OIL FIELD CORROSION

DETECTION AND CONTROL

HANDBOOK
;

:nt
3.S-
m-
OIL FIELD CORROSION he
of
DETECTION AND CONTROL :d.

By ' _
HOWARD J. ENDEAN
CONSULTANT

Published By
CHAMPION CHEMICALS, INC.
Houston, Texas
1989
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The writer appreciates the support and encouragement of the management
of Champion Chemicals, Inc. in the preparation of this manual. Also, myas-
sociate Mr. Raymond Shelton for review and permission to include his com-
pilation of Champion's Cortron Corrosion Inhibitors in Chapter V. The
cheerful cooperation of Ms. Debbie Burroughs in the frequent re-working of
the drafts required in the preparation of this manual is greatly appreciated.

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ITEM DESCRIPTION PAGE
ITEM DESCRIPTION PAGE
CHAPTER II - OIL WELL CORROSION AND ITS PREVENTION
CHAPTER I - CAUSES OF CORROSION IN OIL FIELD EQUIPMENT
General 13
General 1
A. Water Cut vs Water Wetting of Well Equipment 13
A. Defmition of Corrosion 1
B. Typical Causes of Sucker Rod Body Breaks 14
B. Electrochemical Environment 2
1. Metallurgical Factors 3 C. Endurance Limit of Sucker Rods 15
2. Mill Fabricating Factors 3
3. Field Operating Factors 3 D. Typical Causes of Sucker Rod Pin Breaks 16

Typical Idealized Electrochemical Reaction 4 E. Typical Appearance of Sucker Rod Body Breaks 16
C.
D. Appearance of Metal Loss Corrosion 4 F. Typical Appearance of Sucker Rod Coupling Breaks 17
1. Hydrogen Sulfide - Pitting & General Attack 4
G. Slag Inclusion Mill Defect 17
2. Carbon Dioxide - Pitting Attack 5
3. High Chloride Brines - pH 6.0 - 7.0 5 H. Rules of Thumb for Estimating Corrosion 18
4. Acids - 15% HCI & Spent Acid 5 1. Rule 1 - Corrosion Coupon Data - 30 Days 18
5. Bacteria - Sulfate Reducers 6
2. Rule 2 - Rpd String Stress Failures 18
6. Corrosion/Erosion - Velocity Effect 6
3. Rule 3 - pH Measurements - Fresh Samples 18
E. Corrosivity vs pH of Water 7 4. Rule 4 - Water Cut & pH 18
F. Corrosion vs Hydrogen Sulfide & Carbon Dioxide 7
I. Field Program for Detecting Corrosion 19
1. Corrosivity of Hydrogen Sulfide 8
2. Corrosivity of Carbon Dioxide 8 J. Decisions in the Design of an Inhibition Program 20
G. Corrosion Rate vs Velosity & Temperature 9 K. Treating Procedures for Pumping Oil Wells 21
H. Accelerating Rate of Pit Development 10 21
L. Initial Filming Procedures
11 1. Running Tubing and/or Rods in Well 21
I. Hydrogen Embrittlement
2. All Batch and Continuous Injection Treatments 22
J. Factors Controlling Hydrogen Embrittlement 11 3. Squeeze Treatments 22
1. Yield Strength 11
2. Hardness 11 M. Periodic Batch Treating Procedure 22
11 1. Adequate Volume ofInhibitor 22
3. Stress Level
4. Internal Stresses 11 2. Gallons of Inhibitor Required per Week 23
11 3. Adequate Frequency of Treatment 23
5. Hydrogen Concentration
11 4. Assuring Inhibitor Enters Tubing 23
6. Temperature

K. Hydrogen Blistering 12 N. Periodic Batch with Inhibitor Emulsion Procedure 24

12 O. Continuous Injection Procedure 24

L. Galvanic Corrosion

..
II iii

'-- - - - -- - - -
ITEM DESCRIPTION PAGE
ITEM DESCRIPTION PAGE
P. Squeeze Treatment Procedure 24
1. Batch Treating per 5000' of 2"-3" Tubing 37
Q. Monitoring Oil Well Corrosion 25 2. Continuous Injection Rates 2"-3" Tubing 38
1. Rod String Failure Analysis 25 3. Squeeze Treatment Volume 38
2. Corrosion Coupon Data 25
J. Corrosion Control in Wellheads and Downhole
3. Iron Count Data 26 Equipment 38

R. Iron Loss Nomograph 27 CHAPTER-IV OIL AND GAS PIPELINE CORROSION & PREVENTION

General 39
CHAPTER III - GAS/CONDENSATE WELL CORROSION & PREVENTION
A. Frequent Causes of Internal Corrosion in Pipelines 39
General 28
B. Flow Patterns in Pipelines 40
A. Theoretical Limiting Velocities for Well Tubing 28 1. Custody Transfer Oil Lines 40
B. Calculation of Approximate Tubing Velocity 29 2. Wet Gas Pipelines 41
1. Approximate Bottom Hole Pressure of Gas
Wells 30 c. Approximate Velocities in Wet Gas Pipelines 42
1. Approximate OR for Buried or Submerged
C. Corrosivity vs Limiting Velocity & Density 30 Pipelines, 43
2. Approximate Pipe Areas in Square Feet 43
D. Phase Relations of Gas and Liquids in Tubing 31
1. Flow Patterns in Tubing 32 D. Evaluation of Corrosion Possibilities in Pipelines 43
2. Slip and Holdup in Tubing 32 E. General Types of Inhibiting Programs for Pipelines 44
1. Procedures for Cleaning Lines Prior to
E. Gas/Condensate Wells Water Production 33 Inhibiting 44
1. Gas Expansion Reservoirs 34
a. New Pipelines 44
2. Water Drive Reservoirs 34 b. Operating Oil Lines 45
3. Mobile Water Table Reservoirs 34 c. Operating Wet Gas Pipelines 45
d. Operating Dehydrated Gas Pipelines 45
F. Rules of Thumb for Estimating Corrosion 34
1. Rule 1- Predicting Corrosion in All Wells 35 2. Inhibiting Oil Pipelines by Continuous Injection 45
2. Rule 2 - Predicting Corrosion - Sweet Gas Wells 35 a. Inhibiting Field Transmission Lines 46
3. Rule 3 - Predicting Corrosion - Sweet Gas Wells 35 b. Inhibiting Custody Transfer Lines 46
4. Rule 4 - Predicting Corrosion - Coupon Data 36 3. Inhibiting Wet Gas Pipelines 47
36 a. Type 1 Treatment (Batching) 48
G. Decisions Required for Inhibiting Program
b. Type 2 Treatment (Continuous Injection) 49
H. Procedures for Inhibiting Gas Wells 37 c. Type 3 Treatment (Special Conditions Only) 50
d. Optimum Treatment 50
1. Treating Rates for Gas Condensate Wells 37
F. Inhibitor Requirements Versus Wet Gas Velocity 51

iv v
 DESCRIYfION PAGE ITEM DESCRIYfION PAGE
ITEM

G. Inhibiting Sales Gas Pipelines 51 1. Scavenging and Inhibiting of Oxygen 61

1. Type 1 Treatment (See E,3,a Type 1 Treatment) 52 2. Gas Refluxing or Vacuum for Oxygen Removal 61
2. Type 2 Treatment (Continuous Injection) 52

Monitoring Corrosion in Pipelines 52 CHAYfER VI - CHAMPION'S CORTRON INHIBITORS

H.
1.Corrosion Coupons-Installation Requirements 53 FOR CORROSION CONTROL
a. Lease Flow Lines 53
A. Sucker Rod Pumped Wells-High Fluid Level 62
b. Custody Transfer Lines 53
c. Wet Gas Pipelines 53 B. Sucker Rod Pumped Wells - Low Fluid Level 62/63
d. Sales Gas Line 54
e. Interpreting Corrosion Coupon Data 54 C. Gas Lift Wells 63
2. Water Analysis of Corrosion Potential 54 D. Hydraulic Pumped Wells 63
a. Lease Flowlines 55
b. Custody Transfer Lines 55 E. Gas/Gas Condensate Wells 63/64
c. Wet Gas Pipelines 55
56 F. Oil & Gas Pipelines 64/65
d. Water Samples-Corrosion Monitoring
e. Water Samples-Inhibitor Monitoring 56
CHAYfER VII - MISCELLANEOUS TECHNICAL INFORMATION
I. Monitoring Sales Gas Pipelines 56
General 66
CHAPTER V - OXYGEN CORROSION IN PRODUCTION & PIPELINES A. Failure Analysis Procedure 67
General 57 B. Approximation of Tensile and Yield Strength of Steel 68
58 1. Brinell vs Rockwell Hardness 68
A. Air Entrainment in Oil Wells
2. Brinell Hardness vs Tensile Strength 69
B. Air Entrainment in Tanks 58 3. Tensile Strength vs Yield Strength Range 69

C. Air Entrainment in Transfer and Injection Pumps 58 C. Approximate Velocity Criteria for Liquid 70
59 1. Calculation of Approximate Velocity 70
D. Air Entrainment in Injection Systems
2. Limiting Velocities for Water in Steel Pipe 70
E. Potential Sources of Air Contamination 59 3. Limiting Velocities for Oil in Steel Pipe 70
60 4. Design Criteria for Pump Suctions 70
F. Air Entrainmeni in Water Sources
5. Pipe Velocities vs Fluid Densities 71
G. Solubility of Oxygen in Surface Waters 60
D. Design Velocities for Well Tubing 71
H. Removal of Oxygen from Injection Waters 60
E. Corrosion Resistant Materials 72

vi vii
ITEM DESCRIPTION
1. Non-Metallic Materials
a. Extruded Plastic Pipe
b. Glass Filament Wound Epoxy Pipe
c. Plastic Liners in Steel Pipe
d. Baked on Coatings
e. Cement Linings
2. Corrosion Resistant Alloys
a. Monels
b. Stainless Steels
(1) AISI 300 Series Stainless Steels
(2) AISI 400 Series Stainless Steels
3. Aluminum Bronze Alloys
4. Inconel, Hastelloy, Stellite and Colmonoy
F. API Specifications - Physical Properties
1. API/SPEC. llB Sucker Rods & Couplings
2. API/SPEC. SA, 5AC, SAX Tubing & Casing
3. API/SPEC. 5L Line Pipe
G. References Pertinent to Oil Field Corrosion
viii
PAGE
72 FOREWORD
72 Serious corrosion in production and pipelines began in the 30's with
73 widespread drilling of wells west of the Mississippi River. In many of the fields
73 the oil and gas contained significant amounts of the acidic gases, Hydrogen
73 Sulfide and Carbon Dioxide. In addition, some fields had active water drives
74 or mobile water tables and were completed in non-consolidated formations
74 that further intensified corrosion. While the 30's incidents of corrosion were
widespread the actual number of fields in which it was occurring was limited.
However, by the mid 40's corrosion failures had reached epidemic level.
74
75 Well and pipeline corrosion was classified as a field problem with the respon-
75 sibility for its solution at the descretion of the field operators and their staffs.
In cooperations with production chemical companies widespread field test-
75
ing began, mostly based on intuitive guesses at solutions. Also many ad-hoc,
off the record meetings were held for comparing of results. By the early 50's
76
the widespread testing and interchange of results had developed "Rules of
Thumb" for both detecting a corrosive condition and limiting the rate of metal
76
76/77
loss. Since the 50's, through continued testing and the formulation of supe-
rior chemicals, t'reatments have been further improved. Considerable of the
77 information in this manual is today's versions of these original programs.
78 While by technical definition they would still be classified as "Rules of
Thumb" based on years of successful application they can be applied with
79 confidence.
There is no way the many operating and production chemical company per-
sonnel that contributed to the developments can be acknowledged. In the
late 40's the NACE was still in the formative stages with the formal report-
ing and cataloging of field work in the beginning stage. The NGAA Corrosion
Research Project, one ad-hoc committee comparing and analyzing field
studies lists 22 production companies and service organizations ｡ｾｴｩｶ･＠ in ｦｩｾｬ､＠
studies. The minutes of this committee refers to many of the studies bllt With
only limited reference to the personnel involved. However, this manual at-
tests to the thoroughness of studies and the technical proficiency and objec-
tivity of the personnel that undertook these investigations.
ix
 CHAPTER I
CAUSES OF CORROSION IN OIL FIELD EQUIPMENT

GENERAL
It has been estimated that 80% of failures occurring in production and
pipeline operations are caused by corrosion. This is either of the metal loss
type or of the stress types with corrosion developing the stress raisers or
atomic hydrogen associated with Hydrogen Embrittlement. The primary ob-
jective when failure occurs is to establish that if corrosion is the cause, what
are the specific reasons and how can it be prevented in the future.

Since corrosion is generally suspected as the cause, it is essential the operator

have a general understanding of the corrosion phenomena, its appearance
and operating conditions that can initiate the attack. Since most equipment
is manufactured from Ferrous metals the corrosion of steels etc., are of
primary concern. The two principal corrodents associated with oil and gas
are Hydrogen Sulfide and Carbon Dioxide. Oxygen is also of major concern
when produced or injection waters are in contact with air. While there are a
wide variety of operating conditions under which corrosion may occur, the
electrochemical reaction is always the underlying cause. Once these factors
controlling corrosion are understood and the types of failures recognized,
corrosion can be readily established as the probable cause. Usually a review
of operating conditions coupled with relatively simple tests will confirm the
condition.

The following reviews the basic concepts of oil field corrosion and other per-
tinent information to field failure analysis.

A. DEFINITION OF CORROSION

The "CORROSION HANDBOOK" by Herbert H. Uhlig states:

CORROSION: Destruction of a metal by chemical or electrochemi-

cal reaction with its environment.

In routine production and pipeline operations only the electrochemical reac-

tion applies. Depending on metallurgy, cor rodents and operating conditions
the appearance of the corrosion and failures can be quite differerent,
however the underlying cause is the electrochemical component of the defini-
tion.

-1-
While the chemical component of the definition is discounted for routine
operations it can be a factor in failures associated with acid jobs, packer fluids
and other operations where large volumes of treating chemicals have been
used in stimulation or completion operations. Where corrosion has occurred
without apparent cause, a review of the chemical possibilities is desirable.
B. ELECTROCHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
The figure below is an idealized representation of the electrochemical en-
vironment with a clean, perfect steel surface without internal or external im-
perfections. Each grain is minutely different in structure and composition
and markedly different from the grain boundary alloys that precipitated as
the steel cooled from the molten to the solid state. When the surface is filmed
with an electrolyte, always water in routine field operations, there is a minute
current flow between the anodic and cathodic areas of the surface.
ELECTRO CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
ｾ＠ WATER
ｾ＠
G R A : : : : J GRAINBOUNDARIES
MAYBE
Ｏｾ＠
ANODES OR CATHODES
SIMULATED STEEL MICROSTRUCTURE
X'S 1,OOO'S
The following figure is an idealized representation of the electrochemical
reactions at the anodic and cathodic surfaces. Iron ions enter the water from
the anode; hydrogen ions in the water move to the cathode, combine to form
molecule, rise as minute gas bubbles and leave the electrolyte.
-2-
LOCAL CELL ACTION
Fe+ + ｆ･ＫｾｩｎｴｈＺＱｷ＠
Fe+ +
(ELECTROLYTE)
H+
Surface deterioration of the metal surface would be slow and generally
uniform. Frequently corrosion products, such as rust, coat the surface, slow-
ing the reaction rate. While this general corrosion is not usually a major con-
cern from metal loss considerations, the atomic hydrogen can cause
Hydrogen Embrittlement in high strength, highly stressed steels.
The electrochemical pitting type attack is the major cause of stress corrosion
and metal loss failures. There are a number of factors in typical oil field steels
fabricating procedures and operliting conditions that form the areas of high
electrochemical potential where pining attack develops. The following is a
partial listing of the many conditions in field materials and equipment that
can initiate corrosion pitting.
1. METALLURGICAL FACTORS: Abnormal grain growth, improper
heat treatment, dirty steel (slag, slugs, scabs), improper stress relief, in-
adequate melting sequence.
2. MILL FABRICATING FACTORS: Inadequate heat treatment and/or
stress relief, folds, seams, upsetting heat runouts, inadequate heading
and scarfing, inadequate cleaning (mill scale), improper or inadequate
welding, excessive cold straightening, surface damage (knicks, gouges,
etc.).
3. FIELD OPERATING FACTORS: Surface damage (tool marks,
gouges, knicks, etc.), improper welding (seams, heat runouts, blow
throughs, slag, etc.) cold bending and straightening, acidic produced
water, water deposited scales, corrosion product scales, water legs,
high velocity (turbulence at flow discontinuities), dissimilar metals and
alloys.
-3-
C. 1YPICAL IDEALIZED ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS 2. CARBON DIOXIDE - PITTING ATTACK
The corrosion product can vary from dark brown to black. Generally it
The following ferrous corrosion products shown would form with the H2S is loosely adhering. Initially the pits are small as at the left center of the
and C02 in low solids water and from corrosion considerations they are the illustration, sides are vertical and the bottoms rounded. Originally the
only products of concern. However, analysis of typical field scales will con- attack was called ring worm corrosion due to its appearance in a cir-
tain other chemical elements associated with oil field brines and an organic cumferential ring at the heat runout zone of upset tubing. Frequently
component from the oil, condensate or well treating chemicals. they also appear in extended lines of pits as illustrated. Frequently the
balance of the metal surface is either free of corrosion or only very
H20 lightly attacked.
+
H2S ------------- FeS + H2
Fe
(sour corrosion)
Fe + H20 + C02 ------------- FeC03 + H2
(sweet corrosion)
4 Fe + 302 -------------- 2 Fe203
(oxygen corrosion)

D. APPEARANCE OF METAL LOSS CORROSION 3. HIGH CHLORIDE BRINES - pH 6.0 - 7.0

In produced water, with no or only minute traces of acid gases, the pH
The following are typical textbook examples of metal loss corrosion. The will approach 7.0. This will often result in a general attack with shallow
samples were thoroughly cleaned to illustrate the type of metal loss. When round bottom pitting, the rounded bottom shape markedly decreases
field samples are to be inspected a sample of the corrosion product should in stress raiser affect. The rate of metal loss is usually low.
first be removed and placed in an air tight container in case an analysis is re-
quired. A section of the sample should then be thoroughly cleaned, with an
acid wash if necessary, so the surface condition can be inspected.

