TNPSC Geography Study Material

https://t.
me/tnpscgs
s
scg
>tV| 
np
kkVFA \uD luEm
 : TNPSC Group I >
VD : AslB_
z] : Bu k^
VA\
e/t
]BVBu k^, ]BV] k^, ]BV 
k^, >tV|  t[V k^, >tV|  >Va_^
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\

.m
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
sV>V^^ \uD \[VzA^ gBk V >suz >BVVzD
\Vk, \Vsz c>s|D kl_ kkVFA \uD luE mBV_
\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\
kkVFA \uD luE mB V>m  >s|m.
://t
>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V

zA > klKD \] |kV, \ gD F]kV, su
FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z
ps
>BV FD \Vkz kw|D t_V kBVzD.
gB,
kkVFA \uD luE m
htt
https://t.me/tnpscgs
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
AslB_
Bu k^
s
scg
]BV - Bu k^
Bu >VkD  cyfstpy; xg;gpLk;NghJ 2% V|^
np
 Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; ,aw;ifahfNt ,e;jpahtpy; cs;sJ.
tsUk; jhtuq;fspd; njhFg;G  ,e;jpah Nghd;w kpjntg;g kz;ly
MFk;. ,it fhyepiy> kz; kw;Wk; ehLfspy; z>D 33% fhLfs;
caphpdq;fspd; nry;thf;fpdhy;
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
cUthFgit.
]BVs[ kk^
 ,e;jpahtpd; td tsq;fs; jdpj;j
rpwg;gpay;Gfisf;
e/t
nfhz;lit.
%q;fpy; kuq;fs; mjpfkhf fpilf;Fk;
khepyq;fs;:
1. [k;K - fh\;kPh;
Vnddpy; twl;rpiaj; jhq;Fk; 2. gQ;rhg;
.m
Kl;Gjh;fspypUe;J ntg;g kz;ly 3. kj;jpag; gpuNjrk;
gRik khwhf; fhLfs; tiu ngUk;
vz;zpf;ifapyhd jhtu tiffs; V|^ ]x^ V|^ zkV
,q;Ff; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. \VWD c^ \VWD
 ,e;jpahtpd; fhLfspd; nkhj;jg;gug;G 1. kpNrhuhk; 1. gQ;rhg;
://t
Rkhh; 63.72 t_oB[ m .* 2. ,yl;rj;jPT 2. `hpahdh

nkhj;j epyg;gug;gpy; 19.39% MFk;. 3. ehfyhe;J 3. ,uh[];jhd;
V|[ asuz VD gug;gstpy; kpf mjpf rjtPjf;
1. kf;fs;njhifg; ngUf;fk;> fhLfisf; nfhz;l khepyk; - kj;jpag;
2. tptrha epyq;fspd; Njit
gpuNjrk;> mUzhryg; gpuNjrk;
ps
mjpfhpg;G
3. efukakhjy;
Bu >Vk k^
4. njhopw;rhiy kakhjy;  ,e;jpahtpYs;s ,aw;ifj; jhtuj;jpd;
tsh;r;rp fhyepiy> ntg;gk;>
5. Gjpa efuq;fs; Njhd;Wjy;
htt
kiog;nghopT> jiu mikg;G kw;Wk;

V|[ k_
kz; Nghd;w Gtpapay;
 ,e;jpahtpy; 24.01% fhLfshfTk;>
kuq;fshfTk; cs;sJ.

AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
]BVs[ xB Bu k^
.m
://t
ps
htt
]B >Vk k^

AslB_
fhuzpfshy; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. 5. kiyf;fhLfs;
s
1. ntg;gkz;ly gRik khwhf; a) ,kakiyapd; kiyf;fhLfs;
b) njw;F kiyf;fhLfs;
scg
fhLfs;
2. ntg;gkz;ly gUtf; fhLfs; >EBk V^
a) twz;l gUtf;fhLfs;  ,e;jpah 1894-k; Mz;by; Njrpa
b) <ug;gjKs;s gUtf;fhLfs; tdf;nfhs;if xd;iw Vw;gLj;jpaJ.
 kPzL; k; 1952-k; Mz;bYk;> 1988-k;
3. ghiytdk;
Mz;bYk; ,f;nfhs;if jpUj;jp
4. khq;FNuht; fhLfs;
np
mikf;fg;gl;lJ.
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt

Bu >VkD \w k kD V|D z] \u zA^
 W >Vk^
ntg;g kz;ly 200 250C Nuh];Tl;> Nkw;F njhlh;r;rp mjpf kioAk;> mjpf ntg;gKk;
gRik khwhf; nr.kPf;F - 270C vnghdp> kiyapd; Nkw;F ,Ug;gjdhy; vg;NghJk;
fhLfs; Nky; kNfhfdp> gFjpapYk;> gRikahfNt ,Uf;Fk;.
ug;gh;> me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghh; kuq;fs; ruhrhpahf 60kP cauk;
htt
rpd;Nfhdh> jPTfspYk;> kiyapd; nfhz;ljhf ,Uf;Fk;.
%q;fpy;> jho;e;j rhpTfspYk;>
yad;]; m];]hk;> xhprhtpd;
ps
rpy gFjpfs;
ntg;g kz;ly 100-200 270C Njf;F> rhy;> ,kakiyapd; ,e;jpahtpy; mjpfg; gug;gstpy;
gUtf; fhLfs; nr.kP kFth> mbthuk;> xbrh fhzg;gLk; fhLfs; (twz;l
 <ug;gj Ks;s Mk;yh> ,iyAjph; kw;Wk; <ug;gjk;
gUtf ;fhLfs; re;jd kuk; nfhz;l ,iyAjph; fhLfs;)
://t
 twz;l 70 - 100 270C
.m
ghyh];> jPgfw;g gFjpfs;> Nfhilf; fhyj;jpy; ,iyfis
gUtf; fhLfs; nr.kP f;F f;F Nky; ngy;> cj;jpug; gpuNjrk; cjph;f;fpd;wd.
Nky; ifa;];> kw;Wk; gPfhh;
Mf;ry;Tl;
0
ghiytdj; 25 30 C Kl;nrbfs;> ,uh[];jhdpd; ,uz;L tifg;gLk;.
jhtuk; nr.kPf;Fk; mNfrpah> ghiytdg; gFjpfs;> 1. ntg;g ghiytdk; v.fh:
e/t
FiwT Nff;lh]; fl;r;> nrsuh\;buk;> ,e;jpah - jhh;
(rg;ghj;jpf; gQ;rhg; kw;Wk; 2. Fsph; ghiytdk; v.fh:
fs;sp) jf;fhz gPlG+kp Nfhgp> jf;ykfhd ghiytdk;
np

scg
AslB_
s
khq;f;Nuht; Re;jhp> iu];> Nkw;F tq;fk;> fly; Xjq;fs; %yk;
fhLfs; (rJg;G mtprPdpah> F[uhj;> jkpo;ehL> ePiug;ngWk; flNyhug; gFjpapy;
epyf; fhLfs; Nghuh> igd; Me;jpug; gpuNjrk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
kuq;fspd; mbg;gFjpia cah;
Xjj;jpd; NghJ> ePUf;F mbapy;
fhzg;gLk; vz;zw;w Nth;fs;
htt
jhq;fpf; nfhs;fpd;wd.
kiyf;fhLfs;: igd;> ,kakiy gFjpfs; jhtu tiffs; cauj;jpw;F
fly; jpNahjh;> Vw;wthW khWfpd;wd
ps
kl;lj;jpw;F rPlh;];
caNu nry;yr;
nry;y FiwAk;
ntg;gj;jpdhy;
tsuf;
://t
$bait.
 ,ka
kiyapd;
.m
kiyf ;fhLfs;
 njw;F kiyf; 150 - 200 110C igd;> jkpo;ehL> Nfush> Nrhiyf; fhLfs;
fhLfs; nr.kP - 140C jpNahjh;> fh;ehlfh> 1.Nkw;Fj;
e/t
nr];l; el; Midkiy> ePyfphp> njhlh;r;rp
godp kiyfs;
2. tpe;jpa kiyg;
np
gFjp
3. ePyfphp kiyg;
gFjp

scg
AslB_
s
AslB_
Gy;ntspfs;:  1980-k; Mz;L kVmVA D
s
,e;jpag; Gy;ntspfs; <ukhd kz; Vw;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. 1988-k; Mz;by;
cs;s jiyg;gFjpapYk;> cg;Gg; gFjpfspYk;
scg
NkYk; jpUj;jg;gl;L ,r;rl;lj;jpy;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
1. jho;epyg; Gy;ntsp fhLfs; ghJfhg;G rl;lj;jpw;F vjpuhf
2. Nkl;L epyg; Gy;ntsp nray;gLgth;fSf;Fchpa fLikahd
>VW A_k \| W A_k jz;lid gw;wp $wg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 30 nr.kP. Kjy;  1000 kP \VzV V|^ \uD
200 nr.kP tiu cauj;jpw;F \VW^
np
tsUk;. Nky; tsUk;.
1. Re;jutdf; Nkw;F tq;fk;
 ruhrhp  ,kakiyg;
kioasTk;> gFjpfspYk;> fhLfs;
mjpfkhd fh;ehlfh 2. gpj;h;fdpfh xbrh
Nfhilfhy tpYs;s Nkw;Fj; 3. yphpq;fh Me;jpug; gpuNjrk;
ntg;gKk; njhlh;r;rp
nfhz;l
gFjpfspy;
tsUfpd;wd.
kiyapy;
e/t
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
4. fpU\;zh
5. Nfhjhthp
nly;lh
Me;jpug; gpuNjrk;
Me;jpug; gpuNjrk;
 ,t;tifg;
6. kfhejp nly;lh Xhprh
Gy;ntspfs;
.m
gy;NtW kz; 7. gpr;rhtuk; jkpo;ehL
tiffspy; 8. ghapz;l; fhypkh; jkpo;ehL
tsUfpd;wd. 9. Fz;lG+h; fh;ehlfh
V|[ VmVAD, \V\D 10. mr;uh kfhuh\;buh
 fhLfs; mopj;jYk;> fhLfisf; 11. uj;dfphp kfhuh\;buh
://t
Fiwg;gJk; mjpfhpj;Jf; nfhz;Nl 12. Ntk;gehL Nfush

nry;tjhy; gue;j mstpy; kz;
mhpg;Gk;> epiyaw;w kiog; nghopTk;
kPz;Lk;> kPz;Lk; nts;sKk;
ps
Vw;gLfpd;wd.
••••••
htt

AslB_
s
]BV - ] k^
scg
 Fiwe;j cw;gj;jpr; nryT
 njhlh;e;J fpilf;ff; $baJ.
np
B]
 ,e;jpah mad kz;lyj;jpy; mike;
Js;sjhy; mstpl Kbahj #hpa
rf;jpia ngWfpd;wJ. #hpa xspia
e/t Neubahf kpd; rf;jpahf Nghl;Nlh
Nthy;lhapf; njhopy;El;gk; %yk;
khw;w KbAk;. ,k;Kiwapd; %yk; 20
nkfhthl; #hpa rf;jpia 1 r.fp.kP
.m
gug;gstpw;F cw;gj;jp nra;a KbAk;.
 epyf;fhp> ngl;Nuhypak;> ,aw;if  fhw;W rf;jp fhw;whiyfis epWT
vhpthA> #hpa rf;jp> fhw;W vhprf;jp tjw;F Muk;g nghUl;nryT
Nghd;wit rpy vhprf;jp tsq;fshFk;. mjpfkhfpwJ.
,J nghUshjhu kw;Wk; njhopy;El;g
nghpa mstpy; #hpa rf;jpapy; kpd;
://t
tsh;r;rpf;F ,d;wpaikahj xU
$w;whFk;. rf;jpahf khw;Wk; ikak; F[uhj;jpYs;s
 vhprf;jp tsq;fis ,U G+[; mUNf mike;Js;s khjhGhpahFk;.
tifg;gLj;jyhk;> mit Vu ] cu] \VW^
 GJg;gpf;fj;jf;f tsq;fs; 1. jkpo;ehL 2. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
ps
 GJg;gpf;f ,ayhj tsq;fs; 3. fh;ehlfh 4. F[uhj;

1.ED^
5. Nfush 6. kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;
 vspjhff; fpilf;ff;$baJ
7. kfhuh\;buk; 8. ,yl;rj;jPT
 GJg;gpf;ff;$baJ
htt
cl ]
 Rw;Wr;#oYf;F jPq;F  Gjh;fs;> gaph;fspypUe;J ngWk;
tpistpf;fhjJ fopT> kdpjd; kw;Wk; tpyq;Ffspd;
 khRf;fis Vw;gLj;jhJ

AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
]BVs_ W V|D ^

://t
fopT Nghd;wtw;iwg; gad;gLj;jp fhk;Ng tisFlh 7000 nkfhthl;

caphp rf;jp cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
rf;jp jpwidg; ngw Vw;w ,lkhFk;.
,r;rf;jp fpuhkg; Gwq;fspy;
tPl;L cgNahfj;jpw;fhf cw;gj;jp  ]
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.  ,e;jpah 40000 nkfhthl; miy rf;jpj;
ps
 kz;nzz;nza; kw;Wk; kuf;fhpia jpwd; nfhz;Ls;sjhf fzf;fplg;

tpl caphp rf;jp mjpf ntg;gj;jpid gl;Ls;sJ. jpUtde;jGuj;jpw;F
mspf;Fk;. mUfpYs;s tpopQ;rk; vd;w ,lj;jpy;
{> ] 150 nkfhthl; miy rf;jp cw;gj;jp
htt
 ,e;jpah 8000-9000 nkfhthl; epiyak; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

Xjrf;jp jpwidf; nfhz;L cs;sjhf
kjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ.

AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
]BVs_ Vu cu] FD ^

://t
Am> ] t[ cu] Xj rf;jp fhk;Ng tisFlh

WB^ (F[uhj;)> fl;r; tisFlh
] \sD (F[uhj;) Re;jutdk;
(Nkw;F tq;fhsk;)
fhw;W rf;jp Muy;tha;nkhop> faj;jhW
ps
(fhw;whiy) (jkpo; ehL)> rj;jhuh miy rf;jp tpopQ;rk; (Nfush)

(kfhuh\;buh)> yhk;gh> #hpa rf;jp fKjp (jkpo;ehL)
ke;jptp (F[uhj;) Am BV> ] k^
Gtp ntg;g kzpf;fuz; (,khr;ryg; W
htt
rf;jp gpuNjrk;)> G`h  mad kz;lyj;jpd; ngUq;fhLfs;

gs;sj;jhf;F ([k;K
gbtq;fshy; %lg;gl;L> ePz;l
kw;Wk; fh\;kPh;)> jl;lhgdp
fhy mstpy; fhpkkhf;fg;gl;Lj;
(rl;B];fh;)

AslB_
Njhd;Wk; gbTg;ghiwfs; epyf;fhp

1774-y; Nkw;Ftq;fhsj;jpy; cs;s V
s
vdg;gLk;. ntg;gKk;> mOj;jKk;
 gFjp epyf;fhp taypy; Kjd;Kjyhf
jhtug; nghUis epyf;fhpahf
scg
khw;Wfpd;wd. rf;jpapd; %y Mjhuk; epyf;fhp ntl;bnaLf;fg;gl;lJ.
,JNt MFk;. vdNt jhd; epyf;fhp  ,e;jpahtpy; ,U tifahd epyf;fhp
>VauV[ >VF (Mother of tay;fs; cs;sd.
Industries) vd;W Gfog;gLfpwJ.
1. Nfhz;l;thdh - 98% cs;sd.
 ,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpa vhprf;jp tsk;
2. nlh;\pahp - 2% cs;sd
epyf;fhpahFk;. 67 rjtPjk; ehl;bd;
 jkpofj;jpd; nea;Ntyp> m];]hkpd;
np
vhprf;jp Njit epyf;fhp %yk; G+h;j;jp
kFk; gFjp> ,uh[];jhdpd; gpf;fhdph;
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
Nghd;w ,lq;fspy; nlh;\pahp fhy
epyf;fhp fUg;Gj; jq;fk; vd;W epyf;fhp tay;fs; cs;sd.
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  gPfhhpd; [hhpah> nghf;fhNuh> fhd;Guh
e/t
 epyf;fhp cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpahtpy;
Kjyplk; tfpf;Fk; khepyk; [hh;fz;l;
MFk;.
lhy; Nlhd;fQ;r; Mfpa ,lq;fspYk;>
Me;jpug; gpuNjrj;jpd; rpq;fNudp
gFjpapYk; (,uhkFz;lk;) kj;jpag;
 epyf;fhpapd; juk; kw;Wk; fhh;gd; gpuNjrj;jpd; Nfhh;gh gfjpapYk;
.m
mstpd; mbg;gilapy; gy tif fshfg; epyf;fhp tay;fs; cs;sd. gPfhhpd;
gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ. mitahtd> fphpj; gFjpapYk; epyf;fhp tay;fs;
1. Me;juirl; cs;sd.
2. gpl;Lkpd]; VoBD
3. ypf;idl;  ngl;Nuhypak; gbTg; ghiwfspypUe;J
://t
4. kuf;fhp ngwg;gLfpwJ. ,it fdpk vz;nza;

 epyf;fhp Ruq;fq;fspy; ngUk; vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ghyhdit tlfpof;F ,e;jpahtpy;  vhpnghUs; gad;ghl;by; Kjyplk;
mike;Js;sd. ,jpy; %d;wpy; ngw;Ws;sJ. ek; ehl;by; m]hk;
khepyj;jpy; jpf;gha; gFjpapd;
ps
,uz;L gq;F epyf;fhp [hh;fz;l;>

kj;jpag; gpuNjrk;> rl;B];fh;> kw;Wk; kf;Fk; vd;Dkplj;jpy; 1867y; Kjd;
xhprhtpy; cw;gj;jpahfpwJ. xU gq;F Kjyhf ngl;Nuhypak; ntspf;
epyf;fhp Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;> Nkw;F nfhzug;gl;lJ.
htt
tq;fk;> cj;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpypUe;J ngl;Nuhypak; jputj; jq;fk; (Liquid gold)

fpilf;fpwJ. vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
10
AslB_
 F[uhj; fhk;Ng tisFlhg; gFjpapy; ]BVsK^ F ]A

fNyhy;> mq;fNy];th;> Y}Nd[;
s
WB^
Mfpa ,lq;fspYk;> kfhuh\;buhtpy; 1. g&dp> gPfhh;
Kk;igf; flw;fiuapd; Kk;ig
scg
2. Kk;ig> kfhuh\;buh
gFjpapYk;> NkYk; kfhuh\;buhtpd;
NgrPd; gFjpapy; vz;nza; tay;fs; 3. nfhr;rp> Nfush
cs;sd. 4. jpf;gha;> m];]hk;
 ,e;jpah 4000 kpy;ypad; ld; ,Ug;igf; 5. `hy;jpah> Nkw;F tq;fhsk;
ngw;Ws;sJ. 6. tprhfg;gl;bdk;> Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
 63% - Kk;ig i` (Mumbai High) 7. fal;b> F[uhj;
 18% - F[uhj;
np
8. nrd;id> jkpo;ehL
 16% - m];]hk;
 3% - m U z h r y g ; g p u N j r k ; > 9. kJuh> cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;
Me;jpug; gpuNjrk; kw;Wk; 10. fh;dh];> `hpahdh
jkpo;ehL
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
]BVs_ VoBD V|D ^
11
AslB_
t[] vhpthA Nghd;wtw;wpypUe;J cw;gj;jp
s
 xU ehl;bd; tsh;r;rp kw;Wk; nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,e;jpahtpd;
Kd;Ndw;wj;jpy; kpd;rf;jpapd; gq;F nkhj;j cw;gj;jpapy; 70% mdy; kpd;
scg
kpfg;nghpajhFk;. kpd;rf;jp %d;W epiyaq;fspypUe;J ngwg;gLfpwJ.
topfspy; ngwg;gLfpwJ. mit> _ t[ ]B cu] FD
1. mdy; kpd; rf;jp
\VW^
1. gQ;rhg; 2. `hpahdh
2. ePh;kpd; rf;jp 3. ,uh[];jhd; 4. fh;ehlfh
3. mZkpd; rf;jp 5. Nfush 6. xbrh
1, _ t[] 7. nly;yp
np
 epyf;fhp> ngl;Nuhypak;> ,aw;if
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
]BVs_ V|D _t[ WB^
12
AslB_
_ t[]B mD Vm^ ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; ePh;kpd; epiyak;
s
\VW^
1. m];]hk; 2. [hh;fz;l; 1897D g| Vo_ epWtg;
gl;lJ. kw;nwhU epiyak; 1902-k; Mz;L
scg
3. cj;jpug;gpuNjrk; 4. Nkw;F tq;fk;
5. jkpo;ehL fhNthp Mw;wpy; cs;s rptrKj;jpuk;
2. t[ ] ePh;tPo;r;rpapy; epWtg;gl;lJ.
 ,e;jpahtpd; 24% kpd;rf;jp ePh;kpd;
epiyaq;fspy; jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
,r;rf;jp ,e;jpag; nghUshjhu
tsh;r;rpf;F nghpJk; cjTfpd;wd.
np
t[ ] cu] FD \VW^
1. ,khr;ryg;gpuNjrk;
2. fh;ehlfh 3. Nfush
4. [k;K kw;Wk; fh\;kPh;
5. jphpGuh 6. Nkfyhah
7. rpf;fpk; e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
13
AslB_
3. bt[ ] ]BVsK^ bt[ ] cu]
s
 ,e;jpah Mz;bw;F 270 nkfhthl; WB^
mZkpd; rf;jpia cw;gj;jp nra;fpwJ. 1. jhuhg;G+h; (kfhuh\;buk;)
scg
 ANudpak; kw;Wk; Njhhpak; fdpkj;jp 2. fy;ghf;fk; (jkpo;ehL)
ypUe;J mZkpd; rf;jp cw;gj;jp nra;ag; 3. uhtj;gl;lh (Nfhl;lh - ,uh[];jhd;)
gLfpwJ. ,f;fdpkq;fs; [hh;fz;l; 4. eNuhuh (cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;)
kw;Wk; Muty;yp kiyj; njhlh;fspy; 5. fhf;uguh (F[uhj;)
uh[];jhdpypUe;J vLf;fg;gLfpwJ. 6. iff;fh (fh;ehlfh)
 NkYk;> Nfus flw;fiuapd; kz;zp
np
7. $lq;Fsk; (jkpo;ehL)
Ys;s NkhNdhirl;bypUe;J Njhupak;
ngwg;gLfpwJ.
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
Bu kV \uV^|D ^
14
AslB_
Bu kV ]BVsK^ Bu kV
s
 Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; jdpahfNth ^
my;yJ ngl;Nuhypaj;Jld; Nrh;e;Njh 1. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; 2. kfhuh\;buk;
scg
fhzg;gLfpwJ. 3. F[uhj; 4. m];]hk;
5. me;jkhd; - epNfhghh; jPTfs;.
••••••
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
15
AslB_
s
]BV - k^
scg
_Vz ]^ (Multi Purpose
Projects)
np
 xNu jpl;lj;jpd; %yk; gy Nehf;fq;
fis milAk; gy;Nehf;F jpl;lq;fs;
MFk;. ,it cz;ikapy; Mw;Wg;
gs;sj; jhf;Fj; jpl;lq;fNs MFk;.
e/t  xU Mw;Wg;gFjp KOtJk; ,j;jpl;lq;fs;
ePh;g;ghrdk; jpl;lj;jpw;Fhpa gug;ghf
fUjg;gLk;. ePh;tsk;> nts;sj;jLg;G>
njhopy; tsk;> kz; mhpg;Gj; jLg;G>
kPd; gpbg;G> kpd;rf;jp Nghd;w gy;NtW
.m
Nehf;fq;fSf;fhf mikf;fg;
gLfpd;wd. vdNtjhd; Mw;Wg;
gs;sj;jhf;Fj; jpl;lq;fs; ‘T
]BVs[ A]B Vl_^” vd;W
://t
]BVs[ k_ Gfog;gLfpd;wd.
 Ntshz; njhopiy eph;zapf;Fk; ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; gy;Nehf;Fj; jpl;lk;

kw;nwhU fhuzp> ePh; MFk;. ,e;jpah jhNkhjh; gs;sj;jhf;F jpl;lk; MFk;.
rkr;rPuw;w kioiag; ngWk; gUtf;
>V\V> ^>Vz ]D
ps
fhw;W ehL. ePhg;;ghrd trjpapid

ehl;bd; vy;yhg; gFjpfSf;Fk; ju  jhNkhjh; MW ‘kV][ mBD”
,ayhJ. ruhrhpahf ,e;jpah 125 vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. vdNt
nr.kP kioasT ngWfpwJ. vdpDk; ,J nts;sg;ngUf;ifj; jLf;Fk;
htt
Nkfyhahtpd; nksrpd;uhk; (1270 jpl;lkhFk;. ,j;jpl;lj;ij nray;

nr.kP)> kw;Wk; rpuGQ;rp (1110 nr.kP) gLj;j 1948-y; jhNkhjh; gs;sj;jhf;F
mjpf kio ngWfpd;wd jpl;lk; Jtq;fg;gl;lJ.
16
AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t Mfpa ,U MWfspd; ,izg;ghFk;.
>V\V> fh;ehlfhtpy; ngy;yhhp khtl;lj;jpy;
jhNkhjh; ejp> Nrhl;lh ehfGhp gFjp cs;s ky;yGuk; gFjpapy; xU miz
.m
apypUe;J Nkw;F tq;fhsk; tiu gha;fpwJ. fl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. Rkhh; 25 fp.kP ePsKk;>
jhNkhjh; MW Nfhilf; fhyq;fspy; 50 kP cauKk; cilaJ. ,q;fpUe;J
nts;sg; ngUf;if Vw;gLj;jp Mapuf; Rkhh; 225 fp.kP ePsj;jpw;F xU
fzf;fhd Vf;fh; epyg;gug;ig fhy;thAk;> 250 kP ePsj;jpw;F kw;nwhU
://t
nts;sj;jpy; %o;fr; nra;fpwJ. fhy;thAk; ePh;khzpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

V_ _Vz ]D
mV _Vz ]D  ,j;jpl;lk; ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa
 Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; kw;Wk; fh;ehlfh gy;Nehf;F jpl;lk; (Biggest Multi
Mfpa ,U khepyq;fspd; $l;L Purpose Project of India) ,JNt MFk;.
ps
Kaw;rpNa ,j;jpl;lk;. ,j;jpl;lj;jpd; rpe;Jtpd; Jiz Mwhfpa rl;ny[;

fPo; 14 kpd;rf;jp epiyaq;fs; mikf;fg; Mw;wpd; FWf;Nf gf;uh vd;Dkplj;jpy;
gl;L 126 nkfhthl; ePh;kpd;rf;jp xU miz fl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
nra;ag;gl;L tUfpwJ.  ,j;jpl;lj;jpdhy; gQ;rhg;> `hpahdh>
htt
mV ] `pkhr;ryg;gpuNjrk;> ,uh[];jhd;

 Jq;fgj;uh ejp fpU\;zhtpd; Jiz
Mfpa khepyq;fs; gad;ngWfpd;wd.
ahW MFk;. ,e;ejp Jq;f; kw;Wk; gj;uh
17
AslB_
nkfhthl; cw;gj;jpAld; ngq;f@h;
s
gFjpia tsg;gLj;JfpwJ.
z>V ]D
scg
 jkpofj;jpy; ePyfphp khtl;lj;jpy;
mike;Js;s ,j;jpl;lk; jdJ 425
nkfhthl; jpwdpypUe;J rkPgj;jpy; 535
nkfhthl; cw;gj;jpf;F cah;j;jg;gl;L
,Uf;fpwJ.
t[] WB^ Z ]D
np
 gf;uhtpy; 2 kpd;rf;jp epiyaq;fs;  Nrhd; ejpapd; fpis ejpahd
fl;lg;gl;L> mtw;wpd; %yk; 210 hPfz;l; Mw;wpd; FWf;Nf
nkfhthl; ePh;kpd;rf;jp ngwg;gLfpwJ. ,j;jpl;lk; mike;Js;sJ. ,e;j
NkYk; eq;fy; fhy;tha;j; jpl;lj;jpYk; miz ePh;j;Njf;fk; Nfhtpe;j; rhh;
2 kpd;rf;jp epiyaq;fs; cs;sd.
_ V_kVF ]D
e/t
 64 fp.kP ePsKila ,f;fhy;tha; eq;fy;
vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,j;jpl;lj;
jpdhy; gpk;gphp vd;Dkplj;jpy; cs;s
,urhad njhopw;rhiyfSk;>
gFjpapy; mike;J cs;sJ. nghJthf NuZfl; gFjpapy; cs;s mYkpdpa
.m
,j;jpl;lj;jpdhy; 1204 nkfhthl; njhopw;rhiyAk; kpd; Mw;wy;
ePh;kpd;rf;jp fpilf;fpwJ. mj;Jld; ngWfpd;wd.
1100 fp.kP ePsj;jpw;F fhy;tha;fs; VE ]D
mike;Js;sd. ,j;jpl;lj;jpdhy; 15  gPfhhpy; cs;s Nfhrp ejpapd; kPJ
,yl;rk; n`f;Nlh; gug;gsT epyk; Neghsj;jpd; cjtpAld; Nfhrp
://t
ePh;ghrd trjp ngWfpwJ. jpl;lk; mikf;fg;gl;lJ. nts;sj;

VFV ]D jLg;Ng ,jd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fkhFk;.
 ,J fpU\;zhtpd; Jiz ejpahd vdNt Nfhrp MW gPfhhpd; Jauk;
nfha;dhtpd; kPJ> kfhuh\;buhtpy; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
mike;Js;sJ. ,J 880 nkfhthl; VD_ ]D
ps
kpd; cw;gj;jpAld; Kk;ig-G+dh  kj;jpag; gpuNjrk; kw;Wk; ,uh[];jhd;

gFjpia eph;tfpf;fpwJ. Mfpa ,U khepyq;fs; $l;L
Vk] ]D Kaw;rpNa ,j;jpl;lk;. aKidapd;
 fh;ehlfhtpy;> N[hf; ePh;tPo;r;rpapy;
htt
njw;F fpis ejpNa rk;gy; MFk;.

