................................6
CHAPTER 2 – REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE..................................................9
2.1 The Philippine Environment Conditions...............................................................9
2.1.1 Philippine Annual Average Climate..............................................................10
2.2 Solar Energy and Radiation.................................................................................11
2.3 The Solar Panel: Photovoltaics............................................................................13
2.4 The Thermoelectric Generator.............................................................................16
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2.5 TEG Structure........................................................................................................18
2.6 Application of Thermoelectric Power Generator.................................................20
2.7 The Heatsink........................................................................................................22
2.7.1 Passive Heat Sinks.........................................................................................24
2.7.2 Active Heat Sink...........................................................................................25
2.8 The Heat Recovery...............................................................................................26
2.9 PV-TE Hybrid......................................................................................................27
2.10 Optimal Tilt Angle.............................................................................................29
CHAPTER 3 – THEORETICAL BACKGROUND.........................................................32
3.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics.....................................................................32
3.2 Heat Transfer.......................................................................................................33
3.2.1 Heat Transfer by Conduction.......................................................................34
3.2.2 Heat Transfer by Convection.......................................................................36
3.2.3 Heat Transfer by Radiation..........................................................................38
3.3 Energy Falling in the PV Module........................................................................40
3.4 Photovoltaic Panel and the Hybrid Panel Efficiency...........................................44
3.5 The Heat Recovery System..................................................................................45
CHAPTER 4 – METHODOLOGY...................................................................................49
4.1 Flow of the Study................................................................................................49
4.2 Initial Data Gathering and Thermal Simulation of PV Panel..............................50
4.3 Materials..............................................................................................................55
4.4 Design and fabrication of the PV-TEG Prototype...............................................59
6.5. Design and Fabrication of Stand and Frame.......................................................62
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4.5 Instruments..........................................................................................................65
4.6 Experimental Set-up............................................................................................66
4.7 Environment........................................................................................................70
4.8 Experimental Procedure......................................................................................71
4.9 Bill of Materials and Laboratory Equipment/Apparatus.....................................75
4.10 Gantt Chart..........................................................................................................76
CHAPTER 5 – RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS............................................................78
5.1 Irradiance and Power Output...............................................................................78
5.2 Irradiance and Open Circuit Voltage...................................................................80
5.3 Irradiance and Current.........................................................................................82
5.4 Irradiance and PV Efficiency..............................................................................83
5.4 TEG power output and Carnot efficiency............................................................85
5.5 Irradiance and Cell Temperature.........................................................................86
5.6 Cell Temperature as a Factor of PV Panel Efficiency.........................................87
CHAPTER 6 – CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...................................90
6.1 Conclusions.........................................................................................................90
6.2 Recommendations...............................................................................................91
APPENDIX A....................................................................................................................93
APPENDIX B....................................................................................................................98
APPENDIX C..................................................................................................................100
APPENDIX D..................................................................................................................105
APPENDIX E..................................................................................................................110
APPENDIX F..................................................................................................................115
ix
APPENDIX G..................................................................................................................118
APPENDIX H..................................................................................................................127
APPENDIX I...................................................................................................................136
BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................146
CURRICULUM VITAE..................................................................................................152
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. (a) The device works as Seebeck effect (TEG), (b) the device works as Peltier
effect (TEC) (Elghool, A. et al., 2017)..............................................................................19
Figure 2. Practical TEG when P-N junctions connect in series to increase operating
voltage (Elghool, A. et al., 2017).......................................................................................19
Figure 3. Heat Transfer in Heatsink (https://northslopechillers.com/blog/heat-sinks-and-
process-cooling/)................................................................................................................23
Figure 4. Heat convection of a hot block heat sink surface (Elghool, A. et al., 2017)......24
Figure 5. Hypothetical optimal tilt of the PV panel perpendicular to the sunlight with
respect to sun rise and set..................................................................................................30
Figure 6. Perpendicular sunray to the PV panel surface at 1-hour interval from east to
west....................................................................................................................................30
Figure 7. First Law of Thermodynamics...........................................................................32
Figure 8. The three main modes of heat transfer are (a) conduction, (b) convection and (c)
radiation.............................................................................................................................33
Figure 9. Conduction Heat Transfer (https://northslopechillers.com/blog/heat-sinks-and-
process-cooling/)................................................................................................................34
Figure 10. Convection Heat Transfer (https://northslopechillers.com/blog/heat-sinks-and-
process-cooling/)................................................................................................................36
Figure 11. Radiation Heat Transfer (https://northslopechillers.com/blog/heat-sinks-and-
process-cooling/)................................................................................................................38
Figure 12. Convection and Radiation Heat Transfer from PV Module Surface to the
Environment..........................................................................................................………41
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Figure 13. Heat Transfer Model from TEG to the Ambient..............................................47
Figure 14. Flow of the Study.............................................................................................49
Figure 15. Isometric view of the thermal simulation of a PV panel..................................54
Figure 16. Back view of the thermal simulation of a PV panel.........................................54
Figure 17. Technical drawing of HV50W HaiVision panel that will be used for this study.
...........................................................................................................................................56
Figure 18. Technical drawing with specifications of an SP 1848-2745 SA Thermoelectric
Generator...........................................................................................................................57
Figure 19. Technical drawing with specification of an MK17 Pin Fin Heatsink..............58
Figure 20. Technical drawing of Photovoltaic-Thermoelectric Generator Hybrid...........59
Figure 21. TEG testing and hot- and cold- side identification..........................................60
Figure 22. Application of Thermal grease to TEG and heatsink surface..........................60
Figure 23. Schematic Diagram of a TEG Connected in Series.........................................61
Figure 24. Actual schematic diagram of a TEG connected in series.................................61
Figure 25. Technical drawing of the Solar PV panel Stand and Frame............................62
Figure 26. Technical drawing of the conventional- and hybrid- panel mounted on the
frame..................................................................................................................................63
Figure 27. Exploded view of the overall project prototype...............................................64
Figure 28. Measuring instruments used in conducting the experiment.............................65
Figure 29. The actual solar panel stand and frame with C- clamp tillt- locking system in
different view.....................................................................................................................66
Figure 30. Solar panel stand with both commercial photovoltaic panel and photovoltaic-
thermoelectric generator hybrid.........................................................................................67
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Figure 31. Establishing a horizontal plane surface in the ground using a level bar..........68
Figure 32. Actual solar panel orientation..........................................................................68
Figure 33. Actual set-up for Optimal tilt angle of the PV panel........................................70
Figure 34. Exploded geographical location of Sitio Galaxy, Danglag, Cebu....................71
Figure 35. Actual Solar Power Meter reading solar irradiance.........................................72
Figure 36. Actual measuring of ambient temperature, wind speed and humidity using
hygro-thermometer and anemometer.................................................................................72
Figure 37. Actual measuring of voltage and current at the same time of both panel types
using the measuring instruments simultaneously..............................................................73
Figure 38. Measuring of voltage and current of the Panel (Panel 1 – Commercial PV
Panel and Panel 2 – Hybrid system)..................................................................................73
Figure 39. Measurement of Voltage and Current of TEG-Electrically Connected in
Series..................................................................................................................................74
Figure 40. Actual measuring of temperatures of the Hybrid system at PV to TEG
junction, TEG to Heatsink, and Heatsink to ambient........................................................74
Figure 41. Hourly Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Power Output and Solar
Irradiance...........................................................................................................................78
Figure 42. Daily Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Power Output and Solar
Irradiance...........................................................................................................................79
Figure 43. Hourly Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Open Circuit Voltage and Solar
Irradiance...........................................................................................................................80
Figure 44. Daily Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Open Circuit Voltage and
Solar Irradiance..................................................................................................................81
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Figure 45. Hourly Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Current and Solar
Irradiance...........................................................................................................................82
Figure 46. Daily Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Current and Solar Irradiance.
...........................................................................................................................................83
Figure 47. Hourly Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Efficiency and Solar
Irradiance...........................................................................................................................84
Figure 48. Daily Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Efficiency and Solar
Irradiance...........................................................................................................................84
Figure 49. Carnot Efficiency as a factor of TEG Power Output.......................................85
Figure 50. Hourly Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Cell Temperature and Solar
Irradiance...........................................................................................................................86
Figure 51 Daily Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Cell Temperature and Solar
Irradiance...........................................................................................................................87
Figure 52. Cell Temperature as a Factor of Conventional PV Panel Efficiency...............88
Figure 53. Cell Temperature as a Factor of Hybrid Panel Efficiency...............................88
Figure 54. Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel (neglecting TEG output) Power Output
profile (day 1)....................................................................................................................93
Figure 55. Conventional Panel and Hybrid Panel (including TEG output) Power Output
profile (day1).....................................................................................................................93
Figure 56. Conventional Panel and Hybrid Panel (neglecting TEG output) Power Output
profile (day 2)....................................................................................................................94
profile (day2).....................................................................................................................94
xiv
profile (day 3)....................................................................................................................95
profile (day3).....................................................................................................................95
profile (day 4)....................................................................................................................96
profile (day4).....................................................................................................................96
profile (day 5)....................................................................................................................97
profile (day5).....................................................................................................................97
Figure 64. Conventional- and Hybrid Panel Voc neglecting TEG performance (day1). 100
Figure 65. Conventional- and Hybrid Panel Voc including TEG performance (day1)...100
Figure 73. Conventional- and Hybrid Panel Voc including TEG performance (day5)....104
xv
Figure 74. Conventional- and Hybrid Panel current neglecting TEG performance (day1).
.........................................................................................................................................105
Figure 75. Conventional- and Hybrid Panel current including TEG performance (day1).
.........................................................................................................................................105
.........................................................................................................................................106
.........................................................................................................................................106
.........................................................................................................................................107
.........................................................................................................................................107
.........................................................................................................................................108
.........................................................................................................................................108
.........................................................................................................................................109
.........................................................................................................................................109
Figure 84. Conventional Panel Efficiency Due to Cell Temperature (Day1)..................110
Figure 85. Hybrid Panel Efficiency Due to Cell Temperature (Day1)............................110
xvi
xvii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Data on the Philippine Annual Average Climate Conditions..............................11
Table 2. Period of Development of the TE materials (Wu, H. et al, 2015).......................18
Table 3. Estimated Waste Heat Source Temperatures of a Sample of Mid- and High-
temperature of TEG Applications (Elghool, A. et al., 2017) (LeBlanc, 2014).................21
Table 4. Thermal conductivities of common metals (Holman, 2010)...............................35
Table 5. Approximate values for convective heat-transfer coefficients (Holman, 2010)..37
Table 6. Typical values for the convection heat transfer coefficient h, under various
conditions (Kosky, 2013)...................................................................................................43
Table 7. PV Panel surface temperature at minimum and peak irradiance........................50
Table 8. Kinematic viscosity, coefficient of thermal expansion, and dynamic viscosity
based on specified ambient temperature............................................................................51
Table 9. Open circuit voltage and current generated of a thermoelectric generator
according to specific temperature difference.....................................................................57
Table 10. PV panel layers and specifications....................................................................58
Table 11. Optimal tilt angle of the PV panel in the Philippines (Malicdem, 2015)..........69
Table 12. Bill of Materials.................................................................................................75
Table 13. Bill of equipment/apparatus...............................................................................76
Table 14. Proposal Period..................................................................................................76
Table 15. Post- conduct of study period............................................................................77
Table 16. Hourly-basis Average of Power Output Enhancement of PV Panel with Heat
Recovery System...............................................................................................................80
Table 17. Percent enhancement/increase in power output (day 1)....................................98
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xix
LIST OF EQUATIONS
Equation 1. TEG Carnot Efficiency...................................................................................21
Equation 2. First law of Thermodynamics........................................................................32
Equation 3. Heat Transfer Rate per Unit Area..................................................................35
Equation 4. Heat Transfer..................................................................................................35
Equation 5. Heat Transfer by Convection.........................................................................37
Equation 6. Heat Transfer by Radiation............................................................................38
Equation 7. Net Heat Radiation.........................................................................................39
Equation 8. Radiation Heat Transfer of a Grey Surface....................................................39
Equation 9. Radiation Heat Transfer of an enclosed region..............................................39
Equation 10. Total Heat Received by a PV panel.............................................................40
Equation 11. Heat Loss at PV front Surface......................................................................40
Equation 12. Heat Flow Density by Convection...............................................................40
Equation 13. Heat Transfer Coefficient by free-air...........................................................41
Equation 14. Heat Transfer Coefficient due to Wind........................................................41
Equation 15. Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient.........................................................41
Equation 16. Nusselt Number of Free-Air.........................................................................42
Equation 17. Rayleigh Number.........................................................................................42
Equation 18. Grashof Number...........................................................................................42
Equation 19. Prandtl Number............................................................................................42
Equation 20. Cell Temperature..........................................................................................42
Equation 21. Radiation Heat Loss.....................................................................................42
Equation 22. Sky Temperature..........................................................................................42
xx
Equation 23. View Factor at the PV Front........................................................................43
Equation 24. View Factor at the PV Back.........................................................................43
Equation 25. Energy Stored in the PV Panel.....................................................................44
Equation 26. Solar Power..................................................................................................44
Equation 27. Theoretical PV power output.......................................................................44
Equation 28. Actual PV power output...............................................................................44
Equation 29. PV Theoretical Efficiency............................................................................44
Equation 30. PV Actual Efficiency...................................................................................44
Equation 31. PV cell efficiency at STC.............................................................................45
Equation 32. Efficiency of the hybrid system...................................................................45
Equation 33. Heat dissipation at TEG...............................................................................46
Equation 34. Thermal resistance between two points.......................................................46
Equation 35. Thermal resistance between junction and TIM............................................46
Equation 36. Thermal resistance between case to heat sink..............................................46
Equation 37. Thermal resistance between fins to ambient................................................47
Equation 38. Sum of thermal resistances...........................................................................47
Equation 39. July Optimal tilt angle equation...................................................................70
xxi
NOMENCLATURES
Symbol Description Symbol Description
A Area ( m2 ) NOCT Nominal Operating Cell
Temperature
g Acceleration due to gravity n Number of Cells
∆U Change in internal energy N Number of thermoelectric pairs
β Coefficient thermal expansion Nu Nusselt number
( )
I mA Pr Prandtl number
Current density
cm2
( mW )
μ Dynamic viscosity G
Solar irradiance 2
ZT Dimensionless thermoelectric S Seebeck coefficient
figure of merit
η Efficiency STC Standard test conditions
( kgJ℃ )
F View factor Cp
Specific heat
R Electrical Resistance T Temperature
( )
FF Pmax k Thermal conductivity
Fill factor
V oc I sc
( mW℃ )
2
Gr Grashoff Number R
Thermal resistance in ( ℃W )
Q Heat μ Thomson coefficient
h Heat transfer coefficient in t Time to cool/heat up
xxii
( W
2
m ℃ )
v Kinematic Viscosity V Velocity
L Length in meters (m) Ve Voltage
m Mass of the object in kg W Work done
Subscript Description Subscript Description
A Added max Maximum
a Ambient air min Minimum
C Cell OC open-circuit
c Cold pv Photovoltaic
ϵ Emissivity Function SC short-circuit
f Final s Surface
G Geometric Function TE Thermo-element
h Hot w Wind
L Loss
xxiii
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Azimuth Angle – is the angle between North, measured clockwise around the
observer’s horizon, and a celestial body i.e. (Sun, Moon).
 Carnot Efficiency – is the highest efficiency that a heat engine can achieve when
operating between two temperatures or at temperature gradients.
 Convective resistance – the reciprocal of the product of the convective heat
transfer coefficient hm and the surface area A of the object emitting heat.
 Encapsulant – A material used for enclosing something in or as if in a capsule.
 Glass Transmissivity – the amount of light able to pass through a material without
the material reflecting or absorbing it.
 Heat Dissipation – is the movement of heat away from its source into the
surrounding environment and this can happen by three methods: Conduction,
Radiation and Convection.
 Heat Flux – the rate of heat energy transfer through a given surface (W) and the
heat flux density 𝝆 is the heat flux per unit area (Wm2)
 Seebeck effect - a voltage differential between two dissimilar electrical
conductors or semiconductors results from the difference in their properties.
xxiv
 Solar Irradiance – is the output of light energy from the entire disk of the sun,
measured at the Earth. It is looking at the Sun as we would a star rather than as an
image.
 Thermal conductance – is the time rate of steady state heat flow through a unit
area of a material or construction induced by a unit temperature difference
W
between the body surface in 2 .
m K
 Thermoelements – a device for measuring small currents consisting of a wire
heating element and a thermocouple in electrical contact with it.
 Waste heat – is the collection of heat created as an undesired by-product of the
operation of a piece of equipment or machinery to fill a desired purpose
elsewhere.
xxv
CHAPTER 1 – THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE
1.1 Introduction
The combined dilemmas of increasing consumption of energy and global warming resulting
from the use of fossil fuel become detrimental for human beings. These lead to the growing
interest to harness and put to full utilization of the renewable energy sources that are sustainable,
green and cheap electrical power. The sun as one of the renewable energy sources is the most
potent source for human kind, this is because the solar radiation that reaches the Earth surface is
approximately 1.2 ×105 TW, which is far greater than the energy consumed by humans
(Guiqiang Li et al., 2018). One of the popular renewable energy harnessing products is the
photovoltaic (PV) module and PV array systems that can directly convert solar radiation into
electricity. It has a wide variety that are commercially available. However, during the
photovoltaic (PV) cell operation, only around 15% of solar radiation is converted to electricity
with the rest converted to heat, aside the fact that some of the irradiance is lost to the environment
due to convection and radiation. Furthermore, photovoltaic PV systems might produce efficiency
reduction and cause possible damage to the PV module if the operating temperature increases
(H.G. Teo, P.S. Lee, M.N.A. Hawlader, 2012).
According to the (Deutsche GIZ, REDC & WWF Philippines, 2013), there are about 161.7
watts ∙ m−2 of average solar radiation based on the sunlight duration in the Philippines. This
means that only about 24.255 watts ∙ m−2 is converted by a single PV panel while 137.455
watts ∙ m−2 will be converted into heat, if neglecting energy losses due to convection and
radiation from the PV panel surface to the ambient. Based on the review paper of (H.G. Teo, P.S.
Lee, M.N.A. Hawlader, 2012), there are various methods in improving the efficiency of PV solar
1
cell, such as cooling using blower, evaporation cooling, solar collectors or Peltier effect using
thermoelectric generator (TEG). Among these methods, Peltier effect using thermoelectric
generator (TEG) mounted into a heatsink has the most promising application. Despite the
inefficiency of the current technology, it offered distinct advantageous effect including the
absence of harmful wastes, no working liquid required, operation in solid-state, wide-ranging
scalability, extended life span of consistent operation, and its nature of low maintenance
operation because of simplicity and absence of chemical reactions or mechanical parts (Tie &
Tan, 2013). It could also work in two ways; it could produce electrical power from a difference of
temperature and help mitigate the increase of temperature in the PV panel (Elghool, A. et al.,
2017).
In the review paper of (Jouhara et al., 2021) specified the principle of the TEG where a
temperature gradient which produces a voltage is the Seebeck or the thermoelectric effect. In
order for the TEG to work and produce a temperature gradient, one side of the TEG shall be
exposed to the PV panel while the other side is with an air-cooled heat sinks allowing smooth
irreversible heat transfer flow from hot side to the cool side of the TEG. Thus, heatsink will be
used to transfers heat from the cold side of TEG by conduction and convection by transferring
heat outside the system. (Khattak & Muhammad Ali, 2019) reviewed the geometry and heat
transfer of heat sinks and concluded that perforated geometries have better heat transfer rate. A
circular perforation has an improved thermal performance compared to other shapes, and
staggered fin arrangements showed enhanced results than inline arrangements. Available
literature concludes wavy and splayed pin and plate fin heat sinks to perform well under natural
and low speed air convection scenarios.
In this paper, both driven commercial photovoltaic panel and photovoltaic-thermoelectric
generator system will be used for standard comparative analysis in terms of electrical and thermal
2
performance. The hybrid photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator system is composed of
photovoltaic panel, thermoelectric generator (TEG) and heatsink. The hybrid system is design to
decrease the temperature of PV module that can boost electrical efficiency and also utilize the
waste heat from the panel by Seebeck effect using thermoelectric generator (TEG) to generate
additional power output (Martin, Caballero, & Diaz, 2013). Furthermore, the use of a heat sink in
the back of the solar panel is one method by which to reduce the panel’s temperature, because the
heat sink increases the conventional heat transfer and heat dissipation. (Karim Egab et al., 2020).
In a comparative analysis of the electrical and thermal performance of photovoltaic panel,
standard testing procedures are often used. This electrical and thermal efficiency characterization
is often published by manufacturers such that engineers and researchers can estimate the panel
performance for a given application (Fine, Dworkin, & Friedman, 2018). However, one drawback
of this standard testing is encountered when a hybrid panel is being considered. Thus, both driven
commercial photovoltaic panel and photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator system will be tested
simultaneously at specified time intervals, temperature, weather condition, orientation, tilting and
operation. This will provide consistent data for comparative analysis of the electrical and thermal
performance of solar driven commercial photovoltaic panel and photovoltaic-
thermoelectric generator system.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The Photovoltaic panel does not solely convert incident solar energy into electricity,
it also generates heat within the system, which is one of the reasons that its conversion
efficiency degrade over time. Every PV panel has temperature coefficient, for example,
around −0.3 percent per °C. This only indicates that for every 1°C increase from the
3
working temperature, there will be a decrease of 0.3% with the panel’s conversion
efficiency. Furthermore, the Photovoltaic panel's working life is reduced for the same
reason. Many researchers integrated cooling systems to the PV panel wherein the waste
heat in the PV panel is dissipated from the system to the surroundings. While in this
study, the researchers opt to focus with waste heat recovery and compare electrical and
thermal performance of a commercial panel with a PV-TE hybrid, wherein, data shall be
gathered at a 9-hour period with respect to 1-hour of data gathering.
Specifically, this study answers the following questions:
1. What are the current, voltage, and power output of a conventional panel? How
about a hybrid panel neglecting and considering TEG performance?
2. How much is the increase of power output of a conventional panel when a
heat recovery is installed?
3. What is the efficiency of a conventional panel? How about the efficiency of a
hybrid panel neglecting and considering TEG performance?
4. What is the enhancement of efficiency of a conventional panel when a heat
recovery is installed?
5. What is the thermal or Carnot efficiency of a TEG?
1.3 Objectives
This research project aims to incorporate low waste heat recovery system using TEG
and heatsink to the commercial PV panels. The researchers shall further investigate
4
changes with the conversion efficiency of the conventional PV panel to that of the hybrid
PV-TEG.
The objectives of the research work are to:
1. Design and fabricate an integrated PV-TEG hybrid.
2. Design and fabricate a PV panel stand with supporting frame which is good for
two experimental variables.
3. Investigate voltage, current, and power output of a conventional panel and a panel
when a heat recovery is installed.
4. Evaluate the conversion efficiency of a conventional panel and identify changes
in efficiencies when a heat recovery is installed.
5. Investigate the effect of cell temperature to the efficiency of PV panel.
6. Evaluate the thermal efficiency of a TEG and investigate its power output.
1.4 Scopes and Limitations
This study focuses on the thermal and electrical performance of a 50-watts HV50W
conventional panel and a PV-TEG hybrid. Data gathering is conducted during daytime
from exactly 8:00 in the morning and ends up 4:00 in the afternoon. Data such as
irradiance, voltage, current, and power output are gathered. Voltage and current are from
an open-circuit PV panel and not from a PV panel system (inverter, charge controller,
battery, utility meter, and fusible plug). Humidity, wind speed, temperature which are
some factors affecting PV panel performance are also recorded.
5
The study does not cover other probable factors affecting the performance of a PV
panel such as dust accumulation, elevations, and solar tracking based on the quality of
solar radiation. In this study, however, only a fixed but optimal tilt angle based on the
data and calculations of (Malicdem E. , 2015) was used in the experimental set-up. Three
set-ups are initially proposed including the conventional PV panel, with two hybrid
systems; thermal recovery system mounted at the back of the PV back sheet and a
thermal recovery system mounted at the solar cells of a modified PV panel. However, the
researchers do not include a PV panel modification in this study due to novelty of the
design, and material and fabrication availability.
1.5 Significance of the Study
There were existing eco-friendly and renewable power generation technologies such
as the Photovoltaic panels. The PV panel, however, comes with disadvantages such as the
waste heat it produces which decreases its conversion efficiency and its working life.
Researches and innovations with cooling technologies seeks to improve its conversion
efficiency. In this study, researchers will employ waste heat recovery in the PV panel
using TEG. In the long run, this study shall contribute to improvising PV panel, and in
addressing electricity crisis after every typhoon that may hit in the Philippines, especially
those strong typhoons that greatly damages power lines.
6
Specifically, this study shall be beneficial to the following;
Economy
Existing PV panels in the Philippine market is costly, yet regardless of the cost,
consumers greatest concern is the working life of their PV panels as PV systems are
costly only during installation and can help saves money in the latter part. One of the
issues is a decrease of conversion efficiency of the PV panel wherein only about a
few actual power outputs is produced by the panel when compared to the ideal power
output when they purchase it to the market. In addition, the decrease of its working
life especially at a very high climate region shall make the economic value unworthy
with the consumer. In fact, the outcome of the study shall be able to introduce a
system that shall be beneficial with them.
Environment
Innovations that deals with increasing the conversion efficiency of existing solar
power technologies and increasing the power output it can produce, either a hybrid
system to recover waste heat or solely cooling technologies to dissipate waste heat in
the surroundings, shall increase contingency and reliability of renewable solar-driven
7
power technologies. Which means that, nonrenewable and contributors to harmful
greenhouse gas energy sources will gradually be converted to the renewable and
green energy sources, wherein, global warming if not reduced shall not get worsen.
Future Studies
In the context of Philippine literature and studies, more researchers and innovators
are encouraged to conduct the same study by addressing the limits and or altering the
data that shall be collected in this study. The credibility and reliability of waste heat
recovery systems and cooling systems for the PV panel relies on continual and further
researches. This will help future studies to find out the best and innovative way of
maximizing the conversion efficiency of the PV panel or the hybrid system.
8
CHAPTER 2 – REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 The Philippine Environment Conditions
The Philippines is located in the western Pacific Ocean, and sits above the equator,
surrounded by naturally warm waters that will likely get even warmer as average sea-
surface temperatures continue to rise. According to PAGASA, the Philippines has a
tropical climate. Although the sun shines for almost all year round, it has two seasons.
The dry seasons, which start between November and May, and a wet season, which falls
from June to October. However, in recent years, due to climate change, summer have
been extending into June and July. Solar studies are best conducted at these dry seasons
where sunlight is expected to have a high irradiance.
The annual average temperature of 26 ℃ are experienced across the country with
May being the hottest month of the year. The mean annual temperature of the Philippines
is 26 ℃ based on the average of all-weather stations in the Philippines excluding Baguio.
The coolest month occurs on January with a mean temperature of 25.5 ℃ while the
warmest month falls on May with a mean average temperature of 28.3 ℃. Latitude is
insignificant factor in variation of temperature while altitude shows a relatively high
contrast in temperature. This means that since Baguio has an elevation of 1500 meters,
this explains the mean temperature of the area is 18.3 ℃. This is the reason why Baguio
City is known as the summer capital of the Philippines. The difference between the mean
annual temperature of the southernmost station in Zamboanga and that of the
northernmost station in Laoag is insignificant. Therefore, there is essentially no
9
difference in the mean annual temperature of the places in Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao
measured at near sea level, with Cebu only having 15m elevation from sea level
(Philippines Geography, 2022).
Humidity refers to the moisture content of the atmosphere. Because of the
Philippine’s high temperature and its surrounding bodies of water, the Philippines has a
relatively high humidity. The average monthly relative humidity varies between 71
percent in March and 85 percent in September. The combination of warm temperature
and high relative and absolute humidity give rise to a high sensible temperature
throughout the archipelago. It is especially uncomfortable during March to May when the
temperature and Humidity attain their maximum level.
2.1.1 Philippine Annual Average Climate
According to the Philippine Weather and Climate, the average temperatures in the
Philippines usually range between 21℃ and 32℃ with the average yearly temperature
coming in at around 26.6 ℃ . Temperature can fluctuate between regions and depending
on the season. The table below shows the average amount of rainfall in millimetres per
day (mm/day) during the month of January to December. August has the average total
depth on rainfall (mm) is the highest while during May, the amount of rainfall is very
low.
The data in the table implies that the best time to conduct the study is between
February to April because of its low amount of rainfall as these months are known as the
10
hot dry season months, but it can be optional to conduct solar experiments during May to
July as it is months which belongs to cold dry season.
Table 1. Data on the Philippine Annual Average Climate Conditions.