1. HYDROGEN SULFIDE - PITTING & GENERAL ATTACK

With both types of attack the corrosion product will be black. In the
case of the pitting type attack it will generally be tightly adhering. In ap-
pearance it can vary from a smooth, shiny surface to a rough, dull
black, noduler. With the general type attack the corrosion product is 4. ACIDS - 15% HCI & SPENT ACID
usually thin, relatively soft and dull black. With fresh, non-inhibited acid the attack is severe and rapid. The sur-
face is deeply etched with sharp needle like protrusions. With spent

ｾ＠ ｾ Ｂ Ｂ ｾＮ ｾＧ ｜ｾ Ｎ ｾ＠ ..Ｇ｟ Ｎ Ｎ＠ • • 1;#'0;.... 1, -,., 0 ］Ｍ ［ＺＮＬｾ＠ -

acid, the attack, while rapid, is a less surface damaging type.

• ",*,:;'::.i...&/" ;. " •'

. 'J.,..,.,. ｾＮ＠
, • ,,; ':.i..Jo ... ｾｴ＠ ｾＬ｟ＡＺＢ［＠

ｾ ＢＧ Ｎ＠ . ... ' .. ; , . ,' . \ 1 " " \/1 ｾ Ｂ＠ ". Ｂｾ ｟ Ｇ｜Ｌ＠ ｾＮ＠ .. ' . - "

ｊｬｴｾ : "f.Ｇ ｾｽ ｾ ｾＧｈｩＺｻｴ

ｊ ｾＧ＠
ｬｾｉ ｾ ｾ ＿Ｇ Ｚ ｾ ｾﾷ
',', .',:,Ｚ Ｏ ｾ ,ｾ ｮ ［ Ｉﾷｾ ｾ
1/. " "".-
Ｎ ［ｩＺ ｾ Ｂｾ ＺＧ Ｎ ｜ ｾ Ｂ Ｌｾ Ｌ＠ ｾＱ ｻ ＿ｴ＠ . t· '. ｾ ＡｾＺ｜＠
ｾ＠ • " • • • 'f
,;.'
· Ｎｾ I-.I!ｾ 1>(, ..ｾｪ ,' ｾ .
I ., I'
'.1,;)" Ｎ ｾＮ
t . ｾ ＮＧ＠
ｾｩＧ＠ ｾ＠ , . J'1!;of.
.. '. ':
r-
'
•
•
I
"
ｾＯＮＬ ｾ＠
Ｏ Ｌｲ＾ｩＭ " .' •
Ｌ［＾ ｾ＠ - ,
r
•
ｾ＠
,

I
ｾ＠ .... ｜ＮＧｾ＠ .... Ｂ｜ｾＮＭＬＧ＠ ....ｾＨ＠ ... ,

-4- -5-
5. BACTERIA - SULFATE REDUCERS E. CORROSM1Yvs pH OF WATER
The attacked area is covered with a black, impenetrable adhering cor-
rosion product film. In the initial phase of the infestation the steel sur- With water wetting of field equipment being a primary requirement for cor-
face has the mottled surface illustrated below. As the attack progresses rosion, its acidity - pH, is a readily made measurement for determining the
a more conventional type pitting can develop as shown in the upper il- significance of the attack. For solids free water of velocities of 3 FPS or less
lustration. However, the outer edge of the pit still exhibits the mottled the following "Rules of Thumb" are applicable.
appearance establishing that the initiating cause was the bacteria
development. pH 7.0 or higher - Significant corrosion unlikely
pH 7.0 to 6.5 - Minor corrosion possible
pH 6.5 to 6.0 - Moderate corrosion with possible pitting
pH 6.0 or less - Significant corrosion with probable pitting

The figure indicates the effect of increasing velocity on the corrosion rate.
From approximately 3 to 7 FPS, water is in a transition range between laminar
and total turbulent flow and the relative corrosion rate will be between the
Dormant Water and the Corrosion/Erosion Condition. The upper curve will
be the limiting condition up to velocities where erosion of the metal will begin.
RELATIVE CORROSION VS pH & VELOCITY

>- 7
I-
:;:
Ui 6
6. CORROSION/EROSION - HIGH VELOCI1Y EFFECT o
a:
With high fluids velocity the type corrosion can be masked by erosion. gj 5
The corrosion product formed is continuously eroded away, generating U

a smooth surface. This continuously presents clean metal to the corro- ｾ＠ 4

i=
dent with a high rate of metal loss. :3w 3
DORMANT WATER
a: (No Flow)
2

12 10 8 7 6 4 2
ALKALINE - p H - ACIDIC

F. CORROSION vs HYDROGEN SULFIDE & CARBON DIOXIDE

Hydrogen Sulfide and Carbon Dioxide are the only acidic components con-
tained in any significant amount in oil and gas reservoirs. The amounts nor-
mally vary from minute traces to 5%. The corrosivity (pH) of produced water
is a function of the amounts of these two gases in solution. However, the rate
of metal loss, type, and locations are controlled by other factors, such as,
temperature, pressure, susceptibility of the metal and pitting initiating con-
ditions as noted in Item B.

-6- -7-
 6
The examples below are from laboratory tests performed at low pressures
and room temperature. As such, specific values would have no relation with
field operating conditions. However, the rate of change shown can be con- w 5
l-
e(
sidered reasonable approximations of the change of the corrosion rate that a:
could be anticipated for similar changes in the variables in operations. z 4
0
(j)
1. CORROSMTY OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE 0
a:
In considering the figure most sour corrosion will have less than 2000 a: 3
0
ppm ofH2S and will be in the (5.0 - 6.5) pH range. Assuming an 0
average pH of 6.25, an increase from a trace of H2S to 2000 ppm would w
> 2
increase the corrosion rate by a factor of 4. The curve indicates that for i=
e(
...J
a H2S content of over 100 ppm the corrosion would be significant. It W
would probably be a pitting attack. a:
5
pH 4.5
w
l-
e(
a:
z
4
- pH 5.0

pH 6.25
o 5 10
CARBON DIOXIDE - PPM
15 20 25

0 G. CORROSION VERSUS VELOCITY AND TEMPERATURE

iii
0
a:
a: 3 The following figure illustrates the effect of both velocity and temperature

e::-:::
0
() increases on the rate of metal loss. The tests on sea water in a closed system
w would be for a pH in the 7.0 - 8.0 range, without oxygen present. The type at-
>
i=
e( 2 tack for flow rates below 3 FPS would be similar to that illustrated in 4,C. The
....I
W temperature rate increases would be of the same order of magnitude for all
a: corrosive conditions. However, the effect of velocity could be markedly in-
creased for more corrosive conditions due to the corrosion/erosion phenom-
- pH 9.0 na.

0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 5
ｾ＠
SULFIDES AS H2 S, ppm ｾ＠
ｾ＠
2. CORROSMTY OF CARBON DIOXIDE w
I- 4
/ -<
a
e( V- ｾ＠
With the amount of Carbon Dioxide in solution being a function of the
a: ｾ＠ co
ｾ＠

V V
pressure and temperature in the system, the pH measurement on a
z
0
./
V V
water sample is misleading and should be discounted. When other than
(j)
0
3
,/'" ｾ＠
./
...--
minute traces of C02 are present, the pH's of the water in either wells
a:
a: ｾ＠ aC\J V V
or pipelines will be markedly lower than measurements on even fresh
0
0 ./
/ ;;:..-V
w 2 V ｾ＠
water samples. The figure illustrates the rate of increase in corrosion V
V V
> a
that occurs with increasing C02 content in the water and also how the i=
e( <0
oxygen entering the water, by contact with air, further increases the ...J
W
a:
V
rate of metal loss. The curve of 10 ppm 02 is for the maximum V
solubility that would be expected in routine field operations.

o 2 4 6 8 10
VELOCITY IN FT.!SEC.

-8- -9-
H. ACCELERATING RATE OF PIT DEVELOPMENT
The principal cause of all corrosion failures in oilfield operations is the pit-
ting type attack. In operations where the equipment is under continuous or
repeated strains, due to pressure or mechanical action, pitting can be the
principal cause of premature failure. Pits under these conditions develop the
stress raiser affect which markedly reduces the theoretical, calculated failure
stress of an item. This stress raiser type failure is widely recognized and where
it can occur every effort is made to minimize corrosion.
However, it is frequently overlooked that in non-stressed equipment pitting
can also cause premature equipment failures. This reflects a lack of under-
standing of the increasing rate of pit penetration of steel as corrosion progres-
ses. As noted in Item D, APPEARANCE OF METAL LOSS
CORROSION, Page 4, H2S, C02 and Sulfate Reducers, the principal oil-
field corrodents, generally develop a pitting type attack. As illustrated below,
as the pit deepens, the rate of ferrous ions entering the water remains con-
stant. However, the surface area of the anode supplying the ferrous ions con-
tinuously decreases. This increased the rate of pit penetration and can result
in rapid, premature failure of equipment. This can occur even though the
overall corrosion rate in a system remains low.
INCREASING RATE OF
PENETRATION WITH PIT DEVELOPMENT
+-+-- --+-+ Large anodic area, rate of metal
I. HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT
Wide spread, spontaneous brittle failures were first ･ｮ｣ｯｵｴｾ､＠ in t.he
production industry in the late 30's. These were generally aSSOCiated WIth
high strength steels producing sour oil and gas (H?S). Initially, these were
not identified as hydrogen embrittlement and a vanety of names were used
to identify the failures such as: sulfide stress cracking, sulfide corrosion crack-
ing, sulfide cracking, and sulfide stress corrosion cracking. While .this type
failure is now generally recognized as a form of hydrogen embnttlement
several of the field names are still in general use.
There are several hypothesis for hydrogen embrittlement and all are in agree-
ment that the phenomena is initiated by hydrogen ､ｩｾｦｵｳｯｮ＠ into .the ｳｴｾ･Ｎｬ＠
While the hydrogen can be from a number of sources, ｬｾ＠ OIlfield faIlures It ｾｳ＠
normally associated with water wet ferrous metals. While the electrochemi-
cal reaction is also the cause of metal loss corrosion, where steel are suscep-
tible to hydrogen embrittlement and under sufficient tensile stress, failures
are quite rapid and before any significant metal loss has occurred. ｒ･ｳｾ｣ｨ＠
and field testing has established rigorous specifications for preventmg
hydrogen embrittlement. Details of the phenomena are. beyond the scope .of
this presentation. The following lists the factors controlhng hydrogen ｾｭ｢ｮｴﾭ
tlement and Chapter VI lists the of API grades of sucker rods and tubmg and
their susceptibility to this type failure.
J. FACTORS CONTROLLING HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT
1. Yield Strength - Steels with yield strengths of 90,000 psi or lower are

ｾ＠
loss and pit penetration slow. generally not susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement.
2. Hardness - Maximum hardness should be Rc-22 or less.
3. Stress Level - With failure susceptible steels there is a stress level
below which failures will not occur. This is a function of the yield
+-- --+- strength of the steel and decreases as the yield strength increases.
Anodic area decreases,
cathodic area extends down 4. Internal Stresses - Stress susceptible steels can fail due to internal ten-
ｾｩ､･＠ of pit. Rate of penetration sile stresses caused by welding, cold working, bending or surface
mcreases. damage by tools or handling. .
5. Hydrogen Concentration - Time to ｦ｡ｾｬｵｲ･＠ is a fun.ction o.f ｾｹ､ｲ＿ｧ･ｮ＠
concentration. However, with susceptIble steel, faIlure WIll meVitably
-+- -+-+ occur if hydrogen is present and the allowable stress is exceeded.

ｾ＠
6. Temperature - Research and field experience indicates that failures
0
Anodic area confined to bot- will not occur above 150 F.
torn of pit. Rapid rate of metal
loss and wall penetration.

NOTE: Corrosion product normally coating or filling pits not shown.

-10- -11-
K. HYDROGEN BLISTERING
While low strength, ductile steels are not susceptible to hydrogen embrittle-
ment occasionally hydrogen blistering can occur. Normally the atomic
hydrogen entering the steel along the grain boundaries will defuse through
the metal. Occasionally, an inclusion or other anomoly in the grain structure
will stop the diffusion of the hydrogen with the combining of atoms to form
the much larger molecules of hydrogen. This will cause internal cracking that
with continuing molecule formation develops blisters. Generally this occurs
in low pressure equipment and few failures have been reported from the
cause. When the conditions develops to where blisters are noted the equip-
ment should be replaced.
L. GALVANIC CORROSION
One source of failures frequently overlooked in field equipment where water
is involved is that associated with the coupling of dissimilar metals. Failures
from galvanic attack are usually associated with small piping and control
items and not of serious consequence. However, this corrosion can easily be
avoided. The following table lists the Galvanic Series for the metals normal-
ly used in oil field equipment. Every effort should be made to select metals
in close proximity in this series. Where metals are widely separated it is man-
datory, an insulating arrangement is to be used between the metals.
GALVANIC SERIES IN FIELD OPERATIONS
Magnesium and Alloys
Zinc or Galvanized Metals
Aluminum (soft alloys)
Cadmium or Cadmium Plating
Aluminum (hard alloys)
Steel, Cast Iron, Wrought Iron
Solder (50% lead, 50% tin)
Stainless Steel (AISI Series 300, active)
Lead
Tin
Naval Brass, Maganese Bronze, Yellow Brass
Admiralty Brass, Aluminum Bronze, Red Brass
Copper, Silicon Bronze
Inconel
Monel
Stainless Steel (AISI Series 300, passive)
-12-
CHAPTER II
OIL WELL CORROSION AND ITS PREVENTION
GENERAL
With adequately designed well bore equipment, during the flush and low
water producing periods and with an average fluid velocity of 3 FPS and
above, the flow string surfaces will be oil wetted and no significant corrosion
will occur. With velocities below 3 FPS, water legs can build-up in the lower
sections of the well. This can result in casing, tubing and pumping equipmept
being water wetted and corrosion is possible. Without the water leg develop-
ment the equipment will normally remain oil wetted up to water cuts of about
25%. Between 25% and 45% water cut, equipment may be either oil or water
wetted, depending on the crude oil characteristics. Generally as the API
gravity of the oil decreases the cut level at which water wetting begins in-
creases. At a water cut of 45% and above the equipment will always be water
wetted. In gas drive reservoirs with stable water tables, wells will experience
no significant corrosion during the primary producing phases. (With the ex-
ception of water leg corrosion). In reservoirs with water drives, mobile water
tables or water injection projects the rate of water intrusion and oil charac-
teristics will determine when corrosion will be occurring. In many fields
where wells are essentially corrosion free during primary production, serious
corrosion may develop during secondary recovery operations. The early
detection of corrosion and beginning of corrosion control programs are es-
sential for controlling well equipment replacement costs. When corrosion in-
hibition is deferred until equipment failures begin, corrosion is probably
serious in many wells. This can result in widespread premature equipment
failures, requiring replacement, before the corrosion control program can
effectively protect equipment.
The following summarizes information and "Rules of Thumb" that can be
used to evaluate corrosion in oilwell operations. Various types of corrosion
inhibiting programs are detailed along with the other pertinent information.
Specific Champion Cortron inhibitors for the programs are listed in Chap-
ter VI.
A. WATER CUT VS WATER WETTING OF WELL EQUIPMENT
Water Cut Wetting Film On Eguipment
0-25% Oil (possible water leg)
25 - 45% Can be oil or water
45%& Up Water
-13-
B. 1YPICAL CAUSES OF SUCKER ROD BODY BREAKS c. ENDURANCE LIMIT OF SUCKER RODS
With the exception of mill and metallurgical defects practically all breaks in A factor frequently overlooked in sucker rod failure analysis is the possibility
the body of sucker rods will be caused by conditions illustrated. The Bend of the Endurance Limit having been exceeded. When a rod has a multiple
Damage will normally be at beginning of pin upset with break at a slight angle crack appearance as in Item B an Endurance Limit failure has occurred. All
with rod axis. Endurance Limit - See Item C. steel items that undergo repeated stress reversals will eventually fail by ex-
ceeding the Endurance Limit. The curves illustrate the Endurance Limit for
a steel immersed in air and in water. Steel specimens for these tests have a
smooth surface without any apparent stress raisers. When immersed in water
the electrochemical reaction will develop minute pits that serve as stress
STRESS CORROSION FAILURES raisers to reduce the Endurance Limit.
Corrosion Pits (many)
Sucker rod design is based on the water condition with a stress reversal range
Fatigue Cracks beyond the knee of the curve. With this stress range and a good corrosion
control program, at least 108 cycles should be possible before the Endurance
Limit is reached. When wells are pumping from gas drive reservoirs with less
than 25% water, the rods will be oil wetted and the curve for air will control
MECHANICAL DAMAGE TYPE
STRESS FAILURES the Endurance Limit. With this condition, sucker rods will last for many years.
The picture is a typical example of an Endurance Limit failure.
Nicks, Dents, Scratches

Hammer Blows, Gouges 100

Fatigue Cracks I i
t;'
xr---
""r--" i!
,"
c
....... 80 f'.. "
:e
0
) r-.... !!
V x 1'10
STRESS OR ENDURANCE
LIMIT FAILURES
0
....
0
60
Air \lｾ＠ l- x :I
); I-x x i

'"
en
en Ir I
Fatigue Cracks (many)
ｾ＠ en
40
r-\r--. II
iii
c
Of
0
ｾ＠ I
z Water- V ｾ＠ ｾ＠
I I