mike;Js;sJ. ,e;jpahtpd; kpf Nehf;fk;: kz; ghJfhg;Ng MFk;.
cah;e;j ePh;tPo;r;rp MFk;. ,J 891
18
AslB_
VVV V ]D Vz ]D
s
 Me;jpug; gpuNjrj;jpy;> fpU\;zh  ,j;jpl;lk; kfhejpapd; kPJ 1948-y;
ejp kPJ mike;Js;s jpl;lkhFk;. Jtq;fg;gl;L 1957y; Kbtile;jJ.
scg
Gj;j Jwtpahfpa ehfhh;[Pdiu ,j;jpl;lj;jpw;F &.83 Nfhb
epidTgLj;Jk; nghUl;L mtuJ xJf;fg;gl;lJ. ,j;jpl;lj;jpd; fPo;
ngah; itf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. kfhejpapd; kPJ> xhprhtpy; xU ePz;l
miz fl;lg;gl;lJ.
np
 ]^
_Vz ]D
e/t g^
fhf;ughuh jpl;lk; jg;jp Mw;wpd; kPJ F[uhj;jpy; mike;J cs;sJ
jth jpl;lk; eh;kijapd; Jiz Mwhd Mw;wpd; kPJ kj;jpag;gpuNjrj;jpy;
.m
cs;sJ.
Nghr;rk;Ngl; jpl;lk; Nfhjhthp Mw;wpd; kPJ fh;ehlhfhtpy; mike;Js;sJ
kh`p jpl;lk; kh`p Mw;wpd; kPJ F[uhj;jpy; mike;Js;sJ
kfhejp nly;lh jpl;lk; kfhejp Mw;wpd; kPJ xhprhtpy; mike;Js;sJ
://t
‡guhf;fh jpl;lk; fq;if kw;Wk; ghf;ujp ejpfspd; kPJ Nkw;F tq;fhsj;jpy;

mike;Js;sJ
kA+uhf;\p jpl;lk; Kusp vd;w Mw;wpd; kPJ Nkw;F tq;fhsj;jpy; mike;Js;sJ
rgufphp jpl;lk; rgufphp Mw;wpd; kPJ Nfushtpy; mike;Js;sJ
uhk;fq;fh jpl;lk; uhk;fq;fh ejpapd; kPJ cj;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpy; mike;Js;sJ
ps
eh;kij gs;sj;jhf;Fj; eh;kij Mw;wpd; kPJ kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;> F[uhj;> ,uh[];jhd;>

jpl;lk; kfhuh\;buh Mfpa khepyq;fspy; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
gypNksh jpl;lk; xbrh
cf;fha; jpl;lk; xbrh
htt
ryhy; jpl;lk; [k;K kw;Wk; fh\;kPh;

rptrKj;jpuk; jpl;lk; fhtphp Mw;wpd; kPJ fh;ehlfhtpy; mike;Js;sJ.
••••••
19
AslB_
s
>tV|  t[V k^
scg
kpd; epiyaq;fs; mikf;fg;gl;L
np
nray;gLfpd;wd. jkpo;ehl;by; Rkhh;
26 ePh;kpd; epiyaq;fs; cs;sd.
 jkpof muR jw;NghJ jdpahUld;
$l;L Nrh;e;J ePh;kpd; epiyaqfs;
cUthf;f Kaw;rp nra;Js;sJ.
e/t _t[ ] k^
 GJg;gpf;f ,ayhj tsq;fshd
_t[ cu] 1. ngl;Nuhypak;
2. epyf;fhp
.m
 jkpo;ehl;by; kpd;cw;gj;jp 1900-y; rpwpa
3. ,aw;if thA
ePh;kpd; jpl;lj;jpd; %yk; Jtq;fpaJ.
 GJg;gpf;ff; $ba tsq;fshd
1927-y; kpd;rhuj; Jiwia muR
1. Gtp ntg;g rf;jp
Vw;gLj;jpaJ.
 1927 ypUe;J 1951-f;Fs; igf;fhuh> 2. Xjg; ngUf;f rf;jp %ykhfNt
://t
Nkl;^h;> ghgehrk; Mfpa ,lq;fspy; vhprf;jp cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.

nghJj; Jiwapd; ePh; kpd; epiyaq;fs;
mikf;fg;gl;ld.
 1957 kpd; tpepNahf rl;lj;jpd;gb>
jkpo;ehL kpd;rhu thhpak;
ps
mikf;fg;gl;lJ.
>tV[ t[ cu]
WB^
htt
 jkpo;ehl;by; ePh; kpd; epiyaq;fs;>

mdy; kpd; epiyaq;fs;> mZkpd; _t[ ]
epiyaq;fs; kw;Wk; fhw;whiy
20
AslB_
>tVK^ _t[ >tV_ c^ t[
s
WB^ WB^
WB][ B \Vk^ t[ WB^ g^
scg
nea;Ntyp flY}h; Fe;jh I to IV gthdp
mdy;kpd; epiyak; Nkl;^h; fhtphp
tlnrd;id jpUts;@h; Mopahh; Mopahh;
mdy;kpd; epiyak;
Nfhijahh; - Nfhijahh;
J}j;Jf;Fb mdy; J}j;Jf;Fb I kw;Wk; II
kpd; epiyak;
Nrhiyahh; - Nrhiyahh;
np
Nkl;^h; mdy; kpd; Nryk; I kw;Wk; II
epiyak;
fhlk;ghiw fhlk;ghiw
y, A_ () t[] k^
fPo; Nkl;^h; fhtphp
 kdpj ,dk; cgNahfpj;J te;j
ghgehrk; ePh;kpd; ghgehrk;
xd;W> Ntfkhf XbtUk; Mw;WePiu

tpisRw;W fyd;fspy;
e/t
rf;jp tsq;fSs;> ePh; kpd; rf;jpAk;
Rw;wr;
rf;jp
igfuh
bt[ ]k^
igfuh
nra;tjd; %yk; ntspg;gLk;.

 mZf;fis gpsf;Fk;NghJ
 ,ae;jpu rf;jpNa Mw;wyhf khw;wp
.m
ntspg;gLk; kpFe;j ntg;gNk>
cgNahfpg;gij ePh; kpd; rf;jp
mZrf;jpahFk;. CJ ciyfspy;
vd;fpNwhk;.
mZtpYs;s fUg;nghUis
 Muk;g fhyj;jpy; ,j;jifa ePh; Row;rp
khw;wpaikf;Fk; NghJk;> mZitg;
rf;fuq;fs; muit MiyfspYk;>
gpsf;Fk; NghJk; mZrf;jp ntspg;
://t
E}w;G MiyfspYk; Neub

gLfpwJ.
cgNahfj;jpy; ,Ue;jJ.
 jkpo;ehl;bd; Kjy; mZkpd;
epiyak; _VD vd;Dk; ,lj;jpy;
mike;Js;sJ.
 mZkpd; cw;gj;jp> vhpnghUis kW
ps
Rj;jpfhpg;G nra;jy;> mZf;fopTfis

gj;jpug;gLj;jy; Mfpa nray;ghLfis
Nkw;nfhs;Sk; gp@lhdpad;
htt
kpf mjpfNtf CJ ciyfis

nfhz;lNjhh; Xh; xUq;fpizg;G
t[ [
mikg;ghFk;.
21
AslB_
 ,e;jpahtpd; KOikahd njhlq;fpAs;sJ. jkpo;ehL #hpaxsp
s
cs;ehl;bNyNa tbtikf;fg;gl;l cw;gj;jpapy; F[uhj;ij neUq;fp
Kjy; mZkpd; epiyakhf ,J cs;sJ.
scg
tpsq;FfpwJ. cBV^
 jpUney;Ntyp khtl;lj;jpy; $lq;Fsk;  jPh;e;J Nghfhj jd;ik
vd;Dk; ,lj;jpy; kw;nwhU mZkpd;  khrw;w rf;jp tsk;
epiyak; cs;sJ. xt;nthd;Wk; 1000 V|^
kpy;ypad; thl; cw;gj;jp jpwd; nfhz;l  gzr;nryT kpFjp
ehd;F CJ ciyfs; ,e;epiyaj;jpy;  kpd; cw;gj;jp jsq;fis xUq;
np
mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. fpizf;f Kbahj epiy
B gu_ Bu kV
 jkpofj;jpy; jpz;Lf;fy; khtl;lk;
 #hpa xspapypUe;J ngwg;gLk; #hpa
ehpkzk; vd;Dk; ,lj;jpy;
rf;jp Nghl;Nlh Nthy;l; nry;fspypUe;J
Neubahf
fyd;fspypUe;J
my;yJ e/t
Nrkpg;Gf;
kiwKfkhfg;
ngwg;gLfpwJ. ePiur; #lhf;Ftjd;
,aw;if vhpthA %yk; kpd;rf;jp
jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 tptrhaj;jpw;F fpuhk kpd;
kakhf;Fjypy; jkpo;ehL Kjyplj;jpy;
%yk; rf;jp ngwg;gLfpwJ.
cs;sJ.
.m
://t
B ] tA

Vu cu]
ps
B] WB^
1. jpz;Lf;fy; VuV t[VD
2. fpU\;zfphp  ,e;jpahtpy; jkpo;ehL fhw;whiy
cw;gj;jpapy; Kjyplj;ijg; ngw;Ws;sJ.
3. jUkGhp
htt
,jw;fhd Njrpa tpUij jkpo;ehL

 jkpo;ehL muR 2013 Kjy;
ngw;Ws;sJ.
gy;NtW #hpa Mw;wy; jpl;lj;ij
22
AslB_
 fhw;W tPr;rpdhy; Vw;glf;$ba cBV^
s
Mw;wiyg; gadPl;L rf;jpahf khw;wp  khrw;w rf;jp tsk;
cgNahfpg;gij fhw;whiy rf;jp  Fiwe;j nrytpy; ngwg;gLk; rf;jp
scg
vd;fpNwhk;.  ghJfhg;ghd Rfhjhukhd rf;jp
 fhw;W tpir fhw;Wf; fyd;fspypUe;J tsk;
ngwg;gLk; ,ae;jpu Mw;wy;> kpd;  jPh;f;f ,ayhjJ
Mw;wyhf khw;wg;gl;L ePh; mspg;G> V|^
fopT ePh; Rj;jpfhpg;G kw;Wk;  xyp ,iur;ry; khR
fg;gy;fspd; JLg;G mirg;gjw;F  fhw;whbfis epWt mjpfg;gz
np
vdg; gy;NtW gad;ghl;by; fhw;whiy KjyPL Njit
rf;jp cgNahfg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.  thndhyp kw;Wk; njhiyf;fhl;rp
xyp> xsp miyfSf;F FWf;fPlhf
>tVK^ VuV ]l[
mikj;jy;
>^
Muy;tha; nkhop fztha; (Kg;ge;jy;
gFjp)> fd;dpahFkhp> jpUney;Ntyp
khtl;lk;
e/t  td tpyq;Ffs; thOk; ,lq;fis
mopf;Fk;
nrq;Nfhl;il fztha; (faj;jhW gFjp)

jpUney;Ntyp> J}j;Jf;Fb khtl;lk;
.m
ghyf;fhl;L fztha; (fPj;jD}h; gFjp
Nfhit)
nrd;idapd; flNyhug; gFjp kw;Wk;
,uhkehjGuk; khtl;lj;jpy; ,uhNk];tuk;
kw;Wk; gpwgFjpfs; (Njdp> godp)
://t
••••••
ps
htt
23
AslB_
s
>tV|  >Va_^
scg
 Mopahh; tbepyg;gFjpfspYk;
np
,g;ghrdk; gpd;gw;wg;gLfpwJ.
MWfspd; ,U jug;gFjpfspYk;
fhy;tha;fs; mikf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 MWfspd; FWf;Nf mizfs; fl;b
e/t ePiuj; Njf;fp itj;J fhy;tha;fspd;
topahf tay;fSf;F ePh; gha;r;rg;
gLfpwJ. khepyj;jpd; ePh;g;ghrdg;;
gug;gpy; 33 rjtPjk; fhy;tha;g; ghrd
kV >Va_ Kiwapy; ghrdk; eilngWfpwJ.
.m
 Ntshz;ik ek; ehl;bd; Kf;fpaj;  ,jpy; jQ;rhT+h;> ehfg;gl;bdk; gFjpfs;
njhopyhFk;. ghjpasT gug;ig cs;slf;fpait.
 jkpo;ehl;by; 70 rjtPj kf;fs; Ntshz;  fhy;tha; ghrdk; flY}h;> jpUr;rp>
njhopypy; <Lgl;L cs;sdh;. Nfhit> <NuhL> kJiu Mfpa
://t
 jkpofj;jpd; khepy tUthapy; khtl;lq;fspYk; eilngWfpwJ.

40 rjtPjk; Ntshz; njhopypy; kV\ V> >Va_^
,Ue;J fpilf;fpwJ. ,j;jifa  Ntshz;ikia mbg;gilahff;
Ntshz; njhopypypUe;J ey;y nfhz;l cw;gj;jpg; nghUl;fis
kf#y; ngw jkpo;ehl;by; ePh;g;ghrdk; fr;rhg; nghUshff; nfhz;L
ps
NjitahfpwJ. nghUl;fs; jahhpf;Fk; njhopw;

V_kVF VD rhiyfs; mlq;Fk;. ,jpy; Kf;fpa
 fhtphp nly;lh> ghyhW> ngz;iz khdit gUj;jp nerthiyfs;.
ahW tbepyg; gFjpfspYk;> mkuhtjp> rh;f;fiu Miyfs; czTg; gjg;
htt
itif> jhkpuguzp> guk;gpf;Fsk;> gLj;Jk; Miyfs; MFk;.
24
AslB_
VD VD  gUj;jp Miyfs;> gUj;jpr;
s
jkpo;ehl;by; kio ,aw;ifahd nrbapypUe;J gUj;jpia
Mz;L KOtJk; gs;sq;fspNyh> gphpj;njLj;J> E}y;fshfj; jahhpj;Jg;
scg
,y;yhky; rpy nraw;ifahfg; gpd;dh; rhak; Vw;wpj;jwpapy;
gUtq;fspy; gs;sq;fis Jzpfshf nea;J tbtikj;J
kl;LNk ntl;bNah
re;ijf;F mDg;GtJ tiu nerTj;
nghopfpwJ. mjpf kioePh; Njf;fp
MtpahjYk; itf;fg;gLfpwJ. njhopyhFk;.
eilngWfpwJ. ,it Vhpfs;  ,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j cw;gj;jpapy;
vdg;gLfpd;wd. 25 tpOf;fhL jkpofj;jpd; gq;fspg;
np
vdNt gapiu ey;y VhpfspypUe;J gaph; ghFk;.
Kiwapy; cw;gj;jp fSf;F ePh;ghrdk;
nra;a gapUf;Fj; nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
Njitahd ePiuj; jkpofj;jpy; kl;Lk;
ju ePh;g;ghrdk; Rkhh; 3900 Vhpfs;
Njitg;gLfpwJ.
jkpofj;jpy;
Rkhh; 50 rjtPjk;
cs;sd.
khepyj;jpy;
e/t
ePh;ghrdk; ngWk;
gaph;epyk; gaph; epyq;fspy;
ePh;g;ghrd 22 rjtPjk; Vhpg;
.m
trjpiag; ghrdj;jpd;
ngw;Ws;sJ. ,jpy; %yk; ePh;g;ghrdk;
%d;wpy; ,U gq;F ngWfpd;wd.
MW> Vhp> Fsk; jkpo;ehl;bd;
Nghd;w epyNky; ePh; tl gFjpapy;
://t
epiyfspypUe;Jk; fhQ;rpGuk;>
%d;wpy; xU gq;F jpUts;@h;> NtY}h;  >Va_ z]^
epyj;jb ePiu khtl;lq;fspYk;>
vLj;J ePh;g;ghrdk; jpUney;Ntyp 1. Nfhak;Gj;J}h;
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. khtl;lq;fspYk;> 2. nghs;shr;rp
,g;ghrd Kiw 3. cLkiyg;Ngl;il
ps
gpd;gw;wg;gLfpwJ.
4. jpUg;G+h;
 >VauV 5. fhukil
 ,e;jpa nerTj; njhopy;Jiwapy;
6. <NuhL
gUj;jp ,io cw;gj;jp> nerTj;Jzp>
7. gthdp
htt
cs;shil kw;Wk; Maj;j Mil

cw;gj;jpapy; jkpo;ehL ngUk;gq;F 8. jpz;Lf;fy;
tfpf;fpd;wJ. 9. jpUkq;fyk;
25
AslB_
10. kJiu  X#hpy; cs;s gl;Lg;GO tsh;g;G
s
11. ghisaq;Nfhl;il gapw;rp ikak; tptrhapfSf;F>
12. ghgehrk; tptrhaj;Jld;> gl;Lg;GO tsh;g;Gg;
scg
gapw;rp mspj;J Cuf cw;gj;jp jpwid
 Nfhak;Gj;J}h; kz;lyk; kpfg;nghpa cah;j;j tif nra;fpwJ.
mstpy; nerTj; njhopypy; <Lgl;Ls;s Bu w g cu] z]^
jhy; ,jid ‘>[ ]BVs[ \V[ 1. Nkl;^h;> 2. kJiu> 3. ,uhkehjGuk;
” vd;W miof;fpd;wdh;.  g^
 jpUg;G+h;> <NuhL> Nfhak;Gj;J}h; Mfpa  ,e;jpahtpd; 10 rjtPj rh;f;fiu
np
%d;W khtl;lq;fs; nerTj; njhopypd; cw;gj;jp jkpo;ehl;by; cw;gj;jp
%yk; khepyj;jpd; nghUshjhuj;jpy; ahfpwJ.
ngUk; gq;F tfpg;gjhy; ,g;gFjp  fUk;gpypUe;J rh;f;fiu> nty;yk;>
‘>tV[  ^>Vz” fopTr; rhwpypUe;J (Molasses)
vd;W ngah;. e/t rhuhak; (spirit) vdg; gy nghUl;fs;
jahhpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 jpUg;G+h; jkpo;ehl;bd; 70%
 fUk;Gr; rf;ifapypUe;J fhfpjk;
cs;shilapid Vw;Wkjp nra;fpwJ.
Nghd;w nghUl;fSk; jahuhfpd;wd.
Mil kw;Wk; gLf;if tphpg;Gfspd;
 fhyepiy> mjpf kf#iyj;jUk;
cw;gj;jpapy; <NuhL khtl;lk;
.m
nghUj;jkhd kz;tsk; ghrd trjp>
Kd;dpiy tfpf;fpwJ. Nghf;Ftuj;J> re;ij kw;Wk; xOq;Fg;
jkpo;ehl;bd; nerTj; jiyefuk; gLj;jg;gl;l $l;LwT rq;fq;fs;
- f&h; Nghd;w Mjhukhd fhuzpfshy;
jkpo;ehl;by; rh;f;fiu Miyfs; gy
://t
|  >Va_ ,lq;fspYk; gutp ,Uf;fpd;wd.

 ehl;bd; gl;L nerTj; njhopy; jkpo;ehl;by; 42 rh;f;fiu Miyfs;
cw;gj;jpapy; jkpo;ehL ehd;fhk; cs;sd. mtw;wpy; 16 $l;LwT
,lj;ijg; ngw;Ws;sJ. rq;fj;jhYk; 3 murhYk;> 23
|  >Va_ z]^ jdpahuhYk; eph;tfpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
ps
1. Nryk;> 2. jh;kGhp>  jkpo;ehl;by; 26 ,yl;rk; Vf;fh;

3. fhQ;rpGuk;> 4. Muzp> epyg;gug;gpy; fUk;G gaphplg;gLfpwJ.
 tpOg;Guk;> flY}h;> NtY}h;>
5. jpUg;Gtdk;> 6. Fk;gNfhzk;>
jpUtz;zhkiy> nguk;gY}h;> jpUr;rp>
7. kJiu> 8. ,uhrpGuk;
htt
jQ;rhT+h; kw;Wk; kJiu khtl;lq;fs;

rh;f;fiu Miyfs; mjpfKs;s
khtl;lq;fshFk;.
26
AslB_
1. Nfhj;jhhp - rjkq;fyk;  ,e;jpahtpd; fhfpj cw;gj;jpapy;
s
Me;jpuhtpw;F mLj;jgbahf jkpofk;
2. uh[= - nrk;NkL
,uz;lhk; epiyapy; cs;sJ. ehl;bd;
3. juzp - fiyaey;Y}h;
scg
12 rjtPj cw;gj;jp jkpo;ehl;bw;
4. rf;jp - nkhlf;Fwpr;rp FhpaJ.
5. vk;.<.Rfh; - ,ilf;fy;  fhfpj cw;gj;jpf;F Nrhlh> Nrhlh
6. =mk;gpfh - kd;[pdp cg;G> FNshhpd; fe;jfk;> kuf;$o;
7. jdnyl;Rk; - =dpthrd; mjpfstpy; jz;zPh; Mfpait ,ju
8. gz;zhhp mk;kd; - NjitfshFk;.
np
nfhYe;jd;gl;L V> >VauV^
9. mhpaY}h; 1. Gf;fhj;Jiw (fhQ;rpGuk;)
10. tpOg;Guk; 2. gthdprhfh;
11. tpOg;Guk; 3. gs;spg;ghisak;
12. <NuhL
13. jpUney;Ntyp
14. Nryk;
e/t 4. Gf@h;
5. gukj;jp NtY}h;
6. Nfhit
15. nguk;gY}h; 7. cLkiyg; Ngl;il
.m
16. jpUtz;zhkiy 8. njhg;gk;gl;b
9. epyf;Nfhl;il
c >|mD >Va_
 jkpo;ehl;by; kpfr; rpwg;ghf >tV| F]>V^ \uD V>
tsh;e;jpUf;fpwJ. khk;go ,urk; WkD (TNPL) :
://t
gjg;gLj;jg;gl;L Vw;Wkjp nra;ag;  cyftq;fpapd; cjtpAld; 1979k;

gLfpwJ. Mz;L f&h; khtl;lj;jpy; Gf@
 jpBh; czTg; nghl;lyq;fs;> Uf;F mUfhikapy; epWtg;gl;lJ.
kw;Wk; cztpw;F Njitahd Mz;Lf;F xU kpy;ypad; ld; fUk;Gr;
krhyhg; nghbfs;> jahhpf;fg;gl;L rf;ifia %yg;nghUshff; nfhz;L
ps
cs;ehl;bYk;> ntspehl;bYk; fhfpjkhfj; jahhpg;gjpy; cyfpNyNa

tpepNahf;fg;gLfpwJ. kpfg;nghpa Miyahf ,e;j Miy
V> >VauV^ jpfo;fpwJ. nra;jpj;jhs; jtpu fhfpjk;>
 nkd; kuq;fisAk;> fUk;Gr; njhiyNgrp ifNaL> fzpdp
htt
rf;ifiaAk;> fr;rhg; nghUshfg; gad; mr;Rj;jhs;> Rtnuhl;b jhs;fs;

gLj;jp fhfpjk; jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. kw;Wk; efy; mr;Rj;jhs; cw;gj;jpapYk;
,e;epWtdk; <Lgl;Ls;sJ.
27
AslB_
>V_ >M|D >Va_  jkpo;ehl;by; nrd;id mUfpy; kzyp>
s
1. ML> khLfspd; Njhy;fisg; flY}h;> gdq;Fb (ehfg;gl;bdk;) kw;Wk;
gjdpLk; fiyahdJ> kpfg; goq;fhyk; J}j;Jf;Fbapy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
scg
KjNy fhzg;gLtjhFk;.
2. ,j;njhopw;rhiy kpfTk; goik
tha;e;jjhff; fUjg;gLfpwJ.
3. ,e;jpahtpy; 70% Njhy; gjdpLk;
Miyfs; jkpo;ehl;by; cs;sd.
np
4. ,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j cw;gj;jpapy;>
Vw;Wkjp 60% jkpo;ehl;by; ,Ue;J
Vw;WkjpahfpwJ.

>V_ >M|D >VauV^ ,e;jpahtpNyNa kpf mjpfstpy; cuk;
1. nrd;id
2. NtY}h;
3. Mk;G+h;
e/t cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; njhopw;rhiy MFk;.
,e;epWtdk; 12 khepyq;fSf;F> jd;
4000 ikaq;fs; %yk; cuk; tpdpNahfk;
4. ,uhzpg;Ngl;il
nra;fpd;wJ. xU tUlj;jpw;F ,uz;L
.m
5. thzpak;ghb
kpy;ypad; ld; cuj;ij ,e;epWtdk;
6. jpz;Lf;fy;
cw;gj;jp nra;fpd;wJ.
7. jpUr;rp
E\ >VauV
VB >VauV^  Njrpa mstpy; rpnkz;l; cw;gj;jpapy;
://t
 ,urhadk;> kUe;J> cuk;> ngl;Nuhypag;

ehd;fhk; ,lj;ijg; ngw;Ws;sJ.
nghUl;fs;> Nrhg;G moFg;nghUl;fs;>
jkpo;ehL Rkhh; 10% rpnkz;l;
nraw;if ug;gh;> gpsh];bf; cw;gj;jp
cw;gj;jp nra;fpwJ.
Mfpait ,urhad njhopy;fspy;
 Rz;zhk;Gf;fy;> lhyikl;> [pg;rk;>
cs;slq;fpajhFk;.
fspkz;> epyf;fhp Mfpait
ps
 A+hpah> iel;u[d;> gh];Ngl;>

,j;njhopw;rhiyapd; %yg;
nghl;lhrpak; Nghd;w cuq;fisAk;>
nghUl;fshFk;. mj;jidg;
G+r;rp kUe;JfisAk;> ];gpf;> vd;.
nghUl;fSk; jkpo;ehl;by; mfo;e;J
v];.gp> vg;.rp.I. Mfpaitfs;
htt
vLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
jahhpf;fpd;wd.
28
AslB_
Nfhit kw;Wk; NtY}h; gFjpfspy;

>tV| E\ |
s
mlh;e;J fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
WkD
 nrd;idia ‘>tw][ VF”
scg
jkpof murhy; eph;tfpf;fg;gLk;
vd;W nrhy;Yk;gbahf thfd
nghJj;Jiwiar; rhh;e;jJ MFk;. ,q;F
cjphpghfq;fis jahhpf;fpwJ.
,e;jpa ju eph;zaj;ijf; fhl;bYk;> kpf
 ,uapy; ngl;b jahhpf;Fk;
cah;e;j juj;jpy; ,U tifahd rpnkz;l; njhopw;rhiy> nrd;idapy;
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpwJ. nguk;G+hpy; cs;sd. ,J kj;jpa
mit muRf;Fr; nrhe;jkhdjhFk;.
np
1. rhjhuz Nghh;l;Nyz;l; rpnkz;l;  jkpo;ehl;bd; nghJtsh;r;rp FwpaPl;by;
2. #g;gh; ];lhh; rpnkz;l; (GDP) 8 rjtPjk; Nkhl;lhh; thfdj;
>tV[ E\ cu] \B^ njhopypy; %yk; fpilf;fpwJ.
1. rq;ffphp  ,e;jpahtpd; 21 rjtPj gazpfs; fhh;
2. kJf;fiu
3. GypA+h;
4. Fd;dk;
e/t kw;Wk; 33 rjtPj tzpf thfdq;fs;
jkpo;ehl;by; jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
cV >VauV^
 ,Uk;G v‡F jfLfs;> fduf
5. nre;Jiw
.m
,ae;jpuq;fs; kw;Wk; ,ae;jpuf;
6. mhpaY}H;
fUtpfs;> Ch;jpfs;> jahhpf;Fk;
7. lhy;kpahGuk;
njhopw;rhiyfs; kw;Wk; kpd;
8. khdhkJiu mZj;njhopw;rhiyfs; ,tw;Ws;
9. JYf;fg;gl;b mlq;Fk;.
://t
10. Myq;Fsk;  ,Uk;G v‡Fj; njhopw;rhiyfs;

11. rq;fh; efh; Nryk; kw;Wk; NtY}h; Mfpag;
12. jhiyA+j;J gFjpfspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
\VV kV >VauV^  ,Uk;Gj; jfLfs; jahhpf;Fk;
 ngl;Nuhy; my;yJ Bry; %yk; njhopw;rhiyfs; godp> jQ;ir Mfpa
ps
,aq;Fk;> ,Urf;fu> %d;W rf;fu ,lq;fspy; cs;sd. ,tw;wpy; ,Ue;J

kw;Wk; ehd;F rf;fu thfdq;fs; vth;rpy;th; jahhpf;Fk; gl;liwfs;
jahhpf;Fk; njhopw;rhiyfs; ngUk; jkpofk; KOtJk; gutyhff;
efuq;fshd nrd;id> jpUr;rp> fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
htt
••••••
29
s
scg
>tV| 
np

VD : AslB_
z] : Bu >Vk >Vz]^, V|^, ksz^
e/t

VA\
.m
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\
://t

>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V
FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z
ps
gB,
htt
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
AslB_
Bu >Vk >Vz]^
s
scg
]BV - cl k^
cl k^  jl;g ntg;gepiy khw;wk;.
np
 caph; Nfhsj;jpdpd;W ngwg;gLgit>  kz; mhpg;gijj; jLj;jy;
caphpd tsq;fs; vdg;gLk;.  G+kpg;ge;J #lhjiy jLj;jy;> (gRik
fhLfspypUe;J ngwg;gLk; tPl;L tpisT)
gad;ghl;L nghUl;fs;> tpyq;fpdk;  ghiytdj;jpy; fhw;wpd; Ntfk;
kw;Wk; gwitapdpj;jpypUe;J mjpfkhjy;
ngwg;gLk; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; gpw
fly;tho; caphpdq;fis ,tw;wpw;F
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhff; $wyhk;.
e/t V|^ _
 Gjpa kuq;fis el;L fhLfspd;
gug;gsit nghpjhf;FtJ fhlhf;fy;
k cl^ vdg;gLk;.
.m
 ,aw;if thoplj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;>  ,e;jpahtpy; gy;NtW tpjkhd
tPl;by; gof;fg;glhj kw;Wk; tsh;f;fg;g cgNahfq;fSf;F fhLfspy; ,Ue;J
glhj caph;fs;> td caphpfshFk;. ngwg;gLk; nghUl;fs; xU mq;fkhf
VmVuV >k tpsq;FfpwJ. NkYk; gQ;rj;ijj;
 td caphpfs; Ngzpg; ghJfhf;fg;gl jtph;j;J gRikia Vw;gLj;jp
://t
Ntz;ba nrhj;jhFk;. mwptpay; midtUk; tho Ntz;Lk; vd;w

gilg;gpd; mbg;gilapy; kpf Kf;fpa fUj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; rKjhaf;
khdjhFk;. fhLfs; jpl;lk; nfhz;Ltug;gl;lJ.
 fhyepiy rkepiy Vw;glf; fhuz x>VB V|^ ]D (1976)
 ,aw;iff; fhLfis Nkk;gLj;JtJ
ps
khdit.
 kUj;Jt Fzk; nfhz;l jhtuq;fs; kw;Wk; gad;gLj;jg;glhj epyq;fspy;
mjpfk; fpilf;Fk;. fhLfis cUthf;FtJ MFk;.
 Rw;Wyhtpw;Fg; nghpa Kd;Ndw;wj;ij ,jdhy; fl;Lkhdj;jpw;fhfTk;> jPtd
htt
Vw;gLj;jpj; jUfpwJ. Njitf;fhfTk; vhpnghUSf;fhfTk;

 kio msT Fiwtij jLg;gjw; ghuk;ghpaf; fhLfs; ntl;lg;gLtJ
fhfTk; tpsq;FfpwJ. jtph;f;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
]BVs[ V|D cl k^

ps
kV V|^ V|^ a>_

 tptrhag; gaph;fNshL ,ize;J  cyfpy; ngUfptUk; kf;fs;njhifg;
Ntshz; epyq;fspd; vy;iyfspYk;> ngUf;fj;jpdhy; kdpjdpd; thoplj;
jdpahh; epyq;fspd; Xuq;fspYk;> kuk; Njitf;fhf fhLfs; mopf;fg;
htt
eLtNj> Ntshz; fhLfs; jpl;lk; gLfpd;wd. rpy r%f tpNuhjpfs;

MFk;. ,aw;if tsj;ij rPh;Fiyf;
fpd;wdh;.

AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
xB ]^
rpq;fk; ghJfhg;Gj; jpl;lk; 1972 G+Q;ir jhtuk; 12480
Gypfs; ghJfhg;Gj; jpl;lk; 1973 gphpNahigl;Lfs; 2813
Kjiy ghJfhg;Gj; jpl;lk; 1975 nlhpNahigl;Lfs; 1012
://t
fubfs; ghJfhg;Gj; jpl;lk; 1977 ]BVs_ c^ sz[

fhz;lhkpUfk; ghJfhg;Gj; jpl;lk; 1987 
ahidfs; ghJfhg;Gj; jpl;lk; 1992 nkhj;jk; 81> 251 rpw;wpdq;fs; cs;sJ.
fOFfs; ghJfhg;Gj; jpl;lk; 2006 ,J cyfstpy; rjtPjk; 6.67% MFk;.
]BVs_ c^ >Vk[ G+r;rpfs; 60>000
ps
 nky;Ylypfs; 5000

,e;jpaj; jhtuq;fspy; 8 gphpTfspy; ghY}l;bfs; 372
45000 rpw;wpdq;fs; cs;sd. gwitfs; 1228
G+f;Fk; jhtuk; 15000 Ch;td 446
htt
ghrp jhtuk; 1676 ,Utho;tpfs; 204

glh; jhtuk; 1940 kPd;fs; 2546

AslB_
VB^
,e;jpahtpd; Njrpa tpyq;F tq;fhs
s
 ,it tpyq;Ffisf; nfhy;tNjh>
Gyp Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,jd;
Ntl;ilahLtNjh my;yJ
scg
gpbf;fNth jil nra;ag;gl;l kw;Wk; mwptpay; ngah; - ‘ghe;Njuh ilf;hp];”
xU jFjp tha;e;j epWtdj;jpduhy; (Panthera Tigris)
ghJfhf;fg;gl;l ,aw;if #oy; ,e;jpahtpd; rpwg;G tpyq;F ahid
MFk;. ,jdhy; moptpd; tpspk;gpy; MFk;. ,t;tpyq;fpd; mwptpay; ngah;
cs;s td caphpfis kPz;Lk; kPsr; ‘vypngd;ilahrp]; Nkf;rpk];”
nra;a Kbfpd;wJ. (Elephentiasis Maximus).
np
>EB VsuzD, ksz VB]uzD c^ kV|^:
>EB V (National Park) ksz VBD (Wildlife Sanctuary)
e/t
Njrpag; G+q;fhf;fs; vd;gJ Fwpg;gpl;l mope;J tUk; my;yJ mUfptUk;
epyg;gug;gpy; cs;s gyjug;gl;l jhtuq; Fwpg;gpl;l tdtpyq;Ffis ghJfhg;g
fisAk;> tpyq;FfisAk; ghJfhg;gJ. jw;fhf eph;khzpg;gJ.
Nka;r;ry; cs;spl;l ve;j xU kdpj Nka;r;ry; kw;Wk; tpwF Nrfhpj;jy;
nray;ghl;bw;F mDkjp fpilahJ. jtpu kw;w nray;ghLfSf;Fj; jil
.m
tpjpf;fg;gLk;.
,e;jpahtpy; cs;s nkhj;jj; Njrpa Fwpg;gpl;l td tpyq;Ffs; ruzhyaj;ij
G+q;fhf;fspd; vz;zpf;if Njrpag; G+q;fhthf khw;w KbAk;.
,e;jpahtpy; cs;s nkhj;j Njrpag; ,e;jpahtpy; cs;s nkhj;j td tpyq;F
://t
G+q;fhf;fspd; vz;zpf;if - 103. ruzhyaj;jpd; vz;zpf;if - 537
clV VD (Blosphere Reserve) gpid nray;Kiwapy; ep&gzk;

 caph;Nfhs fhg;gfk; vd;gJ xU nra;fpd;wJ.
ghJfhf;fg;gl;l gpuj;jpNahf Gtpg;  ,t;tikg;gpd; khjphp nray;ghL
ps
gFjpfspd; cyfshtpa tiy gFjpfisf; nfhz;lJ.

mikg;ghFk;.
1. ed;F ghJfhf;fg;gl;l ikag;gFjp>
 ,t;tikg;G ghJfhg;G Kiwf;Fk;>
2. fy;tp> gapw;rp kw;Wk; Muha;r;rpf;fhf
Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;Fk; cz;lhd njhlh;
gad;gLj;jg;gLk; khw;wkilAk; ntspg;gFjp.
htt

AslB_
jkpo;ehL caph;f;Nfhs fhg;gfk; gl;Ls;sJ. filrpahf 2016-k;
s
jkpo;ehl;by; %d;W caph;Nfhs fhg;gfq;fs; Mz;by; mf];jpa kiy ,e;jg;
gl;baypy; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
cs;sd. mit>
scg
V BD
1. ePyfphp 2. kd;dhh; tisFlh
 rpg;Nfh ,af;fj;ijg; Nghd;W
3. mf];jpa kiy mgpNfh ,af;fk; fh;ehlf khepyj;jpy;
njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. ,t;tpaf;fk; Nkw;F
\M>[ \uD clV VD:
njhlh;r;rp kiyapypUe;J> fpof;F
(Man and Blosphere - MAB)
njhlh;r;rp kiy tiu tdg;ghJfhg;G
 ,e;jpahtpy; nkhj;jk; 18 caph; Nfhs
np
,af;fkhf nray;gLfpwJ. ,J xU
fhg;gfq;fs; cs;sd. mtw;wpy;
cyf caph;Nfhs fhg;gfq;fspd; KOikahd nghJkf;fs; gq;Nfw;G
vz;zpf;if 10 Mf mwptpf;fg; nra;j ,af;fkhFk;.
k. c clV VD \VWD g|

1
2
3
ePyfphp
kd;dhh; tisFlh
Re;jutdf; fhLfs;
e/t jkpo;ehL> fh;ehlfh> Nfush
jkpo;ehL
Nkw;F tq;fhsk;
2000
2001
2001
4 ee;jhNjtp cj;jufhz;l; 2004
.m
5 rpk;ypghy; xbrh 2008
6 gr;khhp kj;jpag;gpuNjrk; 2009
7 Nehf;Nuf; Nkfhyah 2009
8 mr;ref;khh; - mkh;fz;lhf; rl;B];fh;> kj;jpag;gpuNjrk; 2012
9 fpNul;lh; epNfhghh; jPT me;jkhd; epNfhghh; 2013
://t
10 mf];jpa kiy Nfush kw;Wk; jkpo;ehL 2016

]BVs_ c^  clV V^ B_
k.  clV VD \VWD g|
1 khdh]; m];]hk; 1989
ps
2 jpg;U m];]hk; 1997

3 jpfq; - jpghq; mUzhryg;gpuNjrk; 1998
4 fQ;rd;rq;fh rpf;fpk; 2000
5 fpNul; uhd; M‡g; fl;r; F[uhj; 2008
htt
6 Fsph; ghiytdk; `pkhr;ryg; gpuNjrk; 2009

7 Nr\hr;ryk; Fd;Wfs; Me;jpug; gpuNjrk; 2010
8 gd;dh kj;jpag; gpuNjrk; 2011

AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
]BVs_ c^ >EB V^
clV VD (Biosphere Reserve) k sz VBD (Wildlife Sanctuary)

://t
xU Fwpg;gpl;l #oy; gFjpapy; cs;s mope;J tUk; my;yJ mUfp tUk; Fwpg;gpl;l
midj;J jhtuq;fSf;Fk; kw;Wk; tdtpyq;Ffis ghJfhg;gjw;fhf
tpyq;FfSf;Fk; ghJfhg;gspg;gJ eph;khdpg;gJ
mg;gFjpapy; kdpjh;fs; tho;tjw;F Nka;r;ry; kw;Wk; tpwF Nrfhpj;jy; jtpu kw;w
md;whlr; nray;ghl;bw;Fk; ve;jj; jilAk; nray;ghLfSf;Fj; jil tpjpf;fg;gLk;.
ps
fpilahJ.
gug;gstpy; kpfg;nghpajhf ,Uf;Fk; ghJfhf;Fk; tdcyfpd; tho;tpl #oiy
rpy fhg;gfq;fspy; xd;wpw;F nghWj;J ,jd; gug;gsT khWgLk;.
Nkw;gl;l ruzhyaq;fisAk;> Njrpa nghJthf ,J caph;f;Nfhs fhg;gfj;ij
htt
G+q;fhf;fisAk; cs;slf;fpajhf tplr; rpwpajhfNt ,Uf;Fk;.

,Uf;Fk;.

AslB_
xB zV^ tsj;ij Mf;fpukpg;G nra;tjhy;
s
vQ;rpAs;s madkz;ly <uf;fhLfis cz;lhFk; mOj;jj;ij tpLtpf;fTk;
ghJfhg;gJ MFk;. mopAk; epiyapYs;s eltbf;iffs; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ.
scg
gFjpfisj; jf;f itf;fTk;> V
fhl;Lg; nghUl;fis rPuhd topapy; And];Nfh (1977) epWtdj;jhy; cyfpYs;s
rpf;fdkhf cgNahfpf;fTk;> fhl;L 120 ehLfspy; 669 caph;Nfhsg; ghJfhg;G
ikaq;fs; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
••••••
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt

s
scg
>tV| 
np

VD : AslB_
z] : Bu a^   \V\
e/t
]BV  Bu ^, >tV|  uw_ ^,
 \uD >>_ k^,  ]V^_
VA\
.m
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\
://t

>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V
FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z
ps
gB,
htt
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
AslB_
Bu a^
s
scg
]BV - Bu ^
 Nghplh; vd;gJ ngUk; Nrjj;ijAk;>
np
Jauj;ijAk; cz;lhf;Fk;
xU epfo;T MFk;. Nghpluhy;>
ghjpf;fg;gl;lth;fSf;F czT>
cil> ,Ug;gplk;> kUj;Jtk;> epjp
cjtpfs; mspg;gjd; %yk; Nghplh;
e/t ghjpg;gpypUe;J
nra;ayhk;.
mth;fis kPsr;
r%fj;jpd; gzpfs; njhlh;e;J

jilgLjy; kl;Lkpd;wp ghjpg;gile;j
.m
 r%fj;jpy; cs;s tsq;fisAk; Nghuhb
 rKjhaj;ijNah> r%fj;ijNah> gad;gLj;j Kbahj mstpw;Fk;
Rw;Wg;Gwr; #oiyNah ve;j xU Nky; kdpjh;fs;> nghUs;fs; my;yJ
vjph;kiw epfo;Tk; kpf mjpf mstpy; Rw;Wr;#oy; Mfpatw;wpd; ,og;Gfs;
://t
ghjpg;gilar; nra;Akhapd; mJ Vw;gbd; mJ Nghplh; vdg;gLk;.

Nghplh; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
xB ^
>>_ 1. k^ z^ (Flood):
 ,lh;jzpj;jy; vd;gij ‘ss[
 xU MW my;yJ rpw;Nwhil
ys> zVD” vd tiu Nghd;wtw;wpd; tbepyj;jpw;Fl;gl;l
ps
aWf;fyhk;. ,aw;ifapy; Vw;gLk;

gug;gpy; gy ehl;fSf;Fg; nghopfpd;w
Gaypidj; jtph;f;f KbahJ. Mdhy;
kioapdhy; me;j MW rpw;Nwhilapy;
Gaypdhy; Vw;gLk; Jd;gq;fisj;
ePh; fiuGuz;L tope;NjhLfpwJ.
jzpf;f Kd; $l;bNa eltbf;if
mt;thW topfpw nts;sePh; mijr;
htt
vLf;Fk;NghJ kf;fspd; capiuAk;>

Rw;wp mike;Js;s epyg;gug;ig #o;e;J
nrhj;Jf;fisAk; ghJfhf;f KbAk;.
mjid %o;fbj;J tpLfpwJ.

AslB_
 tl> tlfpof;F ,e;jpahtpy; rpe;J 1. thdpiy twl;rp
s
- fq;if - gpuk;kGj;jpuh - khd]; 2. ePhpay; twl;rp
tbepyq;fs; cs;sd. ehl;bYs;s
scg
,e;jpah Rje;jpuk; mile;j gpwF
MWfs;> Rke;J nry;Yk; nkhj;j
twl;rp Vw;gl;l tUlq;fs;
ePhpy; 60% ,e;j MWfshy; vLj;Jr;
1965-67> 1972-73> 1979-80>
nry;yg;gLfpwJ.
1986-87
> k^ z z]^
\uz V VF[ g^  \>V, >] 3. AB_^ (cyclones):
wz V VF[ g^  \V],  ngUq;flypy; cUthfp> fiuia
np
iV, V>Vk, Vs Nehf;fp efUk; kpfj; jPtpukhd
2. kE (Droughts): fhw;whFk;. ,J mjpf typik
 rhjhuzkhff; fpilf;ff;$ba ePhpd; nfhz;ljhFk;.
msTld; xg;gpLk;nghOJ gw;whf;  fdj;j kio kw;Wk; nts;sk; Mfpag;
Fiw Vw;gbd;> mJNt twl;rp MFk;.
 xU gug;gpd; kiog;nghoptpw;Fk;>
ePuhtpg;Nghf;fpw;Fk; ,ilNaahd
e/t gz;Gfisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 cyfpYs;s 6-Gay; rhjfg;gFjpfspy;
,e;jpahTk; xd;whFk;. ,e;jpahit
xg;Gf; nfhs;sg;gl;l neLq;fhy Gay;fs; tof;fkhf Vg;uy; - Nk
<ug;gjk;kpf;f ruhrhpapd; tpUk;g kw;Wk; mf;Nlhgh;;; brk;gh; khjq;fspy;
.m
j;jfhj tpyfNy ePh; gw;whf;Fiwf;F jhf;Ffpd;wd.
fhuzkhfpwJ.  Xuhz;by; Rkhh; 4 ypUe;J 6 Gay;fs;
 Njrpa Ntshz;ik Mizak; (1976) tiu tq;fhs tphpFlhtpYk;>
twl;rpia ,Utifg;gLj;jp cs;sJ. mugpf;flypYk; cUthfpd;wd.
://t
[ k^ (Type of disaster)

] >VzD |D BV >VzD >Vu VF^ >Va_ sm^
^ |D ^
epyeLf;fk;> twl;rpfs;> gQ;rk;> Ez;Zaph; tpisT ,ae;jpu mikg;G
ps
nts;sk;> vhpkiy Rw;Wg;Gwr;#oy;> Neha;fs;> ePh;tho; FiwghL> jP> ngUk;

ntbg;G> epyr;rhpT> rPh;NfL> Neha;fs; ntbg;G> ,urhadf;
mad kz;lyg; G+r;rpnfhy;ypj; frpT rpe;Jjy;
htt
Gay; kw;Wk; jhf;fk;>

gdpg;ghiwr; rhpT ghiytdkhjy;

AslB_
B_  k^D kE
s
kVMlB_  AB_ Vk,
scg
MAB_
Bu
AsA \B_  W,
\ kA
clB_  V^VF, VV

AslB_
^
np
V c^V| V, V]
kD, >V bz|,
\M>
kA^, VB >Va_
B_V|
\uD b^, ] y,
kV E
khngUk;Gay; (Super Cyclone)

xb]h flNyhuj;ij mf;Nlhgh; 29>
e/t  ,kakiyAk;> mijr; Rw;wpAs;s gFjp
kw;Wk; fl;r; tisFlhTk; V kw;Wk; IV
tJ kz;lyj;jpy; mike;Js;sd.
1999 md;W ghujPg; mUfpy; jhf;fpaJ.
khepyk; KOtJk; nraypoe;J NghdJ.  jf;fhz gPlG+kp IItJ kz;lykhf
.m
9500f;Fk; Nkw;gl;Nlhh; caph; ,oe;jdh;. mikfpwJ.
 jkpo;ehL - kpj kw;Wk; Fiwe;j mgha
4. W|^ Neh;T kz;lykhf tpsq;FfpwJ.
 mjpfstpy; Nguhgj;ijAk;>
[dthp 26> 2001 FbauRj; jpdtpoh
NguopitAk; juf;$ba ,aw;if md;W eilngw;w G+[; (F[uhj;)
://t
,lh;fspy; xd;whFk;. epyeLf;fj;jpdhy; 13> 811 kdpj

]BVs_ ]k \^ caphpog;Gk;> 3>00>000 fl;Lkhd
 ,e;jpah ehd;F mjph;tiy kz;lyq; tPLfSk;> Nrjkile;jd.
fshfg; gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ. mit I, III, 5. MV 
IV kw;Wk; V kz;lyq;fs;.  mjpf NtfkhfTk;> jpBnud eOtp
ps
 kz;lyk; V - mjp mgha Neh;T tpOfpw gdp/gdpf;fl;bg; ghiw.

(High risk) kz;lyk;  gdpg;glh;e;j ,kakiyg;gFjpfspy;
 kz;lyk; II - Fiwe;j mgha mjpfkhd mstpy; gdpg;ghiwr; rhpT
Neh;T kz;lyk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
htt
 kz;lyk; III - kpj mgha Neh;T  mjph;tiy kz;lyq;fs; m j p h ; t i y

kz;lyk; Vw;gLk; gFjpfspd; tiffs; :

AslB_
t> VB \ \Vk^ 6. W^
s
1. jpUts;@h;  ngUk;ghYk;> nghpa epyr;rhpTfSk;
2. nrd;id ghiwr; rhpT kw;Wk; ghiw tPo;jy;
scg
3. fhQ;rpGuk; Mfpad xUq;fpiztjhy; epfo;fpwJ.
4. jpUtz;zhkiy  ,j;jifa epfo;r;rpfs; vy;yhtw;wpYk;
5. jh;kGhp gUg;nghUs;fs; (kz;> Fsq;fs;>
ghiw) xd;wpize;J efUfpd;wd.
6. Nryk;
,r;nray;ghL kpf nkJthd NrW
7. Nfhak;Gj;J}h;
topjypUe;J jpBnud my;yJ
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
W| V]A z]^

AslB_
vjph;ghuhj ghiw tPo;jy; tiu fshy; jkpo;ehl;bd; flNyhu
s
NtWgLfpwJ. khtl;lq;fs; gy (nrd;id>
 ,e;epfo;T mjpfNtf NrW tpOg;Guk;> jpUts;@h;> fhQ;rpGuk;>
scg
topfshYk;> ghiw tPo;jyhYk; flY}h;> ehfg;gl;bdk;> jpUth&h;>
mbf;fb ,kakiyg; gFjpfspYk; jQ;rhT+h;> GJf;Nfhl;il> J}j;Jf;Fb>
kw;Wk; jkpofj;jpy; ePyfphp kiyapYk; ,uhkehjGuk;> jpUney;Ntyp> fd;dpah
epyr;rhpTfs; eilg;ngWfpd;wd. Fkhp) #iwahlg;gl;lJ.
7. uV^^  ,jdhy; 8000-f;Fk; Nkw;gl;Nlhh;
 flybapy; my;yJ flNyhu epyeLf;f ,we;J Nghapdh;. gy kpy;ypad; &gha;
np
nray;ghL> epyr;rhpT> vhpkiy kjpg;Gf; nfhz;l kPd; gpbglFfSk;>
ntbg;G my;yJ tPo;fw;fs; Mfpait tiyfSk; rPuope;J Nghapd.
fhuzkhf njhiyJ}u fly; Xuj;ij fle;j 40 tUlq;fspy; brk;gh; 26>
ghjpf;Fk; Xj miyfs;. 2004 md;W cUthd flw;Nfhs;fs;
 ,f;flw;Nfhs;fshy;
Nrhokz;ly flw;fiu> Fwpg;ghf
flNyhuj; jkpo;ehL kpf Nkhrkhfg;
e/t
,e;jpahtpd; (Rdhkp). ,e;jpag; ngUq;fliyf;
fle;jJ. mJ fpof;fpy; ,e;NjhNd\pah
tpypUe;J Rkhh; 7000 fp.kP gazpj;J
ghjpf;fg;gl;lJ. vOr;rpkpf;f ,t;tiy Mg;gphpf;ff; flNyhuj;ijAk; jhf;fpaJ.
.m
]k ]k u|D z]^ k^
\^
Ie;J V fh\;kPh;> gQ;rhg;> Nkw;F kw;Wk; kpf mjpf mgha Neh;T
kj;jpa ,kaiyg;gFjp kw;Wk; kz;lyk;.
://t
tisFlh fl;r; gFjpfs;

ehd;F IV rpe;J fq;ifr; rkntsp mjpf mgha Neh;T kz;lyk;
tbepyg;gFjpfs;> nly;yp> [k;K
kw;Wk; gPfhh;
%d;W III me;jkhd; epNfhghh; jPTfs; kpjkhd mgha Neh;T
ps
kw;Wk; Nkw;F ,kakiyg; kz;lyk;

gFjpfs;
,uz;L II jf;fhz gPlG+kp gFjpfs; kw;Wk; Fiwthd mgha Neh;T
htt
jkpo;ehL kz;lyk;
••••••

AslB_
s
>tV|  uw_
scg
^
Rw;Wr;#oiy jdf;Nfw;wthW khw;wp
np
aikj;jhd;.
 ,aw;if tsq;fSk; mjpNtfkhf
gad;gLj;jg;gl;L tUtjhy; GJg;gpf;f
,ayhj tsq;fs; jPh;e;J NghtNjhL
e/t kpFe;j ,aw;if
cUthf;FfpwJ>
rPh;Nfl;il
 kdpjdpd; FWf;fPL fhuzkhf>

caphpd tho;f;ifr; #oypy; rkr;rPh;
.m
,d;ikAk;> Rw;Wr;#oy; rPh;NfLfSk;
 caphpdq;fs; xd;Nwhnlhd;W cUthf;fpAs;sd.
cld;gl;L thOk; #oiy ‘uA
xB uw_ E^
w_” vd;W $WfpNwhk;. vy;yh
1. efukakhjy;
caphpdq;fSk; xd;iw xd;W rhh;e;Nj
://t
2. fhLfs; mopf;fg;gLjy;
tho;fpd;wd. kdpjd; jdJ mbg;gil
3. Gtp ntg;gkakhjy;
NjitfSf;F Rw;Wr;#oiyNa
rhh;e;jpUf;fpd;whd;. 4. khriljy;
V^ 1. \B\V>_
 kf;fs;  jkpo;ehl;bd; efukakhjypd; msT
ps
njhifg; ngUf;fj;jpd;
fhuzkhf NjitfSk; mjpfhpf; 2001 kf;fs; njhif fzf;Fg;gb
fpd;wd. Vwf;Fiwa 44 tpOf;fhL MFk;.
 tpQ;Qhdk; kw;Wk; njhopy;El;g  ,e;jpahtpy; efukakhjypy; jkpo;ehL
htt
tsh;r;rpapd; fhuzkhf kdpjd; 2km ]_ ,Uf;fpd;wJ.

AslB_
\B\V> ckVzD V^ gLtJk; fhw;W khriltjw; fhd
s
fhuzq;fshFk;.
1. njhopy;kakhjy;
2. th;j;jfkakhjy; xB\V \ _ kV^ (GHG)
scg
3. mjpf Nghf;Ftuj;J Nritfs; fhu;gd;ilMf;i]L> iel;u]; Mf;irl;>
4. jfty; ghpkhw;wk; kPj;Njd;> FNshNuh ‡g;NshNuh fhu;gd;
(CFC)> ePuhtp> XNrhd;
2. V|^ a|>_
 kuq;fs; ntl;lg;gLtNj fhLfs; t\wz V\V k]V^
mopf;fg;gLtjhFk;. ,jd;
np
ry;gu;il Mf;i]Lk;(SO2)> iel;u[d;
fhuzkhf>
Mf;i]Lk;(NO2) tspkz;lyj;jpy; cs;s
1. ntg;gk; mjpfhpj;jy;
ePu;> Mf;]p[d; kw;Wk; kw;w Ntjpg; nghUl;
2. Fiwe;j kiog;nghopT
fSld; ,ize;J ry;gpA+hpf; kw;Wk;
3. kz; mhpg;G
e/t iel;upf; mkpyq;fis cUthf;FfpwJ.
4. gy;NtW caphpdq;fs; mope;J
Nghjy; s^
 kuq;fs; ,aw;ifr; rkepiyia  ntg;gf;fhw;W khWgl;l gUtepiy
apdhy; Vw;gLk; Neha;fs; kw;Wk; tl>
epiyepWj;j nghpJk; cjTfpd;wd.
njd; JUt fly; gFjpfs; ntg;g
.m
y\^
kiljy;
 gUtepiy khw;wKk;> caphpd
 gdp MWfs; cUFtjhy; fly;kl;lk;
Ntw;Wik mopjYNk ePz;l fhy
cah;e;J flNyhug; gFjpfspy;
tpisTfs; MFk;.
nts;sk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
 tpyq;fpdq;fs; kw;Wk; jhtuq;fspd;
://t
 Rw;Wr;#oy; khw;wj;jpdhy;
,Ug;gplq;fs; Nrjg;gLj;jg;gl;L gtsg;ghiwfs; epwk; khw;wkile;J
mit moptpw;Ff; fhuzkhfpd;wd. mope;J Nghfj; njhlq;Ffpd;wd.
3. As k\B\V>_  mbf;fb Vw;gLk; twl;rp> jP kw;Wk;
 fhw;wpy; CO2 (fhpakpy thAtpd;) msT mjpfsT gdpg;nghopT
mjpfhpj;J gRik tpistpy; khw;wk;
ps
\V>_
Vw;gLtjhy; G+kpf;F mUfpYs;s  Rw;Wg;Gwr;#oypy; thOk; caphpdq;fs;
tspkz;lyk; ntg;gkiltNj Gtp kw;Wk; fl;bl mikg;GfSf;F jPik
ntg;gkakhjy; MFk;. tpistpf;Fjiy nghUl;fis
htt
 vhpnghUshf cgNahfg;gLj;jg;gLk; khRgLjy; vd;fpNwhk;.

ngl;NuhypaKk;> ,aw;if thATk;  khRgLj;Jk; ve;jg; nghUisAk; ehk;
kw;Wk; jPtpukhf fhLfs; mopf;fg; khRf;fs; vd;fpNwhk;. kf;fs; njhif

AslB_
epiwe;j efug; gFjpfspy; ,jd; s^
s
jhf;fk; kpf mjpfk;. 1. cyf ntg;gkakhjy;
 khRf;fis cUthf;Fk; Mjhuq; 2. mkpy kio
scg
fisf; nfhz;L 4 tifahfg; 3. XNrhd; glyk; fiujy;
gphpf;fyhk;. 4. Gif> %Lgdp
1. fhw;W khriljy; 5. Rfhjhug; gpur;ridfs;
2. ePh; khRgLjy;  \V|>_
3. epyk; kw;Wk; kz; khRgLjy;  ePh; khRgLjy;:-
4. xyp khRgLjy;  khRf;fs; fyg;gjdhy;
np
jz;zPupd;;
juk; Fiwfpd;wJ.
e/t
Vu \V>_
.m
 Rfhjhur; rPh;Nfl;il tpistpf;Fk;
V^
thAf;fs;> jput kw;Wk; jplf;fopTg;
 tPl;Lf; fopTfs; kw;Wk; fopTePh;
nghUl;fs; ,Uf;Fk; fhw;iw khRgl;l
Foha;fs;
fhw;W vd;fpNwhk;. ,e;jj; jd;ikia
 G+r;rpf; nfhy;ypfSk;> Ntshz;ikf;
://t
khw;Wk; $Wfspdhy; caphpdq;fspd;

fopTfSk;
Rfhjhuk; ghjpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 njhopw;rhiyf; fopTfs;;
V^
 mZ Muha;r;rpf; fopTfs;
1. jhdpaq;fp thfdq;fs;
 vz;nza;f; frpT
2. njhopw;rhiyf; fopTfs;
ps
y\^
3. tPLfspy; ,Ue;J ntspNaw;wg;gLk;  ePhpy; thOk; Ez;Zaph;fs; mopf;fg;
fopTfs; gl;L ePh;tho; caphpdq;fspd; czTr;
4. mZ Fz;L ntbg;Gfs; rq;fpyp ghjpf;fg;gLjy;.
htt
5. vhpkiyf; fopTfs; kw;Wk; fhl;Lj;  ePhpdhy; gutf;$ba tpahjpfshd

jP fhyuh> kQ;rs; fhkhiy> tapw;Wg;

AslB_
 Nghf;F kw;Wk; ilgha;L cz;lhff; mit kz;iz kf;f itf;Fk;
s
fhuzkhfpwJ. ghf;Bhpahf;fis mopf;fpd;wd.
 gaph;ehrk;> tpisr;ry;> kz;tsk;> \ \V|>o[ s^
scg
kw;Wk; kz;zpd; juk; Fiwa  ,urhadg; nghUl;fs; epyj;ijAk;>
fhuzkhfpwJ. mjd; Nkw;gug;gpy; XLk; ePiuAk;
 fly; gug;gpy; Vw;gLk; vz;nzaf;; khRgLj;JfpwJ.
frpT fly;tho; caphpdq;fspd;  jPq;F tpistpf;Fk; ,urhadg;
mopTf;Ff; fhuzkhfpwJ. nghUl;fs; gy;NtW czTg;
nghUl;fspd; %ykhf kdpjDf;F
WD \uD \ \V|>_
np
gy;NtW jPq;F tpistpf;Fk;
 epyk; khRgLtJ vd;gJ jplf;
Neha;fis cz;lhf;FfpwJ.
foptpdhy; epyj; J}a;ik nfLtNj
 G+r;rpf; nfhy;ypfs; kdpjdJ
ahFk;> ve;jg; nghUs; epyj;jpd;
kj;jpa euk;G kz;lyk;> EiuaPuy;
cw;gj;jpj; jpwid Fiwf;fpd;wNjh>
kw;Wk; ,dg;ngUf;f cWg;GfisAk;
mJNt epyj;ij e/t
khRgLj;Jk;
nghUshFk;. ,e;j nray;ghl;ilNa
kz; khRgLjy; vd;W $WfpNwhk;.
ghjpf;fpwJ.
.m
://t
o \V>_
 Njitapy;yhj kw;Wk; nghWj;Jf;
V^
nfhs;s Kbahj xypiaNa xyp
 njhopw;rhiy fopTfSk;> tptrhaf;
khRghL vd;fpNwhk;. ,t;tif
ps
fopTfSk;> efh;g;Gwj;jpypUe;J
khrpid njhopy;kakhd kf;fs;
tUk; jplf;fopTk; xU ,lj;jpy;
mlh;j;jp kpFe;j efukakhf;fg;gl;l
Ftpj;J itg;gjd; %yk; epyk; khR gFjpfspy; mjpfkhf czu
milfpwJ. KbfpwJ.
htt
 mjpfstpy; nraw;ifahd o \VV[ s^

,urhadg; nghUl;fSk;> G+r;rpf;  80 nlrpgy; msTf;F Nky; cs;s
nfhy;ypfSk; cgNahfg;gLj;Jtjhy; xypfs; xyp khR vdg;gLk;.