Average
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
(mm)
Rainfall
134.2
93.9
81.7
86
171.5
246.1
313
322.7
281.3
258.3
229.6
200.5
T (℃ ) 25.1 25.4 26.3 27.4 27.8 27.4 27 26.9 26.8 26.6 26.2 25.7
T min ( ℃ ) 21.3 21.5 22.1 23.2 23.7 23.6 23.3 23.3 23.2 23 22.6 22
T max ( ℃ ) 28.7 29.3 30.4 31.6 31.9 31.2 30.6 30.4 30.6 30.3 29.8 29.1
2.2 Solar Energy and Radiation
Solar Radiation is measured at top of the meteorological mast at the shore laboratory
using an Epply Model PSP (Precision Spectral Pyranometer). Approximately 99% of
solar or short wave, radiation at the earth’s surface is contained in the region from 0.3 to
3.0 μm, which corresponds to wavelength between the ultraviolet and near infrared.
Above the earth’s atmosphere, solar radiation has an intensity of approximately 1380
watts per square meter (W/m2). This value is known as Solar Constant. At our latitude,
the value at the surface is approximately 1000 W/m2 on a clear day at solar noon in the
summer months. Solar energy is one of the most abundant energy resources that we could
harness from our sun. It is one of the most promising sources of energy and its share in
the global energy mix has steadily increase over the years (Deutsche GIZ, REDC &
11
WWF Philippines, 2013). Harnessing the power of the sun is nothing new. From the
introduction of solar-powered calculators in the late 1970s, the world never stopped
searching for ways to use the sun to generate power for vehicles, homes and industries, it
is because solar power is free, clean, no spills that can harm the environment and no
greenhouse gas emission (Deutsche GIZ, REDC & WWF Philippines, 2013).
Solar energy is one of the solutions to decrease dependence on the increasing prices
of fossil fuel. Most of the Philippine’s supply of crude oil and finish product came from
the Middle East. But with the aid of more renewable resources like solar energy, the
Philippines will become less dependent on foreign oil and reduce the country’s exposure
to geo-political conflicts as sunlight is accessible to all (D.S. Zusammenarbeit,2013).
Solar Technologies were embraced worldwide with a global cumulative installed
capacity. In PVBS report, the International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that global
solar PV installations have increased in total of 28.4 percent in 2012 (Deutsche GIZ,
REDC & WWF Philippines, 2013). Germany, China and Italy are the top three markets
for solar technologies. The European photovoltaic industry association (EPIEA) says that
solar is now the third most important renewable energy resources in terms of global
installed capacity, behind hydro and wind energy (Deutsche GIZ, REDC & WWF
Philippines, 2013).
In the Philippines, the potential of solar energy is even greater than the aspirational
target of 1528 MW attributed to solar in the National Renewable Energy Plan until 2030.
12
Base on the Department of Energy’s 2009-2030 Power Development Plan (PDP), the
country’s energy consumption is seen searching 149,067 gigawatt-hour (GWH) by 2030
from an estimated demand of 86,809 GWH by 2018 and actual demand of 55,417 GWH
in 2008. Solar may be convenient, free and environment friendly, however, (Ugli, 2019)
in his study, states that there are some disadvantage of using solar energy. The surface of
the photovoltaic panel and mirror photovoltaic should always be cleaned of different dust
and certain large areas of solar photovoltaic stations can be a challenge for cleaning but
fortunately, these problems are being solve for most modern solar cells are polished on
the mirror surface. Also, the effectiveness of photovoltaic plants will be reduced, thus, it
needs to be equipped with a cooling system.
2.3 The Solar Panel: Photovoltaics
Solar panels, also known as PV (Photovoltaic) panels, are renewable green energy
technology held as one of the key solutions to problems caused by nonrenewable and
carbon-emitting energy resources. It is derived from the Greek words φως -phos for light
and -volt for electricity, which is a tribute to the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745-
1827) (Jäger, K. et. al., 2014). A PV module is composed of a series of crystalline solar
cells (typically 60,72, or 96 cells) packed together within a metal frame that converts
incident solar radiation (in the form of energy particles known as photons) to DC direct
current (Yousef, 2021). With respect to actual conditions, operating efficiency of a
panel is dependent to solar irradiance, panel orientation, dust and dirt, shading,
temperature, latitude, and time of year (Svarc, Most Efficient Solar Panels 2022, 2022).
(Mustafa, R.J. et. al., 2020) obtained 8.80% reduction in the PV panel power output and
13
11.86% efficiency from dust accumulation in their study. Also, (Svarc, Solar Panel
Construction, 2022) reviewed that temperature, humidity, wind, and UV radiation can
all cause stress on a solar panel.
In a sunny weather, cell temperature ranges 20-30 ℃ higher than ambient resulting to
8-15% reduction in total power output upon the type of solar cell and its temperature
coefficient measured in % /℃. A monocrystalline panel have an average temperature
coefficient of -0.38% /℃, while polycrystalline panels are at -0.40 % / ℃ higher, while a
detailed TC is presented in figure 1. (Svarc, Most Efficient Solar Panels 2022, 2022).
Figure 1. Solar module- power and temperature comparison according to temperature
coefficient.
14
A component of a typical solar PV panel is exhibited in figure 2. The aluminum frame
protects the laminated section's edge and provides a solid foundation for mounting the
solar panel (Svarc, Solar Panel Construction, 2022).
Figure 2. Components of a Solar PV module (Svarc, Solar Panel Construction, 2022).
The front glass sheet (typically tempered glass 3.0 to 4.0 mm thick) is designed to
protect and withstand hail stones or airborne debris with a diameter of about 25 mm
m
traveling up to 27 , and temperature changes. High transmissive glass with a very low
s
iron content and anti-reflective coating on the rear side (reducing loss and improve light
transmission) is used by most manufacturers (Svarc, Solar Panel Construction, 2022). As
the principal component, cells (classified as mono- or poly-crystalline) of about 0.1 mm
thick that is made of either p-type or n-type silicon, is directly proportional to the
efficiency of a PV panel (Chandra, 2021) (Svarc, Solar Panel Construction, 2022).

