Logic Notes

Unit 6 (Inter. Logic Unit 1)

Introduction
Review Questions

1. How is logic a science?

a. In logic, people observe the mind as it reasons – as it draws conclusions from

premises – and from those observations discover the laws of reasoning which
God has placed in the minds of people.

2. How is it an art?

a. Logic provides people who study logic with practical skills to construct
arguments correctly as they write, discuss, debate, or communicate.

3. How is it a symbolic language?

a. Logic breaks down the language of arguments into symbolic form, simplifying
them such that the arrangement of the language, and thus the reasoning within
it becomes apparent.

4. What becomes more apparent about an argument when it is symbolized?

a. When an argument is symbolized, its logical structure will be revealed and can
be judged, and if needed, can be corrected as well using the rules of logic.

5. How does propositional logic differ from categorical logic?

a. In categorical logic, symbols which are usually in capital letters are used to
represent terms while in propositional logic, the letters are used to represent
entire propositions.

b. Categorical logic is a species of formal deductive logic that uses simple,

categorical propositions in its argument in which the basic unit of thought is the
terms. The validity of the argument is based on the relationship of the terms.

c. Propositional logic is a species of formal deductive logic that uses at least one
compound proposition in which the basic unit of thought is propositions. The

Logic Notes 1
 validity of the argument is based on the relationship of the propositions.

L. 1 Propositional Logic
Review Questions

1. What is a proposition?

a. A proposition is a statement that is declarative and has a truth value or has the
potential to have a truth value.

2. What is a truth-functional proposition?

a. A truth-functional proposition is a proposition whose truth value depends upon

the truth value of its component parts. This includes simple propositions as well
as their truth-value depends on their component part even though it doesn’t
have a logical operator.

3. Why is a self-report and a tautology not truth-functional?

a. A self-report or a tautology isn’t truth-functional because its truth value doesn’t

depend on its component parts. For a self-report, no matter the truth value of its
component parts, it will always be true while for a tautology, no matter the truth
value of its component parts, it will always be false.

i. Self-report

p ~p p v ~p

T F T

F T T

i. Tautology

p ~p p • ~p

T F F

F T F

4. What is a logical operator?

a. A logical operator is a word or phrase which combines or modifies simple

propositions to make a compound proposition.

Logic Notes 2
 5. How does a simple proposition differ from a compound proposition?

a. Simple proposition

i. Only has 1 subject and 1 predicate

ii. Can easily be translated into categorical propositions

iii. Only has one component part

iv. Doesn’t have any logical operators (Doesn’t include “not”)

b. Compound proposition

a. Has more than one subject and/or predicate

b. Can’t be easily/readily translated into a categorical proposition.

c. Has more than one component part

d. has at least one logical operator (doesn’t include “not”)

6. What is a propositional constant?

a. A propositional constant is a symbol that uses an upper-case letter which can

be any letter in the alphabet and is usually used to represent a single given
proposition.

7. What is a propositional variable?

a. A propositional variable is a symbol that uses only lower-case letters starting

from q and continuing throughout the alphabet and is usually used to represent
any or an unlimited number of propositions though is best used for patterns.

L. 2 Negation Conjunction, Disjunction

Review Questions

1. How is negation expressed in a sentence in regular English?

a. Negation is the logical operator that denies or contradicts a proposition.

Examples of words or phrases that are included in negation are not, it is false
that, it is not true that, it is not the case that, and so on.

2. What is the symbol for negation?

a. The symbol for negation is the tilde (~)

Logic Notes 3
 3. How does negation affect the truth value of the negated proposition?

a. A negated proposition will be a contradiction of the proposition.

b. Example

p ~p

T F

F T

4. What is a truth table? What do truth tables show?

a. A truth table is a listing of the possible truth values for a set of one or more
propositions.

b. Truth tables show how a compound proposition is affected by the truth values of
its component parts.

5. What is a defining truth table?

a. A defining truth table is a truth table that displays the truth values produced by a
logical operator modifying a minimum number of variables.

6. What English words express a conjunction?

a. A conjunction is one of the basic compound propositions with a logical operator

that joins two propositions. Examples of conjunctions are and, yet, but,
however, although, nevertheless, still, etc.

7. What is the symbol for conjunction?

a. The symbol for conjunction is the dot (•)

8. When is a conjunction true?

a. A conjunction is true if and only if both propositions are true. If one is false, then
the conjunction will be false.

p q p•q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

Logic Notes 4
 9. How is a disjunction expressed in regular English?

a. A disjunction is one of the basic compound propositions with a logical operator

that joins two propositions. In English, it is usually expressed using or, either/or,
neither/nor, etc.