AslB_
 Nfl;Fk; jpwd; ,og;G> jiytyp>  xyp khRghL caphpdq;fspd; ,dg;
s
kdepiyg; ghjpg;G> kd mOj;jk; ngUf;fj;jpid ntFthf Fiwf;
 mjpf xyp fl;blq;fspy; mjph;it fpd;wJ.
scg
Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.  kf;fspilNa Rw;Wr;#oy; tpopg;Gzh;T
 J}f;fj;ijg; ghjpj;J euk;Gj; Vw;gl gy;NtW jpdq;fs; nfhz;lhlg;
jsh;r;rpiaAk;> vhpr;riyAk; gLfpd;wd. mit>
cz;lhf;FfpwJ.
uw_  xB ]^
np
cyf Efu;Nthu; cupik jpdk; khh;r; 15
cyf ePh; ehs; khh;r; 22
Gtp ehs; (Earth Day) Vg;uy; 22
cyf caph;f;Nfhs ehs; Nk 22
cyf Rw;Wr;#oy; jpdk;
(World Environmental Day)
cyf kf;fs; jpdk;
e/t [_d; 5k; ehs;
[_iy 11
XNrhd; jpdk; nrg;lk;gh; - 16
.m
••••••
://t
ps
htt
10
AslB_
kW \VuD
s
scg
 \uD >>_
k^
np
>>_ 1. Bu ^
jzpj;jy; kw;Wk; jzpj;jy; W|D
eltbf;iffs; vd;gJ Nghplhpd; epyeLf;fk; vd;gJ Gtpg;gug;gpy; cs;s
njhlh; epfo;Tfs;> msT> nrwpT kw;Wk;

Nghplhpd; jhf;fq;fspd;
e/t
Fiwg;gpw;fhd
gapw;rpfis Nkw;nfhs;tjhFk;. jzpj;jy;
ghiwg; gFjp efh;tjhy; epyg;gFjp jpBnud
mirtjhFk;. epyeLf;fkhdJ ve;jtpj
Kd;dwptpg;Gk; ,d;wp jpBnud;W ve;j
eltbf;iffspy; ,uz;L nghJthd Neuj;jpy; Ntz;LkhdhYk; Vw;glyhk;.

.m
Kiwfs; mlq;Fk;. mit fl;likg;G epyeLf;fj;jpd;NghJ nghUl;Nrjk;
Kiwfs; kw;Wk; fl;likg;gpy;yhj fhaq;fs; kw;Wk; capupog;G Nghd;wit
Kiwfs; vd;git MFk;. jzpj;jy; Vw;gLk;.
eltbf;iffs; NghplUf;F Kd;Gk;> caph; kw;Wk; nrhj;Jfspd; Nrjq;fspd;

fLikiaf; Fiwf;f:
://t
Nghplhpd; NghJk;> NghplUf;Fg; gpd;Gk;

 epyeLf;fg; gFjpfspy; thOk; nghJ
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
kf;fspilNa tpopg;Gzh;it Vw;gLj;j
 >>_
Ntz;Lk;.
,lh; jzpj;jy; vd;gij ‘tpistpd;
 epyeLf;fj;ijj; jhq;ff;$ba
jPtpuj;ijf; Fiwj;jy;” vd tiuaWf;fyhk;.
fl;blq;fisAk;> tPLfisAk; fl;L
ps
,aw;ifapy; Vw;gLk; Gaypidj; jtph;f;f

khW mwpTWj;j Ntz;Lk;.
KbahJ. Mdhy; Gaypdhy; Vw;gLk;  tPLfs; fl;Ltjw;F Kd;dh; kz;zpd;
Jd;gq;fisj; jzpf;f Kd; $l;bNa juj;ijg; ghpNrhjid nra;a cjtp
eltbf;if vLf;Fk;NghJ kf;fspd;
htt
nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
capiuAk; nrhj;JfisAk; ghJfhf;f  kf;fs; epyeLf;fj;jpd; NghJ
KbAk;. nra;a Ntz;ba eltbf;iffisg;
gw;wpa tpopg;Gzh;T ngw;wpUj;jy;
11
AslB_
Ntz;Lk;. tpopg;Gzh;T 5. jP tpgj;ijj; jtph;f;f vhpthA mLg;G>
s
rk;ge;jg;gl;l nray;Kiwfisg; kpd;tpsf;Ffs;> nkOFth;j;jpfs;
gs;spfspy; mspf;f Ntz;Lk;. kw;Wk; Vida tpsf;Ffis
scg
mt;thW mspf;Fk; nghOJ rpwpa mizf;f Ntz;Lk;
tajpypUe;Nj epyeLf;fj;jpypUe;J 6. mLf;F khbf; FbapUg;Gfspy; thOk;
jd;id fhj;Jf;nfhs;sf; fw;Wf; kf;fs; fl;blq;fistpl;L ntspNa
nfhs;fpd;wdh;.
nry;tjw;F khbg;gbfs;> khbKfg;G
epyeLf;fj;jpd; nghOJ xUth;
kw;Wk; kpd;J}f;fpfis gad;gLj;jf;
vLf;fNtz;ba gbepiyfs; :
np
$lhJ. epyeLf;fj;jpd;NghJ
1. ePq;fs; fl;blj;jpd; cs;Ns ,Uf;Fk;
xUNghJk; kpd; J}f;fpiag; (Lift)
NghJ epyeLf;fk; Vw;gl;lhy;
gad;gLj;j Ntz;lhk;.
Nkirapd; mbapy; nrd;W epyeLf;fk;
7. Ntjpapay; Ma;Tf; $lj;jpy;
KbAk; tiuapy; Nkiria nfl;bahf
gpbj;Jf; nfhs;sTk;.
2. Nkir ,y;iynad;why;
ifahy; jiy kw;Wk; Kfj;jpid
e/t
ePq;fs;
cs;s
fhaq;fis
Ntjpapay;
Vw;gLj;jf;
vdNt epyeLf;fj;jpd; NghJ ehk;
nghUl;fs;
$baJ
Ntjpapay; Ma;T $lj;jpid tpl;L

%bf;nfhz;L miwapd;
ntspNawptpl Ntz;Lk;.
.m
%iyg;gFjpapy; nrd;W mku;e;J W|]uz [:
nfhs;sTk;. 1. Kjypy; ekf;F VNjDk; fhaq;fs;
3. fz;zhb [d;dy;fs;> fz;zhbf; Vw;gl;Ls;sjh vdg; ghh;f;f Ntz;Lk;
fjTfs; kw;Wk; fPNo tpof;$ba gpd;G ek;ik Rw;wpAs;s kf;fspd;
://t
nghUl;fs; Mfpatw;wpy; ,Ue;J epiyia mwpe;J nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.

tpyfp epw;fTk;. cq;fshy; mth;fSf;F cjt
4. jpwe;j ntspg;gFjpfspy; ,Ug;gpd; ,ayhtpl;lhy; kPl;Gf;FO tUk; tiu
kpd; fk;gq;fs; kw;Wk; kpd;rhuf; fhj;J ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
fk;gpfs; Mfpatw;wpy; ,Ue;J tpyfp
ps
2. epyeLf;fk; Vw;gl;l 2 my;yJ 3 kzp

epw;fTk;. Nkhl;lhh; thfdq;fspy; Neuj;jpw;Fs; ehk; trpg;gplj;jpw;F
gazk; nra;J nfhz;bUe;jhy; jpUk;gpr; nry;y$lhJ Vnddpy;
Ruq;fg; ghijfisNah epyeLf;fk; kPz;Lk; Vw;gl tha;g;G
htt
ghyq;fisNah tpl;L tpyfpg; cs;sJ.

ghJfhg;ghd ,lj;jpidj; Njh;T 3. rpwpa mstpy; jP Vw;gl;L ,Ue;jhy;
nra;J ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. mjid mizj;J tplTk;.
12
AslB_
4. vhpthAf; frpT kw;Wk; kpd;dZ yhq;f;lhq; gs;sj;jhf;fpy; kw;nwhU ngupa
s
rhjdq;fs; gOJ mile;J ,Ue;jhy; mstpyhd gdpr;rupit Vw;gLj;jpaJ.
ehk; vr;rupf;ifAld; ,Uf;f ,jpy; 250 Ngu; fhzky; Nghdjhf
scg
Ntz;Lk;. mwptpf;fg;gl;lJ.
\   >>_
5. Njitahd nghUl;fis mykhupapy;
1. vhpkiyahy; kf;fs; caph; ,og;gJ
,Ue;J vLf;Fk; NghJ ftdkhf
mhpjhf ,Ug;gpDk; vhpkiy gFjpfs;
,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
Mfpatw;wpypUe;J kf;fs; tpyfp
6. yhe;ju; tpsf;Ffis gad;gLj;j
trpf;f Ntz;Lk;
np
Ntz;Lk; vz;nza; tpsf;F kw;Wk; 2. vupkiy ntbg;gpd;NghJ midj;J
nkOFtu;j;jpfisg; gad;gLj;jf; tifahd Nghf;F tuj;JfSk;
$lhJ. jtph;f;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. Fwpg;ghf
7. epyeLf;fk; gw;wpa thndhypj; vhpkiyg; gFjpfSf;F mUfpy;
jfty;fis ftdpf;f Ntz;Lk;
VD  ]BV W|D
Vg;uy; 2015 Neghs epyeLf;fj;jhy;
e/t tpkhdg; Nghf;Ftuj;J jtph;f;fg;gl
Ntz;Lk;.
3. vhpkiy ntbg;Gfshy; epyeLf;fk;
(Nfhu;f;fh epyeLf;fk; vdTk; Vw;glyhk;. MfNt kf;fs; mjw;Fupa
miof;fg;gLfpwJ) Vwf;Fiwa 9>000 Ngu; Kd;ndr;rhpf;if eltbf;iffis
.m
caphpoe;jdu; kw;Wk; 22>000 Ngu; fhak; Nkw;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;
4. gdp glh;e;j kiyg;gFjpfspy;
mile;jdu; ,J Vg;uy; 25-k; Njjp 8.1
vhpkiy ntbg;gpd; fhuzkhfg; gdp
vd;w upf;lu; mstpy; Vw;gl;lJ. Nfhh;lf;fh
cUFtjhy; ntssg; ngUf;Ffs;
khtl;lj;jpd; fpof;Fg; gFjpapy; cs;s
://t
Vw;glyhk;. vdNt nts;sj; jLg;Gr;

ghu;gf; vd;w ,lj;jpy; ,jd; ikag;
Rth;fs; fz;bg;ghff; fl;lg;gl
Gs;spahdJ mike;jpUe;jJ.
Ntz;Lk;
1934-k; Mz;L Neghsk; - gPfhu; 5. vhpkiyg; gutiyg;gw;wp mwpe;J
epyeLf;fj;jpw;F gpwF Neghsj;ij nfhs;sg; gad;gLk; rha;Tkhdp (TILT
ps
jhf;fpa kpf Nkhrkhd ,aw;if Nguplh; Meter) fUtpiag; gw;wp kf;fSf;F

,JNt MFk;. ,e;epyeLf;fk; vtu];l; tpopg;Gzh;T Vw;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;
rpfuj;jpy; gdpr;rupit Vw;gLj;jpaJ. ,jpy; W
21 Ngu; caphpoe;jdh;. Vg;uy; 25>2015 vd;gJ caukhd rupT kpFe;j gFjpapypUe;J
htt
Neghsj;jpd; tuyhw;wpy; kpf Nkhrkhd rpije;j ghiwfs; efu;tij epyr;rupT

ehshf mike;jJ. ,e;j epyeLf;fkhdJ vd;fpNwhk;. Gtp<u;g;G tpirapd; Neubj;
13
AslB_
jhf;fj;jpdhy; epyr;rupT Vw;gLfpd;wJ. njhiytpypUe;J fz;fhzpf;f
s
kiog;nghopT> gdp cUFjy;> Mw;wpd; Ntz;Lk;
mupg;G> nts;sg;ngUf;F epyeLf;fk;> 3. kPl;Gf; FOtpdUf;F topfhl;Ljy;
scg
kw;Wk; vupkiy nray;fs;. Ntz;Lk;.
kdpj eltbf;iffs; ,ize;J Vw;gLk; 4. cs;Su; thndhyp my;yJ
epyr;ruptpdhy; clikfs; Nrjk;> fhaq;fs; njhiyf;fhl;rpfspd; rkPgj;jpa
Vw;gLjy;> capupog;Gfs; kw;Wk; gy;NtW mtruj; jfty;fis mwpe;;J nfhs;s
tsq;fSf;F kpf mjpf ghjpg;gpid Ntz;Lk;.
np
Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> 5. epyr;ruptpidj; njhlh;e;J nts;sg;
FbePu; tpepNahfk;> kPd;gpbj;jy;> fopTePu; ngUf;F Vw;gl tha;g;Gs;sjhy;
ntspNaw;Wk; mikg;Gfs;> fhLfs;> vr;rupf;ifahf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
mizfs; kw;Wk; rhiyg;Nghf;Ftuj;Jfs; MV TE   >>_
ghjpg;gilfpd;wd.
W^   >>_
1. kpUJthd kz; cs;s gFjpfspy;
e/t 1. gdpg;ghiwfspd;
epWj;JtNjh jLg;gNjh fbdkhdJ
Mdhy; gdpg;ghiw
tPo;r;rpfis
tPo;r;rpapd;
tPLfs; fl;l Ntz;bapUe;jhy; rf;jpiaf; Fiwg;gjd; %yk; mjd;
epyr;rhptpd; NghJ ghiwj; Jfs;fs; jhf;fj;ijf; Fiwf;fyhk;.
.m
tpyfpr; nry;y VJthf khw;Wg; 2. gdpg;ghiw tPo;r;rpfs; Vw;gLk; Nfhil
ghijfs; cUthf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; thoplq;fs;> kf;fs; FbapUg;Gg;
2. epyr;rhptpd; NghNjh my;yJ gFjpfs;> rhiyfs; kw;Wk; ,Ug;;Gg;
kz;rhptpd;NghNjh rhiytopfs; ghijfs; mikg;gijj; jtpu;f;fyhk;.
://t
ghjpf;fg;gLkhapd; cldbahf 3. kf;fs; ntbnghUs;fisg;

ntspNaw khw;W ghijfs; gad;gLj;jf;$lhJ vd mwpTWj;jg;
jpl;lkplg;gl;bUf;f Ntz;Lk; gly; Ntz;Lk;.
Wz z 4. kiyr;rupTg; gFjpfspy; trpf;Fk;
ps
1. epyr;rupT Vw;gl;l gFjpapypUe;J kf;fs; tPl;ilr; Rw;wpYk; kuq;fis

tpyfp ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. Vndd;why; tsu;f;f Cf;fg;gLj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk;
$Ljy; epyr;rupT Vw;gLk; mghak; 5. gdpg;ghiw tPo;r;rpfs; Vw;gLk;
cs;sJ. gFjpfspy; midj;Jtpjkhd
htt
2. epyr;ruptpy; fhak; mile;jtu;fs; Nghf;Ftuj;JfSk; jtph;f;fg;gl

kw;Wk; rpf;fpatu;fs; ,Uf;fpwhh;fsh Ntz;Lk;.
vd mg;gFjpf;F mUfpy; nry;yhky;
14
AslB_
AB_ gFjpfisj; jhf;Ffpd;wd ,tw;wpy;
s
 Kf;fpakhd ,aw;if Nguplu;fspy; ,uz;L my;yJ %d;W Gay;fs;
,e;jpahtpd; flNyhug; gFjpfspy; kpfTk; jPtpukhdjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
scg
ghjpg;ig Vw;gLj;JtJ GayhFk;.  Gay; fiuia neUq;Fk; NghJ gyj;j
,e;jpahtpd; flNyhu vy;iyahdJ fhw;W> gyj;j kio> Gay; miyfs;
Vwf;Fiwa 7>516 fp.kP MFk;. cyfpd; kw;Wk; Mw;W nts;sg;ngUf;F
ntg;gkz;lyg; Gaypy; 10 rjtPjk; Nghd;wtw;why; fLikahd ,og;G
,e;jpahtpy; cUthfpwJ. my;yJ Nrjk; Vw;gLk;. tq;fs
 Vwf;Fiwa 71% Gay; ghjpg;Gg; tphpFlhtpd; tlf;F gFjpapy; cs;s
np
gFjpahdJ ,e;jpahtpd; 10 mfykhd kw;Wk; Mokpy;yhj
khepyq;fspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ gFjpfspy; fly; rPw;wj;jpd; tpisTfs;
(F[uhj;> kfhuh\;buh> Nfhth> Nfush> mjpfkhf cs;sd. Gaypd; NghJ
jkpo;ehL> GJr;Nrhp> Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;> kzpf;F 65 fp.kP Kjy; 117 fp.kP
Xbrh kw;Wk; Nkw;F tq;fhsk;)
me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghu; jPTfs; kw;Wk;
,yl;rj;jPT gFjpfspYk;
e/t
Gay;
Ntfj;jpy; fhw;W tPRk;.
AB_ kk>uz x[ FB kBk:
1. jho;thd gFjpapypUe;J caukhd
cUthfyhk;. gFjpfSf;Fr; nry;y Ntz;Lk;.
.m
>tV_ DVKD ABV_ V]|D 2. gioa fl;blq;fspy; trpg;gtu;fs;
\Vk^: jw;fhypfkhf ghJfhg;ghd ,lj;jpw;Fr;
 jkpo;ehl;by; cs;s 13 flNyhu nry;y Ntz;Lk; cilikfs;
khtl;lq;fs; Nk> [_d; kw;Wk; Mtzq;fs; kw;Wk; mzpfyd;;fisg;
mf;Nlhgu; - etk;gh; khjq;fspy; Gayhy;
ghJfhg;ghf itj;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
://t
ghjpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ mk;khtl;lq;fs;
3. Ngl;lupahy; ,aq;Fk; thndhypg;
gpd;tUkhW: jpUts;@h;>nrd;id>
ngl;b> gpsh];bf; lhu;r; tpsf;F>
fhQ;;rpGuk;> tpOg;Guk;> flY}h;>
kz;nzz;nza;> jPg;ngl;b
ehfg;gl;bdk;> jpUth&h;> jQ;rhT+h>;
Kjypatw;iwg; ghJfhg;ghd
GJf;Nfhl;il> uhkehjGuk;>
ps
J}j;Jf;Fb> jpUney;Ntyp kw;Wk; ,lj;jpy; itj;jpUf;F Ntz;Lk;.

fd;dpahFkup. 4. KjYjtp rhjdq;fisj; jahu;
 Xt;nthU tUlKk; ruhrupahf 5 epiyapy; itj;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;
my;yJ 6 ntg;gkz;lyg; Gay;fs; 5. Fiwe;jJ VO ehl;fSf;Fj;
htt
tq;fhs tpupFlhtpy; kw;Wk; Njitahd czTg; nghUs;>

mugpf;flypy; cUthfp flNyhug; vhpnghUs;> FbePh;> capu;fhf;Fk;
15
AslB_
kUe;J Kjypatw;iw jahu;epiyapy; cile;J thfdj;jpd; Nky; tpOe;J
s
itj;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk; tpLk;.
6. fhy;eilfs; kw;Wk; tsh;g;G ABKz [
scg
tpyq;Ffisg; ghJfhg;ghd  kpd;rhjdq;fs; kw;Wk; vupthAit
,lj;jpw;F nfhz;L nry;y Ntz;Lk;. mizj;J tplTk;. NkYk; midj;J
kpd;rhjdq;fisAk; kpd; ,izg;gpy;
7. Ntfkhf neUq;fp tUfpd;w Gay;
,Ue;J Jz;bj;J tplTk;.
Nkfq;fisg; gw;wp mwpe;jpUf;f
 ntsp ,lq;fis Rw;wpg;ghu;f;fr;
Ntz;Lk;. Vndd;why;> gyj;j
nry;y Ntz;lhk;.
np
fhw;W tUtij gy epkplq;fSf;F
 gOjile;j kpd; fk;gpfs;>
Kd;ghfNt fzpf;f ,aYk;.
Kwpe;j kuq;fs; kw;Wk; nts;sePu;
ABo[ Vm:
,tw;wpypUe;J ehk; njhiytpy;
1. Gaypd; NghJ fl;blj;jpw;F cs;Ns
,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
,Ue;jhy; fz;bg;ghf [d;dy; kw;Wk; e/t  ntg;gkz;ly Gayhd ‘tu;jh”
fjTfis %l Ntz;Lk;. nrd;idia 2016-k; Mz;L brk;gh;
2. midj;J kpd;rhjdq;fisAk; 12-k; Njjp jhf;fpaJ. Njrpa Nguplu;
mizj;J tpl Ntz;Lk;. Nkyhz;ik Mizak; jdJ
3. fz;> %f;F tha; Mfpatw;iw mwpf;ifapy; jkpo;ehl;by; 10 Ngu;
.m
J}rpfspypUe;J ghJffhf;f ,we;jjhf jfty; mspj;jJ. fhw;wpd;
iffshy; my;yJ Jzpahy; %bf; mjpf gl;r NtfkhdJ xU kzp
nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. Neuj;jpw;F 130 fp.kPf;F Nky; vd
4. ePq;fs; fhl;Lg; gFjpapy; ,Ue;jhy; gjpthfpAs;sJ. ,e;jg; GayhdJ
://t
fhw;wpypUe;J ghJfhj;Jf;nfhs;s nrd;id efuj;jpYs;s gy gFjpfis

ePq;fs; ghJfhg;ghd ,lj;jpid kpf Nkhrkhf Nrjg;gLj;jpaJ mjpy;
NjlTk; mt;thwhd ,lk; 4>000f;Fk; Nkw;gl;l kuq;fis
NtUld; gpLq;fp vwpe;jJ kpd;fk;gpfs;
fpilf;ftpy;iy vd;why; jiuapy;
mWe;J tpOe;jd NkYk; fl;blq;fs;
ps
gLj;Jf;nfhs;sTk;.
Nrjk; mile;jd.
5. ePqf
; s; thfdj;jpy; ,Ue;jhy; [d;dy;
k^z
fjTfis %btpl;L thfdj;jpd;  nts;sg; ngUf;fhdJ Fwpg;ghf
cs;Ns ,Ug;gJ ed;W. epiyaw;w fpuhkg; Gwq;fspy; Vuhskhd
htt
nghUl;fspd; fPo; thfdj;ij epWj;j kf;fSf;F ,d;dy;fisj;