15
Another PV panel component is the Encapsulant EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate), which
is a highly transparent, long-lasting polymer that help prevents moisture and dirt from
entering the cells, absorbs shock, and protects the cells and interconnecting wires from
vibration and sudden hail stone impact (Svarc, Solar Panel Construction, 2022). A back
sheet made up of polymers (PP, PET, and PVF) that has thermal stability and long-term
UV-resistance characteristics, is the rear most layer of common PV panels acting as
moisture barrier, providing both mechanical and electrical insulation (Svarc, Solar Panel
Construction, 2022).
A PV panel does not harness 100% of the total irradiance; part of the energy is lost in
the environment by convection and or radiation from both the surface of the PV panel
and at the rear side. Furthermore, an energy balance for the PV module is presented in the
succeeding section, wherein, the total energy in the PV panel is due to the electrical
energy, total energy stored, and the energy lost in both front and rear side of the PV panel
due to heat flux conditions (including convection, radiation, and conduction).
2.4 The Thermoelectric Generator
TEG is one of the potential devices that offered distinct advantages in structure
and function, which has the potential to transform energy emitted from factories, power
plants, computers, automobiles, solar panel, and human bodies into electricity by the use
of the Seebeck effect (Martin, Caballero, & Diaz, 2013). Despite of the inefficient of the
TEG, it offered distinct advantages effect including the absence of harmful wastes, no
16
working liquid required, operation in solid-state, wide-ranging scalability, the extended
life span of consistent operation, and its nature of low maintenance operation because of
simplicity and absence of chemical reactions or mechanical parts (Tie & Tan, 2013). It
can be fabricated on many types of substrates like ceramic, polymers, and silicon
(Siddique et al, 2017). Furthermore, it could also work in two ways; it could produce
electrical power from a difference of temperature and help mitigate the increase of
temperature in the PV panel (Elghool, A. et al., 2017).
(Wu, H. et al, 2015) investigated in the area of space missions that the development
of material reaching a conversion efficiency to 20% happened in certain applications of
TE devices. Also, the NASA Jet had successfully conducted experiments in their
laboratories to develop advanced bulk materials capable of long-term operation at
temperatures up to 700 °C at more than 20% conversion efficiency (Nesrine & Ismail,
2020). The performance of TE materials has been significantly encouraged since Seebeck
discovered the thermoelectric phenomena in 1821 that are commonly used to convert
thermal energy into an electrical one, they are still far from the competition. As a
consequence, either more engineering of existing materials or discovering of completely
new materials is crucial (Wu, H. et al, 2015). The development of TEG conversion
efficiency since TEG discovery can be divided into three periods, as shown on table 2.
Nowadays, any successful thermo-electric development used domestically relies
on the development of thermo-electric materials. While the development of
17
thermoelectric materials aims to increase efficiency and merit of the TEGs through novel
materials (Martinez, 2012).
Table 2. Period of Development of the TE materials (Wu, H. et al, 2015).
Periods Conversion Efficiency ZT
Before 1950 <5% <1.0
1950-1990 No exciting breakthrough -
After 1990 Up to 20% >2.0
For the purpose of this paper, this device will be used in application to the hybrid
system to decrease the temperature of PV module that can boost electrical efficiency and
also utilized the waste heat from the panel by Seebeck effect using thermoelectric
generator (TEG) to generate additional power output (Martin, Caballero, & Diaz, 2013).
Also, as an alternative from the use of fossil fuel, which is leading to an ever-increasing
energy cost, in order to save energy, to provide cheap electrical power and protect the
environment.
2.5 TEG Structure
The TEG structure constitutes of a number of modules. Each module is made of
many thermocouples (TCs) connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel. The
material used in these junctions are of p-type and n-type TE materials. The addition of
accessories as if cooling system, heat absorber, electric insulator, electric conductor, and
ceramic substrate are auxiliary to the basic TE modules array increases the efficiency of
18
the TEG. One module can generate 1 to 125 W of power. This can increase to 5 kW when
modularly connected. The highest temperature difference (DT) between the hot and cold
sides could go as high as 70 ᵒC (Elghool, A. et al., 2017).
Figure 1. (a) The device works as Seebeck effect (TEG), (b) the device works as Peltier
effect (TEC) (Elghool, A. et al., 2017).
19
Figure 2. Practical TEG when P-N junctions connect in series to increase operating
voltage (Elghool, A. et al., 2017).
The modules operation is in solid state and devoid of mechanical parts. Thus,
there is a reduction in the occurrence of wear and tear within the moving parts. This
makes them dependable and durable. They can run more than 100,000 h of operation.
The structure of the modules is simple. The common module structure is shown in figure
3 and figure 4.
2.6 Application of Thermoelectric Power Generator
When classifying TEG applications for power generation, the TEG can be divided
into low power generation and high-power generation. Low power generation can
generate power from 5 𝞵W to 1 W, where from 1 W and above the TEG is considered as
high-power generation (Elsgeikh, M. H., 2014) and (Twaha, S. et al, 2016). High power
generation category consists of several TEG models connected together to generate big
amount of power. Low power generation TEG generates a small amount of power to
operate small devices such as watches, pacemakers and hearing aids (Elghool, A. et al.,
2017).
Low Power Generation Waste Heat Thermo-Electric Generators were created as a
standard-alone power generation technology due to its features as mentioned above.
These TEGs are used in large-scale applications such as in biomedical, military,
20
aerospace, and remote power. Mobile communications refer to electric devices that are
embedded in other bodies and use power-generation technology. They include iPods,
MP3 players, and smartphones. Others are used in the medical field like cardiac
pacemakers and hearing aids. The power needs of the electric devices incorporated in
other bodies range from 5 W to 1 W. They have a life expectancy of up to 5 years
(Elghool, A. et al., 2017).
High Power Generation Waste heat thermo-electric generators are with high
output power are mostly employed in vehicle engines and industries. The industries of
iron and steel, chemicals, petroleum refining, forest products, and food and beverage
utilize tremendous amounts of energy, much of which is lost to the environment as
exhaust heat. Table 3 shows waste-heat source temperatures as a sample of mid- and high
temperature TEG applications. The thermal efficiency of TEG is determined by the
Carnot efficiency equation.
Table 3. Estimated Waste Heat Source Temperatures of a Sample of Mid- and High-
temperature of TEG Applications (Elghool, A. et al., 2017) (LeBlanc, 2014)
Application Source temperature range (°C)
Automotive exhaust 400-700
Diesel generator exhaust ~500
Primary aluminum Hall–Heroult 700-900
cells
Glass melting regenerative furnace ~140
21
Solar Panel 15-65
-https://news.energysage.com/solar-
panel-temperature-overheating/
( )
T h−T c Equation 1. TEG Carnot Efficiency
ηTE =
Th
where T h and T c are temperature of the hot and cold sides, respectively.
The selection of the two temperatures is based on the use of the thermo-electric
generators. Power generation involves the development of TEG waste-heat-recovery
systems. The consequence of this is a generation of electric power by the TEG that is
proportional to the temperature gradient (Elghool, A. et al., 2017).
In the review paper of (Elghool, A. et al., 2017) the results show that with a
W
figure of merit of 0.59 and sun based insolation of less than 1000 2 , the system can
m
produce 0.19 kWh of electrical power and around 300 L of warm water at 55 C in a
single day, with collector efficiency, power output, and electrical efficiency increasing to
47.54 %, 64.80W, and 1.59 %, respectively. In this large-scale application, thermo-
electric power generators offer a potential alternative of generating electricity by
industrial waste heat. This will contribute towards solving the universal energy problem,
and simultaneously help to some extent mitigation of the global warming phenomenon.
2.7 The Heatsink
22
Heatsink are structures used to move away heat. They are made of metal, such as
aluminum and copper, which has a high thermal conductivity. In this passive heat transfer
mode, the heat is transported by conduction; as the heat sinks absorb more energy than
they emit, they become hotter than the surfaces they contact. This means that their
temperature stays steady at an acceptable level while keeping yours below the danger
zone (Sidebotham, 2015). Passive convection is also a key concept in this area. This is
when air currents flow due to temperature variations which are caused by solar radiation.
It is a natural phenomenon that helps the solar panel to be more efficient (Ravimukar, S.
et. al., 2017).
Furthermore, heatsinks primarily use conduction and convection to remove
unwanted heat. Heat generated by the device is piped or captured by a layer of thermal
interface material. This thermal layer must eliminate all the spaces under the heat sink
base, even miniscule ones due to surface roughness. Conduction relies upon direct
contact, so more complete coverage is more effective heat transfer (Ravimukar, S. et. al.,
2017).
23
Figure 3. Heat Transfer in Heatsink (https://northslopechillers.com/blog/heat-sinks-and-
process-cooling/).
2.7.1 Passive Heat Sinks
Passive heat exchangers with finned radiators, does not rely with moving
mechanical components (fan that is designed to force airflow), in order to transfer heat
from a hot system to a cold system, as in figure 6. The heat sink transfer heat to air
essentially by natural convection.
This type of heat sinks is usually preferred in cooling electronic systems; they are
cost-effective, simple to find and assemble, and they generate no power consumption or
noise (Benallou, 2021). It is usually attached on the cold side of the TEG for heat
24
dissipation through natural convection where it is not dependent with air flow as shown
in figure 5. This type of heat sink has a limited capability with respect to power
dissipation and rare when utilized with TEG at applications with low power density.
Figure 4. Heat convection of a hot block heat sink surface (Elghool, A. et al., 2017).
2.7.2 Active Heat Sink
These are heat exchangers wherein the flow of heat transfer medium is forced by
a fan or pump. They can be further classified into two categories: Single-phase heat sinks,
where the cooling fluid (liquid or gas) does not undergo any phase change. Single-phase
heat exchangers used for electronic systems cooling includes, forced convection heat
sinks (simplest), cold plate heat sinks, microchannel coolers, refrigerated coolers
(Benallou, 2021).
25
Forced convection heat sinks typically formed of finned surfaces, where air is
forced in the fins using a fan, directly mounted at top of the heat sink to dissipate the air
W
in the surroundings. This is applicable when Qmax exceeds to 70 2 , using a fan to force
cm
air though the finned heatsink increases significantly heat transfer to air; convective heat
W
transfer coefficients can reach value as high as 3,000 . In comparison, this
m2 ℃
W
coefficient is between 25 and 500 2 for natural convection heat sink. However, a fan
m ℃
will require an additional power supply (Benallou, 2021).
An important parameter in the design of a forced convection heatsink is the flow
rate of the cooling fluid going through the fins of the sink. Higher flow rate will mean a
greater cooling fluid velocity, leading to a better convection heat transfer. The flow rate
also impacts the pressure drop across the heatsink given that for a given fin configuration,
higher flow rates generate higher pressure drops.
2.8 The Heat Recovery
Heat recovery is a system that utilizes heat rejected from a cooling process and
thus provided useful cooling and heating simultaneously. Recovering waste heat is more
feasible and easier when temperatures are in the medium to high range while recovering
low temperature waste heat is more challenging. The main reason for this is mainly
because of the problems associated with the method of collective the waste heat. (Wang
D. , 2013). In solar panel the temperature will generally range between 15 °C and 35 °C
26
during which solar cells will produce at maximum efficiency. However, solar panels can
get as hot as 65 °C (149 °F) at which point solar cell efficiency will be hindered. (How
Hot do Solar Panels Get? Effect of Temperature on Solar Performance, 2012).
A heat recovery in solar panel is a device that takes the heat from an area of the
solar panel and uses it for somewhere else. There are varieties of heat recovery
technologies for capturing and recovering waste heat, the most common of which are
energy recovery heat exchangers in the form of a waste heat recovery unit (H. Jouhara, et
al., 2018). (Hatami & Ganji, 2014) presented six technologies for engine waste heat
recovery in their review papers. These are the thermoelectric generators (TEG), Organic
Rankine Cycle (ORC), six stroke engines, turbochargers, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
and exhaust heat exchangers (EHEXs). In this paper, the device Thermoelectric
Generator or also known as TEG which can capture, recover and produce electricity
while their power cycles are well established. The temperature from the source of waste
heat is dispensable to ensure efficiency in generating power. Furthermore, the heat sink
will also be used in heat recovery in this hybrid. The TEG and heat sink will be further
discussed on the next section.
As solar panels need heat to operate, and the amount of solar energy a panel can
collect is limited by the surface temperature of the panel at which it operates. Thus, heat
recovery allows solar panels to operate at much lower temperatures and thus significantly
higher efficiencies than previously possible. In addition, the heat generated by the solar
panel must be removed. This enhances efficiency and saves money over time.
27
2.9 PV-TE Hybrid
In the study of (Ruzaimi A. et al., 2021), an experimental investigation of novel
integrated photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid devices was conducted. The results
confirmed that the hybrid device can effectively expand the utilization of the solar
spectrum, and also that the effective heat transfer can improve the performance of PV-TE
hybrid devices. In their study, an insulating layer was deposited on the back of the PV
cell to avoid an electrical connection between the PV cell and the TE device. The
integrated PV-TE hybrid device has been the subject of an extensive experimental
research utilizing a system that consists of a cooling device and a solar simulator. Their
experimental results indicate that the integrated hybrid design can increase the PV cell's
electrical output. In order to reduce the thermal resistance between the PV cell and the TE
device, thermal greases with various thermal conductivities are also employed.
Furthermore, according to their experimental findings, a thinner insulating layer
can greatly accelerate heat transfer and boost the functionality of an integrated PV-TE
hybrid system. As a result, their design makes use of an integrated couple consisting of a
PV cell and TE device that is more compatible and effective. In this paper the hybrid
system, the experimental procedure and set-up is different from their study. However, the
results of their study have significant impact to this paper as it provides valuable
information and data, particularly in enhancing of the photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid
device performance.
28
(Lamba & Kaushik, 2016) conducted their study entitled, “Solar driven concentrated
photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid system: Numerical analysis and optimization”. They
showed a theoretical model of a concentrated photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid system
that has been developed and analyzed in MATLAB environment. Through numerical
method, they determined the temperatures of photovoltaic module (PV) and hot and cold
side of thermoelectric generator (TEG) by iteratively solving the energy balance
equations. The study considers the effects of hot and cold side thermal resistances,
thermoelectric properties, fill factor, geometry of thermoelectric module, load resistance
and electrical current on the performance of the hybrid system. The results showed that
the optimum value of CG for maximum power output of the hybrid system is 5.5 kW/m2
and it is 14% higher than the corresponding power output of CPV system alone.
The maximum power output and efficiency of the hybrid system increase by 5%
as compared to the corresponding values of concentrated PV system. The percentage
increase in power output and efficiency of hybrid PV–TEG system with respect to PV
system alone are 13.26% and 13.37% respectively at C = 3 and n = 127. This indicate
that the contribution of thermoelectric electric generator to the total power output of
hybrid system increases at higher concentration ratios which improves the overall
performance of the hybrid system. Although the researchers will not be using a
concentrator but the study of (Lamba & Kaushik, 2016) would be useful as guide in
conducting this study. Several aspects such as changing the phase of thermoelectric
electric generator on recovering waste heat, and manipulation on the number of TEG legs
shall not be considered in this study.
29
2.10 Optimal Tilt Angle
The efficiency and power output of a solar panel depends on the amount of
incident solar radiation from the sunlight (Mamun, M.A.A. et al., 2022). The tilt and
azimuth angles shall be considered in conducting the experiment with the fact that the
correct orientation of the solar panel with respect to the solar radiation would result to an
increase with the value of its output energy (Jumaa & Adbar, 2020).
Theoretically, the solar panel shall approximately be 90ᵒ to the sunlight in order to
receive maximum solar radiation as shown in figure 5. In this case, the solar PV panel
shall be tilted in such a way that the panel is directed to incident solar radiation (90ᵒ)
from sunrise to sunset and within the time span that the experiment shall be conducted.
The PV panel is titled a certain angle at an hourly basis, maintaining perpendicular
sunray with respect to panel surface as shown in figure 6.
30
Figure 5. Hypothetical optimal tilt of the PV panel perpendicular to the sunlight with
respect to sun rise and set.
Figure 6. Perpendicular sunray to the PV panel surface at 1-hour interval from east to
west.
Philippines is located at optimal exposure to sunlight where the sun’s rays directly
hits the ground perpendicularly half of the year. (Malicdem E. , 2015) presented data on
the average values for the optimal angle of solar panels using the solar insolation rate
correction to the perpendicular angle of the sun’s ray to the ground from 33 places in the
Philippines including Cebu. Any resulting negative tilt angle indicates a solar panel
facing north from the horizontal, otherwise, the PV panel is facing south from the
horizontal when the tilt angle is positive.
31
CHAPTER 3 – THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
3.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that studies a system's energy and work.
The first law of thermodynamics or also known as the law of conservation of energy
states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it can only be converted from one to
another (Hall, 2021). According to the law, the sum of kinetic and potential energy of a
system is constant but if a friction is present in a system, kinetic energy decreases and
heat is produced (Cemic, 2005). The first law of thermodynamics also states that the
change in internal energy of a system is equals to the net heat transfer into the system
minus the net work done by the system. In equation form, the first law of
thermodynamics is:
32
∆ U =Q−W Equation 2. First law of Thermodynamics
Figure 7. First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is the conservation-of-energy principle stated for a
system where heat and work are the methods of transferring energy for a system in
thermal equilibrium. Q represents the net heat transfer—it is the sum of all heat transfers
into and out of the system. Q is positive for net heat transfer into the system. W is the
total work done on and by the system. W is positive when more work is done by the
system than on it. The change in the internal energy of the system, ΔU, is related to heat
and work by the first law of thermodynamics (Urone, 2022).
3.2 Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is a branch of engineering that deals with the generation, utilization,
conversion, and exchange of thermal energy between materials or systems. It is the
transfer of thermal energy between two bodies that are in contact due to a temperature
gradient. This can be done through various mechanisms; convection, conduction,
radiation, or any combination of these three methods. A heat transfers because of the
movement of molecules and through phase changes (Sidebotham, 2015).
33
Conduction through a solid Convection from a surface Net radiation heat
or a stationary fluid to a moving fluid exchanges between surfaces
Figure 8. The three main modes of heat transfer are (a) conduction, (b) convection and
(c) radiation.
Although the thing in transit called heat, cannot be immediately observed or
measured, its effects can be identified and defined through measurements and analysis.
The different modes of heat transfer process are shown in the figure 8. All of these
methods will be included on the thermal and electrical analysis in this study. These
methods will be shown and explained on later sections.
3.2.1 Heat Transfer by Conduction
Conduction heat transfer is the transfer of thermal energy by direct physical
contact between two bodies that are in thermal contact. And when solids, liquids or gases
are in motion and have a temperature gradient across their surface. The warmer parts of
34
the object will reach to these warmer locations because they have less total resistance
than colder locations as shown in the Figure 9 below (Sidebotham, 2015).
Figure 9. Conduction Heat Transfer (https://northslopechillers.com/blog/heat-sinks-and-
process-cooling/).
Heat is transferred through a molecular stimulation within a material without
observable motion of a matter (Holman, 2010). Heat is transferred through a molecular
stimulation within a material without observable motion of a matter (Holman, 2010).
Table 4. Thermal conductivities of common metals (Holman, 2010).
Thermal Conductivity
Material K
W Btu
m∙ ℃ h ∙ ft ∙ ℉
Silver (pure) 410 237
Copper (pure) 385 223
Aluminum (pure) 202 117
Nickel (pure) 93 54
Iron (pure) 73 42
Carbon steel, 1% C 43 25
Lead (pure) 35 20.3
35
Chrome-nickel steel (18% Cr, 8% Ni) 16.3 9.4
The energy is transferred and the rate of heat transfer per unit area is proportional
to the normal temperature gradient, hence;
qx ∂ T Equation 3. Heat Transfer Rate per Unit Area

A ∂x
When proportionality constant is inserted and normal flow of heat transfer is from hot to
cold, satisfying the second law of thermodynamics,
∂T Equation 4. Heat Transfer

q x =−kA
∂x
This is when the system is a steady state where temperature does not change with time.
The equation is the Fourier’s law of heat conduction, stating that, conductive heat flow is
a product of thermal Conductivity of the Material denoted ask ∈ ( m∙℃

W
), A is the area
normal to the heat flow and temperature gradient ( ∂∂Tx ). Table 4 is a list of typical values
of thermal conductivities for metallic materials at 0 ℃ .
3.2.2 Heat Transfer by Convection
Convectional heat transfer is the transport of heat into or out of a substance in a
fluid flow. Convective heat transfer is classified into three categories: natural, forced, and
passive. Forced convection is often used for heating purposes because it can provide
more control over the heating phenomenon to the practitioner (Sidebotham, 2015). This
36
forced convection is neglected in the study since there is no forced convection being
used. Natural convection occurs when buoyancy effects within fluids cause it to rise
when hot or sink when cold. Passive conduction doesn’t depend on outside energy input
and helps maintain temperature equilibrium at body surfaces like our skin (Sidebotham,
2015).The process in convection heat transfer is shown in the Figure 10 below.
Figure 10. Convection Heat Transfer (https://northslopechillers.com/blog/heat-sinks-
and-process-cooling/).
Table 5. Approximate values for convective heat-transfer coefficients (Holman, 2010).
Convective heat transfer

Mode coefficients, h
2
W /m ℃ BTU /hr ∙ ft ∙ ℉
Across 2.5-cm air gap evacuated to a pressure of 10−6 atm 0.087 0.015
and subjected to ∂ T =100 ℃−30 ℃
Free convection, ∂ T =30 ℃
Vertical plate 0.3m [ 1 ft ] high in air 4.5 0.79
Horizontal cylinder, 5-cm diameter, in air 6.5 1.14
Horizontal cylinder, 2-cm diameter, in water 890 157
Heat transfer across 1.5-m vertical air gap with 2.64 0.46
∂ T =60 ℃
Fine wire in air, d=0.02mm , ∂ T =55 ℃ 490 86
Forced Convection
m 12 2.1
Airflow at 2 over 0.2-m square plate
s
m 75 13.2
Airflow at 35 over 0.75-m square plate
s
37
1 56 9.9
Airflow at Mach number = 3, p= atm, T ∞=−40 ℃,
20
across 0.2-m square plate
Airflow at 2 atm flowing in 2.5 cm-diameter tube at 10 65 11.4
m
s
kg 3500 616
Water at 0.5 flowing in 2.5-cm diameter tube
s
Airflow across 5-cm diameter cylinder with velocity of 180 32
m
50
s
kg 3410 600
Liquid bismuth at 4.5 and 420 ℃ in 5.0-cm-diameter
s
tube
m 3850 678
Airflow at 50 across fine wire, d=0.04 mm
s
Boiling Water
In a pool or container 2,500-35,000 440-6200
Flowing in tube 5000-100,000 880-17,600
Condensation of water vapor, 1 atm
Vertical surfaces 1000-11,300 700-2000
Outside horizontal tubes 9500-25,000 1700-4400
Dropwise condensation 170,000-290,000 30,000-50,000
Its overall effect is expressed with Newton’s law of cooling and is given by the formula
(Holman, 2010),
q=hA ( T w −T ∞ ) Equation 5. Heat Transfer by Convection
wherein, h is the convective heat transfer coefficient of the fluid or film conductance in
W BTU
∨ . And the convective heat-transfer coefficients are given in table 5.
m ℃ hr ∙ ft ∙ ℉
2
3.2.3 Heat Transfer by Radiation
In the case of solar panels, radiation heat transfer plays a crucial role in
conversion of the sun’s energy into electrical power. It is an essential process that allows
us to harness this renewable form of energy. Heat can be transferred through regions
38
without movement of matter as shown in figure 11, called electromagnetic radiation.
(Holman, 2010).
Figure 11. Radiation Heat Transfer (https://northslopechillers.com/blog/heat-sinks-and-
process-cooling/).
With thermodynamic considerations, an ideal thermal radiator, or blackbody
(black surface where metal covered with carbon black), will emit energy at a rate
proportional to T 4of the absolute temperature of the body and directly proportional to its
surface area (Holman, 2010), is given by equation 6.
q emitted =σA T
4
Equation 6. Heat Transfer by Radiation
The net radiant energy exchanged between two surfaces, form the black body to
the receiver, will be proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature
difference. Net radiant energy transmitted will be (Holman, 2010),
q transmitted=σA ( T 1 −T 2 ) Equation 7. Net Heat Radiation