10. What is the difference between “inclusive or” and “exclusive or”?

a. Inclusive or basically means “This or that, or both” while exclusive or basically

means ‘This or that, but not both”. Usually, if it is not explicitly stated that
exclusive or is used, we should assume that the or meant is inclusive or.

11. How is each of them symbolized?

a. Both inclusive or and exclusive or uses vel (v)

b. Inclusive or

p q pvq

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

b. exclusive or

p q pvq

T T F

T F T

F T T

F F F

12. When is a disjunction true?

A disjunction (assuming that it is inclusive or) is true if and only if one or both
component parts are true.

13. When should parentheses be used in symbolizing compound propositions?

Logic Notes 5
 a. Parentheses should be used when dealing with complicated compound
propositions in order to avoid ambiguity.

14. What is the difference between “not both” and both not”?

a. “Both” is usually a sign that shows that parentheses should be used. Not both is
symbolized as ~(p v q) since the word “not” comes before the word “both” so
the tilde will come before the parentheses. Both not is symbolized as (~p v ~q)
and can also mean neither/nor.

L. 3 Truth Tables for Determining Truth values

Review Questions

1. How many rows are needed to express all combinations of true and false for two
variables? For three variables? For n variables?

a. Four rows

b. Eight rows

c. 2^n rows (n= numbers of variables/letters)

2. How do we determine the number of columns a truth table needs?

a. By counting the numbers of characters in total which means variables/letters, as

well as logical operators, are included but parentheses (), brackets [], and {} are
not included as characters.

3. What is the general method for determining the truth values of a compound
proposition? How does this method differ for propositions using constants with
known truth values?

a. The general method for determining the truth values of a compound proposition
is by using truth tables. First, draw a horizontal line below the proposition(s).
Second, figure out the number of rows and columns needed. Third, fill in the
truth values of each variable first and make sure that its truth value is 50% false
and 50% true. Fourth, based on the truth values of the variables, fill in the truth
values of the logical operators. Fifth, circle the defining truth values which are
located under the outermost logical operator.

b. For propositions using constants with known truth values, the truth tables will
require only one row.

Logic Notes 6
 L. 4 The Conditional
Review Questions

1. What type of sentence does the conditional represent?

a. A conditional represents an if-then proposition. A conditional is one of the basic

compound propositions which claims that one of the components implies the
other.

2. What are some other names for the conditional?

a. Material implication and hypotheticals.

3. Which part of the conditional is the antecedent (hypothesis, conditional)?

a. The antecedent is the part of the conditional that implies and follows after the if.
Remember that it can be located at the front or back of the proposition.

4. Which part is the consequent (conclusion of a conditional proposition)?

a. The consequent is the part that is implied and follows after the then.

5. What is the symbol for conditional?

a. The symbol for the conditional/material equivalence/hypothetical is the

horseshoe ( )⊃
6. When is a conditional considered to be false?

a. A conditional is considered to be false if and only if the one implying is true and
the one implied is false.

p q p ⊃q
T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

7. Are conditionals in English with false antecedents actually truth-functional?

a. Yes, conditionals in English with false antecedents can actually be truth-

functional. An example is a proposition “ If plants are cats then they are living
creatures.” It is false that plants are cats but if plants are really cats (so the idea

Logic Notes 7
 is that we consider the true value of what if the antecedent is true even though
we know it is actually false) then the plants will be living creatures which is true
so it will be true then false. Another example is “If a cat is a dog, then it is a
table.” If a cat is really a dog, then it will be a table and so this false and false
proposition is true.

8. What are the ways to express conditionals?

a. Applied to the likelihood of behavior

i. If he walks while looking at his phone, then he will not see the incoming
cars.

b. Cause-and-effect relationship

i. The neighbors will complain if our dog doesn’t stop barking.

c. Implication by definition

i. Bob is a dog implies that Bob is a mammal.

d. Sufficient condition

i. Winning this competition is a sufficient condition for you to get a

scholarship.