Ntz;lhk;. Vndd;why;> mit je;jpUf;fpwJ. nts;sg; ngUf;fpd;
16
AslB_
tpisthf kNyupah kw;Wk; fhyuh mjhtJ Njhuhakhf ehl;bd;
s
Nghd;w fLikahd njhw;W Neha;fs; nkhj;j epyg;gug;gpy; 8-y; xU gq;F
guTfpd;wd. tptrha cw;gj;jpg; nts;sg; ngUf;Fg; ghjpg;gpw;F
scg
nghUs;fs; kPJ fLikahd jhf;fk; cl;gLfpwJ. ek; ehl;by; 1954-y;
Vw;gLfpd;wJ. rpyrkaq;fspy; ngupa Njrpa nts;sg;ngUf;F jLg;G
mstpy; cs;s tptrha epyq;fspy; eltbf;ifahdJ njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
ePuhdJ Njq;fp epw;gjhy; Fspu;fhyg; k^z   >>_
gapu;fs; Nrjk; milfpd;wd. 1. ePh; Njq;Fk; gFjpfspy;
 cyfpy; mjpf nts;sg;ngUf;Fg; Kd;Ndw;ghlhf ePh; mfw;w
np
ghjpg;Gf;Fs;shFk; ehLfspy; my;yJ tba jw;fhypf topfis
,e;jpahTk; xd;W. ek; ehl;by; mikj;jpUj;jy; mtrpak;.
Vw;gLk; nts;sg; ngUf;fpw;F Kf;fpa 2. gioa fl;blq;fspy; trpf;Fk;
fhuzkhf miktJ ,q;Fs;s kf;fis jw;fhypfkhf NtW
,aw;ifr; #oyhFk;. mtw;wpy; mjpf
tz;ly; gbTfs; nfhz;l Mw;wpd;
mikg;G kw;Wk; ,kakiyj; njhlu;
e/t ,lq;fSf;F khw;w Ntz;Lk;
3. kf;fspd;
Mtzq;fs;>
cilikfs;> Kf;fpa
mzpfyd;fs;
Nghd;w nrq;Fj;jhd rpijtilaf; Mfpatw;iwg; ghJfhg;ghf itj;Jf;
$ba kiyfs; MFk;.
.m
nfhs;Sjy; Ntz;Lk;.
 ,e;jpahtpd; ruhrhp kio. 4. kPdth;fs; flYf;F kPPd;gpbf;f
msT 1>150 kp.kPl;luhFk; ,J nry;tijj; jtph;j;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
ehL KOtJk; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f 5. kf;fs; mUfpy; cs;s kpd;rhuf;
NtWghLfis nfhz;Ls;sJ.
fk;gq;fspypUe;J fk;gpfs; mWgl;L
://t
Mz;L kiog;nghopthdJ Nkw;F

kpd; frpTfs; ,Uf;fpd;wjh vdf;
flw;fiu Nkw;F njhlu;r;rp kiy
ftdpf;f Ntz;Lk;
fhrp Fd;Wfs; kw;Wk; gpuk;kGj;jpuh
6. kf;fis nfhjpf;fitj;j ePiu
gs;sj;jhf;F Mfpa gFjpfspy; 2>500
gUf mwpTWj;j Ntz;Lk;.
kp.kPl;lUf;F mjpfkhfg; kiog;nghopT
ps
mt;twpTiuahy; ePhpdhy; guTk;

gjpthfpwJ. ,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j
Neha;fs; jLf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
epyg;gug;gpy; (29) khepyq;fs; kw;Wk;
7. thndhyp kw;Wk; njhiyf; fhl;rpapy;
7 A+dpad; gpNuNjrq;fs;) 23 khepy
muR mwptpf;Fk; Gay; gw;wpa
kw;Wk; A+dpad; gpuNjrq;fs; nts;sg;
htt
ghjpg;gpw;Fl;gLfpd;wd NkYk; 40 nra;jpfisAk; vr;rhpf;iffisAk;

kpy;ypad; n`f;Nlh; epyg;gug;G gpd;gw;wp elf;f Ntz;Lk;
17
AslB_
8. murhq;fg; ghpe;Jiuapd;gb jho;thd kdpju;fs; fLikahd ghjpg;gpw;F
s
gFjpfspy; thOk; kf;fs; ghJfhg;ghd cs;shfpd;wd. rpy Neuq;fspy
,lq;fSf;Fr; nry;y Ntz;Lk;. kuzk; $l Vw;glyhk;. twl;rpapd;
scg
ePh; tope;J XLtijj; jtph;f;f NghJ kpff; fLikahd ntg;gk;
Ntshz;ikg; gFjpfspypUe;Jk; ,Uf;Fk; mj;jifa epiyfs;
jho;thd gFjpfspypUe;Jk; ek;Kila cly;eyj;ij ghjpf;Fk;.
 twl;rpf;F Kjd;ik fhuzk;
fhy;tha;fs; ntl;btpl Ntz;Lk;.
kio gw;whf;FiwahFk; ,J fhy
9. jho;thd gFjpapy; mike;Js;s
msT> guty; kw;Wk; kioapd;
np
tPLfSf;F Kd;dhy; ePh; cl;Gfhky;
jPtpuk;Mfpatw;iwr; rhu;e;jjhFk;.
fhf;f kzy; %l;ilfis itf;f
 jkpo; ehl;by; twl;rpapd;
Ntz;Lk;.
jhf;fj;jpw;f;Fs;shFk; khtl;lq;fs;
10. Fsq;fs;> Vhpfs; Mfpatw;wpy; J}h; ehd;F:
vLj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
11. gUt kiof;F
Nghf;Ffspy;
Kd;Ng
cs;s
e/t
Mw;Wg;
gbTfisf;
1. ,uhkehjGuk;
2. GJf;Nfhl;il
3. rptfq;if
fisa Ntz;Lk;. 4. tpOg;Guk;
12. neLq;fhyj;jpw;F nts;s ghjpg;ig
.m
kE   >>_
Fiwf;f fhLfs; tshg;;ig 1. twl;rpapdhy; Vw;gLk; ,og;G kw;Wk;
Cf;Ftpf;fTk; kio ePh; Nrfhpg;ig ghjpg;igg; gpd;tUk; topfshy;
nray;gLj;jTk; Ntz;Lk;. Fiwf;f KbAk;.
13. nts;sg; ngUf;fpd; NghJ khzth;fs;
://t
2. twl;rpf; fhyq;fspy;khl;Lj;jPtdq;fs;
Jzpkzpfs; czTg; nghl;lyq;fs; kw;Wk; FbePiu fhy;eilfSf;F
Nghd;wtw;iw Nrfhpj;J rKjha mspg;gij cWjpg;gLj;Jjy;.
kPl;Gg; gzpfspy; nray;ghLfspy; 3. jhdpaq;fs; kw;Wk; khl;Lj;
<Lgl;L ghjpg;gile;NjhUf;F Nrit jPtdq;fs; Mfpatw;iw twl;rpg;
ps
nra;a Ntz;Lk;. gFjpfSf;F Njitahd Neuq;fspy;

kE vLj;Jr; nry;Yjy;.
 xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyj;jpw;F (khjq;fs;
4. twl;rp epthuzg; gzpfis
my;yJ tUlq;fs;) epyj;jpd; xU
twl;rpapdhy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l
htt
gFjpapy; kio gw;whf;Fiwahf

kf;fSf;F Jhpjkhfr; nray;gLj;j
cs;sij twl;rp vd;fpNwhk;. ,jdhy;
fpuhk mstpNyNa jpl;lkpLjy;.
kz;> gapu;fs;> tpyq;Ffs; kw;Wk;
18
AslB_
kE [  kpd;dypdhy; jhd; ,b xyp
s
1. #upa ntg;gj;jhf;Fjyhy; kaf;f Vw;gLfpwJ. mjpf ntg;gk; nfhz;l
kile;jhy; mtru kUj;Jt kpd;dy; xj;j mjpu;Tf; Fohapy;
scg
eltbf;iffs; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl gazpf;fpwJ. ,e;jf;Fohapy; fhw;W
Ntz;Lk;. tpiuthf fle;J nrd;W RUq;fp
2. Nguplh; kw;Wk; kf;fs; Nritf;fhd tpupAk; NghJ mjpu;tiy Vw;gl;L 16
jftiy mwpa cs;shl;rp mikg;G fp.kP njhiytpy; ,Ue;J cq;fshy;
fisj; njhlu;G nfhs;sTk;. ,b Xiria Nfl;f KbAk;.
t[_  ,b kpd;dy; gha;T tpdhbf;F 80>000
np
 ,bAld; $ba tspkz;ly kpd;rhu fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; gazpf;Fk;
ntspNaw;wj;ij kpd;dy; vd;fpNwhk;.  xU ,b kpd;dy; gha;tpd; ruhrup
,J nghJthf ,bAld; $ba kio ePsk; 3 Kjy; 4 fp.kP MFk;.
kw;Wk; rpy Neuq;fspy; vupkiy
t[_ kD x[:
ntbg;G my;yJ GOjpg; Gaypd; NghJ
Vw;gLfpd;wJ. kpd;dy; 10 Kjy;
20 Mk;gpau; tiu kpd;rhuj;ij>
e/t 1. ePq;fs; ntspA+u; nry;Yk; vz;zk;
,Ue;jhy; thdpiy Kd; mwptpg;ig
ftdpf;fTk;.
cUthf;Ftjpdhy; ,J kpfTk; 2. kpd;dy; cUthFk; vd;W njupe;jhy;
.m
Mgj;jhdJ. Fwpg;ghf ,b ,bf;Fk; cq;fs; gazj;ij Kbe;jsT js;spg;
NghJ kf;fs; jpwe;j ntspapy; NghlTk;.
,Ug;gJ kpfTk; mghafukhdJ. 3. ,bf;F Kd;dhy; kpd;dy; tUk;.
 kpd;dypd; jhf;fq;fs; capUf;F xypahdJ ruhrupahf xt;nthU
Mgj;jhd tpisTfis fp.kP. Juj;jpidAk; 3 tpdhbf;Fs;
://t
Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd. cyfpy; xU fle;J nry;Yk;. kpd;dYf;Fk;

tUlj;jpy; ruhrupahf 2000 ,bf;Fk; ,ilNa kpff; Fiwthd
Ngu; kpd;dy; jhf;Fjypdhy;
NeuNk ,Uf;Fk; #oypy; kpd;dy;
capupof;fpd;wdu; ngUk;ghYk;
Vw;gl;lhy; Mgj;J ekf;F mUfpy;
kpd;dy; caukhd nghUl;fisj; jhd;
ps
,Ug;gjhf czh;e;J Njitahd Kd;

jhf;FfpwJ. ,J kuj;ij cilj;J jP
vr;rupf;ifAld; nray;gl Ntz;Lk.;
gpbf;f nra;Ak;. NkYk;; ,J fl;blj;jpd;
xU Ntis ,bf;Fk; kpd;dYf;Fk;
ntspapy; nry;fpd;w kpd;rhu fk;gp
,ilNa ,ilntsp ,y;yhtpby;
htt
kw;Wk; miy czupfisj; jhf;fp

jP tpgj;Jfis Vw;gLj;Jk;. kpd;dy; ePq;fs; ,Uf;Fk; ,lj;jpNyNa kio
ntspg;gLk; NghJ mjd; ntg;gk; Nkfk; ,Ug;gjhfg; nghUs;.
9>982.20 nry;rpa]; MFk;.
19
AslB_
t[_ u|D Vm Gju;fis kpd;dy; jhf;fhJ vd;gij
s
1. fl;blj;jpd; cs;Ns ,Ue;jhy; fjT> epidtpy; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;
GifNghf;fp kw;Wk; fhw;Nwhl;l Foha; 7. ntl;;l ntspapy; ,Ue;jhy; jho;thd
scg
Mfpatw;iw %b itf;f Ntz;Lk;. gFjp my;yJ gs;skhd gFjpia
2. njhiyNgrp ,izg;G> njhiyf; milahsk; fz;L Fj;Jf; fhy; ,l;L
fhl;rpg; ngl;b kw;Wk; ,ju kpd; mku Ntz;Lk;. epw;gNjh gLg;gNjh
rhjdq;fspd; kpd; ,izg;igj; Mgj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; Vnddpy; ,J
Jz;bf;f Ntz;Lk; kpd;dy; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd tha;g;ig
np
3. kpd;dypd; nghOJ Fspf;ff; mjpfupf;Fk;.
$lhJ. Vnddpy; jz;zPu;f; 8. kpjptz;b kw;Wk; ehzaq;fs; Nghd;w
Foha;fs; topNa kpd;dy; CLUt cNyhfg; nghUl;fisj; jtpu;g;gJ
tha;g;gpUf;fpwJ. jz;zPu; kw;Wk; ey;yJ.
cNyfq;fs; kpd;rhuj;ij flj;Jk;
jd;ikAilaJ.
4. ntg;g%l;biag; gad;gLj;jf; $lhJ
e/t 9. kpd;dypd; nghOJ
nfhz;L nry;yf;$lhJ.
Filgpbj;Jf;
10. kpd;dypd; tUk; nghOJ Xlf;$lhJ.

Vndd;why; mjpypUe;J tUk; kpf nkJthf ele;J nrd;W
ntg;gkhdJ kpd;diy <h;f;Fk; ,Ug;gplj;ij mila Ntz;Lk;.
.m
jd;ikAilaJ. Vnddpy; XLk;nghOJ Vw;gLk;
5. kpd;rhu fk;gpfs;> ,bjhq;fp> fhw;whdJ kpd;diy <u;f;Fk;.
jz;zPu; Foha;fs;> miy> czup> 11. ePq;fs; kfpOe;jpy; ,Ue;jhy; ntspapy;
[d;dy; Nghd;wtw;wpw;F mUfpy; tuf;$lhJ. [d;diy %l Ntz;Lk;>
://t
nry;yf;$lhJ. miy czhpapd; gad;ghl;il epWj;j

6. kpd;dypd; nghOJ ntl;l ntspapy; Ntz;Lk; ngupa kuj;jpw;F mbapNyh
,Ue;jhy; kuj;jpw;F fPo; epw;ff; my;yJ ,be;J tpOe;J Mgj;ij
$lhJ. caukhd kuq;fis kpd;dy; Vw;gLj;jf;$ba ,lj;jpNyh
ps
jhf;Fk;. vdNt kuk; ,Uf;Fk; thfdj;ij epWj;jf;$lhJ.

,lj;jpypUe;J 30 Kjy; 40 kP J}uk; 12. cq;fSf;F mUfpy; kpd;dyhy;
js;sp epw;f Ntz;Lk;. NkYk; fhakile;j egu; ,Ue;jhy;
Fwpg;ghf jdpahf ,Uf;Fk; xw;iw ghjpg;gile;jtu; epidtpof;f
htt
kuj;jpw;F mUfpy; nry;yf;$lhJ. tha;g;Gz;L. vdNt mtUf;F

KjYjtp mspg;gJ mtrpakhFk;.
20
AslB_
Vu   >>_ ehspjo;fs; kw;Wk; njhiyf;fhl;rp
s
1. #iwf;fhw;wpd; jhf;fk; mwpe;jTld; %yk; epfo;r;rpfis Vw;gLj;jp
jho;thd gFjpapypUe;J ghJfhg;ghd tpopg;Gzh;T Vw;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;
scg
,lq;fSf;F ,lk;ngau Ntz;Lk; 5. ghjpg;gile;j kf;fSf;F murhq;fk;
my;yJ tPl;bNyh> ghJfhg;G JhpjkhfTk; rhpahd Neuj;jpYk;
ikaj;jpNyh ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. kPl;Gg; gzpfisr; nra;a midj;Jj;
2. #iwf;fhw;wpd; NghJ ePqf
; s; tPlb
; w;F JiwfSk; jpl;lkpl;L nray;;gl
ntspNa ,Uf;f Neh;e;jhy; mq;NfNa Ntz;Lk;
np
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; #iwf;fhw;wpd; Vt (TSUNAMI)
jhf;fk; Fiwe;J tpl;lnjd muRj;  flYf;F mbapy; epyeLf;fk;
Jiw mYtyh;fs; $wpa gpd;Ng cz;lhf;Fk; Nguiyfis
tPl;bw;Fr; nry;y Ntz;Lk;. Rdhkp vd;fpd;Nwhk;. Rdhkp
vd;w nrhy; [g;ghdpa nkhopapy;
3. fhakile;j my;yJ fhg;ghw;wg;gl;l
kf;fSf;F
KjYjtpia
cjTjy;
e/t
kw;Wk;
cldbahff;
,Ue;J ngwg;gl;;lJ. ‘R’ (Tsu)
vd;why; JiwKfk;. ehkp (nami)
vd;why; miyiaf; Fwpf;Fk;. ,J
nfhLf;fNtz;Lk;.
VmkV  >>_ kdpjh;fs; kw;Wk; tpyq;Fspd;
.m
moptpw;Ff; fhuzkhfpd;wJ. Rdhkp
1. Nghplh; Nkyhz;ik> gytifahd
cs;fl;likg;G trjpfshd FbapUg;G
Nghplh;fisg; gw;wpa tpopg;Gzh;itAk;>
kw;Wk; Nghf;Ftuj;J Nghd;wtw;iwr;
jahuhf ,Uj;jy;> jLj;jy;>
Nrjg;gLj;JfpwJ.
epthuzk;> kPSjy; Mfpatw;iw FBkBk
://t
tpsf;FfpwJ. 1. Rdhkp vr;rhpf;if te;jTld;

2. Nghplh;fSf;F vjpuhf kf;fSf;F ghJfhg;ghd ,lj;jpw;Fr; nry;y
Kd; vr;rhpf;if mspj;Jk;> jd;idAk; Ntz;Lk;
clikfisAk; ghJfhf;Fk; Kiwfis 2. khw;Wj; jpwdhspfs;> ngz;fs;>
ps
fw;Wj;juTk; Ntz;Lk;. tajhdth;fs; kw;Wk; Foe;ijfis

3. gs;spfspYk;> fy;YhhpfspYk; Kjypy; ntspNaw;w Ntz;Lk;.
mYtyfq;fspYk; Nghplh; gw;wpa FB V>k
tpopg;Gzh;r;rp epfo;r;rpfis 1. Rdhkp vr;rhpf;if tplg;gl;lJk;
htt
Vw;gLj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk; flNyhug;gFjpia Ntbf;if ghh;f;ff;

4. nghJkf;fSf;F thndhyp nry;yf;$lhJ.
2. gak; miljy; $lhJ
21
AslB_
3. Rdhkp gw;wpa tje;jpfis kdpjh;fspd; myl;rpaj;jhYk;
s
ek;gf;$lhJ. ftdkpd;ikfshYk; jhd;
26 brk;gh;> 2004-,y; jkpo;ehl;il ngUk;ghYk; Vw;gLfpd;wd.
scg
Rdhkp jhf;fpa NghJ mlh;e;j jP tpgj;Jfs; elf;Fkplq;fs;:
rJg;G epyf;fhLfisf; nfhz;l 1. ,urhadj; njhopw;rhiyfs;
gpr;rhthuk;> Kj;Jg;Ngl;il Nghd;w 2. kpd;frpT Vw;gLfpd;w fzpdp miw>
gFjpfspy; kdpj ,og;GfSk;> rikayiw Nghd;wit
fl;likg;Gr; Nrjq;fSk; FiwthfNt 3. twz;l fhyj;jpy; fhLfs;
Vw;gl;Ls;sJ.
np
4. vz;nza;f; fplq;F
1. Vt u z FB kBkD 5. gpw njhopw; rhiyfs;.
1. Rdhkpahy; ghjpf;fg;gl;;l kf;fis FB kBk
kWfl;likg;G nra;j ,lq;fspy; 1. jP tpgj;J Vw;gLk; NghJ cuf;ff;
kPz;Lk; Fbakh;j;j muR eph;thfKk;> $r;rypl;Nlh kzpnahypia
muRrhuh
nra;fpd;wd.
mikg;GfSk;>
2. Rdhkpahy; Vw;gl;l ghjpg;gpypUe;J

e/t
cjtp vOg;gpNah cjtpia ehl Ntz;Lk;.
2. kzy; kw;Wk; jPaizg;Gf; fUtp
Nghd;wtw;iwg; gad;gLj;jpj; jPapid
kPs kf;fSf;F epjpAjtp mizf;f Ntz;Lk;.
.m
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. 3. kpd; ,izg;gpid cldbahfj;
3. flw;fiuNahuq;fspy; rJg;G Jz;bf;f Ntz;Lk;.
epyf;fhLfis tsh;g;gjd; %yk; 4. Milapy; jPg;gpbj;jhy; Xlf; $lhJ.
Rdhkp jhf;fj;ijf; Fiwf;fyhk;. jiuapy; gLj;J cUz;L jPia
://t
2. \M>V_ u|D ^ mizf;f Kw;gl Ntz;Lk;

 kdpjr; nray;fshy; FB V>k
Vw;gLk; caph;Nrjj;ijAk;> 1. kpd; ,izg;Gj; Jisfspy; (Plugpoint)
nghUl;Nrjj;ijAk; kdpjdhy; vijAk; jpzpf;ff; $lhJ.
Vw;gLk; Nghplh; vd;fpNwhk;.
2. kpd; fk;gj;jpy; Vwf;$lhJ.
ps
jP tpgj;Jfs;:
3. kpd; fk;gpfSf;F mUfpy; gl;lk;
 kpd; frpT> ,urhadj; njhopw;rhiy>
gwf;f tplf;$lhJ.
jPg;ngl;b kw;Wk; gl;lhRj;
4. jPf;Fr;rp (m) iyl;liu itj;J
njhopw; rhiyfspy; Vw;gLk; jPg;
htt
tpisahlf;$lhJ.
guty;fshy; tpgj;Jfs; Vw;gLfpwJ.
5. nghpath;fspd; cjtpapy;yhky;
fhLfspy; Vw;gLk; jP tpgj;Jfs;
gl;;lhR ntbf;f$lhJ.
22
AslB_
Vzkm sm^ ^_ kV VmVA \V\
s
ftdf;FiwthYk; Nghf;Ftuj;J 1. thfdg; ghJfhg;G tpopg;Gzh;T
tpjpfisg; gpd;gw;whjjhYk; Vw;gLk; thfd (epfo;r;rpfis) mbf;fb gs;spf;
scg
tpgj;Jfisg; Nghf;Ftuj;J tpgj;Jfs; Foe;ijfSf;F elj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk;.
vd;fpd;Nwhk;. 2. thfdg; ghJfhg;G kPjhd gapw;rpia
kV smV V^: khzth;fSf;F mspf;f Ntz;Lk;.
1. kJ mUe;jptpl;L thfdk; 3. Foe;ijfs; rhiyia ikjhdkhfg;
gad;gLj;jf; $lhJ.
Xl;Ljy;> thfdk; Xl;Lk;NghJ
4. kpjptz;bapy; ,UtUf;F Nky;
np
ifg;Ngrpiag; gad;gLj;Jjy; kw;Wk;
vg;NghJk; nry;yf;$lhJ.
ftdf;FiwT.
 _ (Stampede)
2. mDkjpf;fg;gl;l msittpl
 Fwpg;gpl;l xU gFjpapy; kf;fs;
Ntfkhf Xl;LtJ. mjpf mstpy; $bapUf;Fk; nghOJ
3. Nkhrkhd fhyepiy. e/t VNjh xU fhuzj;jhy; jpBnudf;
4. Xa;tpd;wp ePz;l J}uk; thfdk; fl;Lg;ghbd;wp Nkhjpf;nfhz;Lk;>
Xl;LtJ. js;spf;nfhz;Lk; XLtJ ‘$l;l
FB kBk nehpry;“ vdg;gLfpwJ. $l;l
1. tpgj;J ele;jTld; mtru cjtpia nehpryhy; ,wg;G> vYk;G KwpT
.m
ehlNtz;Lk;. cilik ,og;G> %r;Rj;jpzwy;
2. tpgj;ijf; fhty; Jiwaplk; Kjypahd Vw;gLfpd;wd.
njhptpf;f Ntz;Lk;. $l;lnehpry; mjpfk; eilngWk;
3. fhak; Vw;gl;lth;fSf;F kUj;Jt ,lq;fs; / epfo;Tfs;
://t
trjp nra;J juNtz;Lk; 1. topghl;L jyq;fs;

FB V>k 2. jpUtpohf;fs;.
1. mjpNtfkhf thfdk; Xl;Ltijj;
3. tpisahl;L epfo;r;rpfs;.
jtph;f;fTk;.
4. ,ir epfo;r;rpfs;.
2. Xl;Leh; chpkk; my;yhkYk; thfdk;
5. nghUl;fhl;rp
ps
Xl;Ltjw;Fhpa taJ G+h;j;jpahfkYk;

6. khehL> nghJf;$l;lq;fs;
thfdk; Xl;lf;$lhJ.
Kjypahd
3. thfdk; Xl;Lk;NghJk;> rhiyiaf;
_ u|k>uV V^
flf;Fk; NghJk; ifg;Ngrpia
htt
1. gak;
cgNahfpf;ff; $lhJ.
2. gjw;wk;
3. mjpf Mh;tk;
23
AslB_
4. tje;jp 4. fPNo tpOe;J vo
s
5. Fog;gepiy Kbatpy;iynad;why;> ifia
>VD jiyf;F gpd;Gwk; itj;J fhy;fis
scg
1. mjpf mstpyhd caph; ,og;Gfs;. klf;fp fUtpypUf;Fk; rpRitg; Nghy;
2. kf;fs; gLfhak; miljy;. gLj;Jf; nfhs;sTk;.
3. cs;fl;likg;Gfs; Nrjk; miljy;. 5. $l;l nehprypy; cjtpia
4. nghUs; Nrjk; Vw;gLjy; ehLtjw;Fk; cjtp Ghptjw;Fk; irif
VmVA k^ nkhopfisg; Gj;jpf; $h;ikAld;
1. tpgj;Jj; jLg;G tpopg;Gzh;T
np
gad;gLj;jTk;.
Vw;gLj;Jjy;. FB V>k
2. jLg;Gfis Vw;gLj;Jjy; 1. gs;sp Eiothapy;> khbg;gbfs;
3. fhtyh;fs;> Ch;f;fhty; gilapdiu kw;Wk; tFg;G miw Kfg;G mfpa
gzpapy; <LgLj;Jjy;. ,lq;fspy; xUtiunahUth; js;spf;
4. ghjpf;fgl;lth;fisr;
ghJfhg;G
KjYjtp nra;jy;.
tisak;
e/t
Rw;wpg;
Vw;gLj;jp
nfhz;Lk;> Ke;jpf;
XLtijj; jtph;f;fTk;.
nfhz;Lk;
2. msTf;F mjpfkhd khzth;fis

FB kBk tFg;giwapy; mDkjpf;ff;$lhJ.
.m
1. $l;l nehpriyj; jtph;f;f khw;W 3. mjpfkhd kf;fs; $Lk; cs;
topia mwpe;J gad;gLj;jTk;. muq;FfSf;F nry;tijj;
2. iffis neQ;NrhL Nrh;j;J itj;Jf; jtph;f;fTk;.
nfhs;sTk;.
://t
3. $l;lj;jpw;F ,ilia FWf;F

neLf;fhf tise;J nry;yTk;.
ps
••••••
htt
24
AslB_
s
scg
 ]V^_
np
 ]V^_ cs;shf;Ffpd;wJ. ehk; Nghpliur;
 ,e;jpa ehL mjpf kf;fs; re;jpf;Fk; nghOJ muRk;> If;fpa ehL
njhifiaAk; jdpj;jd;ik nfhz;l nrQ;rpYit rq;fk; Nghd;w rh;tNjr
,aw;if mikg;GfisAk; cilaJ. mikg;GfSk; cjTfpd;w NghJk;>
 ek; ehL cyf mstpy; mjpf
Nghplh;fSf;F cs;shd ehLfspy;
xd;whFk;. #whtsp>
e/t
epyeLf;fk;>
Nghpluhy; ghjpf;fg;gLk; r%fk;jhd;
jq;fisj; jhq;fNs ghJfhj;J
kPs;gth;fs; (1st Responder) Mtu;.
twl;rp> nts;sg;ngUf;F kw;Wk; Nghplh; vd;gJ ngUk; Nrjj;ijAk;
.m
epyr;rhpT Nghd;w ,aw;if ,lh;fs; Jauj;ijAk; cz;lhf;Fk; xU epfo;T
,e;jpahtpd; gy;NtW gFjpfspy; Nghpluhy; ghjpfg;gl;lth;fSf;F
ntt;NtW msTfspy; Vw;glfpd;wd. czT> cil> ,Ug;gplk>; kUj;Jtk;
 ,e;jpahtpy; trpf;Fk; ehk; midtUk; kw;Wk; epjp cjtpfs; mspg;gjd; %yk;
ntt;NtW tpjj;jpy; Nghplh;fspd; Nghplhpd; ghjpg;gpypUe;J mth;fis
://t
ghjpg;Gf;F cs;shfpd;Nwhk;. kPsr;nra;ayhk;.

vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf #whtsp fpof;Ff;  Nghplh;> ,aw;ifg; Nghplh;>
flw;fiuapYk; epyeLf;fk; gPlG+kpapd; kdpjdhy; Vw;gLk; Nghplh; vd ,U
kj;jpag; gFjpfspYk; kw;Wk; ,ka tifg;gLk; epyeLf;fk;> vhpkiy
ps
kiyg;gFjpapYk; nts;sg;ngUf;F ntbg;G> nts;sg;ngUf;F> #whtsp

fq;if> gpuk;kGj;jpuh rkntspfspYk; Nghd;wit ,aw;ifg; Nghplh;fs;
twl;rp ,uh[];jhdpYk; xbrhtpYk; MFk; Nghf;Ftuj;J> njhopw;rhiy>
Vw;gLfpd;wd. jPP Kjypatw;why; Vw;gLk; tpgj;Jfs;
htt
 Nghplh; ek;ik cldbahfTk; kdpjdhy; Vw;gLk; Nghplh;fs; MFk;.