4 4
Other types of surfaces (grey surface), such as a glossy painted surface or a
polished metal plate, do not radiate as much energy as the blackbody. Not all radiation
leaving one surface will reach the other surface since electromagnetic radiation travels in
39
straight lines and some will be lost to the surroundings. These factors led to a formula
(Holman, 2010),
q grey =F∈ FG σa ( T 1 −T 2 ) Equation 8. Radiation Heat Transfer of a Grey Surface

4 4
where F ∈ is the emissivity function, and F G is the geometric “view factor” function,
when radiation happens in an enclosed region, the total transferred energy is (Holman,
2010),
q grey =εσa ( T 14 −T 24 ) Equation 9. Radiation Heat Transfer of
an enclosed region.
Although the thing in transit of heat cannot be immediately observed or measured,
its effects can be identified and defined through measurements and analysis. Thus, these
formulas will use in obtaining all the values needed for the comparative analysis of
thermal and electrical for both systems. Also, for measuring the needed parameters and
values to be used in calculation different measuring instruments will be used.
Furthermore, the gathered thermal and electrical values in both systems will be analyzed
and compared in this study.
3.3 Energy Falling in the PV Module
(Waqas, A. et. al., 2018) presented an energy balance of the PV module in their
experimental investigation with the thermal management of conventional PV module
using PCM. The sum of energy falling in the PV module surface is the sum of; energy
lost from the front surface (by convection and radiation), the total energy lost at the back
side of the PV module (by convection, radiation), total energy stored by the PV panel, the
40
energy converted into useful electrical energy, and the useful heat transfer to the heat
recovery TEG material by conduction.
The energy equation below is the energy balance for a PV module without PCM.
Q¿ =QFL + QBL +Q ST +QCVTD + QCOND Equation 10. Total Heat Received by a
PV panel
The heat loss at the surface of the PV module is the quantity of heat losses by
convection and radiation. It is defined as,
Q FL=Qconv +Qrad Equation 11. Heat Loss at PV front Surface
and the heat flow density by convection and radiation is furthered defined as,
Qconv =h f ( T pvf −T amb ) Equation 12. Heat Flow Density by Convection.
Figure 12. Convection and Radiation Heat Transfer from PV Module Surface to the
Environment. .
41
wherein h f is the cube root of the sum of cubes of free-air convection heat transfer
coefficient and the convection heat transfer coefficient due to wind as shown in equation
13 (Waqas, A. et. al., 2018). And the typical values for the convective heat transfer is
shown in table 6.
Nu ∙ K Equation 13. Heat Transfer Coefficient by free-air.

h free=
L
h wind=3.3 V wind +6.5

( mWK )
2
Equation 14. Heat Transfer Coefficient due to
Wind.
√
3
h front = ( h wind +h free
3 3
) Equation 15. Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient.
It is expected that the peak h wind at the back of the PV module is relatively lower
than in front, (Hassan, Shah, & Alnoman, 2016) also mentioned in their study that a
lower h value is indicative for a natural convection that cannot be effectively cooled,
resulting to a higher PV temperatures, directly affecting PV electrical conversion. Yet,
lower h values can be beneficial once thermal energy storage and heat recovery is
introduced to the PV module, as it would minimize heat losses. While the dimensionless
parameter according to (Waqas, A. et. al., 2018) used in calculations for the free-air heat
transfer by convection between the ambient and the surface of the PV panel is defined as,
[ ]
1 2
0.387 Ra 6
Nu= 0.825+ Equation 16. Nusselt Number of Free-Air.
[ ( )]
9 8
0.492 16 27
1+
Pr
where Rayleigh number is,
42
Ra=Gr ∙ Pr Equation 17. Rayleigh Number.
while Grashof and Prandtl number is,
g ξ ( T cell−T amb ) L
3
Equation 18. Grashof Number
Gr= 2
v
Cp∙ μ Equation 19. Prandtl Number

Pr=
k
where, temperature of the cell is estimated in the study of (Waqas, A. et. al., 2018) as,
G Equation 20. Cell Temperature

T cell=T back +
W
( T front +T back )
1000 2
m
For the radiation heat loss at the front surface of the PV module according to
(Armstrong & Hurley, 2010),
Qrad =εFσ A pv ( T front / rear4 −T sky 4 ) Equation 21. Radiation Heat Loss.
where the sky temperature is given by,

1.5
T sky =0.037536 T amb +0.32T amb Equation 22. Sky Temperature
and the view factors based from a finite planar plate, solar PV module in this case, to an
infinite plane which is towards the sunlight, which is tilted about an angle β tilt is given by
equations 23 and 24 (Arias-Rosales & LeDuc, 2020).
Table 6. Typical values for the convection heat transfer coefficient h, under various
conditions (Kosky, 2013).
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient h
43
Type of Convection Btu W
( h−ft −R )
2
( m −K )
2
Air, free 1-5 2.5-25
Air, forced 2-100 10-500
Liquids, forced 20-3000 100-15,000
Boiling water 500-5000 2,500-25,000
Condensing water vapor 1,000-20,000 5,000-100,000
1 Equation 23. View Factor at the PV

F front = ( 1+cos β tilt )
2 Front.
1 Equation 24.View Factor at the PV Back

F back = ( 1−cos β tilt )
2
The convective heat loss from the back of the PV panel is calculated in the same
manner as the heat losses in its front surface, only that, the temperature of the back and
the temperature of the ground is used. And the same radiative heat loss calculation is
done at the back surface of the PV panel, the area of the surface this time is to be
diminished by the area covered with a metal plate for conduction heat transfer, as useful
energy for TEG.
QST =( A ∙t ) ρ∙ Cp ∙ [ T front −T back ] Equation 25. Energy Stored in the PV Panel.
The energy converted into useful electricity is calculated using equation 26 in the
next section, while the stored energy in the PV module is given by equation 25 (Waqas,
A. et. al., 2018).
44
3.4 Photovoltaic Panel and the Hybrid Panel Efficiency
A solar power is obtained by the product of the solar irradiance to the area and
number of cells. Furthermore, theoretical power of a solar cell is the product of the open-
circuit voltage and the short-circuit current density which are provided by the
manufacturer, whereas the actual power is the product of the actual parameters (Doherte,
2022).
The efficiencies are given by the ratio/s of the theoretical power, and the actual
power to the solar power. These are further defined as,
PSolar =G × ( A pv ∙n ) Equation 26. Solar Power.
PTheoretical=V OC × I SC Equation 27. Theoretical PV power

output.
P Actual =V reading × I reading Equation 28. Actual PV power output.
PTheoretical Equation 29. PV Theoretical Efficiency.

ηTheoretical = ×100 %
P Solar
P Actual Equation 30. PV Actual Efficiency.

η actual= × 100 %
PSolar
And at STC, PV cell efficiency is calculated by the fill factor FF (the maximum
conversion efficiency of a PV cell) at the optimum operating current and voltage as
shown in equation below (Mollick, 2020).
P max I mp V mp I sc V oc FF Equation 31. PV cell efficiency at STC.

ηc ( % ) = = =
A pv P¿ P¿ P¿
45
PV panel power rating maybe is measured under STC. However, temperature
rises above 25 ℃ depending on the ambient air, wind speed, time of day, and amount of
solar irradiance (Svarc, Most Efficient Solar Panels 2022, 2022). For the PV-TE hybrid,
the power out will be the sum of the panel and TEG outputs. And the efficiency of the
hybrid is just the ratio of the sum of actual power output and the solar power as shown in
the equation below.
P Hybrid Equation 32. Efficiency of the hybrid system.

ηhybrid = × 100 %
P Solar
3.5 The Heat Recovery System
The hot and cold temperature is initially measured with a precision tool. Here, TEG
operates under steady state condition, neglecting both radiative and convective heat transfer in
both thermal sides and that all heat transfer of thermoelements is through conduction.
Furthermore, there must be a continuous irreversible flow of energy from the heat source
to the TEG to thermal paste, then to the heatsink, and heat dissipation to the environment.
This phenomenon allows temperature difference between two regions of the TEG, thus
allowing the system to produce an output energy. The energy calculation from the TEG
to the ambient air shall be guided by the model as shown in figure 13. Heat sink
calculation and model of impedance and temperature is actually following an ohm’s law.
In this case, however, the electrical units for ohm’s law are in terms of thermal
performance of both waste heat and cooling systems (Benallou, 2021).
In the figure (number and letter) heat dissipation Q between a point at T c and a
point at temperature T a is,
46
T c −T a Equation 33. Heat dissipation at TEG
Q=
Rth
Where Rth is the thermal resistance between two points as shown in figure 13. Conduction heat
transfer is from the points from TEG to the heat sink where L is the material thickness, k is the
thermal conductivity, and A is the heat transfer area, Rth is
cond L Equation 34. Thermal resistance between two points.

Rth =
kA
For the junction to case resistance, a conductive resistance dependent on the thickness
between junction and thermal interface x JC , area A JC, and thermal conductivity k JC,
X JC Equation 35. Thermal resistance between junction and TIM.

RJC =
k JC A JC
Similarly, the contact resistance between case to heat sink thermal resistance,
X CS Equation 36. Thermal resistance between case to heat sink.

RCS =
k CS A CS
The third resistance between fins to air is a convective resistance where A F is the surface
area of fins in contact to ambience and h is the convection heat transfer coefficient between the
fins and the environment,
1 Equation 37. Thermal resistance between fins to ambient.

Rf=
h Af
and the sum of the heat exchanger thermal resistance between the junction and ambient is given
by,
x JC x CS 1 Equation 38. Sum of thermal resistances.

Rth = + +
k JC A JC k CS ACS h A F
47
Figure 13. Heat Transfer Model from TEG to the Ambient.
The heat sink thermal resistance is a parameter, dependent on the material type of a
heatsink, casing, and the thermal interface material, surface area in contact to air (Benallou,
2021). In general, the smaller is the thermal resistance, the higher is the dissipation power Q.
48
CHAPTER 4 – METHODOLOGY
4.1 Flow of the Study
The flow of this study is provided in figure 14 which guided the researchers in
fulfilling the study objectives. This is further discussed in the succeeding sections.
Initial Data Gathering and Thermal

Simulation of PV Panel
Materials
Design and Fabrication of the PV-TEG

Prototype
Design and Fabrication of Stand and Frame
Instruments
Experimental Set-up
Environment
Experimental Procedure
Bill of Materials
Figure 14. Flow of the Study
49
4.2 Initial Data Gathering and Thermal Simulation of PV Panel
The following data are necessary for thermal simulation purposes which was
gathered in one day with respect to minimum and peak solar irradiance; PV panel front
and back surface temperature, irradiance, heat power, wind speed, convection coefficient,
and heat power. Temperatures of the panel surfaces in both minimum and peak irradiance
are given in table 7.
Table 7. PV Panel surface temperature at minimum and peak irradiance.
T Panel front ¿ amb .¿ T Panel back ¿ amb. ¿ T Panel front ¿ amb .¿ T Panel back ¿ amb. ¿
Surface Ambien
t Surface Ambient Surface Ambient Surface Ambient
℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃
42 37.5 53 40.6 44 40.6 44 40.6
Heat power was calculated by the product of the recorded irradiance and the PV
panel surface area. At minimum irradiance,
(
Qt =G× A= 621.6
W
m 2 )
( 0.378m2 )=234.96Watts
while at peak irradiance, Qt =G× A= 1,162.20 ( W

m2 )
( 0.378 m2 )=439.31Watts
50
Convection heat transfer coefficient and heat fluxes was calculated provided with
the varying data in table 8, also with the constant values such as; g=9.81 ms−2,
L pv =700 mm, k air =0.025 W m−1 k −1, and C p=1.0 J ∙ kg−1 ∙ K −1 .
Table 8. kinematic viscosity, coefficient of thermal expansion, and dynamic viscosity
based on specified ambient temperature.
W W
G=621.60 and T amb =37.5 ℃ G=1,162.20 and T amb =40.6 ℃
m2 m2
v −6
16.69 ×10 m s
2 −1
16.98 ×10 m s
−6 2 −1
β 3.219 ×10 K
−3 −1
3.187 ×10 K
−3 −1
μ −6
18.96 ×10 Pa ∙ s 19.1 ×10 Pa∙ s
−6
At minimum irradiance,
Pr=
( 1,000
kg−K )
kJ
( 8.96 ×10 −6
Pa ∙ s )
=0.7584
W
0.025
m−K
( 9.81 ms−2 ) ( 3.219 ×10−3 k −1) ( 87.728−37.5 ) K

Gr= −6 2 −1
=95,034.11461
16.69 ×10 m s
Ra=( 0.7584 )( 95,034.11461) =72,073.87252
[ ]
1 2
0.387 ( 72,073.87252 ) 6
Nu= 0.825+ =8.57
[ ( ]
9 8
1+
0.492
0.7584 ) 16 27
h free =
(
( 8.573685455 ) 0.025
W
m−K ) =0.306203052 W
1 2
m K
700 mm ×
1,000
51
For the front surface of the PV panel,
W
h wind=( 3.3 ×0.2 ) +6.5=7.16 2
m K
√( )( )
3 3
3 W W W
h front = 7.16 2 + 0.306203052 2 =7.1602 2
m K m K m K
(
Qfront = 7.1602
W
2
m K ) W
( 42−37.5 ) K =32.22084 2
m
For the back surface of the PV panel,
W
h wind =( 3.3 ×0.1 ) +6.5=6.83
m2 K
√( )( )
3 3
3 W W W
h back = 6.83 2 + 0.306203052 2 =6.8302 2
m K m K m K
(
Qfront = 6.8302
W
2
m K ) W
( 38−37.5 ) K =3.4151 2
m
At peak irradiance,
Pr=
( 1,000
kg−K )
kJ
( 19.10 ×10 −6
Pa∙ s )
=0.764
W
0.025
m−K
( 9.81 ms−2 ) ( 3.187 ×10−3 k −1 ) ( 156.73−40.6 ) K

Gr= =213,824.6703
16.98× 10−6 m 2 s−1
Ra=( 0.764 ) (213,824.6703 ) =163,362.0481
52
[ ]
1 2
0.387 ( 163,362.0481 ) 6
Nu= 0.825+ =10.48
[ ( )]
9 8
0.492 16 27
1+
0.764
h free=
(10.47609366 ) 0.025 ( W
m−K ) =0.37415 W
1 2
m K
700 mm ×
1,000
For the front surface of the PV panel,
W
h wind=( 3.3 ×0.6 )+ 6.5=8.48
m2 K
√( )( )
3 3
3 W W W
h front = 8.48 2 + 0.374146202 2 =8.4802 2
m K m K m K
(
Qfront = 8.4802
W
2
m K ) W
( 53−40.6 ) K=105.15501 2
m
For the back surface of the PV panel,
W
h wind =( 3.3 ×0.5 )+ 6.5=8.15
m2 K
√( )( )
3 3
3 W W W
h back = 8.15 2 + 0.374146202 2 =8.15026 2
m K m K m K
(
Qfront = 8.15026
W
2
m K ) W
( 44−40.6 ) K=27.71089 2
m
53
Figure 15. Isometric view of the thermal simulation of a PV panel.
Figure 16. Back view of the thermal simulation of a PV panel.
54
A PV panel could reach to about 46 ℃ , especially at the spots above and beneath
the solar cells. This could reach higher for a simulation with inclusion of heat flux density
and the irradiance. This implies that with an ambient air of 40.6 ℃ , there is a temperature
difference across the TEG, which means that the TEG can generate an electricity.
4.3 Materials
The researchers used two units of HV50W model Hai Vision mono-crystalline
silicon solar PV panel. The technical drawing and panel dimensions are showed in figure
17. One panel was used as the control subject and the other panel was integrated with a
heat recovery system.
For the heat recovery system, 17 units of thermoelectric power generator
commonly known as thermoelectric generator with a parametric model of SP 1848-
27145 was used. It is small and is lightweight, made of Bismuth Telluride or ceramic
with high reliability and does not cause pollution. It is designed specifically for energy
−3 W
production, having a thermal conductivity of 15-16×10 . It has an output current
℃ ∙ cm
of 2 to 3 amperes and having a maximum voltage of 4.8 volts direct current. And a
technical drawing for the TEG Peltier is showed in figure 18, while its parameters and
other specifications are in table 9. For the heat transfer from TEG to ambient, an IC
radiator aluminum MK7 pin fin heatsink was used with a 40 × 40 ×11 mm dimension as
showed in figure 18.
55
Figure 17. Technical drawing of HV50W HaiVision panel that will be used for this study.
W
A YJ-G300 thermal grease which has a high thermal conductivity of ¿ 3.05
m− K
℃−i n2
for heat transfer and a low thermal resistance of about ¿ 0.073 was used to fill the
W
gaps in between junctions as; PV panel – TEG and TEG – Heatsinks. And to strengthen
the bond of TEG and heatsink to the PV panel back surface, an adhesive was used.
56
Table 9. Open circuit voltage and current generated of a thermoelectric generator
according to specific temperature difference.
TPG Parameters
Temperature Open Circuit Voltage Generated Current
Difference volts milliamps
℃
20 0.97 225
40 1.8 368
60 2.4 469
80 3.6 558
100 4.8 669
Figure 18. Technical drawing with specifications of an SP 1848-2745 SA Thermoelectric
Generator.
57
Figure 19. Technical drawing with specification of an MK17 Pin Fin Heatsink.
PV panel specifications that were used in calculating heat flux density across the
PV panel are provided in the table below.
Table 10. PV panel layers and specifications.
Layer Layer Thermal

Thickness Conductivity
(m) ( W /m ∙ K )
Glass 0.003 0.98
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate 0.0004 0.23
Solar Cell 0.00018 148
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate 0.0004 0.23
Tedlar 0.0005 0.36
58
4.4 Design and fabrication of the PV-TEG Prototype
Figure 20. Technical drawing of Photovoltaic-Thermoelectric Generator Hybrid.
There were 17 thermoelectric generator (TEG) and pin fin heat sink pairs that
were mounted at the back of the PV panel by means of an adhesive glue. The TEGs were
tested by connecting its terminals with a AAA 1.5V Eveready battery. SP 1848-27145
TEG can perform either cooling a system or electricity generation. In this case, to check a
functional TEG, one side should be hot while one side should gradually cool after
applying a voltage from a battery. In the same manner, the researchers were able to
identify which side was hot and which side was cold. The hot side therefore should be
59
exposed to the heat load (PV panel back surface) and the cold side should be exposed
with the base of the heat sink.
Figure 21. TEG testing and hot- and cold- side identification.
The TEGs were electrically connected in series as that in figure 23 and figure 24.
A minimal amount of YJ-G300 thermal grease was dispersed evenly at the bottom (hot
side) surfaces of the TEG and at the base of the heat sink even before mounting the TEG
with the PV panel and heat sinks.
Figure 22. Application of Thermal grease to TEG and heatsink surface.
60
Figure 23. Schematic Diagram of a TEG Connected in Series.
Figure 24. Actual schematic diagram of a TEG connected in series.
61
6.5. Design and Fabrication of Stand and Frame
Square tubes were welded to form the base of the PV panel stand, the metal pipe was
inserted to a hole nearly at top of the square tube – perpendicular to the base, and the
angle bars were welded to form a frame – fit to the panel dimensions. A detailed
technical drawing of the Solar stand and frame is showed in figure 25.
Frame
Square Tube
Metal pipe
Figure 25. Technical drawing of the Solar PV panel Stand and Frame.
62
Technical drawing of the actual set-up of a conventional and a hybrid PV panel is
showed in figure 26. For retaining the measured tilt angle, a C-clamp was used to lock the
metal tubes along with the panel frame.
Figure 26. Technical drawing of the conventional- and hybrid- panel mounted on the
frame.
63
Conventional Hybrid panel
panel
Frame
Heat Sinks TEGs
Tilting tube
Foundation
Panel Stand
Base
Figure 27. Exploded view of the overall project prototype.
Figure 27 is the technical drawing of isolated parts of the PV panel, and stand and
frame. The PV panel oriented in the right when facing the technical drawing is the hybrid
panel, likewise, the panel in the left is the conventional panel.
64
4.5 Instruments
Several instruments were used from the set-up of PV Solar panel and the hybrid panel
up to gathering data during the 9-hour experiment period. The following tools were used
during the conduct of the experiment;
W
1. Solar power meter which was used for measuring solar radiation intensity in 2.
m
2. Multi-meter for regulating and measuring voltage, current, and temperature (using
thermocouple).
3. A level bar was used to find out if the surface is horizontal for proper installation
of PV Solar Panel.
4. A tilt sensor, also known as an inclinometer, is a high-precision device that
measures the slope, angle, and tilt of an object relative to the horizon.
5. For measuring wind speed and wind pressure an anemometer was used.
6. A hygrometer to measure both humidity and temperature.
Solar Power Multi-meter w/ Hygrometer Anemometer