20
BEND DAMAGE TYPE STRESS
RAISER FAILURES
I I ! II
10' 10' 10' 10' 10' 10'
Number of cycles (log scale)
Rod Bend

Stress Raising Crack Ｇｾｉ｟ｦｊＦ ｾ Ｂ＠ ｾ Ｎ＠

ｯ＠
After Straightening
..!
ｾ＠
0 0

. .- . -"
ｾ＠ , ..... Ｌ ｾ
..... ,;'.'..ｾ＠
ｾ Ｎ ｾ＠
ｾ＠
.
,
",. ",
0,

ENDURANCE OR FATIGUE LIMIT FAILURE

-14- -15-
D. lYPICAL CAUSES OF SUCKER ROD PIN BREAKS F. lYPICAL APPEARANCE OF SUCKER ROD COUPLING BREAKS

While corrosion as a cause of failure is extremely rare in sucker rod pins, With standard couplings the metal cross-sectional area is large compared to
failures are frequent when the pin and coupling are not properly mated. The other cross-sections of rod string components and corrosion failures are in-
principal cause of this is inadequate torque. This causes slight separation at frequent.
coupling and pin bearing surfaces with a slight bending. Under these condi-
BREAK BEGINNING AT INTERNAL LOCATION
tions the threads act as stress raisers with failure occurring within the
threaded section of the pin. The following lists the various conditions for pin Tensile Break
failures. Failures in the undercut area are unusual except in thin wall cou- (distorted cup-cone)
plings. When failures occur frequently in the pin threads, API RP llBR, Sec- Rough Granular
tion 4 on Sucker Rod Joint Makeup gives the proper procedure to assure (area of rapid separation)
adquate joint torquing.
Smooth Surface
LOCATION
OF BREAK CAUSE (area of slow separation)

corrosion, wear, Origin of Break

handling damage,
manufaduri n9
defect BREAK BEGINNING AT EXTERNAL LOCATION

Tensile Break
(distorted cup-cone)

Sucker Rod Pin Rough Granular

(area of rapid separation)

Smooth Surface
(area of slow separation)

E. lYPICAL APPEARANCE OF SUCKER ROD BODY BREAKS
Except for case hardened rods, body breaks, including those at the beginning G. SLAG INCLUSION MILL DEFECT
of rod to pin taper, will invariably have the illustrated appearance. The size
of the smooth surface area reflects that until the area is reduced to where the
yield strength of the rod is reached the crack continually opens and closes
peaning the surface. Once the yield strength is exceeded only a few pump
strokes are required for complete failure and generation of the modified typi- ｢ｲｯｫｾｮ＠
cal tensile cup/cone failure appearance.
Origin of Break
Most mill and metallurgical defects require laboratory investigations for
?ete<:tion. ｈｯｷ･ｶｾｲＬ＠ slag ｾ｣ｬｵｳｩｯｮ＠ type defects as illustrated can usually be
Identified by field mspectIon. These occur when a surfaced slag inclusion is
｡ｮｾ＠ extended and pressed into the rod surface in the forming process.
The mcluslOns are generally spaced at approximately equal intervals either
in a straight line or a long radius helix. '

Tensile Break
(modified cup or cone)
Rou h Gran ular
(area of rapid separation)
Smooth Surface
(area of slow separation)
Origin of Break

-16- -17-
H. RULES OF THUMB FOR ESTIMATING CORROSION I. FIELD PROGRAM FOR DETECTING CORROSION

In most fields the initial water rate is low and corrosion protection is not re-
quired. However, in many fields it is obvious corrosion will eventually develop
and it is desirable to detect and inhibit as soon as possible. The following are
"Rules of Thumb" that have been used for early detection and beginning treat-
ing programs.
1. RULE 1 - CORROSION COUPON DATA - 30 DAYS
Coupons Pitted - Corrosion Always Serious
In fields where corrosion is anticipated it will begin when equipment is first
water wetted in the 25 - 45% range. With the use of a key well type monitor-
ing program, using pH and corrosion coupon data, the critical water cut level
can be approximated. Depending on the size of the field select as key wells
(3-10) those with the highest water cut. These will generally be those with the
highest producing rate. With monthly measurements of pH's, coupon rate
and water cuts follow the block diagram procedure to determine when well
inhibition programs should begin.

COUPONS - GENERAL CORROSION

WATER CUT
25% OR OVER
0-2MPY Mild Corrosion, Not Serious
2-5MPY Moderate Corrosion, Watch CORROSION POSSIBLE
5&UpMPY Significant Corrosion, Treat I I I I
pH LESS pH pH pH
THAN 6.0 6.0 TO 65 65 TO 7.0 OVER 7.0
2. RULE 2 - ROD STRING STRESS FAILURES
I
CORROSION CORROSION
I I I
CORROSION CORROSION
o-1/YR Mild Corrosion, Not Serious PROBABLE UKELY UNUKELY

1- 2/YR
2& Up/YR
Moderate Corrosion - Treat
Significant Corrosion, Treat IｾＧａｌｏＢｎ＠ ｏｾＢ［＠
COUPON COUPON
NOTE: With new strings, failures in first 3 months are probably mill defects DATA DATA
and should not be considered. I
I I I
LESS THAN LESS THAN MORE'THAN LES,S THAN LESS THAN MORE THAN
5MPY 5MPY 5MPY 5MPY 5MPY 5MPY
3. RULE 3 - pH MEASUREMENTS - FRESH SAMPLES NO PITS PITS (3) NO PITS ,ITS (3)
I I I
7.0& Up No Corrosion, Scale Possible CORROSION ISOLATED CORROSION CORROSION ISOLATED CORROSION
UNUKELY CORROSION OCCURRING UNLIKELY CORROSION OCCURRING
6.5 -7.0 Mild Corrosion
I I
ｃｏｬｓｉｾ＠
(2) (2)
6.0 - 6.5 Moderate Corrosion - Treat
I
6.0 & Less Significant Corrosion - Treat INHIBLON CORROSION INHIBmON
PROGRAM DESIRABLE PROGRAM PROBABLY DESIRABLE

4. RULE 4 - WATER CUT & pH

STEEL pH pH
WATER CUT WATER WET .!l:.1 1.:..!1. CORROSION 1. Corrosion occasionally occurs above a pH of 7.0. Where field ex-
0 -25% No No perience indicates possibility of corrosion.
25% -45% Possible X Uncertain 2. When equipment becomes water-wet, corrosion will occur. Maintain a
25% -45%* Possible X Doubtful planned monitoring program.
45%- Up Yes X Yes 3. Check systems for air entrainment. If air entrainment is found,
45% - Up* Yes X Possible eliminate and re-test.
*- Possibility of Scale Formation

-18- -19-
J. DECISIONS IN THE DESIGN OF AN INHIBITION PROGRAM K TREATING PROCEDURES FOR PUMPING OIL WELLS
The following treating methods are only for rod pumped oil wells. When wells
Once the start of significant corrosion has been detected the object is to are flowing, on gas lift or centrifugally pumped, other treating methods are
quickly control the attack with a cost ･ｦｾ｣ｴｩｶ＠ ｩｮｨ｢ｴｾ＠ program. ｉｾｩｴ＼ｬＺｹ＠ required.
many programs are ineffective due to faIlure to recognize how filmmg m-
hibitors function and the required solubility characteristics in the well fluids 1YPE COMPLETION
being produced. Another factor overlooked in older fields is the necessity of Open Tubing On
a special treatment to quickly establish an initial film of inhibitor. Occasion:u- Annulus Packer
ly effective treatments are also discredited by faill!re to ｲｾ｣ｯｧｮｩｺ･＠ ｾｨ｡ｴ＠ e9Ulp - Type of Treatment Iii&!! Fluid Level Low Fluid Level
ment corroded prior to the start of a program will contmue to fail. Failures
that occur during the first three months after beginning a program should be Periodic Batch Yes Possible Note 1
discounted. These generally reflect either equipment that is already corroded
or with new equipment, damaging mill defects, not rejected in mill inspec- Periodic Batch With
tions. Inhibitor Emulsion Yes Yes Note 1

Continuous Injection Yes Yes Note 2

1. Does well need to be cleaned? (NOTE 1)
Squeeze Treatment Note 3 Note 3 Yes
2. What treating procedure should be used? (NOTE 2)
Note 1: If operator is willing to unseat pump, either treating procedure
3. What inhibitor should be used? (NOTE 2) can be used down tubing. Also, if the water oil ratio is not exces-
sive, weighted inhibitors QIay be possible.
4. In batch and squeeze treatments what frequency is needed? (NOTE 3) Note 2: Continuous injection is possible with a capillary tubing type com-
pletion. Downhole injection valves are also possible but field ex-
5. In batch and squeeze treatments what volume is required? (NOTE 3) perience with these has been poor due to plugging of the valve.
Note 3: Squeeze treatments should be recommended only as a last resort.
6. In continuous injection what rate is required?

7. What monitoring procedure is desirable or required? (NOTE 4) L. INITIAL FILMING PROCEDURES

When running new rods and/or tubing it is desirable to quickly establish an
inhibitor film. This will protect the tubing until the on-going treating program
NOTE 1: The metal must be reasonable clean to effectively film. films the equipment.

NOTE 2: Items 2 & 3 are interchangeable and the treatment will generally
dictate the type inhibitor or vice versa.
NOTE 3: Squeeze treatments may cause skin damage and are not recom-
mended if other treating methods are possible.
1. Running Tubing and/or Rods in Well
The objective is to place a batch of inhibitor at the top of liquids in well
so as to film rods and/or tubing as it is run. Use Cortrons in Chapter
VI, Standard Inhibitors-Semi-Weekly Batch.

NOTE 4: Monitoring should be for meaningful results and not require ex- a) Running both tubing and rods.
tensive field and laboratory time. Pump into casing: 2 gallons of inhibitor/1,OOO' of
tubing
b) Running rods only.
Pump into tubing: 1 gallon of inhibitor/1,OOO' of
tubing.

-20- -21-
 2) Gallons of Inhibitor Required per Week
2. All Batch and Continuous In·ection Treatments
not required when Item 1 has been used)
(BOD + BWD) x 7 days x 42 galslbbl x ppm Treating rate
The objective is to quickly film inside of tubing and rods to provide 1,000,000
protection until the batched or continuously injected inhibitor can cir-
Example: (30 BOD + 160 BWD)
culate.

a) Wells that can be circulated.

@ 25 ppm = 190 x 7 x 42 x ｾＲＵ＠ = 1.3 gallons/week
1,000,000
Pump into annulus: 2 gallons of inhibitor/l,OOO' of
tubing.
Circulate once or twice. @ 35 ppm = 190 x 7 x 42 x ｾＳＵ＠ ｾ＠ = 1.8 gallons/week
1,000,000
Park inhibitor in annulus.
b) Wells that cannot be circulated.
Pump into annulus 2 gallons of weighted m- @ 50 ppm = 190 x 7 x 42 x _;;.;50;....._ = 2.6 gallons/week
1,000,000
hibitor/l,OOO' of tubing.

3. Squeeze Treatments 3) Adequate Frequency of Treatment

a) Treatment down tubing. Period of treatments can very widely depending on corrosivity, water
Apply Item 1, b) to treat rods. oil ratio, tubing size and well deviation. Unless field experience has es-
b) Treatment down annulus. tablished the required treating period the following is recommended
Apply Item 2, a) or b) at the rate of 1 gallon of inhibitor as the initial program.
per 1,000' of tubing.
Producing Rate Treating Period
M.PERIODIC BATCH TREATING PROCEDURE
Up to 150 BFPD Every Two Weeks
The theory of batch treating is that O?ce the ｾ･ｬ＠ ･ｱｵｩｰｾｮｴ＠ has ｢･ｾ＠ filmed, 150 to 300 BFPD Weekly
inhibitor batched into the annulus will feed mto the tubmg and contmuously 300 to 800 BFPD Twice Weekly
maintain the film on rods and tubing. The three requirements for an effec-
tive program are; A) Adequate Volume ofInhibitor, B) l\dequate ｆｲ･ｱｵｾｮﾭ BFPD = (Barrels Oil + Barrels Water) per Day
cy of Treatment, and C) Assuring Inhibitor Enters Tubmg. The followmg
reviews each requirement. 4) Assuring Inhibitor Enters Tubing

Low Fluid Level Wells (1,000' or less)

1) Adequate Volume ofInhibitor a) Pump one barrel of produced water down annulus.
b) Pump required inhibitor volume.
Treating Rates c) Pump 1/2 to 1 barrel of produced water flush per 1,000' of depth.
25 ppm for mild field corrosion
35 ppm standard Permian Basin Recommendation High Fluid Level Wells (1,000' or over)
50 ppm for severe field corrosion a) Pump required volume of inhibitor.
Gallons of Inhibitor b) Circulate well at least once returning inhibitor to annulus.
ppm = 1,000,000 Gallons of Production c) If wells cannot be circulated, flush with one barrel of produced
water per 1,000' of depth. Depth measured to pump inlet.

l
-22- -23-
 N. PERIODIC BATCH WITH INHIBITOR EMULSION PROCEDURE Q. MONITORING OIL WELL CORROSION
The theory in M and ｲ･ｱｵｩｭＮｮｾｳ＠ for volut.ne Ｎ｡ｾ､＠ ｦｲｾｱｵ･ｮ｣ｹＮ＠ of 1), 2), and The best way of determining the effectiveness of a corrosion control program
3) remains the same. The combmmg of ｴｾ･＠ Ｑｾｬ｢ｴｯｲＮ＠ m a semi-stable emul- is the rate of stress corrosion failures occurring in a sucker rod string. A
sion with the injection water assures the mhlbItor will ｦ｡ｬＮｴｾ＠ the ｢ｯｴｾｭ＠ of properly designed string should operate for at least 108 cycles before En-
the tubing so that no overflush 4) is required. However, It ..S essential the durance Limit failures begin. Failures occurring before reaching this num-
emulsion break by the time it reaches the bottom of the tubmg. Test as fol- ber of strokes are invariably due to the development of stress raisers. The
lows: principal causes are mill and handling defects, rod bending, corrosion pits or
1. Combine inhibitor on a 1:1 basis with water used in injection. improper makeup. With careful inspection those due to corrosion pits can
(Use 4 oz. sample bottle) readily be isolated.
2. Hand mix 50 times, a uniform emulsion should form.
3. Emulsion should break slowly with essentially complete separa- 1. Rod String Failure Analysis
tion in 4 hours.
In inhibited wells, with new strings, where rod failures due specifically
o. CONTINUOUS INJECTION PROCEDURE to stress corrosion have been isolated, the effectiveness of a corrosion
control program can be judged as follows:
The theory of continuous injection is that inhibitor injected ｩｮｾｯ＠ the ｡＿ｄｵｾｳ＠
will fall through the annulus oil and ｣ｯｮｴＮｩｾｬｏｵｳｹ＠ enter ｾｨ･＠ tubmg, ｭ｡ｴｾｮﾭ
FIRST YEAR SECOND YEAR
ing a film on the equipment. However It IS a!",:ays. ､･ｳｬｲ｡ｾ＠ ｾｯＮ＠ ｨ｡ｶｾ＠ a Side
stream flush with continuous injection. Also mJectmg the mhlbltor mto the
Corrosion Failures Failures Failures Failures
flush piping is preferred.
Control 1 Well +S Wells 1 Well +SWells
Base daily injection rate on oil + water per day.
Very
1) Typical Field Corrosion = 25 ppm. Effective 0 0.5-1 Avg. 1 1-2 Avg.
2) Permian Basin Corrosion = 35 ppm.
3) Severe Field Corrosion = 50 ppm. Partially
Effective 1 1-2 Avg. 2 2-3 Avg.
P.SQUEEZETREATMENTPROCEDURE
This is the least desirable procedure and should be used only as a last res?r!. Not
In low permeability sand formations ｰｲｯ､ｵ｣ｴｩｾｮ＠ rates are often ｲ･､ｵｾ＠ ml- Effective 3-4 3-4 Avg. Failure rates increase
tially and there are instances of permanent skm damage. In unconsohdated and string replaced.
sands producing through gravel packs, squeezes have destroyed the gravel
pack. 'The treatments are not effective in vugular porosity and have a poor NOTE: New rod strings typically contain 3% to 8% rods containing poten-
performance record in fractured formations. tially damaging defects. Generally rod failures occurring in the first 60 days
will be caused by mill or handling defects.
The following is one method for estimating squeeze treatments.
2. Corrosion Coupon Data
Q =T (.!'..-
1,000
+ ...Q...8)
a) Installation and testing requirements.
Coupons must be where wetted by typical produced water.
Q = Inhibitor in Gallons at 25 ppm Rate. Velocity should not be over 5 fps.
T = Life of Squeeze in Days Minimum exposure period = 10 days.
F = Total Fluid Production in BFPD. Desirable exposure period = 30 days or more.
G = Gas Production in MMCF/D Preferred steel = 10/20 sandblasted, hot rolled.