NehpilahfTk; ghjpg;Gf;F
25
AslB_
]BVs[  >Vz>_^ ]B  \V\
s
1. 55% f;Fk; Nkyhd epyg;gug;G gBD
epyeLf;fj;Jf;Fk;  Njrpag; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ikj; jiyth;:
scg
2. 12% nts;sg;ngUf;fpw;Fk; gpujkh;> khepyg; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ikj;
jiyth;: khepy Kjyikr;rh;>
3. 8% #whtspf;Fk;
khtl;;lg; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ikapd;
4. 70% gaphplf;$ba epyk;
jiyth;: khtl;l Ml;rpah; my;yJ
twl;rpapd; jhf;fj;jpw;Fk;
khtl;;l ePjpgjp my;yJ cjtp
Mshfpd;wd.
Mizah; Nghd;Nwhh; xUq;fpize;j
np
epyeLf;fj;jpd; jPtpuj;ij msf;f Nghplh; Nkyhz;ikapd; mZF
,uz;L Kiwfs; cs;sd. mit KiwfisAk; nray; jpl;;lq;fisAk;
hpf;lh; msit (2 < Kjy; 8 > tiu) ,tu;fs; nray;gLj;Jth;.
kw;Wk; nkh;fyp msit (1 Kjy; 12  ,e;jpa mstpy;; ghjpg;Gf;F
tiu).
 Nghplh; vjph;nfhs;sy; vd;gJ Nghplh;
Nkyhz;ikr; Row;rpapd; ,uz;lhtJ
e/t cs;shf;fpa ,aw;ifg; Nghplh;fspy;
xd;whd nts;sg;ngUf;F 2014
nrg;lk;ghpy; [k;K fh\;kPh; khepyj;ijj;
epiyahFk;. Nghplh; epfo;tpd; NghJ jhf;fpaJ. mjpf kw;Wk; njhlh;
.m
cldb cjtpGhpjy;> ghjpg;Gfis kioahy; Vw;gl;lnts;sg;ngUf;F
kjpg;gpLjy;> njhlh;e;J cjtp nra;jy;> Mapuf;fzf;fhNdhhpd; capiug;
cl;fl;likg;G trjpfis kPz;Lk; gwpj;jJ. gyh; tPLfSf;F cs;NsNa
epiy epWj;Jjy; Mfpait Nghplh; czT> ePhpd;wp Klq;fpj; jtpj;jdh;.
vjph;nfhs;sypy; mlq;Fk;
 VB zA
://t
 \V\l[ WkD \uD  NguopTfshy; Vw;gLk; caphpog;Gfs;>

D V> ]^ tho;thjhuq;fspd ,og;Gfs;>
 Nghplh; Nkyhz;ikr; rl;lk; ,e;jpa nghUshjhuk; kw;Wk; ,aw;iff;
murhy; 2005 Mk; Mz;L brk;gh; nrhj;Jf;fs; Mfpatw;wpd;
23-Mk; ehs; mky;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. ,og;Gfisj; jLf;Fk; topKiwfs;>
ps
,r;rl;lk; ,e;jpag; Nghplh; Nghplh; mghaNeh;Tfspd; Fiwg;G

Nkyhz;ik mikg;G (NDMA) Vw;glf; (Disaster Risk Reduction) kw;Wk;
fhuzkhdJ. Nghplh;fspdhy; vOk; vjph;kiwj;
jhf;fq;fis Fiwf;f gue;j
htt
(Comprehensive approach) mZFKiw

%yk; Ghpe;J nfhs;Nthk;.
26
AslB_
Nghplh; mghaNeh;T Fiwg;G ekf;F vjw;fhf mitahd:
s
Njitg;gLfpwJ. 1. jzpj;jy;
 xU Nghplhpd; jPtpukhdJ> xU 2. Muk;g Kd;ndr;rhpf;if mikg;G
scg
rKjhaj;jpd; kPJk;> Rw;Wr;#oypd; 3. Nghplh; tUk;Kd; jahh; epiy
kPJk; vj;jifa jhf;fj;ij xh; ,lh; 4. kPl;G
Vw;gLj;JfpwJ vd;gijg; nghUj;J \A \uD \A _V>
mikfpwJ. mjd; jhf;fk;> gpd;dh; ehk; k^
ek; caph;fisAk;> Rw;Wr;#oiyAk; \A k
ghJfhf;f vLj;Jf; nfhs;Sk;  ve;j xU ,ay;G fl;likg;G>
np
Kd;ndr;rhpf;if eltbf;iffisg; Nghplhpd; jhf;fq;fis Fiwf;fNth>
nghUj;J mikfpwJ. ehk; vLf;Fk; jtph;f;fNth cl;gLj;jg;gLfpwNjh
me;jj; jPh;khdq;fs; ek;ikg; mJNt fl;likg;G eltbf;if MFk;
NghplypUe;J kPSk; jd;ikiag; (my;yJ) nghwpapay; rk;ge;jg;gl;l
ngWgth;fs; Mf;FfpwJ.
 UNISDR vd;Dk; mikg;G (United
e/t
Nation International Strategy for Disaster
El;gq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;L ,liuj;
jhq;ff;;$ba kw;Wk; kPSk; jd;ik
nfhz;l mikg;G my;yJ njhFjpia
Reduction) tiuaiw nra;Js;s mikg;gjhFk;.
\A _V> k^
.m
Nghplh; mghaNeh;T Fiwg;gpw;fhd
tiuaiwiaf; fhz;Nghk;.  ,aw;G fl;likg;gpw;F cl;glhj
 ‘Nghplhpd; ,ay;ghd fhuzq;fis ve;j xU eltbf;ifAk; fl;likg;G
Ma;T kw;Wk; Nkyhz;ik nra;J my;yhj eltbf;if vdg;gLfpwJ.
Kiwahd gapw;rpAk;> Kaw;rpAk; mit Nghplh; Fiwg;G> jhf;fq;fs;
://t
nra;J Nghplhpd; mgha Neh;itf; gw;wpa mwpT> eilKiw my;yJ

Fiwg;gNj ,jd; Nehf;fkhFk;. xg;ge;jq;fs;> Fwpg;gpl;l nfhs;iffs;
Nghplhpd; Fiwg;G> kf;fs; caph; kw;Wk; kw;Wk; rl;lq;fs;> nghJ kf;fSf;F
nrhj;JfSf;F Vw;gLk; ghjpg;Gfspd; tpopg;Gzh;T mspj;jy;> gapw;rp kw;Wk;
Fiwg;G> epyk; kw;Wk; Rw;wr; #oypy; fy;tp Nghd;w eltbf;iffs; MFk;.
ps
mwpTj;jpwDila Nkyhz;ik kw;Wk; \A k_ c^B

Kd;Ndw;wkhd jahh;; epiy Mfpait sk^
,jd; fUj;jpy; mlq;Fk;”. 1. ePiuj; Njf;fp itf;Fk; fiufs;
 Nghplh; mghaNeh;T Fiwg;gp;y; fl;Ljy; my;yJ fiufisg;
htt
rpy Kf;fpa mk;rq;fs; cs;sd gyg;gLj;Jjy;.
27
AslB_
2. thdpiy khw;wq;fSf;Fk;> Gtp xU jfty; mspg;Gj; njhFjp vd
s
mjph;Tk; jhq;ff;$ba kpd;rf;jpj; tpthpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
njhFjpfisj; jpl;lkpl;L mikj;jy;. 2. ,j;njhFjp> ,aw;ifg; Gtp ,ay;G
scg
3. fl;llq;fs; fl;Ltjw;Ff; fz;bg;ghd ,lh;fs;> caphpay; rk;ge;jg;gl;l
rl;lq;fisAk; tpjpKiwfisAk; ,lh;fs;> rKjha kw;Wk; murpay;
nray;gLj;j itj;jy;. rk;ge;jg;gl;l mtru fhyf;fl;lq;fs;
4. Gtp mjph;Tfisj; jhq;ff; $ba njhopyf kw;Wk; rk;ge;jg;gl;l kw;w
fl;llq;fs;> fl;lj; jpl;lkpLjy;. ,lh;fspd; NghJ nray;gLj;jg;gLk;
5. nghJf; fl;llq;fis mt;tg;nghOJ Xh; mikg;ghFk;.
np
gOJ ghh;j;Jj;; jhq;f ty;yjha; 3. Muk;g Kd;ndr;rhpf;if mikg;Gfs;
tbtikj;jy;. ,y;iynadpy;> gapw;rp kw;Wk;
6. ,lh;fs; Vw;gLk; gug;GfSf;F ntspNaw;Wjy; Nghd;w topKiwfs;
mg;ghy; tPLfis mikj;jy;. nghUj;jkw;wjhfptpLk; NkYk;
\A _V> kl_ c^
sk^
Nkyhz;ik
e/t
xOq;FKiwg;gLj;Jk;
Muk;g Kd;ndr;nrhpf;if mikg;G
vd;gJ> ehd;F Kf;fpa rk;ke;jg;gl;l
$Wfis cs;slf;fpaJ MFk;.
eltbf;iffs;
mitahtd:
.m
1. kz;lyq;fshfg; gphpj;Jr;
1. Mo;e;J ftdpj;jy; kw;Wk; gjpTfisg;
nray;gLjy;
Ghpe;J nfhs;Sjy;.
2. flNyhug; gFjpfspy; Nkyhz;ik
2. mghaNeh;T gw;wpa tpopg;Gzh;T
3. kiyg;gFjpfspy; Nkyhz;ik
kw;Wk; milahsk; fhZjy;
4. kiyr;rhpTg; gFjpfspy; Nkyhz;ik
3. vr;rhpf;if kw;Wk; gutr; nra;jy;
://t
5. r%f Nritfs;
4. nghUj;jkhd gpujpgypg;G.
6. fy;tpj; jpl;lq;fspy; Nghplh;
 Nlyp ];kpj; vd;w gj;J taJ rpWkp
Nkyhz;ikr; nray; jpl;lk;.
jha;he;J> nka;fht; flw;fiuapy;
7. ,aw;if tsq;fspd; gad;ghL gw;wpa
E}w;Wf;Fk; Nkw;gl;l may; ehl;Lr;
epge;jidfs;.
ps
Rw;Wyhg; gazpfis> 2004,y;

8. nfhs;iffs; %yk; ghJfhg;gw;w
,e;jpag; ngUq;flypy; Gtp mjph;tpd;
jpl;lq;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jjy;
fhuzkhf Vw;gl;l Rdhkpg;
gD x[ \A^
Nguiy moptpypUe;J ghJfhj;Jg;
1. Muk;g Kd;ndr;rhpf;if mikg;Gfs;
htt
Gfoile;Js;shh;. mtsJ
vdg;gLtJ mtru fhyf;fl;lq;fspy;
ngw;NwhUf;Fk;> kw;wth;fSf;Fk;
mghaNeh;Tfisf; Fiwg;gjw;fhd
Rdhkp gw;wpa vr;rhpf;ifiag; Nguiy
28
AslB_
tUk; Kd;Ng mwptpj;jpUf;fpwhs;.  Nguhgj;J tuf;$ba fhyq;fspy;
s
mts; gs;spapy; Rdhkp gw;wpg; midj;J muRfSf;Fk; nghJthd
gbj;jij kdjpw; nfhz;L ghJfhg;gpidAk;> mtruf;fhy
scg
Kd;$l;bNa vr;rhpf;if tpLj;Jf; epthuzj;ijAk; mspf;ff;$ba
fhg;ghw;wp cs;shs;. fhf;ff; $ba nghWg;Gfs; cz;L>
V >BV W Kjypy;> jahh; epiy Kaw;rpfs;
 ,J xU ePz;lfhyr; nray;ghL vLf;fNtz;ba ,lq;fs;; mjpf msT
vdf; nfhs;syhk;. jahh; epiy mghaNeh;T ,lq;fshFk;.
midj;J tifg; Nghplh; rk;ge;jg;gl;l  NghplUf;fhd jahh; epiy mZF
np
mtruf;fhyf; fl;lq;fspy; nray; KiwahdJ Njit mbg;;gilapyhd
gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. ,jd; Nehf;fk;> mZF Kiwf;F khwpAs;sJ. ,e;j
caph; ,og;GfisAk; ghjpg;GfisAk; mZFKiw ghjpf;fg;gl;l kf;fspd;
Fiwf;f Kw;gLk; nra;ifahFk;. jPh;khdq;fSf;Fk;> epfo;tpw;Fj;
Nghplh; Vw;gLtjw;F Kd;G jahh;
epiy nra;ifahdJ r%fj;jpd;
jpwidj; jpwk;glTk; mh;j;jKs;sjhf
e/t Njitahd
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
jpl;lkpLjYf;Fk;
mspf;fpwJ.
Mifahy;> jdpeghpd; Jauj;ijAk;
vjph;nfhs;s itf;Fk; xU epiyahFk;. ghjpg;igAk; fzprkhff; Fiwf;f
jpwd; tsh;g;G vd;gJ jdpg;gl;l r%f> KbfpwJ. NghplUf;fhd jahh;epiy
.m
ehL kw;Wk; cyf mstpy; midj;J JhpjkhfTk; jpwikahfTk; nray;gl
epiyfspYk; Vw;gLj;JtJ MFk;. toptFf;fpwJ vdyhk;.
 ,aw;ifg; Nghplh;fshfpa Gay;> *A
`hpNfd;> ilG+d; kw;Wk; nlhh;dhNlh  kPl;G vd;gJ> xU NghplUf;Fg; gpd;dh;
://t
Nghd;wit vr;rhpg;gJky;yhky; Muk;g ,oe;jtw;iwj; jpUk;gg; ngw vLf;Fk;

epiyapNyNa rpy mwpFwpfisf; jPh;khdq;fSk;> eltbf;iffSk;
fhl;l ty;yJ. mJ kl;Lkpd;wp mit vLf;Fk; xU fz;Nzhl;lkhFk;.
ek;ikj; jahh;gLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd NkYk; kPl;Gr; nray; r%fj;jpd;
Neuj;ijAk; nfhLf;fpd;wd. jd;ikia Kd;Ndw;wkiliar;
ps
mtrufhyj; jahh; epiyapy; ekf;F nra;aTk;> Nkw;nfhz;L Vw;gLk;

xU nghpa rthyhf miktJ Nghplh;fis mth;fs; vjph;nfhs;Sk;
ghjpg;Gfshy; Vw;gLk; Jauq;fSk;> jpwidg; gyg;gLj;Jk; nray;ghlhFk;.
,ay;G trjpfisg; ghJfhg;gJk; kPl;ghdJ> gioa rhjhuzr;
htt
MFk;. #o;epiyf;F nfhz;L tUtNjhL

kl;Lk; ,y;yhky; rkepiy
29
AslB_
miltjw;Fk; cWjp mspf;fpwJ. Fiwg;G epfo;r;rpfis Kidg;Gld;
s
,e;epiyapy; Gduikg;Gk;> nray;gLj;jpf; nfhz;L tUfpwJ.
kWfl;likj;jYk; Kf;fpag; gzpfshf ,e;epfo;r;rpfspd; Kjd;ik
scg
mikfpd;wd. Nghplh; mghaNeh;T Nehf;fkhff; fUjg;gLtJ cs;@h;
Fiwg;G eltbf;iffspd; tsh;r;rp kf;fspd; jpwid mjpkhf;FtJ MFk;.
kw;Wk; eilKiwg;gLj;Jjypy; KjYjtp> Njly;> kw;Wk; fhg;ghw;Wk;
kjpg;Gkpf;f tha;g;ig mspg;gjhfTk; jpwik> Muk;g Kd;ndr;nrhpf;if
mikfpwJ. mikg;G Nghd;wtw;wpy; gapw;rp
 r%fr; nray;ghLfs;> gs;spg; Nghplh; mspj;J mghaNeh;tpidf; Fiwf;fr;
np
Nkyhz;ikf; FO kw;Wk; Nghplh; nray;gl;L tUfpwJ.
Nkyhz;ikf; FO kw;Wk; Nghplh;  xt;Nthh; Mz;Lk; mf;Nlhgh; 13 Mk;
Nkyhz;ikf; fy;tp Mfpait ehs; cyfg; Nghplh; Fiwg;G ehs; vdf;
,aw;if kw;Wk; kdpjdhy; Vw;gLk; nfhz;lhlg;gl;L tUfpwJ. ,e;ehs;
Kf;fpag; gq;if tfpf;fpd;wd.

 jkpof muR> I.eh.
e/t
Nghplh;fspd; jPtpuj;ijf; Fiwg;gjpy;
tsh;r;rpj;
xt;nthU FbkfidAk;> ehl;ilAk;>
NghplypUe;J kPSk; rKjhakhfTk;
ehLfshfTk; khw;Wtjpy; gq;F ngw
jpl;lq;fspd; (UNDP) MjuNthLk; Cf;Ftpf;fpd;wJ.
topfhl;LjypdhYk; mghaNeh;T
.m
://t
••••••
ps
htt
30
s
scg
>tV| 
np

VD : AslB_
z] : M\ k^ e/t
]BV  M\ k^, >tV|  M\ k^
VA\
.m
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\
://t

>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V
FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z
ps
gB,
htt
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
AslB_
M\ k^
s
scg
]BV - M\ k^
 ,e;jpah nghJthf jhJg; nghUl;fspy; 1. cV M\^

tskpFe;J fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,e;jpahtpy;  ,Uk;G> nrk;G> khq;fdPR> ghf;irl;
np
Kjd;Kjypy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l cNyhfk; kw;Wk; jq;fk; Nghd;w cNyhfq;fisf;
jhkpuk; (Copper) MFk;. ,e;jpahitg; nfhz;Ls;sd. ,t;TNyhf
nghWj;j tiuapy; cNyhfj; fdpkq;fis NkYk; ,Utifahfg;
jhJf;fspy; ,Uk;G> ghf;irl;> gphpf;fyhk;. mit
khq;fdPR Mfpatw;iw ngUkstpy;
ngw;Ws;sJ. nrk;G> jq;fk;> fhhPak;>
Jj;jehfk; Mfpatw;iw Fwpg;gpl;l
e/t  ,Uk;G rhh;e;j fdpkq;fs;
 ,Uk;G rhuhj fdpkq;fs;
DA V> DA VV>
msT ngw;Ws;sJ. mNyhfj; M\^ M\^
.m
jhJf;fspy; ikf;fh> Rz;zhk;G ,t;tif ,Uk;G rhuhj
Mfpad mjpfstpy; fhzg;gLfpwJ. fdpkq;fspy; fdpkq;fspy;
 ,e;jpahtpy; vhpnghUl;fspd; epiy ,Uk;G cs;slf;fp ,Uk;G fyf;fhky;
mt;tsT rhjfkhf ,y;iy. apUe;jhy; ,Uk;G cs;stw;iw
 jhJg;nghUl;fs; njhopw;rhiyfspd; rhh;e;j fdpkq;fs; ,Uk;G rhuhj
://t
itl;lkpd;fs; (Vitamins of Industry) vd;fpNwhk;. fdpkq;fs;

vd;W Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wd. NkYk; v.fh: ,Uk;G> vd;fpNwhk;.
,aw;ifapd; md;gspg;G vd;Wk; Fwpg;gplg; khq;fdPR> v.fh. jq;fk;>
gLfpd;wd. ,Uk;gpd; fdpkq;fspy; epf;fy;> Nfhghy;l;> nts;sp> nrk;G>
khf;dill; kw;Wk; N`kill; Mfpa lq;];ld; ghf;irl;
ps
,uz;Lk; ,e;jpahtpy; mjpfk; Nghd;wit MFk;. Nghd;witahFk;.

fpilf;fpwJ. N`kill;by; 68 rjtPj DA V> M\^
,Uk;Gk;> khf;dill;by; 30 rjtPj DA>Vm (Iron Ore)
,Uk;Gk; cs;sJ.  ,Uk;G ehfhPfj;jpd; KJnfYk;G vd
htt
 fdpk tsq;fs; ,U tifg;gLk;. th;zpf;fg;gLfpwJ.

mit 1. cNyhff; fdpkq;fs; 2. cNyhf  ,e;jpahtpy; ,Uk;Gj;jhJ ,Ug;G
ky;yhj fdpkq;fs; mjpfsT ntl;b vLf;fhky; cs;sJ.

AslB_
cyfpd; nkhj;j ,Uk;Gj;jhJ ,Ug;gpy;  khq;fdPR cw;gj;jpapy; xhprh
20% ,Uk;gj;jhJ ,e;jpahtpy; Kjyplj;ijAk;> fh;ehlfh
s
mike;Js;sJ. ,uz;lhkplj;ijAk; ngw;Ws;sd.
 jukhd  cyfpd;
scg
,Uk;Gj;jhJ xhprhtpy; cw;gj;jpapy; 20
BVV, V, \X rjtPjk; ,e;jpahtpy; ,Ug;gjhf
khtl;lq;fspy; fpilf;fpwJ. fzf;nfLf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
DA>Vm D DA VV> M\^

V
gPfhh; kw;Wk; xhprh ,U khepyq;fSk;
 ,J mYkpdpak; jhJthFk; (ore)
,Uk;Gj;jhJ cw;gj;jpapy; 75 rjtPj
np
kpd;dhw;gFg;G Kiwapy;jhd;
,Uk;Gj;jhJit mspf;fpd;wd. vdNt
cNyhfj;ij jdpikg;gLj;j KbAk;.
,itapuz;ilAk; ,e;jpa ,Uk;Gj;jhJ mYkpdpak; rpypNfl; epiwe;j
glyk; vd;W Fwpg;ghh;. ghiwfs; rpijTWtjhy; cUthFk;
Nyrhd cNyhfNk mYkpdpak;
 kj;jpag; gpuNjrj;jpy; cs;s Jh;f;>
g];jhh; khtl;lq;fspYk;> rj;jP];fhpy;
cs;s nua;G+hpYk;> jkpofj;jpy; Nryk;
e/t MFk;.
 mYkpdpa
Fiwe;j
cUf;Fj;
tpiyapy;
njhopy;
kpFe;jsT
(fQ;rhiy) kw;Wk; kJiuapYk;>
fh;ehlfhtpy; Fj;uKf; kw;Wk; ghgh kpd;rf;jp fhzg;gLk; gFjpfspNyNa
.m
Gjyhd; Fd;WfspYk; ,Uk;gj;jhJ rhj;jpakhFk;.
ntl;bnaLf;fg;gLfpwJ.  tpkhdf; fl;Lkhdj; njhopYf;F kpf
 rh;tNj re;ijapy; ,e;jpa Kf;fpaj; Njit ghf;irl; MFk;.
,Uk;Gj;jhJtpw;F ey;y tha;g;Gfs; V zD \VW^
cs;sd fhuzk; mjd; juNk MFk;. 1. xhprh 2. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
://t
,e;jpah ,Uk;Gj;jhJ cw;gj;jpapy;

3. kj;jpag;gpuNjrk; 4. F[uhj;
cyfstpy; 7-k; ,lj;ij tfpf;fpwJ.
5. kfhuh\;buh 6. gPfhh;
\V
KtMB cz g^
 ,Uk;G v‡Fj; njhopYf;F mbg;gil
1. Nfush - My;tha;
ahdJ khq;fdPR MFk;. khq;fdPR
ps
2. jkpofk; - Nkl;^h;
fye;Js;s ,Uk;G kpfTk; fbdkhd
 ,J xU ey;y vspjpy; flj;Jk;
jhFk;.
flj;jpahfTk;> kpf NyrhfTk;
 khq;fdPR cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah
,Ug;gjhYk;> mjpfstpy; njhopw;
Ie;jhtJ ,lj;ijg; ngw;W cs;sJ.
htt
rhiyfSf;Fg; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 khq;fdPR ,Ug;gpy; ,e;jpah
u\;ahtpw;F mLj;j ,lj;ijg;
ngw;Ws;sJ.

AslB_
>D ]BVs_ c^ >Vt ^
 fh;ehlfhtpy; cs;s Nfhyhh; jq;f
s
1. uh[];jhd; - Nfj;hp> Nfhjhhpah
tay; 1871 Kjy; jq;fj;jpd; Kf;fpar;
2. gPfhh; - rpq;Gk;> nkhrghdp> uhf;fh;
scg
Ruq;fkhf ,Ue;J tUfpwJ. ,JNt
Njhgd
cyfpd; kpf Mokhd jq;fr;
3. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; - fk;kk;> `hrd;
Ruq;fkhFk;. ,j;Jld; n`l;b
4. fh;ehlfh - rpj;uJh;fh
Ruq;fKk;> fh;ehlfhtpd; nua;r;#h;
khtl;lj;jpy; jq;fj;jpd; Kf;fpar; 2. cVt_V> M\^
Ruq;fkhf tpsq;FfpwJ. 1. ikf;fh 2. Rz;zhk;Gf;fy;
np
 Me;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpy; mde;jG+h; 3. [pg;rk; 4. nghl;lhrpak;
khtl;lj;jpy; xU jq;fr; Ruq;fk; \V
nray;gl;L tUfpwJ. ,e;jpahtpd;  ,it kpd;rhuj;ij flj;jhg;
jq;f ,Ug;G Rkhh; 66700 fpNyh nghUshf ,Ug;gjhy;> kpd; nghUl;fs;
MFk;. jw;NghJ jq;fj;jpd; cw;gj;jpe/t cw;gj;jpf;F gad;gLfpwJ. cyfpy;
Mz;LNjhWk; Fiwe;J tUfpwJ. ikf;fh cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah 60
k^ rjtPjk; gq;fspf;fpwJ.
 fhhPak; kw;Wk; Jj;jehfj; jhJf;fisg;  cyfpNyNa mjpf ,Ug;Gf; nfhz;l
gphpj;njLf;Fk; NghJ fpilg;gNj ,e;jpah cyf ikf;fh cw;gj;jpapy;
.m
nts;sp MFk;. Kjyplk; tfpf;fpwJ.
 ,uh[];jhdpy; cs;s rhthh; (Zawar  cyfpd; 90 rjtPjk; ikf;fh
mines) Ruq;fNk nts;spapd; Kf;fpa cw;gj;jpia ,e;jpah Nkw;nfhs;fpwJ.
Ruq;fkhFk;.  ,e;jpahtpy; %d;W tifahd ikf;fh
://t
>VtD fhzg;gLfpwJ. mit>

 ,e;jpah jhkpu cw;gj;jpapy; 1. nts;is ikf;fh (White Mica)
gw;whf;FiwahfNt cs;sJ. 2. fWg;G ikf;fh (Black Mica)
 jhkpuk; rpwe;j ntg;gf;flj;jpahfTk;> 3. Mk;gh; ikf;fh (Amber Mica)
kpd; flj;jpahfTk; ,aw;ifapy;  ,e;jpahtpy; gPfhh; ikf;fh cw;gj;jpapy;
ps
fhzg;gLk; kw;nwhU cNyhfkhFk;. Kjyplk; tfpf;fpwJ.

 kpd;fUtpfs; jahhpg;G  gPfhhpy; fah> `rhhpghf;> Kq;fh; Mfpa
njhopw;rhiyfspy; jhkpuk; ngUk; ,lq;fspYk;> gPfhhpd; fphpj; Ruq;fk;>
gq;fhw;WfpwJ. jhkpuk; kw;w Nfhjh;gh Ruq;fk; Mfpa Ruq;fq;fspy;
htt
cNyhfq;fSld; Nrh;e;J fyg;G ikf;fh cw;gj;jp kpFe;Js;sJ.

cNyhfk; nra;ag; gad;gLfpwJ.  Me;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpYs;s ney;Y}h;
gFjpapd; Mj;kg+h; kw;Wk; f^h;

AslB_
Ruq;fq;fspy; gr;ir ikf;fh Nlhyikl; 90% Nlhyikl;>
s
fpilf;fpwJ. kj;jpag; gpuNjrk;>
 jkpofj;jpy; Nryk;> ePyfphp gFjpfspy; rl;B];fh;> xbrh>
scg
fpilf;fpwJ. F[uhj;> fh;ehlfh>
 ,uh[];jhdpy; gpy;thuh> M[;kPh;> Nkw;F tq;fk;
n[a;g;G+h;> cja;G+h; gFjpfspy; ikf;fh M];ng];lh]; ,uh[];jhd;> Me;jpu
fhzg;gLfpwJ. kw;Wk; fh;ehlfh
cVt_V M\ ^ [pg;rk; ,uh[];jhd;> [k;K
Rz;zhk;G Me;jpuh> ,uh[];jhd;> kw;Wk; fh\;kPh;
np
kj;jpag; gpuNjrk;> fpuhigl; fhy`ghz;b>
F[uhj;> rl;B];fh; Nghyd;fph;> gh`y;G+h;
(gPfhh;)
••••••
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt

AslB_
s
>tV|  M\ k^
scg
M\ 3 kV VD
np
1. cNyhff; fdpkq;fs;
2. mNyhff; fdpkq;fs;
3. fdpk vhpnghUl;fs;
>tVK^ cV M\^
e/t M\^
,Uk;Gj;jhJ
\Vk^
Nryk;> ehkf;fy;>
jpUtz;zhkiy
nrk;G Nryk;> ePyfphp>
.m
Nfhak;Gj;J}h;> kJiu
ghf;irl; Nryk;> ePyfphp>
Nfhak;Gj;J}h;> NtY}h;>
kJiu> jUkGhp>
tpOg;Guk;
://t
FNuhikl; Nryk;> ehkf;fy;> jpUr;rp

>tw]_ M\^ c^ ^ kw;Wk; <NuhL
igiul; tpOg;Guk;
,aw;ifapYs;s xU %yfk; my;yJ gy
>tVK^ V M\^
%yfq;fspd; $l;Lg; nghUshdJ jhJg;
M\^ \Vk^
nghUs; my;yJ fdpkk; vdg;gLk;.
ps
Rz;zhk;G tpUJefh;> J}j;Jf;Fb>

>tw]_ V|D xB M\ jpUney;Ntyp
k^ fy; jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp>
1. cztpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; cg;G fhQ;rpGuk;> Nryk;
htt
2. ngd;rpy; jahhpf;fg; gad;gLk; ikf;fh jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp>

fpuhigl; Mfpait jkpo;ehl;by; gutpf; Nfhak;Gj;J}h;>
,uhkehjGuk;
fhzg;gLk; Kf;fpa fdpktsq;fshFk;.