9. What other compound proposition is by definition equivalent to the conditional?

a. ~(p • ~q) It is false that p but q

b. p ⊃ (p • q) If p then p and q
c. ~p v q either not p or q (Rule of material Implication)

d. ~p ⊃ ~q if something is not p then it must not be q (Rule of transposition)

10. What are several ways of expressing conditionals in English?

a. If p then q

b. When p, q

c. p implies q

d. p is sufficient for q

e. q is necessary for p

Logic Notes 8
 f. p necessitates q

g. p only if q (don’t get mixed up with if and only if since that is biconditional and
not the same thing)

11. What is the rule of transposition?

a. ~q ⊃ ~p if something is not q then it must not be p

L. 5 The Biconditional
Review Questions

1. What type of sentence does the biconditional represent?

a. Biconditional represents if and only if propositions.

2. What is the symbol for biconditional?

a. The symbol for biconditional is the triple bar ≡

3. How is the biconditional used to determine if two propositions are logically

equivalent?

a. The biconditional will be true if both of the propositions are logically equivalent
meaning that both of their truth values are either both false or both true.

4. How is it used to determine if two propositions are contradictory?

a. The biconditional will be false if the propositions have different truth values from
each other meaning that one is false and the other is true or vice versa.

5. What are the other meanings that the biconditional tells us?

a. p ⊃ q: p only if q
b. p ⊃ q: p if q

c. p if and only if q (which basically means “if p then q, if q then p” which is

material implication): (p ⊃ q) • (q ⊃ p)
d. p and q or both not p and q (Rule of material implication): [(p • q) v (~p • ~q)]

L. 6 Logical Equivalence
Review Questions

Logic Notes 9
 1. When are two propositions logically equivalent?

a. Two propositions are logically equivalent if and only if they have the same truth
values in a truth table.

2. What is a tautology?

a. A tautology is a proposition which is necessarily true for any condition because

of its logical structure.

p p ⊃p
T T

F T

3. What is a self-contradiction?

a. A self-contradiction is a proposition which necessarily false because of its

logical structure.

p ~p p • ~p

T F F

F T F

4. How is the biconditional used to determine if two propositions are logically

equivalent? How is it used to determine if two propositions are contradictory?

a. If the biconditional is a tautology as all defining truth values are true, then the
two propositions are logically equivalent to each other.

b. If the biconditional is a self-contradiction as all defining truth values are false,

then the two propositions are contradictory to each other.

c. If the biconditional is neither a tautology nor a self-contradiction, then the two

propositions are neither logically equivalent nor contradictory to each other.

5. What is the relationship between propositions in modern logic?

a. Propositions in modern logic:

i. Consistency

1. independence

Logic Notes 10
 2. logical equivalence

ii. Inconsistency

1. contradiction (contrariety already included here)

6. How can logical equivalence be differentiated from biconditional?

a. They can be differentiated from their context. If we are referring to a proposition

then it is biconditional but if we are referring to the relationship between
propositions it is logical equivalence.

L. 7 (Long) Truth Tables for Determining Validity

Review Questions

1. What is a valid argument?

2. How can a truth table be used to show that an argument is invalid?

a. If there is at least one row with true premises but false conclusion, then the
argument is deductively invalid.

3. How can a truth table be used to show that an argument is valid?

a. If there is at least one row with true premises and true conclusion without any
row having true premises and false conclusion, then the argument is
deductively valid.

4. Can an argument ever have true premises and true conclusion?

a. Yes, it can.

L. 8 Shorter Truth Tables for Determining Validity

Review Questions

1. What should be initially assumed about an argument when using a shorter truth
table to determine the argument’s validity?

2. Explain the procedure for determining validity using a shorter truth table.

L. 9 Using Assumed Truth Values in Shorter Truth Tables

Review Questions

Logic Notes 11
 1. Can all propositional arguments be analyzed for validity using a shorter truth table
of only one line?

2. What must be done when a truth table has no “forced” truth value?

3. If a contradiction appears when a truth table is guessed while using a shorter truth
table, what must be done? Why?

L. 10 Shorter Truth Tables or Consistency

Review Questions

1. What does it mean that a set of propositions are consistent?

2. How can a shorter truth table be used to determine the consistency of a set of
propositions?

L. 11 Shorter Truth Tables for Equivalence

Review Questions

1. What does it mean that two propositions are equivalent?

2. What is the method of using a shorter truth table to determine the equivalence of a
pair of propositions?

3. How is this similar to using truth tables to determine validity?

L. 12 The Dilemma
Review Questions

1. What is a dilemma?

2. How is a standard constructive dilemma symbolized?

3. How does a destructive dilemma differ from a constructive dilemma?

4. What are the three methods of escaping the horns of a dilemma?

5. Is it possible to use all three methods on every dilemma?

Logic Notes 12