-24- -25-

l
 b) Significance of Results
Corrosion 30 Days IRON LOSS NOMOGRAPH
Control MPY

Very
Effective 0-2

Partially
Effective 2 - 5 To be considered effec- 3000
500
tive,coupons must be 500 2000
300
free of pits. 400
200
Not 300 100
Effective 5&Up
00 ｾ＠
3. Iron Count Data - - - - -_ _ _-1_30
a) Significance of results with water cuts less than 25%. 20

10
100 EXAMPLE: Pipeline carries
Corrosion Iron 300 barrels of water daily. 5
Control Count Iron Count = 200 ppm
3
Iron Loss = 21.0 Ibs/day
2
Very
50
Effective Oto 50
40
50
0.5
Partially 30
Effective 50 to 150 0.3 30
0.2
20 20
Not 0.1
Effective 150& Up
0.05

b) Significance of results with water cuts over 25%. 10

0.03
0.02
5
Iron counts must be interpreted on the basis of the attached 0.01
NOMOGRAPH. Any iron loss of over 5 lbs/day should be con- 3
0.005
5
sidered significant. 0.003 2
4
0.002
NOTE: The use of iron counts in oil production requires careful 3
0.001
sampling and analysis, particularly with sour production. barrels
ppm-iron pounds of iron
removed daily water per
R. IRON LOSS NOMOGRAPH day

With the Iron Loss Nomograph it is assumed all of the Ferrous Ions dissolved
from the metal remain in solution and will reflect the actual weight of iron
removed from the well bore equipment. Providing there is no iron contained
in the formation waters and scaling of corrosion products is not significant,
the chart can be considered a reasonable approximation. Also when used as
a periodic measurement for estimating the effectiveness of the fIlming ef-
ficiency of the inhibitor, it is a good monitoring tool. However, it indicates
only total iron removed and cannot be related to a pitting attack. Single read-
ing can be misleading and duplicate or triplicate samples are recommended
and the results from a series of periodic tests reviewed to establish a basis of
the significance of the readings.
-26- -27-
 LIMITING VELOCITIES

WELL STREAM
CHAPTER III CONDITION
TUBING PRESSURE
1,000 psi 5,000 psi

GAS/CONDENSATE WELL CORROSION AND PREVENTION Wet

Non-Corrosive 85 fps 75 fps
GENERAL Wet
Corrosive 50fps 40fps
The flow stream of gas, condensate, and water from the reservoir through the Wet Corrosive
tubing to the surface separating equipment is a continually changing process & Abrasive 30 fps 25 fps
stream. The pressure, temperature, ratios of gas, condensate, water, and
velocity continuously changes. Furthermore, the composition of the water NOTE: See Item C for effect of temperature and gas density.
changes as the formation water entrained in the gas is diluted by condensate
water separated from the gas, with reduction in temperature, as it flows up
the tubing. All of these factors can affect the type and location of corrosion B. CALCULATION OF APPROXIMATE TUBING VELOCI1Y
and should be considered in a corrosion control program. As previously
noted the basic cause of the metal loss is the electrochemical reaction. With With single sized tubing strings the maximum velocity will be at the top of the
at least trace amounts of formation water always initially entrained in the gas, string and calculations for well head conditions will indicate maximum
another corrosivity factor frequently overlooked is the flow patterns for the velocity. However, with tapered strings the maximum velocity can occur down
two phase flow variations with velocity changes. The velocity controls the slip hole. If down hole pressure conditions are unknown the curve below can be
and holdup of the liquid in the gas stream and the degree of turbulence, all used for an approximation of down hole pressures. The following will provide
of which affect the corrosivity. The following reviews the effect of these fac- "ball park" approximations suitable' for field evaluations of well operating
tors and corrosion inhibiting procedures for gas/condensate production. conditions.
Specific Champion Cortron corrosion inhibitors for the programs are listed
in Chapter VI. TUBING VELOCI1Y IN FEET/SECOND

CFS GAS = MSCFD x OR x Z = Cu. Ft./Sec.

Px3600
A. THEORETICAL LIMITING VELOCITIES FOR TUBING

The following is for well streams entraining only minor amounts of formation MSCFD = Gas in Thousands of Cubic Feet per Day
water and condensate water, liberated from the saturated gas with tempera-
ture reduction, total water not to exceed 5 bbls/MMCF. At the listed OR = OF + 460° = Absolute Temperature
velocities all corrosion product will erode and the attack will be general. For
the corrosive conditions failures due to metal loss will eventually occur, even Z = Compressibility Factor
with inhibiting, due to the corrosion/erosion phenomenon.
P = Operating Pressure in psi
The effectiveness of inhibition programs in high velocity gas wells is limited
by the erosive action of the flow stream. Continuous injection programs thru
capillary tubing or macaroni string are the most effective. Frequent batch NOTE: Disregard Z for pressures of 1,000 psi or less. When Z is unknown,
treatments with high surface tension, heavy film forming inhibitors may be for pressures over 1,000 psi, use 0.9.
partially effective.
Gas Velocity in Feet/Second = CFS
Tubing Area in Square Feet

-28- -29-
 PRESSURE DENSITIES @
1. APPROXIMATE BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE OF GAS WELLS
PSI 150°F 200°F 250°F 300°F

1,000 2.97 2.74 2.55 2.38

2,000 5.93 5.48 5.10 4.76

.10
:I: 3,000 8.90 8.22 7.65 7.15
ｾ＠ .09
Q.
w
Q
4,000 11.87 10.96 10.19 9.53
.08
C) 5,000 14.84 13.70 12.75 11.91
z
iii .07 6,000 17.80 16.45 15.29 14.29
ｾ＠
ｾ＠
u. .06 7,000 20.76 19.19 17.84 16.67
0
ｾ＠ .05
'wCo
.04
ｾ＠
w .03 EXAMPLE
en
c( T.H.P. 3000 psi - Depth 9000'
w Factor 3000 psi = .07 psi/ft.
a: .02
0 C.I.S.H.P.= 3000+(.07X9000)
ｾ＠ C.I.S.H.P. = 3630 psi
.01

0
12345
CLOSED IN TUSING HEAD PRESSURE - psi X 1000

DENSITY· POUNDS PER CUBIC FOOT

C. CORROSM1Y VS LIMITING VELOCI1Y & DENSI1Y D. PHASE RELATIONS OF GAS AND LIQUIDS IN TUBING

The limiting velocity in a gas/condensate well defines the fluid flow rate above
which the rate of metal loss by abrasion will result in a markedly premature
failure. In wells where the water is non-corrosive all metal loss will be due to
abrasion of the steel by the entrained water droplets. When the water is cor-
rosive the limiting velocity is lower due to rapid erosion of the corrosion
product, exposing clean steel with its higher susceptability to corrosion at-
tack. This rate is further reduced when the flow stream entrains formation
fmes which are frequently hard sand particles.
The table lists approximate densities at various temperatures for a typical gas
entraining only traces of water (± 5 bblsIMMCF). The curves give maximum
allowable velocities for three conditions. For the corrosive/abrasive condi-
tion the limiting Velocity can be increased with a good corrosion control
program. However, the corrosive limit of velocity would be considered max-
imum for maintaining an inhibitor film for any batch treating type program.
The relative volumes of gas, condensate and water vary from the formation
face to the well head. Also as the gas expands with reduction of pressure the
velocity is continually increasing. The velocity will determine the flow pat-
terns and in combination with the volume of liquids establishes the extent of
liquid holdup. The slip and holdup dictate that the tubing wall will be wetted
over the entire length of the tubing and at lower velocities result in a water
leg buildup, with gas flowing as bubbles or small slugs through the buildup.
At higher velocities, usually over 10-15 fps, all water and gas remain
entrained. Within the gas stream the liquids will be in the spray form and
there will be a film of liquid on the tubing wall. The thickness of the film will
be a function of the velocity and rate of liquids being produced. From cor-
rosion consideration, with the continuous water wetting of the tubing, C02
and/or H2S present in the gas and the limiting velocity are the items of con-
cern. The following is an overview of Flow Patterns and Slip and Holdup fac-
tors for consideration in designing a corrosion control program.

-30- -31-
 1. FLOW PATTERNS IN TUBING From corrosion considerations, the presence of water not its volume, is the
The flow pattern illustration is for ambient temperature and low pressure. critical factor. As noted in Item 1 - Flow Patterns, water will be continuously
While the flow patterns are considered typical, the velocities at which they present. At low velocities the Holdup will dictate the length of the water leg,
occur would vary somewhat with the density of the gas. The range of flow pat- in gas well depletion periods or with low formation pressures, the buildup may
terns for typical gas wells are indicated. With flows in the Slug Flow regime result in killing of the well. A major consideration in inhibiting treatments for
down hole water legs would be anticipated. As noted the Annular Mist Flow wells with water legs is designing a treatment that assures displacing of the leg
develops in the 40 to 50 fps range, where as noted in Item C, the Limiting and filming of the tubing covered by the water leg. The following curve il-
Velocities are predicted. The term superficial velocity is defined as the lustrates the typical holdup conditions for ambient temperatures and low
velocity of a phase in a multi-phase flow stream calculated as though it were pressure. While the range for typical tubing is indicated literal interpretation
the only phase present. would not be representative of gas wells.
500.-----..----,------.--,-----.--",
SLUG FROTH ｾ＠
c
Ii:
FLOW PATTERNS Superficial Water Ve
VSL • ftlsec
ity

;::
:n
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 100
0.01/
/ ｾ＠
/
A c 0 E F

n
3 G /
.. ,-.

D
"'0: 0 /
> '

...... V\ Ｉ＿Ｚｾ＠ I
/
［Ｎｾ＠ ........
lJ... c5
u ....a. 3 .... -
ｾ＠
tt:

Ｎ ｜ｾＺ＠
0.
0
"'0I"
0 V\
...J L.n
.. ＧＢＡｲＮｾ＠
ＱＰｾＭｔ｟＠
W
:>
a:: 0
- li [J
lJ...

01 ,
x:
L
";j:'jf,::'-

:/:J;-/
\'F;,
.... ::J to
. ｾ＠
[J A
W
......
ex:
3
0
V)
::J
c
c
ｾ＠ . . ｾＮ＠ :-..ｾ＠
/ / /
'l/ /' / .....
.
tI
ｾ＠

I I I
Q)
ex: ..:.;;;;:.-_ - 10

r
01
a:: c
w to
0
' .' 'f..-- 10 Tubing
Range of Typical
ｾ＠ a:: Superficial Gas Velocity, VSG+O.1,fVsec
:=I
V) 0.1 10. 10. 10.0.
Range in Typical Tubing E. GAS/CONDENSATE WELLS WATER PRODUCTION
SUPERFICIAL GAS VELOCITY - ft./sec.
The geologic processes that resulted in the forming of gas reservoirs dictates
that all produced gas will entrain water. The water will be of two types. For-
mation water stripped from the water wetted reservoir rock and condensate
water that evolves from the water saturated gas. The formation water com-
2. SLIP AND HOLDUP IN TUBING position can vary widely dependi?g upon ｾｨ･ｴｲ＠ the ｷｾｴ･ｲＮｩｮ＠ the ｯｲｩｾｮ｡ｬ＠
The Slip and Holdup phenomena that is inherent in any multi-phase flow in sedimentary basin was fresh or sahne but wdl always contam d1ssolved sohds.
vertical pipe is frequently overlooked in evaluating gas well corrosion. These Condensate water is always solids free. The composition of the produce?
factors can be defined as follows: water will be a function of the ratio of the two types of water. The compOS1-
tion of the water may vary widely over the producing life of a ｷ･ｾｬ＠ ､･ｰｮｾｧ＠
SLIP: on the type of reservoir. The corrosivity of the produced water 1S a functlon
When phases differ in density and/or viscosity the lighter
of the acidic components (H2S and/or CO2) contained in the gas stream. The
phase tends to flow at a higher in-situ average velocity.
HOLDUP following reviews the water production sequence in ｴｹｰｩｾ｡ｬ＠ gas depletions.
RATIO: The in-situ volume fraction ratio of the heavier phase to the These are based on the initial production from completlons above the gas
lighter phase in the flow stream. water interface zone in the reservoir.

-32 - -33-
 1. GAS EXPANSION RESERVOIRS 1. RULE 1 - PREDICTING CORROSION - ALL WELLS
SOUR GAS SWEET GAS
Depending on depth, pressure and temperature of the reservoir the water H2S - 250 ppm & Up C02 - 7.0 PSI P.P. & Up
production will be in the range of 1 to 3 bbls/MMCF throughout the life of pH - 6.5 & Less pH - 7.0 & Less
the well. Initially the water will be principally condensate type with a low Fe - 100 ppm & Up
salinity. As the well depletes the amount evolved from the gas decreases and
the amount of formation water stripped from the reservoir increases. In the COUPONS Pitted
later stages of depletion the composition will approximate that of formation COUPONS 5MPY&Up
water. As pressure and gas flow decrease, water legs develop, eventually kill- SAND,ETC Any
ing the well. WATER 2BBLS/MMCF & Up
VELOCITY 25FPS& Up

2. WATER DRIVE RESERVOIRS NOTE: Wells showing any two potentially corrosive.

Depending on permeability, the well pressure may remain relatively high, and 2. RULE 2 - PREDICTING CORROSION - SWEET GAS WELLS
until water enters the well bore the rate and composition will be identical to (With C02 Partial Pressure over 7 psi)
that in a gas expansion reservoir. With a water drive intrusion the water rate
will markedly increase and the composition approximate that of formation WATER CHLORIDE IRON POSSIBILITY
water. If the water intrusion is due to permeability stratification, gas produc- PRODUCTION CONTENT COUNT OF SERIOUS
tion may continue at a reduced but economic rate for a considerable period. BBLS/MCCF PPM PPM CORROSION
When the producing interval is thin or of relatively uniform permeability, the
well may water out quickly. ±2 0-250 ± 50 NO

±2 0-250 50 -150 POSSIBLE

3. MOBILE WATER TABLE RESERVOIRS
±2 0-250 150& UP PROBABLE
Production history is similar to a gas depletion reservoir until the pressure
drops and allows water entrainment from the water table. Rate of water in- 2-5 250 - 500 ±50 POSSIBLE
crease is frequently slow and can occasionally be stopped and reversed by
reducing the gas producing rate. Water composition will approximate that of 2-5 250 - 500 50 -150 PROBABLE
formation water. The well will water out, the time being a function of forma-
tion characteristics. 2-5 250 - 500 150& UP YES

5&UP 500& UP 150& UP YES

F. RULES OF THUMB FOR ESTIMATING CORROSION
3. RULE 3 - PREDICTING CORROSION - SWEET GAS WELLS
Serious down hole corrosion and failures were first encountered in domes-
tic gas production in the late 30's and early 40's. By the mild 40's failures were a. A ｰ｡ｲｴｾｬ＠ pressure of C02 above 30 psi usually indicates
wide spread, occurring in both sweet and sour gas producing areas. Field corrosIOn.
conducted studies to determine the cause of the failures were wide spread. b. A ｰ｡ｲｴｾｬ＠ pressure of C02 between 7 and 30 psi may indicate
Many of these were trial and error type studies based on relating field failures corrosIOn.
with well operating conditions. The following are different "Rules of Thumb" c. A partial ｰｾ･ｳｵｲ＠ of C02 below 7 psi is considered
that evolved from this empirical data. Years of experience have established non-corrOSlve.
these are all valid procedures and are still widely used.

-34- -35-
 4. RULE 4 - PREDICTING CORROSION - COUPON DATA H. PROCEDURES FOR INHIBITING GAS WELLS
COUPON EXPOSURE TYPE POSSIBILITY The following six procedures have all been successfully used with the (1)
REPORT PERIOD ATTACK OF SERIOUS Batch method (where applicable) being the most cost effective. The (2) Batch
MPY DAYS CORROSION with a Wireline Brush assures uniform filming and is particularly ad-
vantageous in deviated wells. The (4) Tubing Displacement is an excellent
0-5 30 Min. General No procedure where wells have a large ｾ｡ｴ･ｲ＠ leg ｴｾ｡＠ must be ｾｩｳｰｬ｡･､＠ to total-
ly film the tubing string. The (5) CapIllary Tub10g and (6) Kill Stnng are both
0-5 30 Min. Pitting Yes excellent methods but require large well bore equipment investment. The (3)
Batch Squeeze and (7) Injector Valves are the least desirable. Squeezing can
5 -lO 30 Min. General Possible cause skin damage with a period of decreased productivity and in gravel pack
Pitting Yes
completions, can disturb or ､･ｾｴｲｯｹ＠ the pack. ｉｮｪｾ｣ｴｯｲ＠ y alves ｦｾ･Ｙｵｮｴｬ＠ plug
5 -lO 30 Min. due to mud solids or other solIds or scales entramed 10 the dnll10g flUids.
lO&Up 30 Min. Any Yes 1. Batch
2. Batch with wireline brush.
3. Batch Squeeze - liquid or nitrogen.
G. DECISIONS REQUIRED FOR INHIBITING PROGRAM 4. Tubing Displacement.
5. Capillary tubing - batch or continuous
1. What inhibitor should be used? (Note 1) 6. Kill string - batch or continuous
7. Injector valves - batch or continuous
2. What treating procedure should be used? (Note 1)

3. In periodic treatments what volume is required?

4. In periodic treatments what frequency is required?
5. In continuous injection what rate is required?
6. What monitoring method should be used? (Note 2)
I. TREATING RATES FOR GAS/CONDENSATE WELLS
The following batch treating rates are based on field experience in typical cor-
rosive wells where the rates do not exceed the limiting curve (in Item C).
Where these velocities are exceeded a continuous injection procedure will
provide partial inhibition.
1. BATCH TREATING PER 5000 FEET OF 2" - 3" TUBING

NOTE 1: Items 1 & 2 are interchangeable. The inhibitor will usually dictate RATEMMCF/D INHIBITOR GALS. INTERVAL MONTHS
the treatment or vice versa.
0-2 25 3
'I'I
NOTE 2: Monitoring should be for meaningful results and not require exten- 2 -5 25 2
sive field and laboratory time. 5 -10 25 1
10&Up 25 1/2
NOTE 3: Squeeze treatments may cause skin damage and should not be
recommended if other treating methods are possible.
OPTIMUM RUN DOWN TIME - 1 HOUR/lOoo FEET.
MINIMUM RUN DOWN TIME - 1 HOUR/15oo FEET.
DILUENT WHEN REQUIRED - 1;1 TO 1:4 INH. TO DILUENT.
PRE OR OVERFLUSH WHERE REQUIRED - 2 TO 10 BBLS.