AslB_
khf;dirl; Nryk;> ehkf;fy;> >tVK^ M\
s
Nfhak;Gj;J}h;> <NuhL V^
];Baill; NtY}h;> flY}H> M\^ \Vk^
scg
Nfhak;Gj;J}H> Nryk;> ngl;Nuhypak; jpUth&h; (gdq;Fb)> ehp
jpUr;rp kzk;> (fhtphp nly;lh
cg;G nrd;id> J}j;Jf;Fb> gFjp)
flY}h;> ehfg;gl;bdk;> ypf;idl; flY}h; (nea;Ntyp)
jpUth&h;.
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt

AslB_
DA >VtD, ~BD, m>VD
s
 fUk;nghd; vdg;gLk; ,Uk;G  tpOg;Guk; khtl;lk; khkz;^h;>
,d;wpaikahjJ. njhOte;jhq;fy;> xbahe;jq;fy;
scg
 Nryk; ehkf;fy; khtl;lj;jpy; fQ;r kw;Wk; fd;dpahFkhp khtl;lk;
kiyg; gFjpapy; 5 mLf;Ffshf Njh;thid tl;lk; mUkzY}Uf;F
,Uk;Gj; jhJf;fs; cs;sd. ,it (iky; njd;Nkw;Nf cs;s kq;fhk;
kpfr; rpwe;j juk; cilait kiyg; gFjpfspYk; nghd;khdh
,k;khtl;lj;jpy; nfhLkiyapYk;
vd;w ,lj;jpYk;> jpUney;Ntyp
,Uk;Gj;jhJ cs;sJ.
khtl;lk; ehq;FNehpiar; Nrh;e;j
np
 jkpo;ehl;by; nkhj;jk; 14 ld; ,Uk;Gj;
Kd;wj;jha;g;G> mk;ghrKj;jpuk;>
jhJ ,Uf;Fk; vd kjpg;gplg;gLfpwJ.
gl;ld; fhL rpw;W}hpYk;> kzpKj;jhW
jkpo;ehl;L ,Uk;G fdpkj;jpy; ruhrhp
35% ,Uk;G kl;LNk cs;sJ. fhy;tha; gFjpfspYk; ,it
 NkYk; gphpj;njLf;f Kbahj fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
khf;dill; vd;w fdpkj;ij cilaJ.
Mdhy; 18% kl;LNk ,Uk;gpypUe;J
gphpj;njLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
e/t V
 mYkpdpaj;jhJ jkpo;ehl;by;
nkhj;jk; 16.7 kpy;ypad; ld; ghf;irl;
>D ,Uf;Fk; vd kjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
.m
 jkpo;ehl;by; ePyfphpf;F tlNkw;Nf  Nryk; khtl;lk; Nrh;tuhad;
cs;s taehl;Lg; gFjpapy; kl;LNk kiyg;gFjpfs;> Nrh;tuhad; rpfuk;
cs;sJ. 1785-apNyNa INuhg;gpa jq;f Vw;fhl;Lg; gFjpapYs;s Nrhof;fhL>
Ntl;ilia ,q;F njhlq;fpdhh;. ePyfphp khtl;lk; Nfhj;jfphpiar;
1875-y; My;gh FO> Njtyh> ge;jY}h; Rw;wpYk;> cjfkz;lyj;jpw;Fk;
://t
gFjpfspy; nghd;idj; NjbaJ. Fd;D}Uf;Fk; ,ilapYk;> cjf

1879-1981-f;Fs; Kg;gJf;Fk; Nkw;gl;l kz;lyj;ijr; Rw;wpYk;> jpz;Lf;fy;
FOf;;fs; ,yz;ld; khefhpypUe;J khtl;lk; godp kiyapYs;s rpwpa
jUtpf;fg;gl;l nghpa ve;jpuq;fSld;
Fd;WfspYk; kw;Wk; Nrhof;fhl;bYk;
nghd;Ntl;il Mbdh;.
fpilf;fpwJ.
ps
 1935-y; M];jpNuypahtpypUe;J
,t;tplq;fisg; ghh;itapl;L jhk];
zVtBD
jpdhhp jahhpj;j Fwpg;igf; nfhz;L  ,Uk;G> epf;fy; ,tw;Wld; Nrh;e;J
taehl;L nghd; ngUf;Fj; Jiw gy fyg;Gfspy; fpilf;fpwJ. Nryk;
khtl;lk; rpj;jh; NfhapYf;Ff;
htt
KbTf;F te;jJ.
fpof;Nf fQ;rkiyapd; Nkw;Fg; gFjp>
ehkf;fy; khtl;lk; Vuahkq;fyk;>
Vkhyrp> nrl;b

AslB_
 ghisak;> ghkhe;j ghisak;> Njhl;b Foha;> kpd; jhq;fpfs;> ild
s
ahej;jk; Kjypag; gFjpfspy; jkpo; Nkhf;fs;> Nkhl;lhh;fs;> $iuj;jsk;>
ehl;by; FNuhkpak; fpilf;fpwJ. tz;zg;G+r;R> gpsh];bf; jahhpg;G
scg
 fpl;lj;jl;l 30>000 ld; msT kw;Wk; cilahj fz;zhb jahhpg;gpy;
FNuhkpak; msTf; fhzg;gLfpwJ. gad;gLfpwJ.
 jkpofj;jpy; ikf;fh Nryk; jpUr;rp>
W_
<NuhL> Nfhit> kJiu> ePyfphp>
 Nryk; khtl;lk; jhj;ijaq;fhh;
jpUney;Ntyp> fd;dpahFkhp> NtY}h;
Ngl;il> %q;fpy;gl;b> fWg;G+h;>
Mfpa khtl;lq;fspy; fpilf;fpwJ.
nts;is fy;gl;b> kh%yg;gd;gl;b
np
D
Mfpa ,lq;fspy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.  mNyhfq;fspNyNa kpFjpahfg;
_\ gad;gLtJ ,Jjhd;. [pg;rk; gpsh];lh;
 ,J ill;lhdpa cNyhf fdpkk;> M‡g; ghhp]; nra;ag;gad;gLfpwJ.
nts;is tz;zj; jahhpg;gpYk; ug;gh;>  rpnkz;l;> cuk;> fe;jfk; jahhpf;fTk;
fz;zhb> nts;is ik> ypNdhypak;>
fhfpjj; jahhpg;gpYk; gad;gLfpwJ.
 fd;dpahFkhp khtl;lk; kzthsf;
e/t gad;gLfpwJ.
 jkpo;ehl;by; nguk;gY}h;> ,uhkehjGuk;>
J}j;Jf;Fb> jpUney;Ntyp Nfhak;
Fwpr;rp> ,ypGuk;> J}j;Jf;Fb> khtl;lk;> Gj;J}h; khtl;lq;fspYk; ,J kpFjp
ahff; fpilf;fpwJ.
.m
itg;ghW> fy;yhW fopKfg;gFjpfs;>
Ntg;glNyhilf; flw;fiu Mfpag; zkV
 ,J vq;Fk; kype;J fplf;Fk;
gFjpfspYk; fpilf;fpwJ.
fdpkkhFk;. ntq;fr; nrk;ky;> gbf;fy;>
\VV rPdpf;fy; vd;W gy ngah;ngWk;.
 rptg;G> gOg;G> fpspg;gr;ir> kQ;rs;
 KO
://t
tsh;r;rpaile;j gbfq;fs;
fye;j gOg;G Kjypa epwq;fspy; thndhypf; fUtp> je;jpf; fUtp>
fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; rpwpjsT fk;gpapy;yhj je;jp Kjypatw;wpy;
NjhhpaKk; ANudpaKk; $l mjph;T fUtpahfg; gad;gLfpwJ.
cs;sjhy; mZrf;jpf;F kpFjpAk;  mofpa tz;zKs;s gbfq;fs;
gad;glf;$baJ. kzpfshfg; gad;gLfpd;wd. NkYk;
ps
 jh;kGhp khtl;lk; rhky;ghl;bw;F ,J fz;zhb> rpypf;fhJ}s;> th;zg;

njw;NfAs;s nrz;gfkiy mbthuj;jpy; G+r;R> Nrhg;G jahhpg;G Mfpatw;wpYk;
,f;fdpkk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. gad;gLfpwJ.
\V  ,J fbfhuj;jpYk; gad;gLfpwJ.
htt
 ‘V V[” vdg;gLk; ,jpy; jkpo;ehl;by; jQ;ir> jpUr;rp> Nryk;>

xd;gJ tiffs; cs;sd. thndhypf;

AslB_
ehkf;fy;> <NuhL> jpUts;@h;  ,J Rkhh; 500 r.fp.kP gug;gpy; gutp
s
khtl;lq;fspy; ,J fpilf;fpd;wJ. As;sJ. ,J xU Kf;fpakhd nlh;\php
VDA _ fhy epyf;fhp tayhFk;. cNyhfk;
scg
 jkpo;ehl;bd; Kf;fpakhd fdpk jahhpf;Fk; FNuhkpak; gad;gLfpwJ.
tskhf ,Uf;fpwJ. A W
 rpnkz;l; cw;gj;jpf;F gad;gLfpd;w
 Kf;fpakhd epyf;fhpg; gLiffs;
,f;fy; nguk;gY}h;> f&h;>
flY}hpypUe;J Rkhh; 40 fp.kP
Nfhak;Gj;J}h;> Nryk;> ,uhkehjGuk;>
njhiytpy; mike;Js;sd.
jpUney;Ntyp Mfpa khtl;lq;fspy;
 flY}h; kzw; ghiwapy; Rkhh; 40 kP
np
ngUksT fpilf;fpwJ.
cA Moj;jpy; gOg;G epyf;fhp fpilf;fpwJ.
 flw;fiug; gFjpfspy; cg;G Mh;gP\pad; Cw;Wfs; ,Ug;gjhy;
fpilf;fpwJ. Ntjhuz;ak;> J}j;Jf; epyf;fhpia ntl;b vLg;gjpy;
Fb gFjpfspy; mjpfkhf cg;G gpur;rid Vw;gLfpwJ.
jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 ,e;jpahtpd;
jkpo;ehL
cg;G
,uz;lhtJ
e/t
cw;gj;jpapy;
,lj;ij
 Mz;L cw;gj;jp 12 kpy;ypad; ld;
fshFk;. jkpo;ehl;bd; rf;jp kw;Wk;
cu cw;gj;jpahFk; gOg;G epyf;fhpapd;
tfpf;fpd;wJ. gq;F mjpfstpy; cs;sJ.
 #hpa ntg;gj;jpdhy; Mtpahf;Fk;
.m
VoBD
Kiwapy; cg;G jahhpf;fg;  jkpo;ehl;by; fhtphpg; gLifapy;
gad;gLfpwJ.
ngl;Nuhypak; fpilf;fpwJ.
o  1984-k; Mz;L Kjy; fhtphpg;
 ,e;jpahtpy; jkpo;ehl;by; kl;Lk;
gFjpfspy; vz;nza;f; fpzWfs;
://t
jhd; ngUkstpy; ypf;idl; ntl;b

Njhz;lg;gl;L tUfpd;wd. ,Jtiu
naLf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;jpahtpd;
gOg;G epyf;fhp cw;gj;jpapy; 9% jkpo; 100f;Fk; Nkw;gl;l fpzWfs;
ehl;bypUe;J fpilf;fpwJ. Njhz;lg;gl;Ltpl;ld.
 jkpo;ehl;by; fdpkts cw;gj;jpapd;  ehpkzk;> Nfhtpy; fsg;ghy;> mbaf;fh
kjpg;gpy; ghjpasT gOg;G epyf;fhp kq;fyk;> fkyhGuk;> Gtdfphp Mfpa
ps
apypUe;J fpilf;fpwJ. ypf;idl;bd; gFjpfspy; fpilf;fpwJ.

,Ug;G Rkhh; 2500 kpy;ypad;  gdq;Fb vd;Dkplj;jpy; xU
ld;fshFk;. ngl;Nuhypa Rj;jpfhpg;G epiyak;
epWtg;gl;Ls;sJ.
htt
••••••

s
scg
>tV| 
np

VD : AslB_
z] : J AslB_  \^ >V ] \uD k_
e/t

VA\
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\
.m
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\
://t
>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V

FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z
ps
gB,
htt
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
]B AslB_
J AslB_
s
scg
]BV - \^ >V
nghUshjhu Kd;Ndw;wk; vd;gJ
np
njhopy;Jiw kw;Wk; Ntshz; Jiwapy;
Vw;gl;l tsh;r;rpahFk;.
\^ >V w

e/t ||]Bk
1. kUj;Jteyk;
2. cly; eyk;
3. nts;sj;jLg;G
4. jP tpgj;JfspypUe;J ghJfhg;G
.m
Nghd;wtw;wpy; Vw;gLk; Kd;Ndw;wk;
,aw;ifapy; Vw;gLk; kf;fspd; ,og;igf;
fl;LgLj;JfpwJ.
 kf;fs;njhif tsh;r;rp my;yJ
\^ >V kE ,aw;ifahf Vw;gLk; kf;fs;njhif
://t
 cyf kf;fs;njhif 1650 Mk; Mz;L mjpfhpg;ghdJ gpwg;G tpfpjk; kw;Wk;

Rkhh; 500 kpy;ypaid vl;baJ. tpfpjj;jpidg; nghWj;Nj mikAk;.
mg;nghOJ Kjy; kf;fs;njhif
A s>D
mjpfkhf tsh;r;rpailaj;
nkhj;j kf;fs; njhifapy; 1000
njhlq;fpaJ. cyf kf;fs;njhif
ps
ngz;fSf;F Xh; Mz;by; gpwf;Fk;

Kjd;Kjypy; 1804 Mk; Mz;L
Foe;ijfspd; vz;zpf;if MFk;.
xU gpy;ypaid vl;baJ. 1927 Mk;
Mz;L ,uz;L gpy;ypadhf 123
A s>D
Mz;LfSf;Fg; gpwF mjpfhpj;jJ. nkhj;j kf;fs; njhifapy; 1000
htt
1950 Mk; Mz;L Kjy; kf;fs;njhif kf;fspy; Xh; Mz;by; Vw;gLk; ,wg;gpd;
tsh;r;rp njhlh;e;J mjpfhpj;Jf; vz;zpf;if MFk;.
nfhz;Nl ,Uf;fpwJ.

]B AslB_
\^>V kE s>D \^ >Vl[ u
s
 gpwg;G tpfpjj;jpw;Fk;> ,wg;G [ WBD
tpfpjj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s  gpwg;G tpfpjk; ,wg;G tpfpjj;jpy;
scg
NtWghL kf;fs; njhif tsh;r;rp Vw;gl;l khw;wepiy kf;fs; njhifapy;
tpfpjk; MFk;. ,J rjtpfpjj;jpy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f tsh;rr
; papid Vw;gLj;jp
Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ. As;sJ.
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
]BVs_ \^ >V D

]B AslB_
 kEB> V|[ gpwg;G \^>V ]
s
tpfpjk; kw;Wk; ,wg;G tpfpjk;  xU gug;gpy; cs;s kf;fspd;
Fiwthf cs;sJ. ruhrhp vz;zpf;ifia mstpLtJ
scg
 kmkD V|[ ,wg;G MFk;. xU rJu fpNyhkPl;lUf;Fs;
tpfpjk; zkVD, gpwg;G tpfpjk; thOk; kf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifia
mjpfkhfTk; ,Ug;gjhy; mjpf mstpLtJ MFk;.
kf;fs;njhif fhzg;gLfpwJ.
\^>V ]l[ E
 rpy ehLfspy; gpwg;Gfistpl
,wg;Gfs; mjpfkhfTk; my;yJ
zA^
1. \VVV vdg;gLk; tEB
np
gpwg;Gfs; kw;Wk; ,wg;Gfs; rkkhf
,Ug;gjhYk; kf;fs;njhif tsh;r;rp V[ \^ ] xU rJufpNyh
aB\V _m ]\l_ kPl;lUf;F 16>779 kf;fs; MFk;.
epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;. nkdhNfh kpfr;rpwpa ehlhf (1.95) rJu
fp.kP ,Ug;gpDk;> mjd; kf;fs; mlh;j;jp
Mfpa ,uz;LNk mjpfkhf
,Ug;gpd; kf;fs; njhif mjpfstpy;
tsh;r;rpailahJ.
e/t
 gpwg;G tpfpjk; kw;Wk; ,wg;G tpfpjk;
kpfTk; mjpfkhFk;.
2. kf;fs;njhif mlh;j;jp kpf mjpfkhf
cs;s ehL kV >\VzD. ,q;F
 ,wg;G tpfpjj;jpid tpl gpwg;G 1 rJu fpNyhkPll
; Uf;F 1069 kf;fs;
.m
tpfpjk; mjpfkhfTk; ,Ug;gpd;
tho;fpd;wdh;.
kf;fs;njhif mjpfhpf;Fk;.
3. kf;fs; njhif mlh;j;jp kpff; Fiwthf
 gpwg;G tpfpjk; FiwthfTk;> ,wg;G
tpfpjk; mjpfkhfTk; ,Ug;gpd; cs;s ehL \VoBV MFk;. ,q;F
kf;fs;njhif FiwAk;. rJu fpNyh kPl;lUf;F 1.7 kf;fs;
://t
tho;fpd;wd.
\^>V k_ 4. ,uz;lhtJ kf;fs;njhif mlh;j;jp
 Gtpapy; > kf;fs; gutpf; fhzg;gLk;
Fiwthf cs;s ehL g]oBV
epiyapidNa kf;fs;njhifg;
MFk;. xU rJu fpNyh kPl;lUf;F 2.9
guty; vd;fpNwhk;. ,it xNu rPuhff;
kf;fisf; nfhz;L cs;sJ.
ps
fhzg;gLtjpy;iy.
\^ >VlV_ k
xU ehl;bd; kf;fs; njhif
g>V[ V]A^
vz;zpf;ifia> me;ehl;bd;
gug;gstpdhy; tFj;J fzf;fpLtjd; mjpf kw;Wk; tsh;e;JtUk; kf;fl; njhif
htt
%yk; mwpayhk;. Fiwe;j msT ts Mjhuq;fs; kPJ mjpf

]B AslB_
mOj;jj;ij Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd. tsq;fspd; 3. ghiytdkhjy;
s
mjpfsT Ruz;lypd; tpisthy; gpd;tUk; 4. czTg; gw;whf;Fiw
ghjpg;Gfs; Vw;gLfpwJ. 5. fdpkq;fs; jPh;e;JNghjy;
scg
1. ePh;g;gw;whf;Fiw 6. khR Vw;gLj;Jjy;
2. fhLfspd; mopT
\^>V k_ \uD ]l V]zD V^:

Bu V^:
Bu ] ] z> ]
np
V^
1. Gtpj;Njhw;wk; rkkhd epyg;gug;G (,e;jpahtpd; kiyfs; (,kakiy)
fq;ifr; rkntsp)
2. fhyepiy gaph;fs; tsh;tjw;Fg; NghJ jPtpukhd fhyepiyg; gFjpfspy;
e/t
khd kioasT kw;Wk; ntg;gk; kf;fs; mlh;j;jp
epyTk; fhyepiy kf;fs; mlh;j;jp fhzg; gLk;. v.fh. kpf mjpf
mjpfkhf ,Ug;gjw;F VJthf ntg;g Ks;s rfhuh ghiytdk;
neUf;fkw;W
cs;sJ. v.fh. ,e;jpah kw;Wk; mjpff; Fsph; gFjpahf

.m
fphPd;yhe;J
3. ts Mjhuq;fs; tsq;fs; mjpfkhff; tsq;fs; Fiwthd gFjpfspy;
fhzg;gLk; kf;fs; neUf;fkw;W fhzg;gL
fpd;wdh;. v.fh. Mg;gphpf;fhtpy;
cs;s rhN`y; gFjp
://t
\M> V^:
\M> V^ ] ] z> ]
1. murpay; epiyahd murhq;fk; cs;s epiyaw;w murhq;fk; eilngWk;
ehLfspy; kf;fs; mlh;jj
; p ehLfspypUe;J kf;fs; ,lk;
mjpfkhf cs;sJ. v.fh. ngau;e;J nry;tjhy; mlu;j;jp
ps
rpq;fg;G+h; Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;.

v.fh. Mg;fhdp];jhd;
2. rKjhak; jq;fs; ghJfhg;gpw;fhf kf;fs; kf;fSs; rpy $l;lq;fs; jdpj;J
htt
FOf;fshf neUf;fkhf tho tho tpUk;Gth;. v.fh. ];fhz;b

tpUk;Gth;. v.fh. mnkhpf;f Netpah;fs;
If;fpa ehLfs;

]B AslB_
3. nghUshjhuk; ey;y Ntiytha;g;Gfs; Fiwthf Ntiytha;g;Gfs;
s
cs;s ,lq;fspy; Fwpg;ghf gFjpfspy; kf;fs; mlh;j;jpf;
nghUshjhuk; mjpfkhf Fiwthff; fhzg;gLk;. v.fh:
scg
tsh;r;rp mile;Js;s (Kk;ig) mNkrhd; kiof; fhl;Lg;gFjpfs;.
ehLfspYs;s efuq;fspy;
kf;fslh;j;jp mjpfkhff;
fhzg;gLk;.
transmission)
np
\uV|[xB>VOb Kjy; fl;lj;jpy;
BuV^^ ,Ue;jJ.
V|^ BuV^  mjhtJ mjpf gpwg;G tPjk;> mjpf
1. mnkhpf;f yhz;l; rhl; ,wg;G tPjk;. vdNt kf;fs; njhif
If;fpa ehLfs; tsu;r;rp FiwT.
2. gpuhd;R
3. nfhhpah
];ghl;
fpl;rhl;
e/t  mjpfkhd ,wg;gpdhy; jhd; 1921y;
kf;fs; njhif Fiwe;jJ.
VD D (192151)
4. rPdh ahq;fhd;
 ,f;fl;lj;jpy; kf;fs; njhif tsu;r;rp
,e;jpa kf;fs; njhif tsu;r;rpapid 4
.m
251kpypUe;J 361kp mjhtJ 110kp.
fl;lq;fshfg; gpupf;fg;gLfpwJ. mit.
Mf cau;e;jJ.
Kjy; fl;lk; - 1891 - 1921 epiyahdJ
 kf;fspay; gz;Gfs; khWghLfspd;
2-tJ fl;lk; - 1921 - 1951 epiyahd
,uz;lhk; epiyia ,e;jpah milaj;
tsu;r;rp
njhlq;fpaJ.
://t
3-tJ fl;lk; 1951 - 1981 mjpNtf  ,f;fl;lj;jpy; ,wg;G tpfpjk; 49/1000

tsu;r;rp ypUe;J 27/1000 Mf Fiwe;jJ.
4-tJ fl;lk; 1981 Fiwthd tsu;r;rp  ,jNdhL xg;gpLk; NghJ kf;fspd;
tpfpjk; gpwg;G tpfpjk; FiwahJ ,Ue;jJ
x>_ D vdyhk;.
ps
 ,f;fl;lj;jpy; kf;fs; njhif 236 J[VD D (192151)

kpypUe;J 251 kpy;ypad;fshf  1951-apypUe;J kf;fs; njhif
cau;e;jJ. msthd 360kp. 1991-k; Mz;by;
,ul;bg;gpw;Fk; Nkyhfg; ngUfp 844kp
htt
 15kp mjpfupg;G kl;LNk

MdJ.
 ,f;fl;lj;jpy; ,e;jpah kf;fspay;
khWghLfspd; (Demographic

]B AslB_
 kf;fspay; gz;Gfspd; khWghLfspd; 9. 2011-y; nrd;r]pd; hp[];lh; n[duy;
s
kf;fs; njhif ntbg;G epiyia
kw;Wk; nrd;r]; fkp\dh;: jpU.
va;jpaJ.
C.re;jpunksyp.
scg
 tUl mjpfupg;G tPjk; 2%
 kUj;Jtj; Jiwapy; Kd;Ndw;wj;jpy; 10. 2011-y; ,e;jpa kf;fs;njhif
,wg;G tPjk; 27/1000 ypUe;J 10/1000 1210 kpy;ypad; (m) 1.21 gpy;ypad;
Mff; Fiwe;jJ.
(m) 121 Nfhb
 Mdhy; gpwg;G tpfpjk; kpjkhfNt
Mz;fs; - 623.7 kpy;ypad; (51.54%)
Fiwaj; njhlq;fpaJ.
ngz;fs; - 586.5 kpy;ypad; (48.46%)
 V[VD D (1981)
np
 gpwg;G tpfpjk; Ntfkhf Fiwe;jJ.
,wg;G tpfpjk; FiwfpwJ.
]BVs[ [ sk^
(2011)
1. ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; nrd;r]; : 1872>
NkNah gpuG
2. ,e;jpahtpd; KOikf;fhd Kjy;
e/t
KOikahd nrd;r];: 1881> hpg;gd;
.m
gpuG
3. nrd;r]; rl;lk;: 1948.
4. 2011-tJ nrd;r];: 15tJ nrd;r];
MFk;. Rje;jpuj;jpw;Fg;gpd; 7tJ
nrd;r]; MFk;.
://t
5. 2011-tJ nrd;r]; ikaf;fUj;J

‘OUR CENSUS OUR FUTURE’
6. nrd;r]; kj;jpa gl;baypy; (CENTRE
LIST) cs;sJ.
7. nrd;r]; tpjp: 246 (Article 246)
ps
8. ,e;j nrd;r]; ,uz;L gFjpfis

cilaJ.
1. tPLfs; gw;wpaJ (House Listing and
htt
Housing Census)
]BVs_ \^ >V k
2. kf;fs; njhif (Population
Enumeration)

]B AslB_
\^ D () \^ ]
s
(2011)
]BVs[ \] (382)
scg
]x^ zkV \VWD
\VWD
1. gPfhh; 1. mUzhryg;gpuNjrk;
2. Nkw;Ftq;fk; 2. kpNrhuhk;
3. Nfush 3. rpf;fpk;
np
11. gj;jhz;L tsh;r;rp tPjk;: 17.64% - UT Nrh;j;J State + UT Nrh;j;J
(2001-2011) 1. nly;yp 1. mUzhryg;gpuNjrk;
12. cyf kf;fs; njhifapy; ,e;jpa 2. rz;bfh; 2. me;jkhd; epNfhghh;
kf;fs; njhif: 17.5% e/t g   s>VD / Vo
13. Njrpa kf;fs;njhif nfhs;if - s>D (Sex ratio) 2011
]BVs[ (Sex ratio) (940)
2010.
]x^ \VWD zkV \VWD
\^ >V (2011)
1. Nfush (1084) 1. `hpahdh (877)
.m
]BVs[ \^ >V
2. jkpo;ehL (995) 2. [k;K-fh\;kPh;
]x^ \VWD zkV \VWD 3. Me;jpuh (992) 3. rpf;fpk;
1.cj;jpug; gpuNjrk; 1. rpf;fk;
2. kfhuh\;buh 2. kpNrhuhk; (State + UT) (State + UT)
1. Nfush 1. lhkd;-ilA+ (618)
3. gPfhh; 3.mUzhryg;
://t
2. ghz;br;Nrup 2. jhj;uh efh; (775)

4. Nkw;Ftq;fk; gpuNjrk; 3. jkpo;ehL 3. rz;bfh; (818)
State + UT Nrh;j;J 4. Me;jpuh 4. nly;yp (866)
1. yl;rj;jPT 
2. lhkd; kw;Wk; ilA+ ]BV \VW[ 
ps
3. jhj;uh B \VWD EB \VWD

4. me;jkhd; 1. uh[];jhd; 1. Nfhth
2. kj;jpag;gpuNjrk; 2. rpf;fpk;
5. rpf;fpk; 3. kfhuh\;buh 3. jphpGuh
htt

]B AslB_
_sB (2011) kVV^ \]|
s
]BVs[ \V> _sB (\) g^  xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyj;jpy; tho;e;j
_sB kf;fspd; tho;ehs; fhyj;ijf;
scg
]x^ \VWD zkV \VWD fzf;fpy; nfhz;L xU egh; ruhrhp
1. kpNrhuk; 1. gPfhh; ahf thOk; fhyj;ijf; fzf;fpLtJ
2. Nfush 2. mUzhryg; MFk;.
3. jphpGuh gpuNjrk; Vo s>D
4. Nfhth 3. uh[];jhd;
(State + UT) 4. [hh;fz;l;  kf;fs;njhifapy; Xh; Mapuk;
1. kpNrhuk; 5. Me;jpuh Mz;fSf;F cs;s ngz;fspd;
np
2. Nfush vz;zpf;ifNa ghypd tpfpjkhFk;.
3. ,yl;rj;jPT jkpo;ehl;by; jh;kGhp khtl;lk; (946)
4. jphpGuh
kpff;Fiwe;j ghypd tpfpjk; MFk;.
5. Nfhth
k s>D
zw>^ VoD zw> VoD
(06kBm) (06 kBm)
]x^ \VWD zkV \VWD
e/t  Ie;J tajpw;F cl;lgl;l Foe;ijfspd;
vz;zpf;iff;Fk;> gjpide;J Kjy;
ehw;gj;jp Ie;J tiuAs;s (,d
1. kpNrhuk; (971) 1. `hpahdh (830) tpUj;jpf;fhd taJ) ngz;fSf;Fk;
2. Nkfyhah (970) 2. gQ;rhg; (846) ,ilNaAs;s tpfpjj;ij Mapuk;
.m
3. rl;b];fh; (864) 3. [k;K - fh\;kPh;
NgUf;F vdf; fzf;fpLtNj fUts
(859)
V A s>D tpfpjkhFk;. jkpo;ehl;bd; fUts
 Mapuk; kf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifapy; tpfpjk; 2 MFk;.
capUld; gpwe;j Foe;ijfspd;  kfsph; Racjtpf;FO jkpofj;jpy;
://t
vz;zpf;ifNa fr;rh gpwg;G tpfpj 1989-k; Mz;L jh;kGhp

khFk;. khtl;lj;jpy; jhd; Kjd; Kjypy;
V A s>D njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
 Mapuk; kf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifapy;  ghypdr; rkj;Jtk; vd;gNj Xh;
caph; ,oe;jth;fspd; vz;zpf;ifNa ,yf;F vd;gij If;fpa ehl;Lr;
ps
fr;rh ,wg;G tpfpjkhFk;. rigapd Kd;dhs; nrayhsh; ghd;

zw> A s>D fP %d; $wpdhh;.
 Xh; Mz;by; gpwe;j Mapuk; Foe;ij
fspy; xU tajpw;Fs; ,we;j Foe;ij
htt
fspd; vz;zpf;ifNa Foe;ij ,wg;G

tpfpjkhFk;.
••••••

s
scg
>tV| 
np

VD : AslB_
z] : WVD e/t
Asl[ B ]^, WV]_ u|D \Vu^, As ]E
\uD \
.m
VA\
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
://t
\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\

>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V
FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
ps
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z


htt
gB,
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
AslB_
WVD
s
scg
Asl[ B ]^
 ,k;khw;wq;fs; njhlh;e;J kw;Wk; nkJ
np
thfTk; rpy Neuq;fspy; jpBh; vdTk;
Vw;gLfpwJ. ,k;khw;wq;fs; ,UNtW
rf;jpfshy; Vw;gLfpwJ. mit>
VM (_m) \BV
e/t 
 ,r;rf;jp G+kpapd; cl;gFjpapy; Njhd;wp
nray;gLfpwJ.
 ,it g+kpapd; NkNyhl;il> cUf;
Fiyar; nra;tNjhL> xOq;fw;w
.m
epyj;Njhw;wq;fisAk; G+kpapd; kPJ
cUthf;Ffpd;wJ.
B ]^  ngUksT khw;wq;fs; Vw;gLtij
vz;Nlhn[dpf; my;yJ fz;l
 G+kpapd; NkNyhL epiyahdJ my;y.
efh;Tfs; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
://t
jw;nghOJ cs;s ngUk;ghyhd

,e;efh;Tfs; ,U tifg;gLk; mit
epyj;Njhw;wq;fs; Kw;fhyj;jpy;
fshd
flYf;F mbapy; ,Ue;jd. G+kpapd; 1. ila];l;Nuhgp]k; (m) nkJthf
Nkw;gug;gpy; njhlh;e;J khw;wq;fs; efh;jy;
epfo;e;J nfhz;Nl cs;sJ. 2. jpBnud efh;jy;
ps
,kakiyahdJ Kd;ndhU fhyj;jpy; BVvD () \mkV

Mok; Fiwe;j y (Tethys) fly; >_
gFjpahf ,Ue;jJ. ,J VV  ,jd; nghUs; xl;LUT mopjy; MFk;.
 ,J nkJthf tisjy;> kbjy;>
htt
kw;Wk; V|kVV vd;w ,uz;L

nghpa epyg; gFjpfSf;F ,ilNa tsh;jy; kw;Wk; ciljy; vdg;
mike;jpUe;jJ. nghUs;gLk;. ,t;tif efh;thdJ
fPo;f;fz;lthW gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ.