Meter Thermocouple (2)
Pyrometer Level Bar 2-in-1 Digital Protractor Compass

Angle Finder Ruler
65
Figure 28. Measuring instruments used in conducting the experiment.
4.6 Experimental Set-up
In this study, both driven commercial photovoltaic panel and photovoltaic-
thermoelectric generator system was taken into consideration for the experimental set-up.
The set-up has been made more accessible, wherein, the solar panels was mounted in the
solar panel stand and placed in a chosen spot or ground.
The solar panel stand was able to support both the Commercial PV Panel and
Hybrid PV Panel having frame with enough gap to each other. With the solar panel stand
design, it offered greater control over the solar panel direction and angle as shown below.
Frame
C-Clamp
Figure 29. The actual solar panel stand and frame with C- clamp tillt- locking system in
different view.
66
Hybrid Conventional
Figure 30. Solar panel stand with both commercial photovoltaic panel and photovoltaic-
thermoelectric generator hybrid.
Furthermore, to maximize the solar production, the researchers selected the best spot
as indicated in the following criteria,
1. The sunniest spot (full sun)
2. No trees or buildings shading from 7 A.M. to 4 P.M. for consistent data gathering.
3. Facing South (in Northern Hemisphere) – facing North (in Northern Hemisphere)
4. Clear the grounds according to the area covered by the solar panel stand
These was the most important preliminary steps for the set-up. By considering these,
the researchers were able to choose the best geographical location of the environments as
to where the experiment was conducted which is further discussed in the environment
section. Furthermore, the best set-up was ensured and the following was taken into
consideration during the operation,
1. Established a horizontal plane surface in the ground using a level bar.
1.1 Level bar was placed against the surface, it was further adjusted until the
spirit bubble was in the middle of the vial or tube guidelines. In cases,
67
where the surface does not follow the condition of the spirit level or level
bar, it was flattened further. Horizontal surface leveling was conducted
the day prior the data gathering.
Figure 31. Establishing a horizontal plane surface in the ground using a level bar.
2. On the flat ground, the solar panel stand with the mounted solar panels were
positioned to north using a magnetic compass over a 2-in-1 Digital Protractor
Angle Finder Ruler angled in 90 degree.
Magnetic Compass Inclinometer
Figure 32. Actual solar panel orientation.
68
2.1 The Photovoltaic panel’s orientation was located following the condition
that for a positive tilt angle, the panel shall face south otherwise it shall
face north. This is further discussed in the suceeding procedure.
3. The tilt angle of the PV panel was initially at 180ᵒ - parallel to the horizontal
surface and is measured using 2-in-1 Digital Protractor Angle Finder Ruler for
finding accurate angle. The ideal tilting angle was determined based on
(Malicdem, 2015) equation for an optimum tilt angle as showed in the table
below.
Table 11. Optimal tilt angle of the PV panel in the Philippines (Malicdem, 2015)
Optimum Tilt
Month Multiplier Tilt angle Angle
Consolacion,
Cebu
Latitude: 10.40ᵒ
January 0.734899 Latitude +23.4 24.84ᵒ
February 0.835051 Latitude + 15.6 21.71ᵒ
Angle from Horizontal
March 0.952525 Latitude + 7.8 17.34ᵒ

April 1.024192 Latitude 10.65ᵒ
May 0.932828 Latitude – 7.8 2.43ᵒ
June 0.827929 Latitude – 15.6 -4.31ᵒ
July 0.775404 Latitude – 23.4 -10.08ᵒ
August 0.742929 Latitude – 15.6 -3.86ᵒ
Septembe 0.776667 Latitude – 7.8 2.02ᵒ
r
October 0.749899 Latitude 7.80ᵒ
November 0.713889 Latitude + 7.8 12.99ᵒ
December 0.679192 Latitude + 15.6 17.66ᵒ
69
The study was conducted at the month of July, wherein, based on the table above, the
tilt angle must be,
θ=0.775404 ( Latitude−23.4 ) Equation 39. July Optimal tilt angle equation
and for a latitude of 10.40ᵒ, the optimal tilt angle was found to be −10.08 ° , wherein, the
panel was oriented at 90ᵒ north.
Figure 33. Actual set-up for Optimal tilt angle of the PV panel.
4. The tilt angle of the Panel was fixed to -10.08ᵒ for the whole experiment duration,
unless, otherwise the experiment was conducted beyond July.
4.7 Environment
The solar PV panel performance was considered in selecting the geographical
location. Hence, the researchers conducted the study at Galaxy Compound, Danglag – a
barangay in the municipality of Consolacion, province of Cebu, Central Visayas (Region
VII), Philippines. It is located at a latitude of 10.3980° N, and a longitude of 123.9548° E
as shown in figure 34. Elevation at these coordinates is estimated at 28.1 meters or 92.2
70
feet above mean sea level. The place encompasses terrestrial surroundings with minimal
to high wind speed, wide open and exposed to the atmosphere under direct sunlight – free
from shading.
Danglag
Consolacion, Cebu
10.398518, 123.954128
Figure 34. Exploded geographical location of Sitio Galaxy, Danglag, Cebu.
4.8 Experimental Procedure
This experiment dealt with the electrical and thermal performance of solar driven
commercial photovoltaic panel and photovoltaic thermoelectric generator system. In
measuring instruments, comparative tests were performed to validate its performance and
to provide accurate measurements. Solar Power meter was initially exposed to sunlight
perpendicular to the tilted PV surface and was set to standby early at 7:50 in the morning.
At the same time, the digital multimeters probes were connected to the terminals of both
the commercial and hybrid panels. The hygrometer and anemometers were turned on,
finally, the pyrometer and thermometer were used after gathering electrical performances
71
of the PV panel. The initial gathering of data was conducted exactly at 8:00 in the
morning and it ends at 4:00 in the afternoon. The experiment was conducted following
the simultaneous procedures,
1. Researchers gathered a reading of the solar irradiance by placing the solar power
meter perpendicular to the tilted surface area of the solar panel.
Figure 35. Actual Solar Power Meter reading solar irradiance.
2. The ambient temperature, wind speed and humidity were taken using a clock and
hygro-thermometer and anemometer.
Figure 36. Actual measuring of ambient temperature, wind speed and humidity using
hygro-thermometer and anemometer.
72
3. By using two multimeters, current and voltage of the two panel were taken
simultaneously. Also, the voltage and current readings of the Thermoelectric
generator (TEG) that were electrically connected in series were taken.
Conventional PV
Panel Hybrid Panel
Multimeter
Figure 37. Actual measuring of voltage and current at the same time of both panel types
using the measuring instruments simultaneously.
3.1. To get the voltage and current of the PV panel, probes of the multimeter
were connected to the PV panel terminals.
Measuring of voltage Measuring of Current
Figure 38. Measuring of voltage and current of the Panel (Panel 1 – Commercial PV
Panel and Panel 2 – Hybrid system).
73
Figure 39. Measurement of Voltage and Current of TEG-Electrically Connected
in Series.
4. PV panel surface temperature were measured using a pyrometer.
5. The following temperatures of the Hybrid system were taken using a
thermocouple thermometer; at PV to TEG junction, TEG to Heatsink, and
Heatsink to ambient.
Figure 40. Actual measuring of temperatures of the Hybrid system at PV to TEG
junction, TEG to Heatsink, and Heatsink to ambient.
74
6. These data gathering procedure were conducted repeatedly every 1 hour with
respect to five consecutive days.
4.9 Bill of Materials and Laboratory Equipment/Apparatus
The study expenditures reached to about ₱9,910.00 for the materials, while
₱9,590.00 for the equipment. And the total expenditures were ₱19,500.00.
Table 12. Bill of Materials.
Item Description Quantity Cost/Unit Shipping Fee Subtotal
[1] 50 W Solar Panel 2 1,800 0.00 3,600.00
[2] 40 × 40 mm TEG 17 130.00 75.00 2,285.00
[3] 40 × 40 Heat Sink 17 64.00 2.00 1,090.00
[4] Thermal Grease 5 180.00 0.00 900.00
[5] Soldering Iron 1 138.00 0.00 138.00
[6] Lead wire 1 53.00 0.00 53.00
[7] 2 ×2 ×6 square 1 600.00 0.00 600.00
tubes
[8 1/8×1/2×6 m 1 455.00 0.00 455.00
Angle Bar
[9] Adhesive Glue 1 130.00 0.00 130.00
[10] 9V 6F22 Battery 1 96.00 0.00 96.00
[11] Electrical Tape 1 25.00 0.00 25.00
[12] C-Clamp 2 269.00 0.00 538.00
75
Total 9,910.00
Table 13. Bill of equipment/apparatus.
Item Description Quantity Cost/Unit Shipping Subtotal

Fee
[1] SM206 Digital Solar 1 6,380.00 130.00 6,510.00
Power Meter
[2] Digital Multimeter 2 840.00 0.00 1,680.00
[3] Digital Protractor Angle 1 359.00 11.00 400.00
Finder
[4] Clock and Hygro- 1 950.00 0.00 950.00
Thermometer
[5] Magnetic Compass 1 50.00 0.00 50.00
Total 9,590.00
4.10 Gantt Chart
Table 14. Proposal Period.
76
Table 15. Post- conduct of study period.
77
78
CHAPTER 5 – RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Irradiance and Power Output
The correlation of power output and, conventional- and hybrid- panel at an hourly-
basis conducted 5 days, beginning on the 2nd day of July and ended 6th of July, 2022,
appears in figure 41. The average irradiance and power output of conventional- and
hybrid- panel were initially recorded at270.44 W /m2, 13.88 Watts, and 14.11 Watts at
8:00 AM in the morning. In the initial data gathering, the power output of the hybrid
panel was able to transcend the power output of the conventional panel to about 0.23
Watt.
Solar Irradiance vs Power Output

50 1000
45 900
Solar Irradiance (W/m2)

40 800
35 700
Power Output (W)
30 600
25 500
20 400
15 300
10 200
5 100
0 0
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
Time
Power Output (CVP) Power Output (Hybrid) Irradiance
79
Figure 41. Hourly Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Power Output and Solar
Irradiance.
The average peak irradiance taken within 5 days of consecutive data gathering
was at 11:00 AM, it was about 860.94 W /m2, wherein, the conventional- and hybrid-
panel yield a power output of 44. 70 Watts and 46.32 Watts. Wherein, the hybrid panel
transcends the power output of a conventional panel to about 1.62 Watts. The graph
showed a lesser irradiance at 12 PM when correlated with 1 PM and 2 PM results, this
was due to a highly fluctuating values during the 4 th to 6th of July, 2022 considering the
climate conditions from light to moderate rainfalls as displayed in figure 42.
Solar Irradiance vs Power Output

45 900
40 800

35 700
Power Output (W)
30 600
25 500
20 400
15 300
10 200
5 100
0 0
1 2 3 4 5
Day
Power Output (CVP) Power Output (Hybrid) Irradiance
Figure 42. Daily Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Power Output and Solar
Irradiance.
80
The daily average enhancement of efficiency was about 1.10% 1.91%, 1.11%,
1.08%, and 0.95%. While the hourly average enhancement of efficiency is exhibited in
table 16.
Table 16. Hourly Average Power Output Enhancement of PV Panel with Heat Recovery
System.
Time 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
Enhancemen 0.98% 0.78% 1.49% 0.94% 0.81% 1.83% 2.29% 1.40% 0.55%
5.2 Irradiance and Open Circuit Voltage
Irradiance vs Open Circuit Voltage

22 1000
21.5 900

800
21
Open Circuit Voltage (V)
700
20.5 600
20 500
19.5 400
300
19
200
18.5 100
18 0
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
Time
Voltage(CVP) Voltage (Hybrid) Irradiance
Figure 43. Hourly Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Open Circuit Voltage and Solar
Irradiance.
81
The results of the voltage performance of commercial- and hybrid- photovoltaic
thermoelectric generator panel at different solar irradiance within 9-hours of experiment
duration is shown in the antecedent figure 43. It can be observed in the graph that the PV-
TEG hybrid has higher voltage compared to the Commercial PV Panel. At solar
irradiance- about 707.62 W /m2, the PV-TEG Hybrid was able to generate 21.5718 volts,
while 19.944 volts for Commercial PV Panel at 1:00 PM. For solar irradiance- about
143.84 W /m2, the PV-TEG Hybrid was able to generate 19.855 volts, while 19.324 volts
for Commercial PV Panel at 4:00 PM. The graph showed a direct proportionality between
solar irradiance and voltage, which means that an increase in solar irradiance leads to
increase in voltage and vice versa.
Irradiance vs Open Circuit Voltage

22 900

800
21.5
700
Open Circuit Voltage (V)
21
600
20.5 500
20 400
300
19.5
200
19
100
18.5 0
1 2 3 4 5
Day
CVP Voltage Hybrid Voltage Irradiance
Figure 44. Daily Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Open Circuit Voltage and
Solar Irradiance.
82
Here, the sum of the voltage of the hybrid panel and the TEG was able to increase
the voltage gap with a conventional panel. In average, the hybrid panel when a TEG
performance is included was 1.26 volts greater than the conventional panel.
5.3 Irradiance and Current
Irradiance vs Current
2.5 1000
900
Solar Irradiance (w/m2)

2 800
700
1.5 600
Current (A)
500
1 400
300
0.5 200
100
0 0
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
Time
Current (CVP) Current (Hybrid) Irradiance
Figure 45. Hourly Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Current and Solar
Irradiance.
The figure shows the relationship between the current of commercial- and hybrid-
photovoltaic panel at different solar irradiance levels within 9-hours of experiment
duration. The result shows that the PV-TEG Hybrid has higher current compared to the
Commercial PV Panel. The current increased by about 0.04 amp with increasing
irradiance. At a solar irradiance of 860.942 W /m2, the PV-TEG Hybrid was able to
generate 2.34293 amper, while 2.3324 amper for Commercial PV Panel at 1:00 p.m.
83
Furthermore, the figure shows that the amount of the solar irradiance is fluctuating due to
the inconstant weather condition. Figure 46 is the average current on the daily basis of
both panel types.
Irradiance vs Current
2.5 900

800
2 700
600
1.5
Current (A)
500
400
1
300
0.5 200
100
0 0
1 2 3 4 5
Day
CVP Current Hybrid Current Irradiance
Figure 46. Daily Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Current and Solar
Irradiance.
The current dropped at the final three days of data gathering in view of the fact
that there were shifting patterns of light to heavy rainfalls. Humidity at these days were
also extensive when compared with the first two days of experiment with a daily average
record of 61.82%, 68.67%, and 73.44%.
5.4 Irradiance and PV Efficiency
Figure 47 shows solar irradiance and PV panel efficiency relationships and the
comparison of conventional- and hybrid- panel performances on an hourly-basis. PV
84
panel efficiencies were relatively higher at lower irradiance, while it drops at more
extensive to peak irradiance. But by observing the graph, the panel with heat recovery is
a about 1% higher than the conventional panel.
Solar Irradiance Vs. Efficiency

25 1000

900
20 800
Efficiency (%)
700
15 600
500
10 400
300
5 200
100
0 0
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
Time
CVP HYBRID Irradiance
Figure 47. Hourly Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Efficiency and Solar
Irradiance.
In this figure, the relationship between solar irradiance and efficiency were
evaluated in daily average basis. In day 2, the solar irradiance is relatively higher while
the efficiency is low, this is due to the fluctuating amount of solar irradiance and
inconstant weather condition during the data gathering, such as light to moderate rainfall,
cloudy - covering the sun rays. This still implies that the PV TEG Hybrid is about 1%
higher than the conventional panel at different level of solar irradiance.
85
Solar Irradiance Vs. Efficiency
25 900

800
20 700
Efficiency (%)
600
15
500
400
10
300
5 200
100
0 0
1 2 3 4 5
Day
Figure 48. Daily Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Efficiency and Solar
Irradiance.
5.4 TEG power output and Carnot efficiency
The slope of the trendline as shown in figure 49 or the power output vs. Carnot
efficiency was positive. This implies that there was a positive relationship in between
the TEG Carnot efficiency and power output. Basically, as the efficiency escalates, the
power output increases. At peak hours, the TEG was able to produce 39.92 mWatts in
average and with a Carnot efficiency of 8.78%.
86
TEG Power Output Vs. Carnot Efficiency
45
40 f(x) = 4.72155454398738 x + 0.699448081045716
35
30
25
Power Output
20
15
10
5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Carnot Efficiency
Power Output Linear (Power Output)
Figure 49. Carnot Efficiency as a factor of TEG Power Output.
The data for efficiency in the graph were arranged in increasing order to observe
linear relationship of the two variables.
5.5 Irradiance and Cell Temperature
The relationship between solar irradiance and cell temperature, along with the
comparison of the conventional- and hybrid- panel cell temperature is exhibited in figure
50. Cell temperature is proportional to the solar irradiance, it goes higher along with an
increasing solar irradiance. But by observing the graph, the heat recovery attached in the
PV panel was able to decrease the cell temperature of a PV panel by a maximum of 3℃ .
87
Solar Irradiance Vs. Cell Temperature
140 1000
900
120
800
Cell Temperature (Degree C)

100

700
80 600
500
60 400
40 300
200
20
100
0 0
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
Time
Figure 50. Hourly Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Cell Temperature and
Solar Irradiance.
Figure 51 is the cell temperature comparison of the conventional- and hybrid-
panel on a daily basis from June 02 to June 06, 2022. Cell temperature were high in
average, during the first and second day of experiment. The PV panel during these days
were able to harness solar energy at clear atmosphere. In contrary, the cell temperature
dropped during the 3rd until 5th of day of experiment. Only a minimal solar irradiance was
able to reach the surface due to the cloud formations. The humidity during these days
were high and it has a light to moderate rainfall climate conditions.
88
Solar Irradiance Vs. Cell Temperature
140 900
800
120
Cell Temperature (Degree C)

700
100
600
80 500
60 400
300
40
200
20
100
0 0
1 2 3 4 5
Day
Figure 51 Daily Average Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel Cell Temperature and Solar
Irradiance.
5.6 Cell Temperature as a Factor of PV Panel Efficiency
Figures 52 and 51 are the graph indicating the cell temperature as the factor of PV
panel efficiency performance. Generally, the PV panel efficiency had a negative slope,
indicating that as the cell temperature increases, the efficiency drops. However, when
comparing the slope between the conventional- and hybrid- panel efficiency and cell
temperatures graph, the hybrid panel was able to at least increase the efficiency of the PV
panel.
89
CVP Efficiency Vs. Cell temperature
25.00
20.00
f(x) = − 0.041476097386128 x + 20.3667889762758
CVP Efficiency
15.00
CVP Efficiency
10.00 Linear (CVP Efficiency)
5.00
0.00
20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00
Cell Temperature
Figure 52. Cell Temperature as a Factor of Conventional PV Panel Efficiency.
Hybrid Efficiency Vs. Cell Temperature