-36- ＭＳＷｾ＠
 2. CONTINUOUS INJECTION RATES - 2" - 3" TUBING
(capillary tubing, kill string and injector valves)
CHAPTER-IV
LOW GAS AND WATER RATES -1/4 TO 1 PINT/MMCF. PIPELINE CORROSION AND PREVENTION
LOW GAS & HIGH WATER RATES - 50 TO 100 PPM
INHIBITOR IN PRODUCED WATER. GENERAL
HIGH GAS & LOW WATER RATES - 1 PINT TO 1 As with all metal loss corrosion the occurrence in pipelines is controlled by
QUART/MMCF. the electrochemical reaction. This dictates the presence of water and the
HIGH GAS & HIGH WATER RATES - 50 TO 100 PPM IN- water wetting of the pipe wall. With this condition satisfied the electrochemi-
cal reaction will occur. However, the rate of metal loss and type is control-
HIBITOR IN PRODUCED WATER OR 1 QUART/MMCF. led by other factors. A pitting type attack can be caused by mill scale, slag
inclusions or slugs, improper heat treatment, heat run out zone effects or use
3. SQUEEZETREATMENTVOLUME of unsuitable welding rod. The corrosion/erosion effect can be caused by too
high fluid velocity. Water and sludge buildups will develop with too Iowa
_F +ｾ＠ - G) flUld velocity that may cause pitting and bacteria infestations. With low
Q=T
(1,000 8 velocity water, sludge segregatIon invariably occurs and scheduled pigging
programs are desirable. The rate and type of attack is also a function of the
WHERE: Q = INHIBITOR IN GALLONS/25 PPM RATE corrodents present. When corrosion is not controlled, depending on wall
T = LIFE OF SQUEEZE IN DAYS thickness and operating conditions, time to first corrosion type failure will be
from three to twelve years. However, with a well desigIled corrosion inhibi-
F = TOTAL LIQUID PRODUCTION IN BBLS/DAY tion program placed 10 operation"at the same time the line is commissioned,
G = GAS PRODUCTION IN MMCF/D corrosion failures can be prevented indefinitely.

J.CORROSION CONTROL IN WELLHEADS AND DOWNHOLE
EQUIPMENT
The corrosion inhibiting treatments are designed for tubing strings with only
minor diameter changes. Wellheads, storm chokes and seating nipples have
locations of marked diameter changes or changes in direction of flow. These
non-conformities create zones of high turbulence where inhibitor films will
be quickly eroded, causing locations where corrosion/erosion occurs. The
rate of metal loss under these conditions can be severe resulting in rapid
failure.
The following reviews the effect of these factors and inhibiting procedures
for pipelines. Specific Champion Cortron corrosion inhibitors for the
programs'are listed in Chapter VI.
A. FREQUENT CAUSES OF INTERNAL CORROSION IN PIPELINES
NOTE: Welds and heat affected zones are areas of high electrochemical
potential and subject to an accelerated pitting type attaCk. Inhibiting with a
heavy film forming inhibitor is desirable.

I{
COLD - COLD PASS
IMPROPER HOT - COLD PASS
The velocity creating a level of turbulence for the corrosion/erosion WELDING HEAT RUN OUT
phenomenon is uncertain, being a function of the configuration of the dis- WRONG ROD
continuity. Field failures indicate it will generally be in the 15-20 fps range. ,It
When velocity at the top of the tubing is within this range the use of stainless TOO HIGH
VELOCIlY TOO LOW
steel or equipment components with stainless type overlays are recom-
mended. All wellhead manufacturers can supply corrosion resistant equip- SCALE BUILDUP
ment. INADEQUATE _ __
PIGGING { LIQUID BUILDUP
BACTERIA GROWTH
The corrosion/erosion problem is also frequently encountered down hole on
both sides of storm chokes and seating nipples. When velocities at down hole
locations across non-conformities are in the 15-20 fps range, stainless steel
INHIBITOR { WRONGlYPE
LOW VOLUME

subs at least 3 feet in length should be installed on both sides of the location
of high turbulence. The alloy usually recommended is 410 stainless steel.

-38- -39-
B. FLOW PATIERNS IN PIPELINES 7 FPS& Up
All water remains suspended as droplets in oil stream.
With all oil, gas and refinery pr<?ducts, uJ:.ltil de.hy<!rated to b.elow the ､･ｾﾭ
point temperature encountered In operations, lIqUId water will evolve. This
evolves as a minute droplet dispersion that on contact coalesces into larger
droplets. Except for crude oils of 10 API gravity or lower the water will tend
to gravity segregate to the bottom of the pipeline. In pipelines the velocity is
the controllIng factor, since in combination with the fluid being tra!lsported
it determines the degree of turbulence that controls the extent to whlcli water
segregation will occur.
Once the pipe wall is water wetted, the electrochemical ｲ･｡｣ｴｩｯ Ｎ ｾｬ＠ i.e. cor-
rosion, begins. Generally, when segregation occurs, corrosion will be most
severe along the bottom of the pipe. In some systems the metal loss is further NOTE: Tendency of water entrained in oil stream to water wet pipe is a func-
intensified on the up-dip side of low spots where the fluxing of the water can tion of oil gravity and surface tension. Assume that with oil gravity under 40°
develop the corrosIOn/erosion condition. API, pipe IS oil wet; and over 40° API, pipe is water wet.
The following are conservative "Rules of Thumb" that can be used to ap-
proximate Flow Patterns and degree of water segregation.
2. WET GAS LINES - (WATER: TRACE T05 BBLS/MMCF)
1. CUSTODY TRANSFER OIL LINES - (WATER: TRACE TO 2%)
0-71/2 FPS
0-31/2 FPS All water quickly drops from gas stream flows to low spots and builds up
pools. As area over 1'001 is reduced, water becomes turbulent and is displaceo
All water drops from oil and flows to low spots building up pools. As area up dil'. Eventually slug is ｾｴｲｩｰ･､＠ fr.om t?P of pool and flows with gas. Pool
over pool is reduced, water becomes turbulent and is displaced up dip. Even- flows back to bottom of dip and agambUlIOs up.
tually a slug is stripped from pool and flows with oil. Pool flows back to bot-

';::_---0
tom of dip and repeats build-up.

E DRY Ｚ［Ｗｾ＠
Em NO :;::E'" ';:::. ___ｾｏ＠
/
/
DORMANT POOLS

DORMANT WATER POOLS

31/2 -7 FPS
A velocity range of uncertainty. The extent to which water remains suspended
as droplets depends on oil gravity, viscosity and droplet size. The higher the
gravity, the greater the tendency of water segregation.
71/2 -15 FPS
Most water drops from gas stream and collects in turbulent pools on up hill
side of dips. Slugs are stripped from tops of pool and flow with gas. Minor
spray flow persists with droplets continuously wetting pipe waIl and entering ""
pools and being stripped from pipe walls ana pools and entering spray.

{IMiNOR SP.ZtZ,;:;:,,<
7112 -15 f .p.s. ｾ＠ _ _ＭＺｾ＠

0
AGITATED POOLS
AGITATED WATER POOLS

-40- -41·
 15 - 25 FPS 1. APPROXIMATE ° R FOR BURIED OR SUBMERGED PIPELINES
Water dropping out forms a continuous flowing stream along bottom of pipe.
Minor} turbulent pools build up on up hill side of dips with frequent small South of Denver, Colorado ° R = 520°
slu,g displacement. Continuous spray with water alternately depositing and Denver to Canadian Border ° R = 510°
belOg stripped from pipe walls and stream.
North of Canadian Border ° R = 500°
15 - 25 f.p.s .
Ｍ･［ｓｐｒａｙ ＺＧ ｾＧ Ｇ＠ ｾＭ ﾷＺＧｾ ＼ＺＧｨ ｮ＠ 2. APPROXIMATE PIPE AREAS IN SQUARE FEET
-:. . .- > .' .Ｚ ＧＺ Ｇ Ｚ ｾ ＺＮ ｾ＠ ••' _.,fir
.- .............. (Based on nominal diameters)
ｾＮ＠ SMALL
CONTINUOUS AGITATED Diameter Area Diameter Area
STREAM POOLS Ins. Sq.Ft. Ins. Sq.Ft.
NOTE: With only trace amounts of water, above 15 FPS velocity all water 2 .0218 12 .7853
remains in spray regime.
3 .0490 16 1.3963
25 FPS& UP 4 2.1817
.0872 20
All liquids remain in spray regime, continuously wetting and being stripped
from pipe wall. 6 .1963 24 3.1416
8 .3491 30 4.9087
10 .5454 36 7.0685

NOTE: Calculations give order of magnitude velocities suitable for use with
FLOW PATTERNS 10 pipelines illustrated in Item B. With two phase lines
always include gas volumes, however when CFS (liquid) is less than 5% of
total fluid volume, it can be deleted from gas velocity calculations.
c. APPROXIMATE VELOCITIES IN WET GAS PIPELINES
Liquids in cubic feet/second = BWPD + BOPD = CFS D. EVALUATION OF CORROSION POSSIBILITIES IN PIPELINES
15400
As noted in GENERAL: with water present in the fluids in a pipeline, the
Gas in cubic feet/second
MSCFDXOR
= CFS electrochemical action will occur if the 'pipe wall is water wetted. The extent
PX3060 to which this may cause serious corrOSIOn, will be a function of the electro-
potential and the corrosivity of the fluids. With water wetting in the weld area
CFS (Iiq.) + CFS (gas) some corrosion should always be anticipated. In any major or critical
Velocity in feet/second pipeline, if water is known to be present, initial inhibiting of the weld areas
Pipe Area in Sq. Ft.
IS aesirable.
BWPD = Barrels of water per day In new lines where corrosion is anticipated, inhibition should begin when the
BOPD = Barrels of oil per day line is placed in operation. Generally new lines will operate a minimum of
three years before the first corrosion failure. However when corrosion of the
MSCFD = Gas in 1,OOO's feet/day pitting type has occurred and corrosion products are of the scaling, encap-
OR =oF+460° sulating type, controlling corrosion with an inhibitor program may not be pos-
sible, unless the line is thoroughly cleaned.
P = psi operating pressure
CFS = Cubic feet/second

-42- -43-
Flow patterns in Pipelines, Item B, are "Rules of Thumb" for water wetting
in pipelines. In operating lines where corrosion is known to be occurring, the
fonowing listing indicates factors for review prior to determining the
desirability of an inhibition program.
A. An estimate of present condition of line with regard to internal
corrosion.
B. Required operating life of system.
C. An estimate of cost of line repairs or replacement.
D. Practicality of various type treatments.
E. Importance of maintaining uninterrupted operation.
E. GENERAL ITPES OF INHIBITING PROGRAMS FOR PIPELINES
The following treatments can be applied in many systems. However where
the thru-I?ut IS large and variable, With multiple laterals either delivering to
or supplymg line, or where the line is looped, a design study is desirable. In
large complex systems the specifics of operations may dictate multiple treat-
ing procedures. Also in complex system a design study invariably results in a
more cost effective program.
Item 1. outlines pipeline cleaning procedures. The importance of adequate
cleaning cannot be over emphaSized. Filming inhibitors function by estab-
lishing a film of an electrical insulating matenal between the water and the
steel, stopping the electrochemical reaction. This requires intimate contact
between the inhibitor and steel and filming the steel surface is mandatory to
assure corrosion control.
1. PROCEDURES FOR CLEANING LINES PRIOR TO INHIBITING
a. NEW PIPELINES:
After displacing of test water, blow line down to remove any by-passed
water. Then pig line with cleaning type scrapper.
Option 1: After scraping, using a bat ching type pig displace alcohol
slug through line to remove water film and that trapped in
weld blowouts and crevices. Size slug for 50 to 100 feet of
line.
-44-
b. OPERATING OIL PIPELINES
Pig line with batching pig to remove any water or sludge build-ups,
then clean line with a cleaning type pig.
Option 1: If sludge in receiving trap shows large amounts of cor-
rosion product, repeat cleaning run with pig.
Option 2: Displace 50 to 100 foot slug of alcohol between two batch-
ing pigs to dry line.
c. OPERATING WET GAS PIPELINES
Pig line with batching pig to remove any water build-up, then clean line
with cleaning pig.
Option 1: If sludge in receiving trap shows large amount of corrosion
product - repeat run with pig.
Option 2: Using cleaning pig, displace cleaning solution thru line.
Use surfactant mixed with fresh water at a 1: 10-20 dilu-
tion ratio. Size miXture for a 50 - 100 feet slug in line.
Option 3: Displace alcohol slug between batch pigs to remove film
of cleaning solution. Size slug for 50 - 100 feet of line.
d. OPERATING DEHYDRATED GAS PIPELINES
NOTE: Lines that have not been frequently pigged may have build-ups of
spent glycol or dessicant dust.
Using bat ching pig, disl?lace surfactant cleaning solution through line. Mix
with fresh water at dilution rate 1: 10-20. Size mIXture for 50 - 100 foot slug.
Option 1: If history indicates any water drop out or that corrosion
has occurred, clean line with cleaning pig run.
2. INHIBITING OIL PIPELINES BY CONTINUOUS INJECTION
Oil pipelines are of two types. Field lines between the wells and tank bat-
teries' ,generally flowing oil, gas and water. This flow will be turbulent at
velocities of 3 1/2 fps and over. ｾ･ｮ＠ water c}lts are 25% or less, C?il. or gas
will be the external phase and senous corrosion would not be antiCipated.
However, when water cuts are over 25%1 the piping will probably be water
wetted, and regardless of velocity, corrosion may occur.
-45-
The objective in the tank battery processing is to ｰＡｾ､ｵ｣･＠ Custody ｔｲｾｳｦ･＠
oil. The usual specification for Custody Transfer oil IS BS&W content m the
1 to 2 percent range. Water and oil distribution in these lines is ｾｨｯｷｮ＠ in Item
B, 1. All lines having velocities ofless than 7 fps should be considered poten-
tially corrosive.
Fluid phases and flow characteristics in these field and transmission lines are
significantly different, requiring different type inhibition programs. These
programs are described below.
a. INHIBITING FIELD TRANSMISSION LINES
OBJECTIVE: To combine water soluble inhibitor with produced water
and film all surfaces of system contacted by water.
PROCEDURE: Continuously inject inhibitor at beginning of line at a
rate to establish a 50 to 100 ppm residual in water at terminal of line.
After inhibitor residual has stabilized the injection rate can be reduced
until a residual in the 25 to 50 ppm range has been established.
TREATING RATES FOR 50 PPM INHIBITOR RESIDUAL
Water Rate - BID 100 200 300 400 500
Inhibitor Rate-ptslD 1.4 2.8 4.2 5.6 7.0
h. INHIBITING CUSTODY TRANSFER LINES
OBJECTIVE: To combine water soluble inhibitor with BS&W so that water
that collects along the bottom of the pipe will contain a sufficient concenra-
tion of inhibitor to continuously film water wetted pipe.
PROCEDURE: Continuously inject inhibitor at beginning ofline at a rate to
establish a 250 ppm residual at the terminal of the line. When monitoring
proves corrosion is controlled injection rate can be reduced.
3. INHIBITING WET GAS PIPELINES
Gas pipelines are of two types. Wet gas field gathering and transmis-
sion systems and transmission lines for dehydrated sales gas.
The field systems in large operations can be quite complex with many
laterals of different sizes with large differences in producing rates. The
lines can also vary widely in the rates of water production and oc-
casionally in composition of the gas. Generally these operations re-
quire a design study to determine the best inhibition program both
from corrosion protection considerations and cost effectiveness.
The following describes three types of corrosion inhibition programs
that have been extensively applied in wet gas pipelines, and an op-
timum program where a maximum corrosion inhibition control is
desirable. The decision as to the type program will generally be dic-
tated by the condition of the line, logistics with regard to line servicing,
pigging program, velocity of the gas and corrosivity of the fluids.
Of primary importance in inhibiting wet gas lines with velocities of less
than 15 fps is maintaining an inhibitor film on the bottom of the pipe.
The Type 1 program with a diligently applied maintenance program is
desirable for this condition. The inhibitor used for this type treatment
form heavy, tenacious films that are very durable. With new lines an ini-
tial filming treatment is always desirable to inhibit the weld areas.
In lines with velocities of 15 fps and over there will always be a spray
regime, with little or no build-up of water in the lower sector of the
line. Also as velocities increase erosion of the film applied in the Type
1 treatment increases and the continuous injection type program be-
comes more cost effective. The Type 2 program is frequently recom-
mended for new lines.
Experience has established that for maximum inhibiting effectiveness
the corrosion inhibitors should be formulated for the specific treat- I'

TREATING RATE FOR 250 PPM INHIBITOR RESIDUAL, ment type. Also since the corrosion protection is based on a con-
BASED ON 2% BS&W tinuous film of inhibitor, the concentration of the inhibitor component
in the formula is critical. The programs reviewed in this chapter are
Oil Rate - BID x 1000 20 40 60 80 100 based on inhibitors specifically formulated for pipeline operations.

Inhibitor Rate - galslD 1.4 2.8 4.2 5.6 7.0

NOTE: With lines with low thru-puts batch treating can be used. Inject at
rate of 1.0 gallon per 10,000 barrels of oil transported between treatments.

-46- -47-
a. 1YPE 1 TREATMENT (BATCHING PROGRAM) b. 1YPE 2 TREATMENT (CONTINUOUS INJECTION PROGRAM)

OBJECTIVE: To film the entire internal surface of the pipe with a cor-
rosion inhibitor insoluble in the gas, condensate and water carried in
the system.
PROCEDURE: Mix the inhibitor with a carrier at a 1:1 to 1:4 basis and
displace through the line between two batching pigs. Recommended
carriers - diesel, #2 fuel oil, water free crude oil (± 30 API). Rate of
pig displacement not to exceed 5 mph.
OBJECTIVE: To combine water soluble inhibitor with entrained water
and coat all surfaces of pipe contacted by water. Also to establish and
maintain a sufficient concentration of inhibitor in water in pools or
flowing along bottom of pipe to assure all pipe surfaces are continuous-
ly inhibited.
PROCEDURE: Continuously inject corrosion inhibitor at beginning of
line. In low velocity lines used fogging type injecting jet.

MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE: (For repair of mm on lower segment NOTE: Where the volume of water transported in the gas in known or
of line. Use 1/4 of initial treatment, push treatment through line with can be reasonable estimated use injection rate shown below.
one batching pig. Frequency of treatment is a function of fluids carried
and velocity. Where the volume of water transported with the gas is unknown, inject
inhibitor at 1 to 2 pints per MMCF of gas. When inhibitor residuals at
line terminal stabilize, adjust injection rate for recommended residual
"RULE OF THUMB" - INHIBITOR VOLUME CALCULATION in system.
± 2 MIL FILM
INHIBITOR REQUIREMENTS FOR WET GAS PIPELINES
Gallons of Inhibitor = 3 X D X L (For maintaing 100 ppm in water phase)
D = Nominal Pipe Diameter in Inches
L = Length of Pipeline in Miles DAIL Y INJECTION RATE IN PINTS 1 bAY FOR 100 PPM CONCENTRATION
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
INHIBITOR REQUIREMENTS FOR INTERNALLY COATING PIPE
"
\,I , J 1
1 I I ,- I I

en
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I I \ \ \
z 0z en \ \ \
" I\ ｜Ｍｾ＠ "',
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<l:
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5
5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
o 12 24 36 48 GAS RATE - MMSCF 1 DAY
PIPE DIAMETER - INCHES
(Based on 1/2" wall thickness)

-48- -49-
c. ITPE 3 TREATMENT (SPECIAL CONDITIONS ONLy) F. INHIBITOR REQUIREMENTS VERSUS WET GAS VELOCIlY

NOTE: This treatment is suggested only for low velocity lines where
neither Type 1 or 2 treatments can be applied. In line known to be
badly corroded or with sludge build-ups in low sections it may not be
effective. It has been successful in relatively clean wet gas systems.
OBJECTIVE: To establish and maintain a level of inhibitor concentra-
tion in water trapped in low spot of the system to assure all water
wetted surfaces are adequately ftlmed.
INITIAL PROCEDURE: Estimate the volume of water continuously
trapped in low spots in the system. In pipelines traversing a typical ter-
rain the amount of water continuously entrained in the system for
velocities of 7 FPS or less would probably be 10 to 20 percent of the
line volume. Based on the estimated volume an initial batch of inhibitor
to establish a SOO ppm residual is injected into the line.
The water s?luble inhibitors required for inhibiting wet gas lines function by
the ｡｢ｳＮｯｲｰｾｬｏｮＬ＠ de-absorption phenomenon. This requires a level of con-
centratIon m the water phase to assure frequent contact of the pipe wall by
the inhibitor molecules.
In low velocity lines, with water segregated in low spots, the movement in the
water will be principally by convection currents and the inhibitor concentra-
tion must be Ｎｨｩｾ＠ to assure frequent contact of molecules with the pipe wall.
ｾｳ＠ .th.e ｶ･Ｂｯ｣ｉｾ＠ ｭ｣ｲ･｡ｳｾ＠ through laminar to the turbulent range the rate of
ｾｨｩ｢ｬｴｯｲ＠ Impmgement mcreases decreasing the amount of inhibitor required
m the water phase.
The ｦ＼Ｎ＾ｬｯｾｮ＠ ｾｩｴｳ＠ the desired inhibitor residual in the water phase to assure
effectIve mhlbltIon for normal gas velocity ranges. The level of inhibitor is
determined by inhibitor residual tests conducted on water samples collected
at the terminal of the line.

1,000 Barrels of water = ± 17 1/2 Gallons of Inhibitor INHIBITOR

GAS VELOCIlY RESIDUAL RANGE
PERIODIC BATCH PROCEDURE: At a 1 to 3 months interval batch
into the line a volume of inhibitor based on 1 pint of inhibitor per oto 7 FPS 2S0 - SOO ppm
MMCF of gas delivered during the time since previous batch. When in- 7to ISFPS ISO - 2S0 ppm
hibitor residuals in monitoring program stabilize, adjust volume of in- IS& UPFPS 50 -ISO ppm
hibitor batches for a 250 ppm residual.
G. INHIBITING SALES GAS PIPELINES
d. OPTIMUM TREATMENT
Sales gas is always dehydrated and will generally be stripped of most of the
LPG components ｡ｾ､＠ the Sales Gas is highly undersaturated with regard to
In critical systems where maintaining delivery is mandatory or major
＿ｯｴｾ＠ :-vater and ｴｨｾ＠ ｨｧｴｾｲ＠ hydrocarbon components. This dictates a special
systems where serious corrosion and failures may have occurred, an op- mhlbltor formulatIon usmg a carrier that will not flash, i.e. dissolve, into the
timum corrosion inhibition program may be required. This consists of a ｾ｡＠ stream. Attempting to apply typical inhibitor formulas will not only result
thorough cleaning of the system as detailed in E, 1. A Type 1 treatment m madequate filmIng but also cause the heavy viscous inhibitor to gunk out
is then applied followed by a Type 2 program. It is further recom- in the line. '
mended that the Maintenance Procedure detailed for the Type 1 treat-
ment also be followed. ｾｨ･＠ ｰｲｩｾ｣｡ｬ＠ objectives for inhibiting Sales Gas Pipelines is to assure protec-
tI.on In Instances of plant upsets and to assure government regulatory agen-
The Optimum Treatment has been used successfully in badly corroded ｃｉｾｓ＠ that all possible safety precautions are being taken to prevent pipeline
lines that have experienced corrosion failures, maintaining the lines in failures.
continuous operations for extended periods.
Sales Gas lines can be effectively protected with either a periodic Type 1
Treatment or a Type 2 Treatment.

-50- -51-
 1. lYPE 1 TREATMENT (SEE E, 3, A lYPE 1 TREATMENT)
NOTE: The film life of a Type 1 Treatment in a dehydrated system will
be long. With gas velocities of 25 FPS and less a minimum of three
years effective inhibition would be expected.
2. lYPE 2 TREATMENT (CONTINUOUS INJECTION PROGRAM)
1. CORROSION COUPONS - INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS
NOTE: Unless located where coupons or probes are continuously water
wetted and maintained free of any scaling materials entrained in the pipeline
fluids, the results will be meaningless. Pipeline failures have occurred where
coupons and probes improperly located have indicated no corrosion was oc-
curring.

OBJECTIVE; To entrain special inhibitor in gas, condensate or anyex- The following lists operating conditions and locations where representative
traneous water that may enter the system. measurements can be expected.

PROCEDURE; Inject the special inhibitor through a fogging type jet

into the inlet of the pipeline. a. LEASE FLOW LINES

TREATING RATE: 1/4 to 1/2 pint per MMSCF COUPON DATA MEANINGFUL
WATER CUT GAS >25 CU.FTJBBL GAS <25 CU.FTJBBL
I
NOTE: During periods of extended plant upsets or plant by-passing in-
crease injection rate to 1 to 2 pints per MMSCF. >25% NO YES

<25% YES-? YES

H. MONITORING CORROSION IN PIPELINES
YES - ? Dependenton water being external phase.
With all oil, gas and product lines, until the fluid is dehydrated to a dew point
temperature below the lowest temperature that will be encountered in the
pipeline, at least traces of water will be present. If the flow patterns indicate b. CUSTODY TRANSFER LINES
the pipe walls will be water wetted, corrosion is possible and monitoring is
desirable. If corrosion is anticipated and an inhibition program started, NOTE: Dependent on sample pot mounted to bottom sector of line.
monitoring is necessary to assure the effectiveness of the treament.
OIL COUPON MOUNTING LOCATION
It is particularly desirable in designing a monitoring program to recognize VELOCITY IN LINE IN SAMPLE POT
and design for the type of isolated metal loss attack that may occur. Corrosion
coupons and the various probe type instruments indicate metal loss only at 0-31/2FPS NO YES
the point of their location. Unless wetted by the entrained water the monitor- 31/2-5FPS ? YES
ing data obtained will be meaningless and misleading. 5& UpFPS NO NO- ?

The two principal monitoring procedures used in pipelines are corrosion
coupons and water analysis. These are discussed below. The various probe
type instruments i.e. electrical resistance, linear polarization, galvanic and
hydrogen, subject to the same limitations as corrosion coupons, would be
equally effective.
? - Depends on whether oil or water preferentially wets coupon.
c. WET GAS PIPELINES
NOTE: Coupons in wet gas pipelines must be located either in a spray
flow regime or where water collects. Where a sampling pot is required
it must be attached to the bottom sector ofthellne.

-52- -53-
 GAS COUPON MOUNTING LOCATION 8. LEASE FLOW LINES
VELOCI'IY IN LINE IN SAMPLE POT
NOTE: It is assumed in Lease Flow Lines that Flow Regime will be
0-71/2FPS NO YES either turbulent or pUlsating, and segregated flow will not occur.
71/2 -15 FPS YES YES
15& UPFPS YES NO Since iron count and CI- or salt reflect well conditions, only the pH
reading is considered significant.
Coupons mounted in the line at 15 & up FPS must be located to
prevent the corrosion/erosion effect. pH versus Serious Corrosion
Ａｙｩｬｾｲ＠ ｾｙｬ＠
d. INTERPRETING CORROSION COUPON DATA pH 0-25% 25%-45% 45&UP

NOTE: Minimum time requirement for coupon period is 30 days. Preferred 0-6.0 possible· possible • probable·
material 10-20 C, hot rolled steel, with light sand blast to clean and remove 6.0 -7.0 unlikely possible * probable *
all mill scale. 7.0 -14 unlikely unlikely unlikely

COUPON RESULTS *Where wells are inhibited, feed back of well treatments may protect
!!!!!.t. Pitting Comment flowlines.

0-5 NO Corrosion Level Not Serious

0-5 YES Corrosion Level Serious b. CUSTODY TRANSFER LINES
5 -10 NO Corrosion of Concern - Watch
5 -10 YES Corrosion Serious - Inhibit NOTE: Water content will normally pe under 2%. Unless velocity is
10&Up Yes or NO Corrosion Serious - Inhibit under 3 fps, most water will remain entrained. If water samples can be
obtained from the pig traps after pig runs, they can be used for pH
e. SALES GAS LINES determinations and iron counts. The pH conditions noted in item (a)
are applicable. If iron counts exceed 100 ppm it indicates that isolated
Corrosion Coupons Not Applicable. corrosion is possibly occurring in the bottom of the line and corrosion
2. WATER ANALYSES FOR CORROSION POTENTIAL inhibition may be required.

NOTE: The measurements required for a corrosivity evaluation are pH, iron
count and CC or salt content. While water samples at both ends of a pipeline
are desirable, generally samples are obtained only at the terminal of a system
and the following is based on terminal samples.
For accuracy the pH measurements should be made on fresh samples at the
sampling site. When samples are transported to the laboratory for testing,
some of the acid gases evolve and reading will be higher. Laboratory pH
values should be reduced by 0.5 to 1..0 for more realistic values.
The water in either a Custody Transfer Crude or Wet Gas Pipeline should
be principally of the condensate type that evolves from the fluids with
temperature reduction. The salt content in the water should be > 500 ppm;
salt content over this amount indicates a carryover of produced water and
the iron count should be discounted since it reflects carryover of dissolved
iron from the production equipment.
c. WET GAS PIPELINES
NOTE: As indicated in "H, 1, c Corrosion Coupons - Wet Gas
Pipelines", provided coupons are properly located, corrosion can be
successfully monitored. However, water samples can always be ob-
tained from sampling pots or separating equipment prior to the
processing plant and is the preferred monitoring method. Water
sample analysis in addition to evaluating corrosion can be used to
monitor the inhibiting program and the effectiveness of field separating
operations.

-54- -55-
 The following are data normally reviewed in water sample studies and CHAPTER V
the significance of the numerical results.

d. WATER SAMPLES - CORROSION MONITORING

OXYGEN CORROSION IN PRODUCTION AND PIPELINES

NOTE: For 5 bbls/MMCF or less. GENERAL

0-7.0 Water Corrosive Of all the corrodents that can be encountered in production and pipeline
pH 7.0 Water Neutral operations oxygen is the most serious. Not only is the rate of general metal
7.0 -14.0 Water Non-Corrosive loss and pitting type attack drastic, with either C02 and/or H2S also present
(scaling possible) the rate of attack is further intensified. Fortunately neither formation waters
or condensate water contain oxygen. With well designed and carefully
Iron 0-50 Minor Corrosion operated production and in pipelines, air the source of oxygen, can be ex-
Count 50 -100 Moderate Corrosion cluded and this type corrosion will not be a problem. However there are many
ppm 100 - Up Significant Corrosion locations where air can enter the flow stream. When these are overlooked in
the design and operating procedures; oxygen corrosion is frequently en-
>1,000 Low Carryover countered.
Chlorides 1,000 - 5,000 Average Carryover
mgll <5,000 High Carryover Water floods or produced water disposal systems are major problem areas
with regard to oxygen type attack. At all ambient temperatures, water con-
Daily >.50 Mostly Condensate Water tacted by air quickly dissolves oxygen to the level dictated by the tempera-
Water .50 - 2.5 Condensate + Produced ture and pressure. All surface water for flood projects, whether fresh or sea
Bbls/MMCF <2.5 Mostly Produced Water water, will be saturated with oxygen. The initial procedure in the use of these
waters is to remove the oxygen. In well designed and operated production
e. WATER SAMPLES - INHIBITOR MONITORING systems the production water separated for disposal will be oxygen free on
leaving the separator. If this water can be maintained oxygen free from
GAS INHIBITOR separation to the injection well head or point of disposal, corrosion can be
VELOCIIT RESIDUAL low and readily controlled. However, unless the possibility of air entrainment
FPS PPM COMMENT is considered in design and operation, there are a number of locations where
air can enter the system and increase corrosion.
0-71/2 250 - 500 250 Minimum
71/2 - 15 150 - 250 200 Preferred In designing water handling systems where oxygen or other corrosion is of
15- Up 50 -150 100 Preferred concern, the use of corrosion resistant materials and coatings should always
be considered. Corrosion resistant metals are avilable for valves, pumps and
f. MONITORING SALES GAS PIPELINES most control equipment. Tanks, piping and fittings can be obtained in plas-
tics or with coatings that are resistant to corrosion. While designs will be more
There are no simple procedures for monitoring corrosion in Sales Gas costly, when the time of anticipated operation is considered, the systems will
Lines. Calipering, Radiography, Sonies, Internal Inspection and Test generally be more cost effective.
Spools have been successfully used.
The following reviews typical locations of air entrainment in field operations
and procedures for control. Where control is impractical, oxygen scavenging
procedures are noted. There are also specific corrosion inhibitors available
for the control of 0 gen corrosion; however where possible the scavenging
methods are prefer ble.

-56- -57-
A. AIR ENTRAINMENT IN OIL WELLS
When wells are producing with the annulus closed or high fluid levels, air
entrainment is improbable in the well bore. However, when wells are in the
stripper phase, operating conditions change; generally the annulus is open
and the fluid level is insignificant. Under these conditions the annulus fills with
air and defuses through the short oil blanket in the annulus. The oxygen then
enters any produced water at the bottom of the well bore and oxygen corrosion
can occur in all portions of the tubing string contacted by produced water.
This possibility can be prevented by closing the annulus. In cases where the
well produces traces of gas up the annulus, using a low pressure relief valve
or "U" tube arrangement on the annulus will essentially establish the same con-
dition as to back pressure on the formation as achieved when producing with
the annulus open.
into the system and the oxygen dissolves into the water. This source of air is
easily prevented when the following specific installation specifications are
followed.
a. Suction piping one size larger than size of inlet to pump
b. Valves to be through ported and full opening.
c. Changes in flow direction minimized.
d. Flow direction changes with 45° ells or long radius fittings.
e. Suction system as short as possible.
f. Maintain 6 to 10 feet of head on suction.
g. Apply surge suppressors on suction side of high speed piston pumps.

