Introduction

In order to achieve the desired mechanical properties in iron castings, the

liquid iron must have the correct composition and it must also contain
suitable nuclei to induce the correct graphite structure to form on solidification.
The liquid iron must have a suitable ‘graphitisation potential’, this is
determined mainly by its carbon equivalent value, and in particular by the
silicon content. It is normal practice to adjust the graphitisation potential by
controlling the silicon content. However, the effect of other elements must
also be considered. Table 5.1 shows the effect of common alloying elements
relative to silicon for concentrations normally found in practice.

Example: the effect of 1%Al is approximately equivalent to the graphitising

power of 0.5%Si. 1%Cr will neutralise the effect of about 1.2%Si.
Even if iron of the correct chemical analysis is made in the melting furnace,
castings having the desired graphite structure will not be produced without
the addition of inoculants. Inoculants are alloys added in small amounts to
induce eutectic graphite nucleation. Without the presence of suitable nuclei,
liquid iron will ‘undercool’ below the eutectic temperature (Fig. 5.1).
Uninoculated grey iron castings will contain:
undercooled forms of graphite, associated with this will be ferrite;
cementite in thin sections or close to edges and corners.
Such iron is unlikely to meet tensile and hardness specifications and will be
difficult to machine.
There are two main methods of inoculation, ladle and late inoculation. In
the former, the inoculant is added either as the liquid iron enters the ladle
or just afterwards. Late inoculation refers to treatment after the metal has
left the ladle, for example, as it enters the mould (stream inoculation) or by
using an insert in the mould (in-mould inoculation). Inoculants reach
maximum effectiveness immediately after treatment and fade quickly over
a period of 10–20 minutes. It is therefore desirable to inoculate as late as
possible before casting.
Inoculants are mostly based on graphite, ferrosilicon or calcium silicide,
with ferrosilicon being the most commonly used. Pure ferrosilicon is not
effective as an inoculant, it is the presence of minor elements that determine
the effectiveness of the product. Graphite itself is a powerful inoculant but
it is not effective on low sulphur irons.

In addition to the above range of inoculants, Foseco supplies certain

special grades in some countries for particular applications such as low
sulphur irons and for ductile pipe manufacture.
Ladle inoculation
The selected grade of INOCULIN for ladle inoculation should always be
added to the metal stream when tapping from furnace to ladle, or ladle to
ladle. Additions should begin when the ladle is one-quarter full and be
completed when the ladle is three-quarters full, so that the last metal merely
mixes.
Never put INOCULIN into the bottom of the ladle and tap onto it.
The amount of inoculant needed is governed by several factors. The
following rules guide the use of inoculation:
Low carbon equivalent irons require greater amounts of inoculant.
Grey cast irons with less than 0.06% sulphur are difficult to inoculate,
specially formulated products may be required.
For a given iron, the thinner the section of casting, the greater the inoculation
required.
Electric melted irons require more inoculation than cupola melted irons.
Electric melting will also produce low sulphur contents.
High steel scrap charges will require more inoculation.
Where inoculated iron is held for more than a few minutes after inoculation,
there is a need of a higher level of treatment.
It is therefore difficult to give an accurate estimate of the amount of INOCULIN
which is required for every situation. In general, INOCULIN additions of
0.1–0.5% by weight of metal will be satisfactory for grey cast irons, higher
additions are needed for ductile (SG) irons (see p. 79). Care must be taken
not to over-inoculate grey irons, otherwise problems will arise with shrinkage
porosity due to too high a nucleation level. Many grades of INOCULIN
contain high Si content, so that by adding 0.5% of inoculant, the silicon
content of the iron will be raised by as much as 0.3%, this must be allowed
for by adjusting the Si analysis of the furnace metal.
Control methods
The wedge chill test is a simple and rapid method of assessing the degree of
chill reduction obtained by the use of INOCULIN in grey cast irons. Carried
out on the foundry floor, the wedge test is frequently used as a routine
check even when full laboratory facilities are available. The most common
dimensions for the wedge are illustrated in Fig. 5.2.
The wedge is made in a mould prepared from silicate or resin bonded
sand. After pouring, it must be allowed to cool in the mould to a dull red
heat (c. 600C), after which it can be quenched in water and fractured. The
width at the point where clear chill ceases, t, is measured and this gives a
good indication of the need for inoculation and of the effectiveness of aninoculation process. In general,
casting sections should be not less than
three times the wedge reading if chill at the edges and in thin sections is to
be avoided.
After ladle inoculation, the metal must be cast quickly to avoid inoculant
fade.
For certain applications such as continuous casting of iron bar or automatic
pouring of castings, inoculant can be added in the form of filled steel wire
containing INOCULIN 25 which can be fed into a ladle or the pouring basin
of an automatic pouring machine at a computer-controlled rate using the
IMPREX Station (see pp. 73, 78). IMPREX wire is available in a range of
diameters from 6 mm upwards.