25.00
20.00
f(x) = − 0.0296278507105498 x + 20.0085245281341
Hybrid Efficiency
15.00
HBD Efficiency
10.00 Linear (HBD Efficiency)
5.00
0.00
20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00
Cell Temperature
Figure 53. Cell Temperature as a Factor of Hybrid Panel Efficiency.
Finally, the results indicate that the hybrid system is more efficient when
compared to the commercial photovoltaic module. It also indicates that the highest
operating temperature of the solar panel cell in the experiment is about 29.65 ℃ at 49.1
90
solar irradiance having 34.24% PV Panel efficiency in the hybrid system, while 33.10 in
the Commercial PV Panel. This implies that the amount of temperature in the cell has a
great impact to the efficiency of the panel. Furthermore, the hybrid system mitigates the
increase of temperature at about 1 degree Celsius because of the heat recovery system.
91
CHAPTER 6 – CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusions
The fabricated photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator hybrid was compared
analytically to the commercial photovoltaic panel in terms of electrical and thermal
performance. Various factors are considered in comparing the system such as solar
irradiance, temperature, humidity, shading, tilting, orientation and weather condition.
Introducing a heat recovery system at the back of PV panel could minimize the rise of PV
cell temperature effectively by allowing heat flow from PV panel to the ambient, hence,
increased PV panel conversion efficiency. The increase of PV efficiency was at the range
of 0.09 ≤ xeff ≤ 0.230 % in average, and gave an enhancement of power output to about
0.15 ≤ x Power enhancement

≤3.44 %.
The highest thermal or Carnot efficiency of the TEG in the experimental results
W
was 15.94 % at 1,106.50 2 solar irradiance with 6.6 ° C temperature gradient, while the
m
lowest thermal efficiency was 0% on high humid conditions or at rainfalls. It was found
that at higher thermal efficiency TEG as able to produce higher power output.
Furthermore, the TEG adds power output ranging from 0 ≤ xTEG power
≤72.927 mWatts at
certain solar irradiance and temperature gradient.
The results showed that the hybrid system was more efficient compared to the
commercial photovoltaic panel. The highest efficiency calculated for PV-TEG Hybrid
92
W
panel was 36.84%, while 33.1% in commercial photovoltaic panel at 49.1 2 solar
m
irradiance. However, the current of the commercial photovoltaic panel has greater value
compared to the hybrid system about 0.01 amp. In contrary, the hybrid system produced
greater value of voltage compared to commercial photovoltaic panel about a gap of 2.73
volts.
In addition, the higher is the thermal conductivity of the thermal interface material,
the better will its effect on optimizing the cooling device performance. This study, in the
long run, will not just aid PV panel efficiency improvement, power output and prolong
the life span of the solar photovoltaic panel, but it also helps to mitigate the combined
dilemmas of increasing consumption of energy and global warming resulting from the
use of fossil fuel which becomes detrimental for human beings. Moreover, this study
showed significant data and results. And it would be a great impact for the future
researchers to explore more about PV-TEG Hybrid in the future.
6.2 Recommendations
The Comparative analysis of the electrical and thermal performance of solar driven
commercial photovoltaic panel and photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator was conducted.
After a thorough analysis of data, it was found that the efficiency of the Hybrid system is
relatively higher than of the conventional panel. In this regard, to further understand this
research, the researchers came up with these following recommendations:
93
 The study was conducted in early month of July which is the starting of cool dry
season of the Philippines. It is suggested that future researches should conduct this
study in the month of May as it is known as the warmest month of the year.
 To further understand whether the cost of the installation is justifiable, future
researchers should use an inverter and battery to store the collected power from
both panels and compare which set up store more power. In this way, cost to
benefit ratio can be calculated.
 A data logger is recommended when gathering data simultaneously, aside from
minimizing possible human-errors when recording data, it also reduces effort and
exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays.
 Maintenance of PV panel should be determined, it is sometimes a factor of PV
panel efficiency.
 Consider other factors affecting the performance of a PV panel such as dust
accumulation and elevations.
 Design a solar tracker based on the solar radiation quality.
 Design a Hybrid PV panel where the heat recovery components are directly
exposed to solar cells.
94
APPENDIX A
Daily Data of Power Output vs. Irradiance
Irradiance - Power Output

117.4
390.3
802.9
1203.7
Irradiance
1158.7
629
950.1
474.3
49.1
5 15 25 35 45 55 65
Power Output
Figure 54. Conventional- and Hybrid- Panel (neglecting TEG output) Power Output
profile (day 1).

117.4
390.3
802.9
1203.7
Irradiance
1158.7
629
950.1
474.3
49.1
5.00 15.00 25.00 35.00 45.00 55.00 65.00
Power Output
PV+TEG CVP
profile (day1).
95
135.10
365.60
1025.60
1043.20
1158.20
1162.20
1099.60
571.20
621.60
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00
HYBRID CVP
profile (day 2)
Irradiance-Power Output
135.10
365.60
1025.60
1043.20
1158.20
1162.20
1099.60
571.20
621.60
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00
PV+TEG CVP
profile (day2).
96
235.00
821.50
988.80
323.90
350.60
353.80
332.10
276.17
149.78
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00
HYBRID CVP
profile (day 3).
235.00
821.50
988.80
323.90
350.60
353.80
332.10
276.17
149.78
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00
PV+TEG CVP
profile (day3).
97
189.80
361.90
694.40
404.60
65.80
1106.50
330.50
872.70
372.90
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00
HYBRID CVP
profile (day 4).
189.80
361.90
694.40
404.60
65.80
1106.50
330.50
872.70
372.90
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00
PV+TEG CVP
profile (day4).
98
41.90
71.50
32.70
562.70
356.80
1053.20
991.30
267.30
158.80
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00
HYBRID CVP
profile (day 5).
41.90
71.50
32.70
562.70
356.80
1053.20
991.30
267.30
158.80
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00
PV+TEG CVP
profile (day5)
99
APPENDIX B
Daily Evaluation of PV Efficiency Enhancement
Table 17. Percent enhancement/increase in power output (day 1).
Power output
Time 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
PV+TEG 21.57 48.92 40.25 57.47 57.77 46.55 19.61 8.72
CVP 21.50 47.82 39.79 56.73 56.50 45.89 19.44 8.70
Enhancement/Increase Rate
% 0.33 2.3 1.16 1.30 2.25 1.44 0.87 0.23
Power output
Time 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00
PV+TEG 31.15 23.46 55.30 54.62 53.37 60.85 54.54 18.46
CVP 30.53 23.31 54.44 54.43 52.71 57.99 52.75 18.43
% 2.03 0.64 1.58 0.35 1.25 4.93 3.20 0.16

Power output
Time 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
PV+TEG 9.55 13.35 16.79 17.75 18.84 15.52 54.45 43.19 16.27
CVP 9.53 13.27 16.48 17.59 18.65 15.38 52.64 42.99 16.18
% 0.21 0.60 1.88 0.91 1.01 0.91 3.44 0.47 0.56
100
Power output
Time 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
PV+TEG 16.87 45.24 14.99 67.02 3.99 24.47 32.05 19.02 10.46
CVP 16.71 44.28 14.87 66.26 3.98 24.34 31.52 18.79 10.36
% 0.96 2.16 0.81 1.15 0.25 0.53 1.68 1.22 0.97
Power output
Time 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
PV+TEG 7.68 13.03 48 52 16.31 22.59 1.54 3.58 2.07
CVP 7.55 13.01 47.57 51.85 16.09 22.48 1.53 3.57 2.07
% 1.72 0.15 0.90 1.15 0.25 0.53 1.68 1.22 0.97
101
APPENDIX C
Daily data for Voltage Vs. Irradiance
Irradiance-Voltage
117.4
390.3
802.9
1203.7
1158.7
629
950.1
474.3
49.1
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
HYBRID CVP
Figure 64. Conventional- and Hybrid Panel V oc neglecting TEG performance (day1).
Irradiance - Voltage
117.4
390.3
802.9
1203.7
1158.7
629
950.1
474.3
49.1
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
PV+TEG CVP
Figure 65. Conventional- and Hybrid Panel V oc including TEG performance (day1).
102
Irradiance-Voltage
135.1
365.6
1025.6
1043.2
1158.2
1162.2
1099.6
571.2
621.6
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
HYBRID CVP
Irradiance-Voltage
135.1
365.6
1025.6
1043.2
1158.2
1162.2
1099.6
571.2
621.6
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
PV+TEG CVP
103
235
821.5
988.8
323.9
350.6
353.8
332.1
276.17
149.775
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
HYBRID CVP
Irradiance-Voltage
235
821.5
988.8
323.9
350.6
353.8
332.1
276.17
149.775
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
PV+TEG CVP
104
189.8
361.9
694.4
404.6
65.8
1106.5
330.5
872.7
372.9
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
HYBRID CVP
Irradiance-Voltage
189.8
361.9
694.4
404.6
65.8
1106.5
330.5
872.7
372.9
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
PV+TEG CVP
105
41.9
71.5
32.7
562.7
356.8
1053.2
991.3
267.3
158.8
16.5 17.5 18.5 19.5 20.5 21.5 22.5
HYBRID CVP
Irradiance-Current
41.9
71.5
32.7
562.7
356.8
1053.2
991.3
267.3
158.8
16.5 17.5 18.5 19.5 20.5 21.5 22.5
PV+TEG CVP
106
APPENDIX D
Daily Data for Current Vs. Irradiance
Irradiance-Current
117.4
390.3
802.9
1203.7
1158.7
629
950.1
474.3
49.1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
HYBRID CVP
Irradiance - Current
117.4
390.3
802.9
1203.7
1158.7
629
950.1
474.3
49.1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
PV+TEG CVP
107
135.1
365.6
1025.6
1043.2
1158.2
1162.2
1099.6
571.2
621.6
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
HYBRID CVP
Irradiance-Current
135.1
365.6
1025.6
1043.2
1158.2
1162.2
1099.6
571.2
621.6
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
PV-TEG CVP
108
235
821.5
988.8
323.9
350.6
353.8
332.1
276.17
149.775
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
HYBRID CVP
235
821.5
988.8
323.9
350.6
353.8
332.1
276.17
149.775
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
PV+TEG CVP
109
189.8
361.9
694.4
404.6
65.8
1106.5
330.5
872.7
372.9
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
HYBRID CVP
Irradiance-Current
189.8
361.9
694.4
404.6
65.8
1106.5
330.5
872.7
372.9
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
PV+TEG CVP
110
41.9
71.5
32.7
562.7
356.8
1053.2
991.3
267.3
158.8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
HYBRID CVP
Irradiance-Current
41.9
71.5
32.7
562.7
356.8
1053.2
991.3
267.3
158.8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
PV+TEG CVP
111
APPENDIX E
Daily Evaluation of Efficiency Vs. Temperature Data
CVP Efficiency
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
CVP Efficiency
CVP Efficiency
Linear (CVP Efficiency)
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00 180.00
Cell Temperature
Figure 84. Conventional Panel Efficiency Due to Cell Temperature (Day1).
HYBRID Efficiency
35.00
30.00
25.00
HYBRID Efficicnecy
20.00
HYBRID Efficiency
Linear (HYBRID Efficiency)
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00 180.00
Cell Temperature
Figure 85. Hybrid Panel Efficiency Due to Cell Temperature (Day1).
112
CVP Efficiency
25
20
15
CVP Efficiency
CVP Efficiency

10
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Cell Temperature
HYBRID Efficiency
25
20
15
HYBRID Efficiency
HYBRID Efficiency

10
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Cell Temperature
113
CVP Efficiency
25.00
20.00
15.00
CVP Efficiency
CVP Efficiency

10.00
5.00
0.00
20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00 180.00
Cell Temperature
HYBRID Efficiency
25.00
20.00
15.00
HYBRID Efficiency
HYBRID Efficiency

10.00
5.00
0.00
20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00 180.00
Cell Temperature
114
CVP Efficiency
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00
HYBRID Efficiency
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00
115
CVP Efficiency
18.00
16.00
14.00
12.00
10.00
CVP Efficiency
CVP Efficiency
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
.0 0
00
00
.0 0
.0 0
.00
00
.00
.00
.00
.00
30.
50.
60.
20
40
70
80
90
100
110
120
Cell Temperature
HYBRID Efficiency
18.00
16.00
14.00
12.00
10.00
HYBRID Efficiency
HYBRID Efficiency
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
.0 0
.0 0
.0 0
0
.00
.00
.00
.00
0
0
0
.0
0 .0
0 .0
0.0
30
40
50
60
80
90
20
70
10
11
12
Cell Temperature
116
APPENDIX F
TEG Thermal Efficiency
T h −T c
ηTEG = x 100
Th
July 02, 2022

29℃−29 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0 %( 8 AM )
29 ℃
39.2℃−39.1 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.2296 % (9 AM )
39.2 ℃
42.2 ℃−38.7 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=8.29 % (10 AM )
42.2 ℃
43.1 ℃−41.1℃
ηTEG = x 100=4.64 %(11 AM )
43.1 ℃
51.2℃−46.3 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=9.57 % (12 PM )
51.2℃
54.1℃−47.8 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=11.65 %(1 PM )
54.1℃
46.1 ℃−44.2℃
ηTEG = x 100=4.12 % (2 PM )
46.1 ℃
37.4 ℃−37.1℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.8021% (3 PM )
37.4 ℃
33.1℃−33.1 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0 % (4 PM )
33.1 ℃
July 03, 2022
37.3℃−36.8 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=1.34 %(8 AM )
37.3 ℃
42.1 ℃−40.7 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=3.33 % (9 AM )
42.1 ℃
52.1℃−46.4 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=10.94 % (10 AM )
52.1℃
49.6 ℃−44.7 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=9.88 %( 11 AM )
49.6 ℃
117
55.3℃−48.6℃
ηTEG = x 100=12.12 %(12 PM )
55.3℃
54.3℃−48.4 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=10.87 % (1 PM )
54.3 ℃
48.4 ℃−43.6 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=9.92 %(2 PM )
48.4 ℃
37.2℃−36.6 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=1.61 % (3 PM )
37.2℃
30.3℃−30.3 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0 %(4 PM )
30.3 ℃
July 04, 2022
31.4 ℃−31.3℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.3185 %(8 AM )
31.4 ℃
35.2℃−35.0 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.5682 % (9 AM )
35.2 ℃
34.8℃−34.5 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.8621% (10 AM )
34.8 ℃
35.8℃−35.6 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.5587 %(11 AM )
35.8℃
34.1℃−33.8 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.8798 % (12 PM )
34.1 ℃
35.3℃−35.2 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.2833 % (1 PM )
35.3 ℃
55.5℃−51.8 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=6.67 %(2 PM )
55.5 ℃
45.4 ℃−43.5 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=4.19 % (3 PM )
45.4 ℃
31.3℃−31.1 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.6390 % (4 PM )
31.3 ℃
July 05, 2022
35.9℃−35.7 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.5571% (8 AM )
35.9℃
45.3 ℃−42.4 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=6.4018 %(9 AM )
45.3 ℃
118
35.7 ℃−35.6 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.2801 %(10 AM )
35.7℃
41.4 ℃−34.8 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=15.94 %(11 AM )
41.4 ℃
26 ℃−26 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0 % (12 PM )
26 ℃
26.7 ℃−26.5 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.7491 %(1 PM )
26.7 ℃
30.3℃−30.2 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.33 % (2 PM )
30.3 ℃
39.4 ℃−39.3℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.2538 %(3 PM )
39.4 ℃
32.6 ℃−32.6 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0 %( 4 PM )
32.6 ℃
July 06, 2022
29.3℃−29.3 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0 %(8 AM )
29.3 ℃
32.2℃−32.2 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0 % (9 AM )
32.2 ℃
31.5℃−27.6 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=12.38% (10 AM )
31.5℃
35.0℃−30.5 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=12.86 % (11 AM )
35.0 ℃
29.6 ℃−29.4 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0.6757 % (12 PM )
29.6 ℃
31.4 ℃−28.0℃
ηTEG = x 100=10.83 %(1 PM )
31.4 ℃
23.0℃−23.0 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0 %(2 PM )
23.0 ℃
27.0℃−27.0 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0 %(3 PM )
27.0 ℃
119
25.0℃−25.0 ℃
ηTEG = x 100=0 %( 4 PM )APPENDIX G
25.0 ℃
Solar Panel Efficiency
P Hybrid
η Hybrid = x 100 ; PSolar =Gx Acell xn
PSolar
PCVP
ηCVP = x 100
P Solar
PPV +TEG
η PV +TEG = x 100
P Solar
July 02, 2022

5.08 W
η Hybrid = x 100=34.24 %( 8 AM )
14.85 W
21.57 W
η Hybrid = x 100=15.04 % ( 9 AM )
143.42 W
48.88W
η Hybrid = x 100=17.01% (10 AM )
287.29W
40.25W
η Hybrid = x 100=21.16 % ( 11 AM )
190.20 W
57.44 W
η Hybrid = x 100=16.39 % ( 12 PM )
350.37W
57.79W
η Hybrid = x 100=15.88 % ( 1 PM )
363.98W
46.70W
η Hybrid = x 100=19.24 % ( 2 PM )
242.78W
19.65 W
η Hybrid = x 100=16.65 % (3 PM )
118.02 W
8.72W
η Hybrid = x 100=24.58 %( 4 PM )
35.50W
5.08W
ηCVP = x 100=34.20 %( 8 AM )
14.85W
120
24.07 W
ηCVP = x 100=16.78 % (9 AM )
143.42W
38.92W
ηCVP = x 100=13.55 %(10 AM )
287.29W
33.39W
ηCVP = x 100=17.55 %(11 AM )
190.20W
54.35W
ηCVP = x 100=15.51 %(12 PM )
350.37W
52.95W
ηCVP = x 100=14.55 %(1 PM )
363.98W
39.95W
ηCVP = x 100=16.45 %(2 PM )
242.78W
18.24 W
ηCVP = x 100=15.45 % (3 PM )
118.02W
8.70W
ηCVP = x 100=24.52 %(4 PM )
35.50W
5.47 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=36.84 % (8 AM )
14.85W
21.568 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=15.04 % (9 AM )
143.42W
48.96 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=17.04 % (10 AM )
287.29W
40.27 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=21.18 %( 11 AM )
190.20W
57.49 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=16.41 %(12 PM )
350.37 W
57.86 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=15.90 %( 1 PM )
363.98W
46.72 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=19.25 %( 2 PM )
242.78 W
19.65W
η PV +TEG = x 100=16.65 %(3 PM )
118.02W
121
8.72W
η PV +TEG = x 100=24.58 % (4 PM )
35.50 W
July 03, 2022

31.15W
η Hybrid = x 100=16.57 %(8 AM )
187.96 W
23.45 W
η Hybrid = x 100=13.57 % ( 9 AM )
172.72 W
55.24 W
η Hybrid = x 100=16.61% (10 AM )
332.50W
54.56 W
η Hybrid = x 100=15.52% (11 AM )
351.43W
53.30 W
η Hybrid = x 100=15.22 % ( 12 PM )
350.22W
60.79W
η Hybrid = x 100=19.27 % ( 1 PM )
315.44 W
54.49 W
η Hybrid = x 100=17.57 % ( 2 PM )
310.12W
18.45 W
η Hybrid = x 100=16.69% ( 3 PM )
110.55 W
5.94 W
η Hybrid = x 100=14.53 % (4 PM )
40.85 W
30.53W
ηCVP = x 100=16.24 % (8 AM )
187.96W
23.31W
ηCVP = x 100=13.49 % (9 AM )
172.72W
54.44 W
ηCVP = x 100=16.37 %( 10 AM )
332.50W
54.43W
ηCVP = x 100=15.49 %(11 AM )
351.43W
52.71W
ηCVP = x 100=15.05 % (12 PM )
350.22W
122
57.99W
ηCVP = x 100=18.38 % (1 PM )
315.44 W
52.75W
ηCVP = x 100=17.01 % (2 PM )
310.12W
18.43W
ηCVP = x 100=16.67 %(3 PM )
110.55W
5.97 W
ηCVP = x 100=14.61 % (4 PM )
40.85 W
31.15 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=16.57 % (8 AM )
187.96 W
23.46W
η PV +TEG = x 100=13.58 %( 9 AM )
172.72W
55.30W
η PV +TEG = x 100=16.63 %(10 AM )
332.50W
54.62W
η PV +TEG = x 100=15.54 % (11 AM )
351.43W
53.38W
η PV +TEG = x 100=15.24 % (12 PM )
350.22W
60.85 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=19.29 % (1 PM )
315.44 W
54.54 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=17.59 %(2 PM )
310.12W
18.47 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=16.70 %(3 PM )
110.55W
5.94 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=14.53 % (4 PM )
40.85 W
July 04, 2022