A more frequent source of air entrainment in wells that are operated in the 4. AIR ENTRAINMENT IN INJECTION SYSTEM
pumped off condition is the polish rod stuffing box. In this operating condi- If ｾ｡ｴ･＠ is kept air-free through the injection pump and a positive pressure
tion pump efficiency is low and a slight vacuum will occur at the wellhead mamtalOed to the formation face, air contamination will not occur in a pres-
with each pump stroke. Typical polish rod seals are designed for internal sure tight system.
pressure on the seals. Unless the stuffing box seal is tight and will hold a
vacuum, air will intermittantly enter the well fluids. This type of leakage can The ｣ｯｲｳｾｮ＠ problem ｾｯｳｴ＠ frequently encountered on the injection side of
also occur in other packing type seals between the wellhead and flowline the system IS ca1!sed by faIlure to seal mating components. The slightest seep
check valve. It is important in stripper production that all wellhead connec- ｾｲｯｖＱ､･ｳ＠ a ｃｏ＿ｴｬｕｾ＾ｓ＠ water phase between the atmosphere and the injec-
tions and packing gland items be able to hold a vacuum. hon. water which wIll quickly corrode·a joint. This is because oxygen dissol-
ves lOtO the ｷｾｴ･ｲ＠ at the ｳ･ｾｰ＠ ｾｮ､＠ diffuses·into the wetted joint section. While
B. AIR ENTRAINMENT IN TANKS ｴｾ･＠ amount will not be a slgruficant quantity in the total injection stream, it
The produced water tank in the battery, unless protected with a gas blanket, will create an extremely ｃ＿ｲｯｾｩ･＠ fluid in the: joint which quickly deVelops a
is the most frequent source of air contamination. While these tanks will ｬｾ｡ｫＮ＠ Absolute ｰｲｾｳｵ･Ｍｴｉｧｨ＠ jomts and seahng surfaces through the injec-
generally develop a thin oil blanket, this quickly oxidizes after which the tion system are prlIDary requirements for trouble free operations.
oxygen passes through the film and enters the water. A thick oil blanket, fre-
quently replaced, is reasonably effective. However, the oil entrained in the E. POTENTIAL SOURCES OF AIR CONTAMINATION
water is generally inadequate for effective blanketing. Gas blanketing the
tanks is the recommended procedure. This should be maintained at a pres- PRODUCING PRODUCTION INJECTION
sure of several inches of water. The gas supply line must be large enough to WELLS FACILITIES FACILITIES
maintain the blanket pressure when the water is discharged from the tank.
Many lease vessels develop bottom layers of water and sludge. While this Well Annulus Produced Water Tank Water Well Annulus
water may be oxygen free, this is an ideal zone for sulfate reducer bacteria Polish Rod Inadequate Gas Supply Water Tanks
incubation and growth. When bacteria are detected, periodic slug treatments Stuffmg Box Blanket Inadequate Gas
with a biocide will prevent bacterial corrosion. Wellhead Valves Inadequate Oil Blanket
Blanket Injection Pump
C. AIR ENTRAINMENT IN TRANSFER AND INJECTION PUMPS Transfer Pump Manifold
Pump installations are frequent sources of air contamination. This is general- Piping Injection Pump Seals
ly caused by failure to recognize that for a given set of pumping conditions, Transfer Pump Piping Joints & Seals
a pump will endeavor to deliver a specific volume of liquid. When the liquid Shaft Seal Water Meters
is not available at the pump suction in an adequate volume and pressure, (Vacuum Only)
cavitation with accompaning partial vacuum occurs within the pump. Unless Wellhead Valves
packing glands on pump and adjacent valving are vacuum tight, air is drawn (Vacuum Only)

-58-
-59-
 F. AIR ENTRAINMENT IN WATER SOURCES
Injection waters are generally from wells, streams, lakes or oceans. Water
wells completed in deeper aquifers, far removed from their surface outcrops
are oxygen free. When completed to assure no entrainment of air in produc-
ing or through the injection system, oxygen corrosion will not be a problem.
In shallow wells where water is from aquifers closely associated with surface
sources, air entrainment may occur either intermittantly or eventually con-
tinuously and a monitoring program should be planned for early detection.
Regardless of the source all surface waters should be considered saturated
ｷｩｴｾ＠ oxygen, and treatment or removal is required for preventing oxygen cor-
roslOn. The oxygen content and control procedures are discussed in the fol-
lowing.
l.SCAVENGING AND INHIBITING OF OXYGEN
Both scavenging and inhibiting require a continuous injection of chemi-
cal into the water stream with the amount dictated by the ppm content
of oxygen. In water disposal systems where the volumes are low or
oxygen is present in only trace levels, the chemical control will usually
be the most cost effective. The chemicals should be injected either
upstream or as close to the source of air contamination as practical.
Providing the injection system is pressure and vacuum tight, injection is
required only during periods of flow. Where only traces of oxygen are
present, the scavenging procedure will generally be the most effective.
The inhibiting chemicals will usually be the most cost effective when
the level of oxygen is above the trace level.

G. SOLUBILIlY OF OXYGEN IN SURFACE WATERS
Theoretically the solubility of oxygen is controlled by temperature of the
water at point of contact with the air and to a minor degree by composition
of the water. With water entraining large amounts of organic matter some of
the oxygen will be consumed by oxidation of the entrained contaminents. In
general, providing the water inlet for the project is a reasonable distance
above the bottom, in oceans or lakes, the quality of the water both from
oxygen in solution and entrained solids is improved.
The approximate solubility range for oxygen in water is from 10 ppm at 32°F
(freezing), to 0 ppm at 212°F (boiling). Where the specific oxygen content
has not been measured, the following can be used for conservatively estimat-
ing the oxygen content.
ppm oxygen = 10 - .0555 (T OF - 3Q°F)
T OF = Temperature of water at system inlet
2.GAS REFLUXING OR VACUUM FOR OXYGEN REMOVAL
In large water volume injection projects or where a long life is an-
ticipated for a project, a plant for the physical removal of oxygen is in-
variably most cost effective. From capital expense considerations the
plant requirements for the two methods are comparable and, with an
adequate design, properly operated, the efficiencies are equivalent. In
offshore operations where g(is volumes will not support a pipeline, gas
is frequently preferred. With either method it is frequently desirable to
inject a scavenger immediately down stream of the treating tower to
remove any minute traces of oxygen remaining in the stream. The
design of these units are beyond the scope of this handbook. However,
the following schematic of a system installed in the Gulf of Mexico indi-
cates features to be considered in the design. The reference D is a pub-
lication ofthe International Nickel Company.
(D)
r-_(A_)O_R-,-(B-,-)_ _ ｾ＠ (GASOUT)
SCHEMATIC OF MAJOR COMPONENTS
(A)OR(B) (GAS IN) IN OFFSHORE INJECTION PLANT

H. REMOVAL OF OXYGEN FROM INJECTION WATERS

Four methods are in general use for control of oxygen corrosion in water ｩｮｾ＠ ＺＮＧｾ＠
(C)
.. '

jection processes. With either gas or vacuum deaerator towers the oxygen is
physically removed from the water. With chemical scavenging the oxygen is
(A)
combined to form a non-corrosive molecule. Oxygen inhibitors are also avail-
able that in combination with the oxygen will form a protective fUm on the
exposed steel. The most cost effective method will generally be dictated by (D)
(A)
volume of water, ppm of oxygen, and logistics of the operation. The follow- (A) (A)
ing discusses the methods and there limitations.
ｾ -=-
Ｍ
-- -
----
- SUGGESTED MATERIALS
(D)

70 '

ｓｃｒｅｎｾ＠
(MONEL)
--t- 10 '
(A)-FIBER GLASS EPOXY PIPE
(B)-LINED WITH BAKED ON COATINGS
(C)-COAL TAR EPOXY COATING
(D)-METALLURGY AS INDICATED IN

ｾ＠
"GUIDELINES FOR SELECTION OF
MARINE MATERIALS"

-60- -61-
 CHAPTER VI B. SUCKER ROD PUMPED WELLS-LOW FLUID LEVEL (continued)
CHAMPION'S CORTRON INHIBITORS FOR 50BFPD Monthly R-2375 R-2255 Same as above for 150-350
CORROSION CONTROL Batch R-2255 R-2300 BFPD with weekly treat-
Production Chemical Company inhibitor formulations are proprietary. The treating procedures R-2314 R-2300 ments OR batch neat and
detailed in previous chapters have been successfully applied for the past 20 years using R-129 R-2239 circulate down-hole to
Champion's Cortron Inhibitors. Other chemicals with the same generic inhibitor and additives pump.
would be equally effective. However, since these formulations cannot be identified, only
Champion's Cortrons are included in the listing.
C. GAS LIFT WELLS
A. SUCKER ROD PUMPED WELLS - HIGH FLUID LEVEL
All Continuous RU-161 RU-161 Inject 25-100 ppm into lift
PRODUCTION TREATING INHIBITORS Injection R-2255 R-2300 gas at wellhead.
DOSAGE & PROCEDURE R-2314 R-129
RATE MEI1IOD ｾ＠ NOH2S
R-129 R-2239
>5OOBFPD Continuous R-2263 R-2263 Flush 25-50 ppm down an-
Injection RN-63 RN-63 nulus by continuous slip- All Tubing R-66 R-66 Dosage 1 gal/1oo sq.ft. of
RU-19 RU-19 stream. Displacement R-68 R-68 metal surface to be filmed.
1 t03 Month R-2255 R-2255 Mix 1:1 to 1:4 with crude or
Weighted Inhibitors. Pre- R-2258 R-2258 diesel. Displace to bottom
350-500 BFPD Semi-Weekly RH-147 RD-46 R-2345 R-2345 of tubing with crude or
Batch RH-147 wet annulus with 1-2 bbls
fluid. Batch 25-50 ppm R-2300 diesel. Or atomize mixture
down annulus. Neat with no into nitrogen and displace
flush or circulate. tubing volume.

350-500 BFPD Semi-Weekly R-2375 R-129 Standard inhibitors. Dis-

Batch R-129 R-2375 perse 25-50 ppm in 1 bbl D. HYDRAULICALLY PUMPED WELLS
R-2314 brine per 1000 ft. of tubing
and/or circulate annular Power Oil Continuous R-2314 ｾＮ＠ R-129 Inject 25-50 ppm.
fluid up tubing and back Systems Injection
into annulus.
Batch R-129 R-129 Disperse 25-50 ppm in
150-350 BFPD Weekly RH-147 RD-46 Weighted Inhibitor. Same R-68 R-68 power oil. Maintain level by
Batch as above for 350-500 BFPD R-2258 R-2258 monitoring.
with Semi-Weekly treat-
ments. Power Water Continuous R-2263 R-2263 Inject 25-50 ppm.
150-350 BFPD Weekly R-2375 R-129 Standard Inhibitors. Same Systems Injection RN-63 RN-63
Batch R-129 R-2375 as above for 350-500 BFPD RN-82 RN-82
R-2314 with Semi-Weekly treat-
ments. Water Supply Continuous R-2263 R-2263 Inject 10-50 ppm.
Systems Injection RN-63 RN-63
RU-19 RU-19
B. SUCKER ROD PUMPED WELLS - LOW FLUID LEVEL

< 150-350 BFPD Weekly R-2375 R-2255 Disperse 25-50 ppm in 1 bbl
Batch R-2255 R-2300 brine. Flush down annulus E. GAS/GAS CONDENSATE WELLS
R-2314 R-129 with 1/2-1 bbl brine per
R-129 R-2239 1000 ft. of tubing. Circulate lOMMCF/D Continuous Ru-156 RU-156 Inject 100-200 ppm via
as needed. or Injection RU-161 RU-161 capillary tubing, macaroni
VaNe = 0.7 RU-163A RU-163A string or bottom hole injec-
R-2302 R-2302 tionvalve.
< 50-150 BFPD Bi-Weekly R-2375 R-2255 Same as above for 150-350
Batch R-2255 R-2300 BFPD with weekly treat-
R-129 5 -lOMMCF/D Batch R-66 R-66 Treat at rate of 1
R-2314 ments.
or 3-6 Weeks R-2258 R-2258 drum/lO,ooo ft. for up to 3"
R-129 R-2239
VaNe = 0.7-0.9 R-2345 R-2345 tubing. Dilute 1:1 to 1:4
with diesel or equivalent.

-62- -63-
 E. GAS/GAS CONDENSATE WELLS (continued) F. OIL & GAS PIPELINES (continued)
5 - 10 MMCF/D Tubing R-2255 R-2255 Treat at rate of 1 Wet Gas Lines Continuous RN-63 RN-63 Inject inhibitor at a rate that
or Displacement R-2258 R-2258 drum/lO,OOO ft. Dilute 1:1 to Velocity > 15 fps Injection RN-82 RN-82 maintains at least 250 ppm
VaNe = 0.7-0.9 3-6 Weeks 1:10 with diesel or RU-19 RN-97 residual in water samples at
equivalent. Displace to bot- RU-19 end of line
tom of tubing with diesel or
atomize mixture into Wet Gas Lines Continuous RN-63 RN-63 Inject at 1/2 - 1 pint/MMCF.
nitrogen and displace to Velocity < 15 fps Injection RN-82 RN-82
bottom of tubing. RU-19 RN-97
RU-19
2-5 MMCF/D Batch R-66 R-66 Same as above for batch
or 6-8 Weeks R-2258 R-2258 treatments. Dehydrated Continuous RN-177 RN-I77 Inject 1/4 - 1/2 pint/MMCF.
VaNE = 0.5-0.7 R-2345 R-2345 Gas Pipelines Injection
Velocity-All
Tubing R-2255 R-2255 Same as above for tubing
Displacement R-2258 R-2258 displacement. NOTE: Inhibitor type is critical, must be generically similar to RN-177.
6-8 Weeks

0-2MMCF/D Batch R-66 R-66 Same as above for batch

or 8-12 Weeks R-2258 R-2258 treatments.
VaNe = 0.2-0.5 R-2345 R-2345

Tubing R-2255 R-2255 Same as above for tubing

Displacement R-2258 R-2245 displacements.
8--12 Weeks

NOTE: Va=Actual Velocity, Ve=Erosional Velocity. Calculate using

methods in API RP-14E.

F. OIL & GAS PIPELINES

All Batch R-129 R-129 Vol.lnhibitor = 2-3 gals per
Pipelines As Required R-2255 R-2255 inch diameter per mile of
R-2239 R-2239 line. Dilute 1:1 to 1:4 with
R-2231 R-2300 diesel, batch between
R-2231 squeege pigs.

Wet Oil Lines Continuous RN-63 RN-63 Inject inhibitor at rate that
Water> 25% Injection RN-82 RN-82 maintains at least 250 ppm
Velocity 5fps RU-19 RN-97 residual in water samples at
RU-19 end of line.

Wet Oil Lines Continuous RN-63 RN-63 Inject inhibitor at a rate that
Water < 25% Injection RN-82 RN-82 maintains 50-100 ppm
Velocity-All RU-19 RN-97 residual in water samples at
RU-19 end of line.

Custody Continuous RN-63 RN-63 Same as for Wet Oil Lines.

Transfer Oil Injection RN-82 RN-82 > 25%
Pipelines RU-19 RN-97
Velocity> 3 fps RU-19

-64- -65-
 A. FAILURE ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
CHAPTER VII FAILURE ANALYStS

INSPECTION OF FAILURE
MISCELLANEOUS TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE HISTORY

(Decision)

GENERAL --------------------------- ---------------------------------

TESTING
METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY

The following information while not directly related to corrosion is frequent-

1y desirable in studying a failure or reporting on the problem. The primary
objective in most studies is to isolate the reasons and if possible modify ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

producing operations to prevent their reoccurence. Statistics indicate that 80

CAUSE NOT OBVIOUS
to 90 percent of the failures in production and pipeline equipment are due CAUSE OBVIOUS

to metal loss corrosion. When corrosion has been isolated as the cause, it is
frequently probable that the condition causing the attack is present
throughout the operation. Research and field studies have identified most of
the reasons for corrosion and the most likely location of corrosive zones. With
this information a corrosion engineer or experienced field operator can fre-
quently, quickly solve a corrosion problem.

The 10 to 20 percent not readily identified as corrosion may require an in-

depth laboratory study to determine the cause. Such studies are generally
time consuming and frequently quite expensive. This requires a decision on
the operator's part as to whether a further investigation is warranted. Where
the failure is defmitely not due to corrosion but probably reflects a material
or operating anomaly, neither of which will reoccur, studies are probably un-
warranted. Failures that cause either a catastrophic or hazardous operating
condition should always be studied.
A reoccurring inquiry on non-identifiable failures is "...not to specification".
Most wellbore equipment and piping is made to API specifications. These
are always precise as to dimensions. However, the API composition
specifications for steels are quite broad and generally limited to carbon, man-
ganese, sulfur and phosphorous. Invariably the steels will be within specifica-
tion. The physical strength specifications, except for materials designated for
sour service are also broad. Failure to meet API specifications within the
designated grade are rare. While failure to meet specifications are unusual,
there are occasional instances of heat treating, major surface imperfections
or API grade substitution or mistake causing failure. These conditions will
generally require laboratory tests to establish lack of specification as the
cause of failures. In addition to the following a number of references are listed
at the close of this chapter as further sources of information frequently per-
tinent to corrosion studies.
The block diagram lists steps in a ｾｹｐｩ｣｡ｬ＠ failure analysis. In field operati?ns
the steps above the first decision line would ｮｾｲｭ｡ｬｹ＠ be ｰ･ｲＮｦｯｭｾ＠ at SIte.
If corrosion is recognized as the cause, an expenenced corrOSIon ｾｮ･ｲ＠ or
field operator can generally locate the ｲ･｡ｳｯｾ＠ for the attack. ThIS Will com-
plete the investigation and other than prepanng necessary reports no other
action is required.
If the first three items have not isolated the cause, the ｯｰ･ｲ｡ｾｩｮｳ＠ ｢･ｴｷｾ＠ the
decision lines are the next considerations. Generally the ｴ･ｳｉ＿Ｍｾ＠ branch w.Ill be
first considered. In view of API limited and broad compOSItIonal. ｳｰ･｣ｉｦｩｾ｡ﾭ
tions Chemical Analysis is not usually considered as desirable. ｐｨｾｳｬ｣｡Ｎ＠ testmg
will determine if rods and tubular goods are within grade ｳｰ･｣ｬｦｩ｡ｾｏｮＺ＠ As
noted in Item B, non-destructive testing based on hardness ､･ｴｲｭ｡ｉｾｮｳ＠
will determine if laboratory tensile testing is warranted. ｔｾ･＠ ｮｯＭ､･ｳｴｲｵ｣ｾｶ＠
hardness testing can generally be made in field labor atones and determme
whether destructive type tensile testing is warranted.
If testing is not definitive, a Metallographic Study ｭｾｹ＠ be ｾ･ｳｩｲ｡｢ｬＮ＠ If a
failure is of a metallurgical nature, it is frequently assocIated.WIth an anoI?o-
ly in the metal at or close to the point ｾｦ＠ ｩｮｴｾｧ＠ ?f the ｾ｡ｩＱｵｲ･Ｎ＠ ｾ･ｴ｣ｉｯｮ＠
usually requires multiple metallographlc sectIons tmmedlately adjacent to
the failure location.

-67-
-66-
If the Testing or Metallographic Study indicates cause of failure the Final
Report can be made. However, if, "Cause Not Obvious", is the result a
decision is required as to further investigation. The indicated Laboratory Ex-
periments will be time consuming and always expensive. Unless required by
legal considerations, the indicated Preliminary Report including a summary
of probable causes will usually complete the study.
2. BRINELL HARDNESS vs TENSILE STRENGTH
With the Brinell Hardness the range of probable Tensile Strength can be ob-
tained from the curve. If the steel specification is outside these limits, stand-
ard tensile tests should be made on samples from the failure.
180,000 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,.....