Mould inoculation
There are several ways in which mould inoculation can be performed:
powdered inoculant can be placed in the pouring bush; or it can be placed
at the bottom of the sprue. A more reliable method is to use sachets or
precast slugs of inoculant in the pouring bush or in the running system
(Fig. 5.5).
INOPAK sachets are sealed paper packets containing 5, 10 or 20 g of
graded, fast-dissolving inoculant which can be placed in the runner bush, at
the top of the sprue or in some other situation where there is a reasonable
degree of movement in the metal stream. For most purposes, the addition
rate should be 0.1%, i.e. 5 g of INOPAK for each 5 kg of iron poured.
INOTAB cast mould inoculant tablets are designed to be placed in the
runner where they gradually dissolve in the metal stream as the casting is
poured, giving uniform dissolution. This ensures that inoculation takes place
just before solidification of the iron. Application is simple using core prints
to locate the INOTAB tablet.
INOTAB tablets are normally applied at 0.07–0.15% of the poured weight
of iron. The metal temperature and pouring time of the casting must be
considered when selecting the tablet weight. A minimum pouring temperature
of 1370C (2500F) is recommended. It is important that the INOTAB tablet
is located where there is continual metal flow during pouring to ensure
uniform dissolution and the typical application methods are shown in
Fig. 5.5.
NODULANT
NODULANT briquettes are essentially formed of pure magnesium and
sponge iron. They contain 10% Mg and minor quantities of calcium, cerium,
silicon and carbon. The briquettes weigh between 16 and 20 g and have a
density of 4.3–4.5 g/ml, so they are suitable for use in the sandwich or
tundish cover technique in just the same way that MgFeSi is used. Magnesium
yields are around 40%. The major advantage of using NODULANT is that
a negligible amount of silicon is added during the treatment. This permits
the use of higher silicon in the base iron enabling all the available ductile
iron returns to be used in the charge. By increasing the base silicon, the
lining life of the induction furnace is increased by as much as 40%.
Pure magnesium converter process
The Georg Fischer converter (Fig. 6.1e), has a reaction chamber formed by
a graphite-clay plate of semi-circular section set into the lining of the converter.
Molten iron is charged with the converter in the horizontal position. The
reaction chamber is charged with pure Mg lumps and other additives (if
required) and sealed with a locking stopper. The converter spout is closed
by a pneumatically operated lid. The vessel is then tilted to vertical allowing
a limited amount of metal to enter through holes in the chamber and react
with the magnesium which starts to vaporise. The vapour pressure in the
reaction chamber rises slowing the further entry of liquid iron and allowing
controlled treatment of the contents of the converter. Treatment takes 60–90
seconds. The melt is first deoxidised then desulphurised. When the sulphur
content has dropped to less than 0.002%, the melt starts to absorb magnesium.
Magnesium recovery can be as high as 70%. Base irons with high sulphur
contents of 0.2–0.3%S can be used because of the high efficiency of Mg use.
The standard converter allows up to 2.5 tonnes of iron to be treated 6–8

times per hour. Larger units with capacity up to 10 tonnes are available. The
reaction chamber wall has a limited life of 200–800 treatments. Temperature
loss is 22–33C in a 1-tonne converter but less in larger converters. Since no
Si is added during treatment, an unlimited amount of ductile iron returns
can be used.
The process is operated under licence from Disa Georg Fischer.