9.55 W
η Hybrid = x 100=21.09 % (8 AM )
45.29 W
13.35 W
η Hybrid = x 100=15.98 % ( 9 AM )
83.51W
123
16.78 W
η Hybrid = x 100=16.71 % ( 10 AM )
100.42 W
17.75 W
η Hybrid = x 100=16.59% ( 11 AM )
106.98 W
18.84 W
η Hybrid = x 100=17.77 % ( 12 PM )
106.02 W
15.52W
η Hybrid = x 100=15.85 % ( 1 PM )
97.94 W
54.41W
η Hybrid = x 100=18.20 % ( 2 PM )
299.0W
43.17W
η Hybrid = x 100=17.38 % ( 3 PM )
248.41W
16.27 W
η Hybrid = x 100=22.89 %(4 PM )
71.06 W
9.53 W
ηCVP = x 100=21.03 % (8 AM )
45.29 W
13.27W
ηCVP = x 100=15.89 %( 9 AM )
83.51W
16.48 W
ηCVP = x 100=16.41 % (10 AM )
100.42W
17.59W
ηCVP = x 100=16.44 % (11 AM )
106.98W
18.65W
ηCVP = x 100=17.60 % (12 PM )
106.02W
15.38 W
ηCVP = x 100=15.70 % (1 PM )
97.94 W
52.64 W
ηCVP = x 100=17.61 %( 2 PM )
299.0 W
42.99W
ηCVP = x 100=17.30 %(3 PM )
248.41W
16.18W
ηCVP = x 100=22.77 % (4 PM )
71.06W
124
9.55 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=21.09 % (8 AM )
45.29 W
13.35W
η PV +TEG = x 100=15.98 %(9 AM )
83.51W
16.79W
η PV +TEG = x 100=16.72% (10 AM )
100.42W
17.75W
η PV +TEG = x 100=16.60 %(11 AM )
106.98W
18.83W
η PV +TEG = x 100=17.77 %(12 PM )
106.02W
15.52 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=15.85 % (1 PM )
97.94 W
54.45 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=18.21 %(2 PM )
299.0 W
43.19 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=17.39 %(3 PM )
248.41W
16.27 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=22.90 % (4 PM )
71.06 W
July 05, 2022

16.87 W
η Hybrid = x 100=14.96 %(8 AM )
112.76 W
45.21W
η Hybrid = x 100=17.13 % ( 9 AM )
263.89W
14.99W
η Hybrid = x 100=15.0 % ( 10 AM )
99.94 W
66.95W
η Hybrid = x 100=20.01% (11 AM )
334.59W
3.99W
η Hybrid = x 100=20.04 % ( 12 PM )
19.90 W
24.47W
η Hybrid = x 100=20.0 % ( 1 PM )
122.34 W
32.05W
η Hybrid = x 100=15.26 % ( 2 PM )
209.97W
125
19.02W
η Hybrid = x 100=17.38% ( 3 PM )
109.43 W
10.46 W
η Hybrid = x 100=18.22% ( 4 PM )
57.39W
16.71W
ηCVP = x 100=14.82 %(8 AM )
112.76W
44.28 W
ηCVP = x 100=16.78 %( 9 AM )
263.89W
14.87 W
ηCVP = x 100=14.88 % (10 AM )
99.94 W
66.26W
ηCVP = x 100=19.80 %(11 AM )
334.59W
3.98W
ηCVP = x 100=20.03 %(12 PM )
19.90W
24.34 W
ηCVP = x 100=19.90 % (1 PM )
122.34 W
31.52W
ηCVP = x 100=15.01 %(2 PM )
209.97 W
18.79W
ηCVP = x 100=17.17 %(3 PM )
109.43W
10.36W
ηCVP = x 100=18.05 %( 4 PM )
57.39W
16.87 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=14.96 % (8 AM )
112.76 W
45.24 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=17.14 % (9 AM )
263.89W
14.99 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=15.0 % (10 AM )
99.94 W
67.02W
η PV +TEG = x 100=20.03 %( 11 AM )
334.59W
3.99 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=20.04 % (12 PM )
19.90W
126
24.47 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=20.0 % (1 PM )
122.34 W
32.05 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=15.26 % (2 PM )
209.97 W
19.02W
η PV +TEG = x 100=17.38 %(3 PM )
109.43W
10.46 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=18.23 % (4 PM )
57.39 W
July 06, 2022

7.68W
η Hybrid = x 100=16.0 %( 8 AM )
48.02W
13.03W
η Hybrid = x 100=16.12% ( 9 AM )
80.83W
47.95W
η Hybrid = x 100=16.0 % ( 10 AM )
299.75W
52.0W
η Hybrid = x 100=16.33 % ( 11 AM )
318.47W
16.27 W
η Hybrid = x 100=15.08% ( 12 PM )
107.89 W
22.59W
η Hybrid = x 100=13.28% ( 1 PM )
170.150 W
1.54 W
η Hybrid = x 100=15.55 % ( 2 PM )
9.89 W
3.58 W
η Hybrid = x 100=16.58 % ( 3 PM )
21.62W
2.07W
η Hybrid = x 100=16.34 % (4 PM )
12.67 W
7.55W
ηCVP = x 100=15.71 %( 8 AM )
48.02 W
13.01W
ηCVP = x 100=16.09 %( 9 AM )
80.83W
127
47.57 W
ηCVP = x 100=12.87 %( 10 AM )
299.75W
51.85W
ηCVP = x 100=16.28 %( 11 AM )
318.47W
16.09W
ηCVP = x 100=14.91% (12 PM )
107.89W
22.48W
ηCVP = x 100=13.21% (1 PM )
170.15W
1.53W
ηCVP = x 100=15.43 %(2 PM )
9.89 W
3.57 W
ηCVP = x 100=16.51% (3 PM )
21.62W
2.07 W
ηCVP = x 100=16.35 %( 4 PM )
12.67W
7.68 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=16.0 % (8 AM )
48.02 W
13.03 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=16.12 %(9 AM )
80.83 W
48.0 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=16.01 %(10 AM )
299.75W
52.0 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=16.33 % (11 AM )
318.47 W
16.31W
η PV +TEG = x 100=15.11 %(12 PM )
107.89W
22.59W
η PV +TEG = x 100=13.28 %(1 PM )
170.15W
1.54 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=15.55 % (2 PM )
9.89 W
3.58W
η PV +TEG = x 100=16.56 %( 3 PM )
21.62W
2.07 W
η PV +TEG = x 100=16.34 % (4 PM )
12.67 W
128
APPENDIX H
Power Output
P Hybrid =V Hybrid x I Hybrid
PCPV =V CVP x I CVP
PTEG =V TEG x I TEG
PSolar =Gx Acell xn
July 02, 2022

P Hybrid =19.54 V x 0.26 A=5.0804 W (8 AM )
P Hybrid =20.27 V x 1.064 A=21.5673 W (9 AM )
P Hybrid =20.46 V x 2.389 A=48.8789W (10 AM )
P Hybrid =19.79V x 2.033 A=40.2331 W (11 AM )
P Hybrid =20.07 V x 2.861 A=57.4203 W (12 PM )
P Hybrid =20.17 V x 2.861 A=57.7064 W (1 AM )
P Hybrid =19.50V x 2.386 A=46.527W (2 AM )
P Hybrid =19.99V x 0.981 A=19.6102W (3 AM )
P Hybrid =19.65V x 0.444 A=8.7246 W (4 AM )
129
PCPV =19.53 V x 0.273 A=5.33169 W (8 AM )
PCPV =20.06 V x 1.072 A=21.5043 W (9 AM )
PCPV =20.0 V x 2.391 A=47.82 W (10 AM )
PCPV =19.56 V x 2.034 A=39.785W (11 AM )
PCPV =19.82V x 2.862 A=56.7248W (12 PM )
PCPV =19.72V x 2.865 A=56.4978 W (1 PM )
PCPV =19.16 V x 2.395 A=45.8882W (2 PM )
PCPV =19.78 V x 0.983 A=19.4437 W (3 PM )
PCPV =19.43 V x 0.448 A=8.70464 W (4 PM )
PTEG =0 V x 0 A=0W (8 AM )
PTEG =1.259V x 0.0008 A=1.0072 mW (9 AM )
PTEG =1.523V x 0.025 A=38.075 mW (10 AM )
PTEG =1.3 V x 0.01665 A=21.645 mW (11 AM )
PTEG =2.136 V x 0.025 A=53.375 mW (12 PM )
PTEG =2.365 V x 0.029 A=68.585 mW (1 PM )
PTEG =1.384 V x 0.015 A=20.76 mW (2 PM )
PTEG =0.656 V x 0.005 A=3.28 mW (3 PM )
PTEG =0.379 V x 0.001 A=0.379 mW (4 PM )
W
PSolar =49.1 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=14.85 W (8 AM )
m
W
PSolar =474.3 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=143.42 W ( 9 AM )
m
W
PSolar =950.1 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=287.29 W (10 AM )
m2
W
PSolar =629 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=190.20 W (11 AM )
m2
130
W
PSolar =1158.7 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=350.37 W (12 PM )
m
W
PSolar =1203.7 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=363.98 W (1 PM )
m
W
PSolar =802.9 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=242.78 W (2 PM )
m2
W
PSolar =390.3 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=118.02W (3 PM )
m2
W
PSolar =117.4 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=24.50 W (4 PM )
m
July 03, 2022

P Hybrid =20.29V x 1.535 A=31.1452W (8 AM )
P Hybrid =20.16 V x 1.164 A=23.4662 W ( 9 AM )
P Hybrid =20.22V x 2.732 A=55.241 W (10 AM )
P Hybrid =18.75V x 2.91 A=54.5625W (11 AM )
P Hybrid =19.46V x 2.739 A=53.3009 W (12 PM )
P Hybrid =19.73V x 3.081 A=60.7881W (1 PM )
P Hybrid =19.85V x 2.745 A=54.4883W (2 PM )
P Hybrid =19.78V x 0.933 A=18.4547 W (3 PM )
P Hybrid =19.46V x 0.305 A=5.9353 W (4 PM )
PCPV =19.98 V x 1.528 A=30.5294 W (8 AM )
PCPV =20.04 V x 1.163 A=23.3065W (9 AM )
PCPV =20.08 V x 2.711 A=54.4369 W (10 AM )
PCPV =18.45 V x 2.95 A=54.4275 W (11 AM )
PCPV =19.19 V x 2.747 A=52.7149 W (12 PM )
PCPV =19.57 V x 2.963 A=57.9859 W (1 PM )
PCPV =19.56 V x 2.697 A=52.7533 W (2 PM )
131
PCPV =19.78 V x 0.983 A=18.4298 W (3 PM )
PCPV =19.43 V x 0.448 A=5.96988 W (4 PM )
PTEG =0.82V x 0.006 A=4.92 mW (8 AM )
PTEG =1.201V x 0.013 A=1.5 .613 mW (9 AM )
PTEG =2.593 V x 0.024 A=62.232mW (10 AM )
PTEG =2.062V x 0.026 A=53.612 mW (11 AM )
PTEG =2.701V x 0.027 A=72.927 mW (12 PM )
PTEG =2.128 V x 0.03 A=63.84 mW (1 PM )
PTEG =2.632V x 0.02 A=52.64 mW (2 PM )
PTEG =0.775 V x 0.009 A=6.975 mW (3 PM )
PTEG =0.204 V x 0.001 A=0.204 mW (4 PM )
W
PSolar =621.6 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=187.96 W (8 AM )
m2
W
PSolar =571.2 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m) x 18=172.72W (9 AM )
m
W
PSolar =1099.6 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=332.40 W (10 AM )
m
W
PSolar =1162.20 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=351.43 W (11 AM )
m2
W
PSolar =1158.20 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=350.22W (12 PM )
m
W
PSolar =1043.20 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=315.44 W (1 PM )
m
W
PSolar =1025.60 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=310.12W (2 PM )
m2
W
PSolar =356.60 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=110.55 W (3 PM )
m2
132
W
PSolar =135.1 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m) x 18=40.85 W (4 PM )
m
July 04, 2022
P Hybrid =19.94 V x 0.479 A=9.55126W (8 AM )
P Hybrid =19.89V x 0.671 A=13.3462W (9 AM )
P Hybrid =19.84 V x 0.846 A=16.7846 W (10 AM )
P Hybrid =20.15V x 0.881 A=17.7522W (11 AM )
P Hybrid =20.21V x 0.932 A=18.8357W (12 PM )
P Hybrid =20.16 V x 0.77 A=15.5232 W (1 PM )
P Hybrid =20.65V x 2.635 A=54.4128 W (2 PM )
P Hybrid =20.07 V x 2.151 A=43.1706 W (3 PM )
P Hybrid =20.01V x 0.813 A=16.2681W (4 PM )
PCPV =19.64 V x 0.485 A=9.5254 W (8 AM )
PCPV =19.60 V x 0.677 A=13.2692 W (9 AM )
PCPV =19.69 V x 0.837 A=16.4805 W (10 AM )
PCPV =19.85 V x 0.886 A=17.5871 W (11 AM )
PCPV =19.93 V x 0.936 A=18.6545 W (12 PM )
PCPV =19.87 V x 0.774 A=15.3794 W (1 PM )
PCPV =20.49 V x 2.569 A=52.6388 W (2 PM )
PCPV =19.91V x 2.159 A=42.9857 W (3 PM )
PCPV =19.83 V x 0.816 A=16.1813 W (4 PM )
PTEG =0.304 V x 0.01 A=0.304 mW (8 AM )
PTEG =0.468 V x 0.004 A=1.872mW (9 AM )
PTEG =0.708 V x 0.005 A=3.54 mW (10 AM )
PTEG =0.67 V x 0.004 A=2.68 mW (11 AM )
133
PTEG =0.691V x 0.004 A=2.764 mW (12 PM )
PTEG =0.49 V x 0.03 A=1.47 mW (1 PM )
PTEG =2.27 V x 0.018 A=40.86 mW (2 PM )
PTEG =1.744 V x 0.012 A=20.928 mW (3 PM )
PTEG =0.66 V x 0.004 A=2.64 mW ( 4 PM )
W
PSolar =149.775 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=45.29 W (8 AM )
m2
W
PSolar =276.17 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=83.51 W (9 AM )
m2
W
PSolar =332.1 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m) x 18=100.42W (10 AM )
m
W
PSolar =353.80 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=106.98 W (11 AM )
m
W
PSolar =350.6 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=106.02 W (12 PM )
m2
W
PSolar =323.90 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=97.94 W (1 PM )
m
W
PSolar =988.80 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=299.0 W (2 PM )
m2
W
PSolar =821.50 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=248.41 W (3 PM )
m2
W
PSolar =235 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=71.06 W (4 PM )
m
July 05, 2022

P Hybrid =20.08V x 0.84 A=16.8672 W (8 AM )
P Hybrid =19.65V x 2.266 A=45.2067 W (9 AM )
P Hybrid =19.44 V x 0.771 A=14.9882 W (10 AM )
P Hybrid =20.60V x 3.25 A=66.95 W (11 AM )
134
P Hybrid =19.45V x 0.2053 A=3.98725W (12 PM )
P Hybrid =21.0V x 1.165 A=24.465 W (1 PM )
P Hybrid =20.88V x 1.535 A=32.0508 W (2 PM )
P Hybrid =19.92V x 0.955 A=19.0236 W (3 PM )
P Hybrid =19.81V x 0.528 A=10.4597 W (4 PM )
PCPV =19.89 V x 0.84 A=16.7076W (8 AM )
PCPV =19.62V x 2.257 A=44.2823W (9 AM )
PCPV =19.19 V x 0.775 A=14.8723 W (10 AM )
PCPV =20.37 V x 3.253 A=66.2636 W (11 AM )
PCPV =19.25 V x 0.207 A=3.98475 W (12 PM )
PCPV =20.70 V x 1.176 A=24.3432 W (1 PM )
PCPV =20.55 V x 1.534 A=31.5237 W (2 PM )
PCPV =19.76 V x 0.951 A=18.7918 W (3 PM )
PCPV =19.55 V x 0.53 A=10.3615 W (4 PM )
PTEG =0.68 V x 0.004 A=2.72 mW (8 AM )
PTEG =1.74 V x 0.018 A=31.32mW (9 AM )
PTEG =0.0812V x 0.012 A=0.9744 mW (10 AM )
PTEG =2.411V x 0.03 A=72.33 mW (11 AM )
PTEG =0.032V x 0 A=0 mW (12 PM )
PTEG =0.554 V x 0.03 A=1.662mW (1 PM )
PTEG =0.659 V x 0.002 A=1.318 mW (2 PM )
PTEG =0.532V x 0.002 A=1.064 mW (3 PM )
PTEG =0.44 V x 0.001 A=0.44 mW (4 PM )
135
W
PSolar =372.9 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=112.76 W (8 AM )
m
W
PSolar =872.7 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=263.89 W (9 AM )
m
W
PSolar =330.5 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=99.94 W (10 AM )
m2
W
PSolar =1106.50 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=334.59 W (11 AM )
m2
W
PSolar =65.8 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=19.90 W (12 PM )
m
W
PSolar =404.6 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=122.34 W (1 PM )
m
W
PSolar =694.4 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=209.97 W (2 PM )
m2
W
PSolar =361.9 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=109.43 W (3 PM )
m
W
PSolar =189.8 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=57.39 W (4 PM )
m
July 06, 2022