B. APPROXIMATION OF TENSILE & YIELD STRENGTH OF STEEL 160,000

iii 140,000
As noted in Item A, with either Rockwell or Brinell hardness tests that can Q.

usually be made in Field area locations, tensile and yield strengths can be es- i= 120,000
timated. Three to five hardness measurements, as close to the failure as t!)
Z
practical, should be averaged to assure to reasonably accurate result. This ｾ＠ 100,000
hardness can then be used in conjunction with the following curves to estimate l-
f/)
the range of tensile and yield strengths of a steel. ｾ＠ 80,000
iii
1. BRINELL vs ROCKWELL HARDNESS ffi
I-
60,000

40,000
Item 2 & 3 relate Tensile and Yield Strengths to Brinell Hardness. The curve
below converts Rockwell "e" to Brinell. 20,000

100 200 300

40 BRINEll HARDNESS
3. TENSILE STRENGTH vs YIELD STRENGTH RANGE
35
w
-I
Using median tensile strength from Item 2 determine Yield Strength range.
If steel specifications range is outside these values, make standard tensile yield
til ""
0 30
tests.
0
til 25
til
w 90
Z
Q W
..J
a:: 20 iii
z
""
J:
-I
-I
w
l-
u. /'
/

w 15 0 /'
3: # /'
ｾ＠ 0

0
0 10
::r::
l- /'
a:: t!)
zw /
II:
l-
/
5 f/)
0
..J
W
0 >= 50
200 230 260 290 320 350
BRINELL HARDNESS 75,000 100,000 125,000 150,000 175,000
TENSILE STRENGTH - PSI

-68- -69-
C. APPROXIMATE VELOCI1Y CRITERIA FOR LIQUIDS 5. PIPE VELOCITIES vs FLUID DENSI1Y
Velocity limitations are frequently overlooked in the design of production
and pipelining of liquids. One factor of particular importance is the much V (fps) =# C
P
=
=
Operating Constant
Density in pounds per cubic feet
lower velocities required where corrosive and/or abrasive liquids are being
transported. The following "Rules of Thumb" based on field experience have To keep pipe clean C = 15 to 24
been successfully used for years. For long life projects C = 100 to 125
For short life projects C = 160
Swing Check Valves C = 35 to 50
1. CALCULATION OF APPROXIMATE VELOCI1Y Piston Check Valves C = 40 to 140
Tilting Disk Check Valves C = 30 to 80
CPS (cubic feet per second) = .;;Ba.;.;.IT;.;.e.;.;.l_so_f_L_iq....u_id...pe_r_D....
ay Check Valves "Cs" function of design.
15,400

CFS D. DESIGN ｖｅｌｏｾｉｔｓ＠ FOR WELL TUBING

fps (feet per second)
Pipe Area in Square Feet
Analyis of tubing failures has indicated that this empirically derived curve es-
tablishes suitable design velocities for tubing in reasonably vertical wells.
2. LIMITING VELOCITIES FOR WATER IN STEEL PIPE
100r--,--,----'-.---r--r---r---r----.

Water (non-corrosive) = 12 to 20 fps

Water (corrosive) = 6 to 12 fps
Water (corrosive + abrasive) = 4 to 6 fps CLEAN-SINGLE PHASE FLUIDS

NOTE: Higher values fresh water, lower values brine.

70
oIII
3. LIMITING VELOCITIES FOR OIL IN STEEL PIPE ｾ＠ 60

Crude Oil (dry) = 30 to 35 fps ｾ＠

Crude Oil (wet) = 20 to 25 fps
go 50
III
>
NOTE: Minimum velocity to entrain emulsion ｾ＠ 40
Vel. = 31/2 to 5 fps ffl
c
30

20
4. DESIGN CRITERIA FOR PUMP SUCTIONS

Optimum Velocity = ± 1 fps 10

Piping one size larger than pump inlet.

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Pressure Head of 8 to 10 feet.
Pump as close to liquid storage as possible. POUNDS PER CUBIC FOOT OF LIQUIDS
GAS-CONDENSATE LIQUIDS RANGE
RANGE

-70- -71-
 FLUID DENSI1Y CALCULATIONS h. GLASS FILAMENT WOUND EPOXY PIPE
The performance of this pipe has been excellent. It is recommended in ap-
BOPD X SG X 14.6 = pounds per hour plications where it meets pressure and temperature requirements and cost
BWPD X SG X 14.6 = pounds per hour considerations.
MSCFD X SG X 3.17 = pounds per hour
c. PLASTIC LINERS IN STEEL PIPE
TOTAL pounds per hour A number of plastic pipe liners are available for use in steel pipe. In one type,
the inserted plastic tubing is molded directly to the next tubing section,
BOPDXO.234 = cubic feet per hour eliminating the problem of sealing and protection at the pipe coupling. With
BWPDX0.234 = cubic feet per hour other systems, joint inserts and sealing combinations are used. Field ex-
MSCFD X 1.18 X oR X Z = cubic feet per hour perience with the liner type of systems has been inconsistent, instances of fre-
quent joint failures or collapse of the plastic liner have occurred. From
TOTAL cubic feet per hour engineering considerations, the insert liner type of system is good but re-
quires careful control of application for a trouble-free installation.
SG = Specific Gravity
· Total Pounds per Hour d. BAKED ON COATINGS
D enslty = .
In smaller pipe and injection lines, the baked-on coating is the most widely
Total CubIc Feet per hour
used procedure for corrosion protection. Laboratory tests have established
that if properly applied, all of the baked-on coatings, whether they are of the
E. CORROSION RESISTANT MATERIALS thin or thick film types, will give good protection in oil and water handling
operations. In practically all instances where failures occur these are due to
There are a variety ofcorrosion resistant non-metallic ｭ｡ｴ･ｾｩｬｳ＠ and metal al- either improper cleaning, coating'application, baking of the coatings or field-
loys used in production and pipeline ｯｰ･ｲｾｴｩｮｳＮ＠ Where ｳｾｬｴ｡｢･＠ and cost .ef- induced failures resulting from improper transporting or laying procedures.
fective, they can provide excellent protection from ｣ｯｲｾｳＮ＠ ｔｾ･＠ followmg Where the baked-on coatings are properly applied and handled, good ser-
is a brief overview of these materials and some of theIr IlDlltatIons. Where vice can be expected in oil and water piping.
apparently applicable and cost effective, a detailed review of types, manufac-
turers and availability is desirable. In many instances baked on coatings have been unsatisfactory in high pres-
sure gas piping. Service has been particularly poor in lines subject to frequent
1. NON-METALLIC MATERIALS pressure fluctuations. The failures are due to blistering and the coating flak-
ing off the steel. The failures are attributed to the coating being permeable
With the exception of cement linings most of the non-metallic. ｾ｡ｴ･ｲｩｬｳ＠ ｾ･＠ to gas, which diffus through the coating. With pressure reduction the gas
tradename plastics or synthetic organic coatings ｾｨ･＠ ｣＼Ｎ＾ｭｰｾｳｬｴｉｯｮ＠ ｯｾ＠ which expands, forming bl sters, which spall from the pipe wall. Baked on coatings
are considered proprietary. Where a tradename ｉｴ･ｾ＠ IS ｾ･ｭｧ＠ ｣ｯｾｳｬ､･ｲＬ＠ are not recommended for high pressure gas service.
technical data should be reviewed to assure to matenal will be satisfactory
for the operating environment. e. CEMENT LININGS
In large diameter piping (6" plus) cement is a widely used lining system for
3. EXTRUDED PLASTIC PIPE handling water. With present laboratory proved specifications excellent per-
Although extruded plastic pipe is ｦｲ･ｱｵｾｴｬｹ＠ used; the limitations of ｴｾｳ＠ pipe formance can be anticipated from cement type linings. The major problem
must be carefully considered and the pipe applIed <.>nly where Ｎ｡ｾｰｬｉ｣｢･＠ area is in the joints. However, such failures are usually due to improper weld-
Specifications are usually based on the American SanltaIJ: ASSOCiation ｾｴ｡ｮﾭ ing or chalking practices. When the laying of the cement lined pipe is super-
dards. The temperature base in this standard is 73.4°F. With ｦｾｷ＠ ･ｸ｣ｰｴｉｾＩｬｳＬ＠ vised to assure proper welding and sealing of the joints excellent service can
the extruded plastic pipe is also ｦ｡ｴｩｧｵ･Ｍｳｮｾ＠ under surgmg operations be expected. There are a number of special joint systems that can also be
and must be down-rated where pressure fluctuatIOns occur. A general recom- used to assure line integrity.
mendation would be to use extruded plastic pipe only in open-end systems,
free of surging and down-rated for temperature.

-72- -73-
 2. CORROSION RESISTANT ALLOYS
Although it is impractical to use corrosion-resistant alloys for such items as
pipe or lease vessels, it is possible to use such metals where the major cost of
equipment is fabrication. Generally such equipment is connected to a carb-
on steel item. Chapter I, Item L, Page 12, discusses Galvanic Corrosion that
is occasionally overlooked in such installations.
All of the alloys discussed below are available in a variety of grade designa-
tions. While each designation will include the same major elements for cor-
rosion resistance, other elements are added to improve some specific factor,
such as machine ability, weldability, ductility, pit resistance, etc. When the en-
vironment is unusual, these factors should be reviewed in designating the
specific alloy.
3. MONELS
In highly corrosive environments, where failures will be of serious conse-
quence, Monels are the preferred materials. The Monels have a distinct ad-
vantage over most of the other corrosion-resistant metals in that their
corrosion rate is not markedly increased by aeration. Also, since Monels are
resistant to sulfide stress corrosion cracking, the material can be used at high
stress levels. While Monels would be preferred for many items, the cost and
lack of availability will often preclude its use.
b. STAINLESS STEELS
The term stainless steel used with many tradenames is a misnomer. These al-
loys may resist corrosion for some specific operating condition but unless the
chromium content is above 9% - 10% they do not meet the AISI designation
for stainless steel. The following figure is the designation of the alloys as based
on the chromium content.
45
I
40 ｾｓｴ･ｬ＠
Chromium is the principal alloying element for increasing the corrosion resis-
tance of steel. The resistance of the steel to attack is developed by a very thin
fIlm of chromium oxide that forms on the surface. Even though this film can
be ruptured or destroyed, in the atmosphere or in a highly oxidizing environ-
ment, it is self healing and the stainless condition is maintained. However, in
the presence of certain acids, chlorides, etc. the film may be destroyed and
not reestablish. The condition of the alloy is then designated as active and
the metal corrodes like plain carbon steels.
(1) AISI 300 Series Stainless Steels
This is the 18% Cr, 8% Ni stainless steel group. These alloys are mostly of
the non-hardenable type and have generally given good corrosion-resistance
in sour field waters. The yield and tensile strengths are less than most steels
normally used in oil field equipment and this must be considered in design-
ing parts subject to high stresses. The alloys also have a tendency to gall in
running fits and this factor should be taken into consideration in threads, pis-
tons, valve stems, etc.
CAUTION: These alloys have a tendency to gall in running fits such as
threads, pistons, valve stems, etc. Mating surfaces can be coated to prevent
galling. On surfaces not subject to frequent movement or disassembly the
coatings are satisfactory.
(2) AISI 400 Series Stainless Steels
Equipment fabricated from the AISI 400 stainless steel series is most readi-
ly available. In sour water, the 400 series will be subject to a pitting type at-
tack, with the susceptibility to attack and the rate of attack increasing as the
hardness, tensile and yield strengths of the metal increases.
CAU ION: While the 400 Series alloys are widely used and frequently the
only stainless steel available in "off the shelf' items, they should not be used in
non-oxidizing or saline water. As noted above, once the chromium oxide film
is destroyed and not replaced, the steel is active and corrodes; frequently a

ｾ＠
rapid, isolated, pitting type attack develops under these conditions.
35
.l: . (3) ALUMINUM BRONZE ALLOYS
.ll'
ｬｾ＠
30
ｾ＠
Aluminum Bronze and other bronze alloys are used extensively for water han-
Chromium steels
dling, particularly in piston-type injection pumps, and have generally given
..
.!: 25

ｾ＠
good service. The two principal uncertainties are the endurance limits for
E
20 various operating conditions and internal stresses in cast and machined parts.
ｾ＠ .,u Research studies have established that heat-treating and stress-relieving are

-'",
15 Stainless steels
ｾ＠
"""""- required for development of ultimate performance of the material.
D.. "
10
ｃｾｲｯｭ･｟＠
5
Iron 33.5
I' ....,.
00 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Chromium (per cent)

-74- -75-
 (4) INCONEL, HASTELLOY, STELLITE AND COLMONOY
These are the specialty alloys most commonly found in oil field. <:quipment.
API COUPLING SPECIFICATION
Inconel has excellent corrosion-resistance and very good physlclal charac-
teristics. Although this metal is not generally used in stock items, it has found HARDNESS
wide-spread use in springs for corrosive service, ｰ｡ｲｴｩ｣ｵｬｾｹ＠ where such CLASS ROCKWELL-C
springs may also be subject to a hydrogen sulfide type of envrronment.
T 16 Min. - 23 Max.
Hastelloy, Stellite and Colmonoy all have ･ｸ｣ｬｮｾ＠ ｣ｯｲｳｩ＿ｮｾ･ｴ｡＠
properties in sour waters and are primarily used as facmgs or tnm m valves, CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS: The maximum sulphur content of
etc. couplings and subcouplings is limited to 0.05%.

2. API/ SPEC SA, SAC, SAX TUBING & CASING

F. API SPECIFICATIONS· PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The following specifications cover the various grades of tubing and casing
The primary objective of API Specifications is to assure equipment ｦｾｯｭ＠
with industry specifications, also including information on drill pipe. As
various suppliers will be dimensionally interchangeable. A secondary obJec-
noted in Item A, Failure Analysis Procedure, specifications for composition
tive is that equipment will have the physical strength to ｷｩｴｾｳ｡ｮ､＠ the str.ess are quite broad and seldom considered in failure studies. The following lists
caused by field operating conditions. There have been ongomg efforts t? Im-
the Physical Specifications, the first consideration, when failures not at-
prove specifications to include damaging mill defects and in some specifica-
tributable to corrosion are investigated. In the H2S column, "YES" indicates
tions these are broadly defined. With the exception of hydrogen the Grade is suitable for sour service.
embrittlement corrosion resistance, corrosion is not considered in specifica-
tions. The API and NACE have various Recommended Practice publications STRENGTH
detailing procedures for corrosion control in field operations. YIELD TENSILE
GRADE MIN. MAX. MIN. ｾ＠ SPEC.
With premature or unusual failures it is possible the API physical prope.rties
have been exceeded. These specifications along with API reference are listed H-4O 40,000 60,000 YES 5A
below.
J-55 55,000 80,000 75,000 YES 5A
1. API/SPEC. llB: SUCKER RODS & COUPLING
The fotIowing table lists the only composition and ｾ･｣ｨｮｩ｡ｬ＠ properties for K-55 55,000 80,000 95,000 YES 5A
sucker rods and couplings. The Grade D rod operatmg wlthm ｾｨ･＠ API recom-
mended stress range is not susceptible to sulfide stress crackmg. N-8O 80,000 110,000 100,000 ? 5A
API SUCKER ROD SPECIFICATIONS C-75 75,000 90,000 95,000 YES 5AC

CHEMICAL TENSILE STRENGTH L-80 80,000 95,000 95,000 YES 5AC

GRADE COMPOSITION MIN.PSI MAX.PSI
C-95 95,000 110,000 105,000 ? 5AC
K AISI46XX 85,000 115,000
C AISI1536* 90,000 115,000 P-105 105,000 135,000 120,000 NO 5AX
D CARBON/ALLOY** 115,000 140,000
P-ll0 110,000 140,000 125,000 NO 5AX
* Generally manufactured from but not restricted to ａｉｾ＠ ｾＵＳＶＮ＠ .
* * Any alloy that can be effectively heat treated to the mlmmum ultimate ? - Where maximum stress does not exceed 90,000 psi or downhole tempera-
tensile strength. ture is in excess of 1500 F, sulfide stress cracking would not be expected.

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)
 3. API SPEC. SL LINE PIPE G. REFERENCES PERTINENT TO OIL FIELD CORROSION
The composition specifications in 5L are broad and with only minimum re-
quirements for yield and tensile strengths. These physical requirements are While there are many references to corrosion few specifically relate to
listed below for the various Grades of pipe. Failures are invariably associated production and pipeline operation. Furthermore, there are not many giving
with either external or internal corrosion. External failures are beyond the extensive illustrations and specifics on the environment where the failure oc-
scope of this presentation but are frequently associated with the weld area curred. Another factor frequently overlooked in failure analysis is the extent
and either holidays in the pipe coating, malfunction in the cathodic protec- to which complex flow patterns in multi-component, two phase, can induce
tion system or both. failures. The following is a list of references particularly suited to failure
analysis where the cause cannot be easily identified.
Internal failures are principally due to corrosion with occasional stress
fa!lures in old lines, subject to pulsating pressure. Most lines are designed 1. Corrosion Control in Petroleum Production
With a large safety factor and with the broad specifications noted above physi- NACE, TPC Publication No.5.
calor chemical tests are generally unwarranted.
2. Forms of Corrosion, Recognition and Prevention
c.P. Dillon - Editor, NACE Publication
API LINE PIPE TENSILE SPECS.
STRENGTH 3. Metals Handbook, Volume 10, Failuare Analysis and Prevention
GRADE YIELD MIN. PSI TENSILE MIN. PSI 8th Edition - American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio 44073
A 30,000 48,000 4. The Flow of Complex Mixtures in Pipes
Govier/Aziz, Van Nostrand-Reinhold co.
B 35,000 60,000

X42 42,000 60,000 5. Physical metallurgy for Engineers

Clark and Varney, Van Nostrand-Reinhold Co.
X46 46,000 63,000
6. Production Operations, Vol. 1 & 2
X52 52,000 66,000* Allen and Roberts, Oil and Gas Consultants International, Inc.
72,000** Tulsa, Oklahoma

X56 56,000 71,000*

75,000**

X60 60,000 75,000*

78,000**

X65 65,000 77,000*

80,000**

X70 70,000 80,000*

82,000**

* For pipe less than 20" O.D. with any wall thickness and for pipe 20"
O.D. and larger with wall thickness greater than 0.375".

** For pipe 20" O .D. and larger with wall thickness 0.375" and less.

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