P Hybrid =19.95V x 0.385 A=7.68075 W (8 AM )
P Hybrid =19.98V x 0.652 A=13.027 W (9 AM )
P Hybrid =20.36 V x 2.355 A=47.9478W (10 AM )
P Hybrid =20.56 V x 2.529 A=51.9962W (11 AM )
P Hybrid =20.26 V x 0.803 A=16.2688 W (12 PM )
P Hybrid =19.99V x 1.13 A=22.5887 W (1 PM )
P Hybrid =18.53V x 0.083 A=1.53799 W (2 PM )
P Hybrid =19.35V x 0.185 A=3.57975 W (3 PM )
P Hybrid =18.651V x 0.111 A=2.07015W (4 PM )
136
PCPV =19.65 V x 0.384 A=7.5456W (8 AM )
PCPV =19.86 V x 0.655 A=13.0083 W ( 9 AM )
PCPV =20.19 V x 2.356 A=47.5676 W (10 AM )
PCPV =20.44 V x 2.539 A=51.8972W (11 AM )
PCPV =19.96 V x 0.806 A=16.0878W (12 PM )
PCPV =19.86 V x 1.132 A=22.4815 W (1 PM )
PCPV =18.16 V x 0.084 A=1.52544 W (2 PM )
PCPV =19.18 V x 0.186 A=3.56748 W (3 PM )
PCPV =18.49 V x 0.112 A=2.07088 W (4 PM )
PTEG =0.203 V x 0.001 A=0.203 mW (8 AM )
PTEG =0.417 V x 0.001 A=0.417 mW (9 AM )
PTEG =1.379V x 0.031 A=42.749 mW (10 AM )
PTEG =1.409V x 0.035 A=49.315mW (11 AM )
PTEG =0.553 V x 0.003 A=1.659 mW (12 PM )
PTEG =1.272V x 0.029 A=36.888 mW (1 PM )
PTEG =0.054 V x 0 A=0 mW (2 PM )
PTEG =0.052V x 0 A=0 mW (3 PM )
PTEG =0.012V x 0 A=0 mW ( 4 PM )
W
PSolar =158.8 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=48.02 W (8 AM )
m
W
PSolar =267.3 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=80.83 W (9 AM )
m
W
PSolar =991.3 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=299.75 W (10 AM )
m2
W
PSolar =1053.20 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=318.47 W (11 AM )
m2
137
W
PSolar =356.8 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=107.89 W (12 PM )
m
W
PSolar =562.7 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=170.15 W (1 PM )
m
W
PSolar =32.7 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=9.89 W ( 2 PM )
m2
W
PSolar =71.5 x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=21.62W (3 PM )
m2
W
PSolar =41.9 2
x ( 0.107 m x 0.157 m ) x 18=12.67 W (4 PM )
m
APPENDIX I
Cell Temperature
G
T cell=T B +
W
( T F +T B )
1000 2
m
July 02, 2022
138
W
49.1
m2
Hybrid T cell =27 ℃+ ( 27 ℃+27 ℃ ) =29.6514 ℃(8 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
474.3 2
m
Hybrid T cell =37 ℃+ ( 37 ℃+37 ℃ )=72.0982℃ (9 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
950.1
m2
Hybrid T cell =40 ℃+ ( 41 ℃+ 40 ℃ )=116.958 ℃(10 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
629
m2
Hybrid T cell =40 ℃+ ( 42 ℃+ 40℃ )=91.578 ℃ (11 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1158.7 2
m
Hybrid T cell =45 ℃+ ( 46 ℃ +45 ℃ ) =150.442℃ (12 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1203.7
m2
Hybrid T cell =49 ℃+ ( 49 ℃+ 49 ℃ )=166.963 ℃ (1 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
802.9 2
m
Hybrid T cell =47 ℃+ ( 47 ℃+47 ℃ )=122.473 ℃(2 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
390.3
m2
Hybrid T cell =37 ℃+ ( 37 ℃+37 ℃ )=65.8822℃(3 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
117.4
m2
Hybrid T cell =32 ℃+ ( 35℃ +32℃ )=39.8658 ℃( 4 PM )
W
1000 2
m
139
W
49.1 2
m
CVP T cell=27 ℃ + ( 27 ℃+27 ℃ )=29.6514 ℃ (8 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
474.3
m2
CVP T cell=37 ℃ + ( 37℃ +37 ℃ )=72.0982 ℃(9 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
950.1
m2
CVP T cell=41℃ + ( 41℃+ 41 ℃ )=118.908 ℃(10 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
629
m2
CVP T cell=40 ℃+ ( 44 ℃+ 40 ℃ )=92.836℃ (11 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1158.7
m2
CVP T cell=46 ℃+ ( 46 ℃+ 46 ℃ )=152.60℃ (12 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1203.7 2
m
CVP T cell=50 ℃+ ( 50 ℃+50 ℃ ) =170.37℃ (1 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
802.9
m2
CVP T cell=49 ℃+ ( 49 ℃+ 49℃ )=127.684 ℃(2 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
390.3
m2
CVP T cell=40 ℃+ ( 40 ℃+40 ℃ )=71.224 ℃(3 PM )
W
1000 2
m
140
W
117.4
m2
CVP T cell=34 ℃+ ( 34 ℃+34 ℃ )=41.9832℃(4 PM )
W
1000 2
m
July 03, 2022

W
621.60 2
m
Hybrid T cell =38 ℃+ ( 42 ℃+38 ℃ )=87.728℃ (8 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
571.20
m2
Hybrid T cell =38 ℃+ (39 ℃+ 38℃ )=81.9824 ℃ (9 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1099.60
m2
Hybrid T cell =44 ℃+ ( 45℃ +44 ℃ )=141.864 ℃ (10 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1162.20 2
m
Hybrid T cell =53 ℃+ ( 54 ℃ +53 ℃ )=177.355 ℃(11 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1158.20
m2
Hybrid T cell =51℃ + ( 53 ℃+51 ℃ )=171.453 ℃ (12 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1043.20
m2
Hybrid T cell =50 ℃+ ( 51 ℃+50 ℃ ) =155.363℃ (1 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1025.60 2
m
Hybrid T cell =42 ℃+ ( 43 ℃+ 42℃ )=129.176 ℃(2 PM )
W
1000 2
m
141
W
365.60
m2
Hybrid T cell =34 ℃+ ( 35 ℃+34 ℃ )=59.2264 ℃(3 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
135.10 2
m
Hybrid T cell =30 ℃+ (31 ℃+30 ℃ )=38.2411℃ (4 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
621.60
m2
CVP T cell=38 ℃+ ( 42 ℃+38 ℃ )=29.6514 ℃(8 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
571.20
m2
CVP T cell=38 ℃+ ( 40 ℃+ 38℃ )=72.0982℃ (9 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1099.60
m2
CVP T cell=45 ℃+ ( 45 ℃+45 ℃ )=116.958 ℃(10 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1162.20 2
m
CVP T cell=54 ℃+ ( 54 ℃ +54 ℃ )=91.578℃ (11 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1158.20
m2
CVP T cell=52 ℃+ ( 53℃ +52℃ )=150.442℃ (12 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1043.20
m2
CVP T cell=51 ℃+ ( 51℃+51 ℃ ) =166.963℃ (1 PM )
W
1000 2
m
142
W
1025.60
m2
CVP T cell=43 ℃+ ( 43 ℃+43 ℃ )=122.473 ℃(2 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
365.60 2
m
CVP T cell=35 ℃+ ( 36 ℃+35 ℃ ) =65.8822℃ (3 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
135.10
m2
CVP T cell=31 ℃+ ( 32℃+ 31℃ )=39.8658 ℃( 4 PM )
W
1000 2
m
July 04, 2022
W
149.78
m2
Hybrid T cell =30 ℃+ (30 ℃+ 30℃ )=38.9865 ℃(8 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
276.17
m2
Hybrid T cell =31 ℃+ (33 ℃+ 31℃ )=48.67488 ℃( 9 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
332.10 2
m
Hybrid T cell =33 ℃+ (34 ℃+33 ℃ )=55.2507 ℃ (10 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
353.80
m2
Hybrid T cell =34 ℃+ ( 36 ℃+34 ℃ )=58.766 ℃(11 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
350.60
m2
Hybrid T cell =32 ℃+ ( 33 ℃+32 ℃ ) =54.789℃ (12 AM )
W
1000 2
m
143
W
323.90
m2
Hybrid T cell =31 ℃+ ( 33 ℃+31 ℃ ) =51.7296℃ (1 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
988.80 2
m
Hybrid T cell =51℃ + (56 ℃+ 51℃ )=156.8016 ℃(2 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
821.50
m2
Hybrid T cell =41 ℃+ ( 49 ℃+ 41℃ )=114.935 ℃(3 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
235.0
m2
Hybrid T cell =29 ℃+ ( 31℃+29 ℃ )=43.10 ℃ (4 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
149.78
m2
CVP T cell=30 ℃+ ( 30 ℃+30 ℃ )=38.9865℃ (8 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
276.17 2
m
CVP T cell=32 ℃+ ( 33 ℃+32 ℃ )=49.95105℃ (9 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
332.10
m2
CVP T cell=33 ℃+ ( 35 ℃+33 ℃ ) =55.5828℃ (10 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
353.80
m2
CVP T cell=35 ℃+ ( 36 ℃+35 ℃ ) =60.1198 ℃(11 AM )
W
1000 2
m
144
W
350.60
m2
CVP T cell=33 ℃+ ( 33 ℃+33 ℃ ) =56.1396℃ (12 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
323.90
2
m
CVP T cell=32 ℃+ ( 33℃ +32℃ )=53.0535 ℃(1 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
988.80
m2
CVP T cell=52 ℃+ ( 56 ℃+52 ℃ )=158.7904 ℃ (2 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
821.50
m2
CVP T cell=44 ℃+ ( 49 ℃+ 44 ℃ )=120.3995℃ (3 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
235.0 2
m
CVP T cell=30 ℃+ ( 33 ℃+30 ℃ ) =44.805 ℃(4 PM )
W
1000 2
m
July 05, 2022

W
372.90
m2
Hybrid T cell =35 ℃+ (35 ℃+ 35℃ )=61.103 ℃( 8 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
872.70
m2
Hybrid T cell =46 ℃+ ( 53 ℃+ 46 ℃ )=132.397 ℃ (9 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
330.50 2
m
Hybrid T cell =35 ℃+ (35 ℃+ 35℃ )=58.135 ℃(10 AM )
W
1000 2
m
145
W
1106.50
m2
Hybrid T cell =41 ℃+ ( 44 ℃+ 41 ℃ )=135.053 ℃(11 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
65.80 2
m
Hybrid T cell =26 ℃+ ( 27 ℃+26 ℃ )=29.4874 ℃(12 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
404.60
m2
Hybrid T cell =27 ℃+ ( 28 ℃+27 ℃ )=49.253 ℃( 1 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
694.40
m2
Hybrid T cell =30 ℃+ ( 31℃+30 ℃ )=72.3584 ℃(2 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
361.90 2
m
Hybrid T cell =36 ℃+ ( 37 ℃+36 ℃ ) =62.4187℃ (3 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
189.80
m2
Hybrid T cell =30 ℃+ (31 ℃+30 ℃ )=43.5778 ℃( 4 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
372.90
m2
CVP T cell=35 ℃+ ( 35 ℃+35 ℃ ) =61.103℃ (8 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
872.70
m2
CVP T cell=47 ℃+ ( 53℃ +47 ℃ )=134.27 ℃(9 AM )
W
1000 2
m
146
W
330.50
m2
CVP T cell=35 ℃+ ( 35 ℃+35 ℃ ) =58.135℃ (10 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1106.50 2
m
CVP T cell=41℃ + ( 44 ℃+ 41℃ )=135.0525℃ (11 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
65.80
m2
CVP T cell=27 ℃ + ( 27 ℃+ 27 ℃ )=30.5532 ℃(12 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
404.60
m2
CVP T cell=28 ℃+ (28 ℃+ 28℃ )=50.6576 ℃(1 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
694.40 2
m
CVP T cell=31 ℃+ ( 31℃ +31℃ )=74.0528 ℃(2 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
361.90
m2
CVP T cell=37 ℃ + ( 38 ℃+37 ℃ )=64.1425 ℃(3 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
189.80 2
m
CVP T cell=32 ℃+ ( 32℃+ 31℃ )=42.9574 ℃ (4 PM )
W
1000 2
m
July 06, 2022

W
158.80 2
m
Hybrid T cell =30 ℃+ (30 ℃+ 29℃ )=39.3692 ℃(8 AM )
W
1000 2
m
147
W
267.30
m2
Hybrid T cell =30 ℃+ ( 31℃+30 ℃ )=47.3053 ℃( 9 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
991.30 2
m
Hybrid T cell =30 ℃+ ( 32℃+ 30℃ )=93.4606 ℃ (10 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1053.20
m2
Hybrid T cell =35 ℃+ (36 ℃+ 35℃ )=110.777 ℃(11 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
356.80
m2
Hybrid T cell =30 ℃+ (31 ℃+30 ℃ )=52.7648 ℃(12 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
562.70 2
m
Hybrid T cell =32 ℃+ ( 34 ℃ +32℃ )=71.1382℃ (1 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
32.70
m2
Hybrid T cell =24 ℃+ ( 24 ℃+ 24 ℃ )=25.5696 ℃ (2 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
71.50 2
m
Hybrid T cell =27 ℃+ ( 27 ℃+27 ℃ ) =30.861℃ (3 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
41.90
m2
Hybrid T cell =25 ℃+ ( 25 ℃+25 ℃ ) =27.095℃ (4 PM )
W
1000 2
m
148
W
158.80
m2
CVP T cell=30 ℃+ ( 30 ℃+29 ℃ )=39.3692℃( 8 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
267.30 2
m
CVP T cell=30 ℃+ ( 32 ℃+30 ℃ )=48.5726 ℃(9 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
991.30
m2
CVP T cell=32 ℃+ ( 33 ℃+32 ℃ )=97.4345℃ (10 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
1053.20
m2
CVP T cell=35 ℃+ ( 36 ℃+35 ℃ ) =110.777℃ (11 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
356.80 2
m
CVP T cell=30 ℃+ ( 31℃ +30 ℃ )=52.7648 ℃(12 AM )
W
1000 2
m
W
562.70
m2
CVP T cell=33 ℃+ ( 34 ℃+33 ℃ )=71.7009 ℃(1 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
32.70 2
m
CVP T cell=24 ℃+ (24 ℃+24 ℃ )=25.5696 ℃(2 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
71.50
m2
CVP T cell=27 ℃ + ( 27 ℃+27 ℃ )=30.861 ℃(3 PM )
W
1000 2
m
W
41.90
m2
CVP T cell=25 ℃+ ( 25℃+ 25℃ )=27.095 ℃( 4 PM )
W
1000 2
m
149
150
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156
CURRICULUM VITAE
WINMAR JAY RUIZ CUMAYAS
Casuntingan, Mandaue City, Cebu

Cell Number: 09105546579
e-mail address: winmarjay.cumayas@ctu.edu.ph
PERSONAL INFORMATION:
BIRTHDAY: July 18, 1999

BIRTHPLACE: Cebu City
AGE: 23
NATIONALITY: Filipino
RELIGION: Roman Catholic
CIVIL STATUS: Single
FATHER’S NAME: Sherwin B. Cumayas
MOTHERS’S NAME: Mary Jane R. Cumayas
EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND:
PRIMARY: Anonang Sur Tabacco Frasco Elementary School

2011-2012 [2ND Honorable Mention]
SECONDARY (Juniors): Cabancalan II National High School
2015-2016 [3rd School-Based Science Quiz Bowl]
SECONDARY (Seniors): University of Cebu
2017-2018
TERTIARY: Cebu Technological University – Main Campus
2019-Present [QRT Member]
157
ARCHIE LASTIMOSA PARBA
Luray I, Toledo City, Cebu

e-mail address: archie.parba@ctu.edu.ph
BIRTHDAY: August 7, 1997

BIRTHPLACE: Talisay
AGE: 24
RELIGION: Bible Baptist
FATHER’S NAME: Richard C. Parba
MOTHERS’S NAME: Salome L. Parba
PRIMARY: Linao Elementary School

2011-2012 [5th Honorable Mention]
SECONDARY (Juniors): Luray II National High School
2015-2016 [Valedictorian]
SECONDARY (Seniors): Consolatrix College
2017-2018 [With high honor]
2019-Present
158
CARL VINCENT ADOLFO TAPIL
Transcentral Highway, Cantao-an, Naga City, Cebu

e-mail address: carlvincent.tapil@ctu.edu.ph
BIRTHDAY: November 25, 1999

BIRTHPLACE: Pandacan, Pinamungajan, Cebu
AGE: 22
FATHER’S NAME: Tomas V. Tapil
MOTHERS’S NAME: Clarita a. Tapil
PRIMARY: Cantao-an Elementary School

2011-2012 [8th Honorable Mention-BSP of the year]
SECONDARY (Juniors): Cantao-an National High School
2015-2016 [1st Honor-SSG President]
SECONDARY (Seniors): Naga National High School
2017-2018 [With Honor-Conduct Award]
2019-Present [JPSME Treasurer]
RHOTY CATALUÑA YBAÑEZ
159
Kabac, Bantayan, Cebu
e-mail address: rhoty.ybanez@ctu.edu.ph
BIRTHDAY: May 9, 1999

BIRTHPLACE: Kabac, Bantayan, Cebu
AGE: 23
FATHER’S NAME: Cerilo E. Ybañez
MOTHERS’S NAME: Alicia C. Ybañez
PRIMARY: Kabac Elementary School

2011-2012
SECONDARY (Juniors): Madridejos National High School
2015-2016
SECONDARY (Seniors): Madridejos National High School
2017-2018 [With honor]
2019-Present [JPSME PIO]
160

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COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL

PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR DRIVEN COMMERCIAL PHOTOVOLTAIC

PANEL AND HYBRID PHOTOVOLTAIC-THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR

An Undergraduate Thesis Presented to the

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Cebu Technological University – Main Campus

In Partial Fulfilment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Winmar Jay R. Cumayas

Carl Vincent A. Tapil

Engr. Aian Rey A. Caladcad, MEME

This Thesis Proposal entitled “COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ELECTRICAL

AIAN REY A. CALADCAD, ME, MEME

APPROVED by the Committee on Oral Examination with grade of: _________.

THE PANEL OF EXAMINERS

JONATHAN A. MIRABALLES, ME, MSIT

ALECRATES M. TUNDAG, ME JAMES A. HINAYON, ME

ACCEPTED AND APPROVED in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree, BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

Date of Oral Examination: August 2022

driven commercial photovoltaic panel and photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator hybrid.

also generates heat. A hybrid photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator which composed of

photovoltaic panel, thermoelectric generator (TEG) and a heatsink is designed to decrease

temperature, weather condition, and humidity, were gathered simultaneously using

compared to the commercial PV Panel at higher cell temperatures. PV-TEG panel

therefore has potential in improving performance of a conventional panel.

heat recovery, solar irradiance, Carnot efficiency, Seebeck effect, thermoelectric

completed with his spiritual guidance.

could ever have hoped for.

brothers, and friends who also supported us emotionally and financially.

CHAPTER 1 – THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE..........................................................1

1.2 Statement of the Problem......................................................................................3

1.4 Scopes and Limitations..........................................................................................5

1.5 Significance of the Study.......................................................................................6

CHAPTER 2 – REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE..................................................9

2.1 The Philippine Environment Conditions...............................................................9

2.1.1 Philippine Annual Average Climate..............................................................10

2.2 Solar Energy and Radiation.................................................................................11

2.3 The Solar Panel: Photovoltaics............................................................................13

2.4 The Thermoelectric Generator.............................................................................16

2.6 Application of Thermoelectric Power Generator.................................................20

2.7 The Heatsink........................................................................................................22

2.7.1 Passive Heat Sinks.........................................................................................24

2.7.2 Active Heat Sink...........................................................................................25

2.8 The Heat Recovery...............................................................................................26

2.9 PV-TE Hybrid......................................................................................................27

2.10 Optimal Tilt Angle.............................................................................................29

CHAPTER 3 – THEORETICAL BACKGROUND.........................................................32

3.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics.....................................................................32

3.2 Heat Transfer.......................................................................................................33

3.2.1 Heat Transfer by Conduction.......................................................................34

3.2.2 Heat Transfer by Convection.......................................................................36

3.2.3 Heat Transfer by Radiation..........................................................................38

3.3 Energy Falling in the PV Module........................................................................40

3.4 Photovoltaic Panel and the Hybrid Panel Efficiency...........................................44

3.5 The Heat Recovery System..................................................................................45

4.1 Flow of the Study................................................................................................49

4.2 Initial Data Gathering and Thermal Simulation of PV Panel..............................50

4.4 Design and fabrication of the PV-TEG Prototype...............................................59

6.5. Design and Fabrication of Stand and Frame.......................................................62

4.6 Experimental Set-up............................................................................................66

4.8 Experimental Procedure......................................................................................71

4.9 Bill of Materials and Laboratory Equipment/Apparatus.....................................75