AslB_
s
VM () vVM ()
c^ B ] k B ]
scg
g
BVvD () ] >_ Vu
\mkV >_
W|D MBV^
\ _ ^
np
VM () VM ()
W
 g  \ g 
e/t
VM ()  g  VM () \BV 
nrq;Fj;J efh;thdJ G+kpapd; NkNyhl;L fpilkl;lkhf efUk; GtpNahl;by; kbg;Gfs;
gFjpia Nky;Nehf;fp my;yJ fPo;Nehf;fp Vw;glTk; kw;Wk; ghiw mLf;Ffs; ,lk;
gytPdkhd Nfhl;bd; topahf nry;tijNa khWtjw;Fk; fhuzkhfpwJ.
^ (Fault) vd;fpNwhk;.
.m
gpsTf;Nfhl;bw;F ,ilNa fhzg;gLk; rhjhuz kbg;Gfs; xU Nky; tisitAk;
gFjp Nky;Nehf;fp js;sg;gl;lhy; mJ xU (anticline) kw;Wk; fPo; tisitAk; (syncline)
gpjph;T kiy (plateau mountain) vdTk; (m) nfhz;bUf;Fk;
gPlG+kp vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
://t
fPo;Nehf;fp js;sg;gl;lhy; mij gpsT ,t;tifahd kbg;Gfs; mhpjhfNt

gs;sj;jhf;F nfhg;giu (basin of rift valley) Njhd;Wk; kbg;Gfs;. Nkd;NkYk;
vdyhk;. mOj;jg;gl;L ghiw mLf;Ffs; ePz;l
njhiytpw;F ,lk; ngah;jypd; tpisthf
gy rpf;fyhd kbg;Gfs; Njhd;WfpwJ.
ps
G+kpapd; NkNyhl;by; kpfg;nghpa mstpw;F kbg;G kiyfs; Njhd;Wtjw;F ,e;efh;T

nrq;Fj;J efh;T Vw;gLtij fz;l Mf;f fhuzkhFk;. .V. \B\.
efh;T MFk;.
htt
••••••

AslB_
s
WV]_ u|D
scg
\Vu^
 fhyepiy fhuzpfshd ntg;gepiy> cM E>
 ciwjy; kw;Wk; cUFjy; nray;
np
kiog;nghopT kw;Wk; ciwg; gdp
,aw;ifr; rf;jpfshd MWfs;> KiwahdJ njhlh;e;J eil
fhw;W> gdpahWfs; kw;Wk; fly; ngWtjhy; ghiwfs; rpW gFjpfshf
miyfs; epyj;Njhw;wq;fspy; khw;wq; cilf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
fis Vw;gLj;Jtjpy; Kf;fpa gq;F cA [ kE
tfpf;fpd;wd.
V E>
 ghiwfs; ciljy; (m) rpijtiljy;
e/t  cg;G gbfkhjy; (m) `hNyh`pyh];b
MFk;.
 cg;G fye;j ePh; ghiwfspy; jq;fp
MtpahFk; NghJ cg;ghdJ jq;fp
nraNy ghiwr; rpijT MFk;.
gbfkhf khWfpwJ.
.m
1. ngsjPf rpijT
2. VB E>
2. ,urhad rpijT  ghiwfs; gy gFjpfshf rpij
3. caphpdr; rpijT tilfpwJ. (m) Ntjpg;nghUl;fs;
1. y E> khw;wp mikf;fg;gLtjdhy; ghiwfs;
 ghiwfs; ,urhad khw;wk; milahky; cilgLfpwJ.
://t
rpijtiltijf; Fwpg;gjhFk;. ,J >_

Kjd;ikr; nray;Kiw mhpj;jy;  tspkz;lyj;jpy; CO2 (m) SO2
MFk;. kiog;nghoptpy; fiuAk; NghJ
k >D (Thermal Stress) mkpykhf khWfpd;wd.
 mit Rz;zhk;Gg; gpuNjrq;fspy;
ps
 ghiwfs; vd;gJ gy jug;gl;l

jhJf;fspd; $l;likg;ghFk;. ntg;g jhJf;fs; fiujiyAk; ghiwfspy;
epiy NtWghl;bd; fhuzkhf rpijitAk; Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
xt;nthU jhJf;fSk; tphptilfpwJ >Vm  V^_
kw;Wk; RUq;FfpwJ.  ePh; cl;fpuj;jy; MFk;.
htt
 ghiwfspd; njhlh;r;rpahd tphpjy;  ePh; madp kw;w jhJf;fNshL xd;W

kw;Wk; RUq;Fjyhy; mOj;jk; Vw;gl;L Nrh;e;J ghiwfspy; fhzg;gLtjhFk;.
ghiwfs; cilfpd;wd. ,jdhy; ghiwfspd; fdmstpid

AslB_
mjpfhpf;fTk;> cUkhw;w mOj;jr; cUthfpwJ. nrq;Fj;jhd ePh;tPo;r;rp
s
rpijitAk; Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. nghpa mstpy; Mw;wpd; ePuhdJ
[  cauj;jpypUe;J fPNo tpOjy; MFk;.
scg
 rpypf;Nfl; jhJf;fis ghjpg;gilar; 3. V - kkD ^>Vz : ,q;F
nra;fpwJ. ,t;ntjph; nray;fspdhy; nrq;Fj;J mhpj;J jpd;dy; nray;
i`l;u[d; (H2) kw;Wk; i`l;uhf;i]L epiykhwp gf;fthl;L mhpj;J jpd;dy;
madpfshy; rpypf;Nfl;Lfs; fspkz; nray; Vw;gLfpwJ. Jhpjkhd mhpj;jy;
jhJf;fshf khw;wg;gLfpd;wd.
nrayhy; V tbtg; gs;sj;jhf;fpd;
gLD () m>_ fiufs; mfykhfpd;wd.
np
 cyfj;NjhL fhzg;gLk; ghiw
4. tBV^ : Mw;wpy; tise;J
fshdJ Mf;]p[d; kw;Wk; ePNuhL
nry;Yk; ghijfspYs;s xU tisthFk;.
Nrh;e;J Mf;]pfuzk; milfpwJ.
3. cl E> Mw;W ePh; nry;Yk; NghJ mjd;
 caphpdr; rpijtpw;F nghJthf e/t ntspg;Gw fiuia ePz;l fhykhf
jhtuq;fs; kw;Wk; kuq;fspd; tsh;r;rp mhpj;J gs;sj;jhf;if mfyg;gLj;JtJ
gy;NtWgl;l Ruq;fq;fs; mikj;jy;> MFk;.
fl;blq;fs; fl;Ljy; kw;Wk; rhiyfs; 5. gu {_^: Mw;W tistpy;
mikj;jy; Mfpad fhuzkhfpwJ. Mw;W ePh; nry;Yk; NghJ> mJ
.m
guV| >VAB W>Vu tistpd; Nky; Neubahf Nkhjp
\Vu^ mhpj;J td;rhpTila Mw;W Xq;fiy
 MwhdJ mhpj;jy; nraypy; kpfTk; Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
Kf;fpakhd fhuzpahf tpsq;FfpwJ.
://t
mhpj;jy;> flj;Jjy;> gba itj;jy;>

Mfpag; gzpfisr; nra;fpd;wd.
1. guk : ,J Mw;wpd; jiy
jpir khw;wk; vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
mjDila tsh;r;rp gy;NtW tifahd
ps
jiyj;jpir mhpg;gpd; msitr; rhh;e;J

khWgLfpd;wJ.
2. m^_^ : Mw;W ePh; xbtUk;
htt
NghJ fbdg; ghiwapd; Nkw;gug;gpy;

ePh;gl;L Fjpj;J fPNo Mw;wpy; tpOfpwJ.
_V
,t;thwhfj;jhd; rpwpa ePh;tPo;r;rp

AslB_
6. c^ \>  z[^: Jbg;Gld; fhzg;gLfpwJ. mjd;
MWfs; xLk; Nghf;fpy; kpahz;lh;fspd; ntspg;Gw fiu my;yJ cl;Fope;j
s
tisthdJ ntspg;Gw tsh;r;rp fiu Jhpjkhf mhpf;fg;gl;L mJ
scg
milfpd;wJ. kpahz;lh;fspd; Nghf;fpy; xU KOikahd tisak; Nghy khw
fhzg;gLk; fpisf;Fd;Wfspd; Muk;gpf;fpwJ. ,e;epiyapy; ePuhdJ
gf;fthl;L mhpg;Ng ,jw;F Mw;W tistpd; FWfpa fOj;Jg;
fhuzkhFk;. gFjpia cilj;J Neuhf nry;tjhy;
7. \k V> : Mw;wpd; Kf;fpag; mjdhy; tplg;gl;l tisTg; gFjp
gzp gba itj;jy; Mw;wpd; fiuia tphpT Fjpiu Fsk;G Vhp vdg;gLfpwJ.
np
gLj;Jjy; kw;Wk; gue;j rkntspia 10. _V : MW fliy milAk; nghOJ
cUthf;Fjy; MFk;. gy Jiz Ez;zpa gUg;nghUl;fs; Nkw;nfhz;L
MWfs; Kjd;ik Mw;wpy; ,iz ,Oj;Jr; nry;yhkNyh kw;Wk; gba
tjdhy; Mw;WePhpd; fdmsT mjpfhpf; itf;fhkNyh Mw;wpd; Kfj;Jtuhg;
fpd;wJ. MwhdJ nghpa
gUg;nghUl;fis rkntspg; gFjpfspy;
gba itj;Jk; kw;Wk; gy;NtW rpf;fyhd
e/t
mstpy; gFjpapy; tprpwp tbtpy; tz;liyg;
gba itf;fpwJ. ,JNt nly;lh vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
fpis MWfshfTk; gphpe;J nry;fpwJ. _V[ k^
.m
,JNt [MB g^ (Braided 1. gwit ghj nly;lh (Bird Foot
Streams) vdg;gLfpd;wd. Delta) (m) tprpwp tbt nly;lh
8. k^ \k : MwhdJ %g;G (Arcute or fan shaped Delta)
epiyapy; mjpfsTg; gbTfisf; 2. nghq;FKf nly;lh (Estuarine Delta)
://t
nfhz;bUf;fpwJ. tUlhe;jpu nts;sg; 3. $k;G tbt nly;lh (Cone Shaped Delta)

ngUf;F Vw;gLk; nghOJ> ,e;jg; gbT 
fshdJ mUfhikapy; cs;s gFjpfspy;  ,e;jpa Jizf; fz;lj;jpd; ePz;l
guTfpd;wJ. Mw;WePh; ,ay;ghfr; MW - fq;if - 2510 fp.kP ePsk;
nry;Yk; NghJ mJf; nfhz;L te;jg; nfhz;l ,e;j MW cUthfpwJ.
ps
gbTfs; kw;Wk; gUg;nghUl;fs;  2008 k; Mz;L fq;if ejp

Mw;wpd; fiuapy; gbtjhy; mjd; fiu ,e;jpahtpd; Njrpa Mwhf
caUfpwJ. ,jid s (Levees) mwptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
htt
vd;fpNwhk;.
11. ^ : flw;fiug; gFjpapy;
9. z] zDA  : Mw;W tisthdJ
fhzg;gLk; mhpg;gpw;F Kf;fpa fhuzp
Mw;wpd; %g;G epiyapy; mjpfsT
miyfs; MFk;. miyfs; flw;fiuia

AslB_
Rw;wpYk; mhpj;jy;> flj;Jjy; kw;Wk;
s
gbaitj;jy; Mfpag; gzpfisr;
nra;fpd;wd.
scg
_ A[ >VAB
W>Vu^
1. kzV^: flw;fiuapd;
ntspg;Gwj;jpd; Nky; njhlh;r;rpahf
miyfshdJ NkhJfpd;w NghJ
np
ghiwfspd; fbdj; jd;ikf;F Vw;g
flw;fiu gFjpahdJ mhpf;fg;gl;L
xOq;fw;W fhzg;gLfpwJ. khwp _ #^ \A
khwp fhzg;gLfpd;w fpuhidl;>
6. EB V : njhlh;e;J fly;
Rz;zhk;Gf;fy;> kz; kw;Wk; NrW
e/t J}z;fs; mhpf;fg;gLtjhy; vQ;rpag;
Mfpait xd;wpize;J fhzg;gLk;
ghiwfs; cUthfpd;wd. mit fly;
,lj;jpy; ,it mjpfkhff;
kl;lj;jpypUe;J rw;Nwg; ghh;f;ff; $ba
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
kl;lNk ,Uf;Fk;.
2. {_^ : nghJthf nrq;Fj;jhd
.m
l[ s>V| >VAB
ghiw fliy Nehf;fp mikAk; NghJ
W>Vu^:
Xq;fy; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
VB_ : (Beach)
3. z : njhlh;r;rpahd miyfshdJ  flw;fiuiar; Rw;wpYk; kz; gba
Xq;fypd; mbkl;lj;jpy; File;J Fif itj;jyhy; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLk; epyj;
://t
Nghd;w Njhw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd. Njhw;wNk fhay; MFk;. fhayhdJ

4. _ k : ,uz;L Fiffs; kzw; Jfs;fshy; MdJ.
xd;NwhL xd;W NrUk; NghJ fly;
 cyfpd; ePz;l flw;fiu kpahkp →
tisT cUthfpd;wd. NkYk;
flw;fiu (mnkhpf;fh) Rio de janeiro
ps
miyfshy; Vw;gLfpd;w njhlh;G

(Brazil)
mhpg;ghdJ fly; tisit KOtJkhf
 cyfpd; 2tJ ePz;l flw;fiu →
nehWq;fp Nghf toptFf;fpwJ.
nkhpdh flw;fiu (nrd;id)
5. _ #^ : vQ;rp ,Uf;fpd;w
htt
ghiwj; Njhw;wkhdJ J}izg; Nghy;

,Uf;Fk;.

AslB_
\_ ]|^ \uD ‘U’ tbt gs;sj;jhf;fhdJ

 \_ ]|^
s
gdpahw;wpdhy; Mog;gLj;jg;gl;L
 fly; miyfspdhy; mhpf;fg;gl;l mfyg;gLj;jg;gLtjpdhy; cUthfpwJ.
scg
Jfs;fs; flj;jg;gLk; NghJ 4. >VzD ^>Vz
VNjDk; FWf;fL P fs; Vw;gLkhapd;  Kjd;ik fz;lg;gdpahW> Jizg;
mt;tplj;jpNyNa Jfs;fs; gba gdpahw;wpid tpl mjpf msT
itf;fg; gLfpd;wd. NkYk; gba
mhpg;Gj;jpwd; nfhz;bUf;Fk; NghJ
itj;jy; njhlUk; NghJ ePz;l
njhq;Fk; gs;sj;jhf;F cUthfpd;wJ.
jLg;G NghyTk;> kw;Wk; ehf;F Nghd;w
Jiz Mw;wpy; cs;s gdp cUfpa
np
mikg;ghfTk; flw;fiuapypUe;J
gpd;G mJ Kjd;ikahw;wpd; kPJ
flypid Nehf;fp tsh;fpd;wd.
njhq;fpf; nfhz;bUg;gJ Nghy;
MBVV| >VAB
fhl;rpaspf;Fk;.
W>Vu^:
5. \V[^
1. 
 gdpahWfs; gwpj;njLj;jy;> nraypdhy;
cUthFk;
mikg;gpidf;
ehw;fhyp Nghd;w
nfhz;bUf;Fk;
e/t  ghiwj;Jfs;fs;> Jz;Lfs;> ghiw
cUz;ilfs; kw;Wk; NrWfshy;
mit. NkYk; rpy nkhiud;fs;
i) tpspk;G nkhiud;fs;
epyj;Njhw;wNk MFk;.
ii) gf;f nkhiud;fs;
.m
2. |^ \uD
t| E^ iii) kj;jpa nkhiud;fs;
 ,uz;L rh;f;FfSf;F ,ilNa 6. Do[^
fhzg;gLk; fj;jp Nghd;w ePz;l  ghiwj;Jfs; kw;Wk; NrW
njhlh; epyg;gFjpNa mnul;L MFk;. fyitahyhd epyj;Njhw;wNk MFk;.
://t
mUfUNf cs;s ,uz;Lf;Fk; ,itfs; ghh;g;gjw;F Kl;ilfs;

Nkw;gl;l rh;f;Ffshy; ,izf;fg; Gijj;Js;sJ Nghy; Njhw;wkspf;Fk;.
gl;Ls;s gFjp cile;J cah;e;J tz;ly; rkntsp kw;Wk; v];fh;fs;
epw;Fk; rpfuk; Nghd;w mikg;Ng Mfpait MFk;.
gpukpL rpfukhFk;. MBVV_ ckV|D
ps
3. U - kk ^>Vz \u W>Vu^

 gs;sj;jhf;fhdJ gdpahw;wpdhy; i) nrk;kwp Ml;Lg;ghiw
mhpf;fg;gl;L Mog;gLj;jg;gLtjhy; ii) thy;tbtk; ghiw
cUthFk; epyj;Njhw;wk; MFk;. ,it iii) nghUe;jhg; ghiw (m) jphpAk;
htt
Mw;wpdhy; cUthf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ghiw

iv) Vuhbf;fs;

AslB_
s
scg
np
MBVV| >VAB W>Vu^
yV^ (Igneous Rocks)

VVD  ,f;dpa]; vd;w nrhy;> ‘jP’ vd
 ghiwfs;
mbg;gilia
mit
itj;J
cUthjypd;
%d;W
gphpTfshf tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
e/t nghUs;gLk; ,yj;jPd; nkhopap ypUe;J
te;jjhFk;. Mdhy; cz;ikapy;>
,f;dpa]; ghiw vd;gJ vhpe;Jf;
1. jPg;ghiwfs; : Igneous Rocks nfhz;L ,Uf;Fk; neUg;G Nghd;wJ
.m
2. gbTg;ghiwfs; : Metamorphic vd nghUs; nfhs;sf; $lhJ.
Rocks kpf mjpf ntg;gj;ij cila jput
3. cUkhw;wg; ghiwfs; : Sedimentary epiyapYs;s nghUs;fshy; mdJ
Rocks vd nghUs;gLk;. grhy;l; ghiwAk;
fpuhidl; ghiwAk; jPg;ghiwapd;
://t
,uz;L tiffshFk;.
ps
htt
V[ wuE
yV[ k^

AslB_
 grhy;l; ghiw ce;Jg;ghiwg; grhy;l; ghiwfs; ce;J tif
gphpitAk;> fpuhidl; ghiw jiyaPL jPg;ghiwfshFk;. `tha; kw;Wk;
s
ghiwg;gphpitAk; rhh;e;jit. I];yhe;J Nghd;w gy vhpkiy
scg
grhy;l; jPg;ghiw vhpkiy jPTfspy; jPTfs; grhy;l; ghiwfs; nfhz;L
cUthfpd;wd. ngUq;fly; Xl;bd; ,Uf;fpd;wd.
ngUk;gFjp Fwpg;ghf> kj;jpa  V^ (MetaMorphic Rocks)
ml;yhz;bf; njhlh; grhy;l; tifg;  mf;dpg; ghiwfs; ,aw;ifr;
ghiwapdhy; MdJ. Gtp Xl;by; rf;jpfshy; mopf;fg;gLfpd;wd. mhpf;fg;
fhzg;gLk; ghiwfspy; 95 rjtPjk; gl;l J}s;fisf; fhw;W> kio> MW>
np
jPg;ghiw tifiar; rhh;;e;jitfshf gdpf;fl;b> fly; miyfs; Mfpait
,Uf;fpd;wd. jPgg; hiwfis ,uz;lhf Rke;J nrd;W ntt;NtW ,lq;fspy;
gphpf;fyhk;. gbtpf;fpd;wd.
(i) ce;Jg; ghiwfs; kw;Wk;  ,g;gbTfs; ehsiltpy; cWjpahfpg;
(ii) jiyaPL ghiwfs; e/t gbTg;ghiwfshf cUthfpd;wd.
(i) cm V^: Mokhd Kjypy; gbTfs; kpUJthfTk;>
tphpry;fspd; topahf Gtpapd; jsh;thdjhfTk; ,Uf;fpd;wd.
Nkw;gug;ig te;jilfpw khf;kh ,g;gbTfs; xd;wd; Nky;
tpdhYk;> vhpkiy Kfl;L xd;whf mLf;Ffis Nghy gba
.m
tha; mUfpYk; ce;Jg;ghiwfs; itf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
cUthfpd;wd. Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy;  NkyLf;fpd; Rikapdhy; fPoLf;
tope;J XLfpw khf;khit fpYs;s nghUs;fs; mOj;jg;gLk;.
‘yhth” vd miof;fpNwhk;. mNj Neuj;jpy;> ghiwfspy; cs;s
://t
jhJf;fSk; ePhpy; fiue;J> gbTg;

Gtpgug;gpy; tope;NjhLfpw yhth>
nghUs;fis xd;NwhL xd;whf
rkkhd gue;j tphpg;Gfis Nghy
cWjpahfg; gpizf;fpwJ. ,jdhy;
cUthfpwJ> my;yJ Kfl;L
kpUJthd gbTfs; jplkhdjhf
thapypUe;J mbf;fb ntbj;J
khWfpwJ. ,t;thW khwpa gbTfNs
ps
ntspNaWfpw yhth vhpkiyahf

filrpahfg; gbTg;ghiwahf
cUthfpwJ. ngUk;ghyhd cUngWfpwJ.
yhth tiffs; mjpNtfkhf  urhadr; rf;jpfNsh my;yJ gpw
Fsph;e;J tpLfpd;wd. ,jd; rf;jpfNsh mopf;f Kbahj rpy
htt
tpisthf cUthfpd;w ghiwfs; cNyhfq;fs; cz;L. mtw;iwr;

kpf Ez;zpa gbfq;fisf;
nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd. ngUk;ghYk;

AslB_
Nrh;j;Jjhd; gbTfy; ,J mjpfkhff; ghiwfs; cUthfpd;wd.


s
fye;Js;s gbTfspy; kzw;fw;fs; tz;ly; kz; mLf;fLf;fha;g;
cz;lhfpd;wd. gbfpd;wJ. mjDs; gyNfhb
scg
 rpy gbTfspy; fspkz; mjpfkh Mz;Lfs; fopj;J ,g;gbTfs; mjpf
apUf;Fk;. mtw;wpypUe;J fspg; fdKs;sitahfp tpLfpd;wd.
ghiwfs; cz;lhfpd;wd. rpy fspkz; gbTfspd; Nky;> mjpf mOj;jk;
gbTfspy; ,Uk;Gk; fye;jpUf;Fk;. ,Uf;Fk;.
,tw;wpypUe;Jjhd; gbT ,Uk;Gj;  ,t;tLf;Ffs; xd;Nwhnlhd;W
jhJ %yq;fs; cz;lhfpd;wd. cuha;tjhy;> mtw;Ws; mjpf ntg;gk;
np
 rpy rkaq;fspy; ,ijg; NghyNt cz;lhfpwJ. ,e;j ntg;gKk;
khq;fdp]{k; cw;gj;jpahFk;. Rz;zhk;G mOj;jKk; jdpj;jdpahfNth
mjpfkhf cw;gj;jpahfpd;wd. Nrh;e;Njh ,e;jg;gbTfspd; cUitNa
 fly; ePhpy; Nrhbak; FNshiuL (cg;G) khw;wp tpLfpd;wd.
cs;sJ. rpy gFjpfs; twz;l ntg;g
epiy fhuzj;jhy; fly; ePh; tw;wp
cg;gsq;fshf khWfpd;wd.
e/t  ,jd; tpisthf cz;lhFk; ghiw
fSf;F cUkhw;wg; ghiwfs; vd;W
ngah;. gbf;fy; gbTg; ghiwfs;
 ,t;thW khWk;nghOJ Nrhbak;> Fthh;l;irl;L vd;w cUkhw;wg;
nghl;lhrpak;> khq;fdPrpak; Mfpait ghiwfshfTk;> Rz;zhk;Gf;
.m
mbapy; gbe;J tpLfpd;wd. cyfpd; fy;yhfTk; khwptpLfpd;wd. mijg;
rpy ,lq;fspy; xU tpjf; fUg;Gf; NghyNt fspg;ghiwfs; gpy;Nyl;L
fspg;ghiwfs; cs;sd. kw;Wk; fw;gyiffs; vd;Dk; ghiw
c\Vu V^  fshf khwptpLfpd;wd.
://t
(Sedimentary Rocks):  Nkw;$wpa ghiwfs;ahTk; cNyhfq;

 cUkhwpag;ghiwfs; vd miof;fg; fshy; Mdit. cjhuzkhf>
gLk; ghiwfs;> %d;whtJ tifg; mf;dpg; ghiwfs; nghJthf rpypf;
ghiwahFk;. nklkhh;‡gpf; vd;w Nfl;Lfshy; Mdit.
,r;nrhy;> tbtkhw;wk; (Change of  mtw;wpy; rpwg;ghfg; nghl;lhrpak;>
ps
Form) vd nghUs;gLk; fpNuf;fr; Nrhbak;> fhy;rpak;> nkf;dPrpak;>

nrhy;yhFk; jPg;ghiwfspypUe;Jk;> ,Uk;G> mYkpdpak; Mfpa jdpkq;fs;
gbTg;ghiwfspypUe;Jk; cUkhwpa ,Uf;Fk;. gpw jdpkq;fSk; rpwpjsT
fye;Njh fythkNyh ,Uf;fyhk;.
htt
••••••
10
AslB_
s
scg
As ]E \uD \
,e;epyeLf;fk; ,Utifg;gLk; mit
1. vhpkiy epyeLf;fk; (Volcanic
np
EarthQuake)
2. fz;l efh;T epyeLf;fk; (Tectonic
Earth Quake)
vhpkiy fz;l efh;T
e/t epyeLf;fk;
vhpkiy ntbf;Fk;
NghNjh my;yJ
epyeLf;fk;
ghiwfspd;
mikg;G
ntbg;gjw;F khw;wkiltjw;Fk;
.m
Kd;ghfNth cUf;Fiytjw;Fk;
W| [ k^ Vw;gLk; mjph;Tfs; my;yJ ,lk;
vhpkiy ngah;tjw;Fk;
] >_ epyeLf;fk; fhuzkhf
://t
 ,t;tif efh;T G+kpapd; NkNyhl;bYk; vdg;gLk;. mikfpwJ.

kw;Wk; cs; mLf;fpYk; jpBh;;
khw;wq;fis Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd.  epyeLf;fk; Njhd;Wk; ,lj;ij
,it mopTfis mjpfstpy; W| (Focus) vd;Wk;>
\BD
Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. ,k;ikaj;jpw;F Neh; vjpNu G+kpapd;
ps
1. epyeLf;fk; Nkw;gug;gpy; mike;jpUf;Fk; A^

2. vhpkiy k \BD(Epi centre)vd;Wk;
W|D miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
GtpNkNyhl;by; jpBnud epfOk; mirjy;  gy epyeLf;fq;fs; czu Kbahj
htt
mstpy; ,Ug;gjw;F fhuzk; mjd;

my;yJ eLq;Fjy; MFk;. ,jd; tpisthf
Fiwthd msNt MFk;.
eLf;fk; my;yJ mjph;Tfs; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
11
AslB_
\VV : ,f;fUtpiaf; nfhz;L P ^ S ^
s
epyeLf;fj;jpd; miyfs; gjpTr; ,e;j miyfs; ,t;tiyfs;
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,e;epy eLf;fj;ij kpf Ntfkhf P miyfis
scg
kjpg;gPL nra;a  V_ gazpf;fpwJ. tpl nkJthfg;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,jd; myF gazpg;git.
0 x>_ 9  k tiu MFk;. ,it xyp ,it jpl
miyfisg; epiyapy; cs;sg;
Nghd;Nw thA> nghUl;fspy;
np
jput kw;Wk; jpl kl;Lk; CLUtpr;
epiyapYs;s nry;Yk;.
nghUl;fspy;
CLUtpr; nry;Yk;.
e/t P miyfs; gazk; S miyfs;
nra;Ak; jpirapy; jhd; gazk;
cs;s G+kpapd; nra;Ak; jpirapy;
nghUl;fis cs;s G+kpapd;
\l[ zzk| >VuD
Kd;Dk; gpd;Dk; nghUl;fis
.m
W| [ k^ mOj;jpf; nfhz;L nrq;Nfhz
1. cl;Gw miyfs; (Body Waves) nry;fpwJ. jpirapy;
2. Nkw;Gw miyfs; (Surface Waves) mirj;Jf;
(L- waves ) nfhz;L nry;Yk;.
://t
1. cA ^ xU nehbf;F 8 ,J xU nehbf;F

 ,t;tiyfs; epyeLf;f ikaj;jp fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; 5 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy;
ypUe;J Mw;wy; ntspg;gLtjd;
gazpf;fpwJ. gazpf;fpwJ.
%ykhf cw;gj;jpahfp G+kpapd;
2. \uA ^ (Surface Waves)
midj;J jpirfspYk; guTfpwJ.
 ,t;tiyfs; epyeLf;f khdpapy;
ps
cl;Gw miyfis ,uz;L tif

,Wjpahfg; gjpthfpwJ. ,it
fshfg; gphpf;fyhk;. G+kpapy; kpf mjpfg;gbahd mopTfs;
 Kjy; epiy miyfs; (m) P Vw;gLtjw;F fhuzkhfpwJ.
miyfs;  ,it l miyfs; vd miof;fg;
htt
 ,uz;lhk; epiy miyfs; (m) S gLfpwJ.

miyfs;  ,t;tiyfs; nehbf;F 4 fp.kP
Ntfj;jpy; gazk; nra;fpwJ.
12
AslB_
\^ >> \^
 G+kpapd; cl;gFjpapypUe;J ntg;gkhd  ,it cwq;Fk; vhpkiyfs; vd;W
s
ghiwf; Fok;ig xU jpwg;G (Vent) miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 ,t;tif vhpkiyfs; gy Mz;L
scg
my;yJ Jis topNa G+kpapd;
Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ gbaitg;gij fSf;F Kd;Gtiu nray;gl;Lf;
vhpkiy vd;fpNwhk;. mt;thW ckpOk; nfhz;L ,Ue;jJ. jw;nghOJ yhth
(Eruption) ghiwf; Fok;G VkV (Lava) ckpo;tij epWj;jp cs;sJ.
vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  Mdhy; vjph;fhyj;jpy; vg;nghOJ
\[ k^ Ntz;LkhdhYk;> vhpkiyf; Fok;ig
np
1. nray;gLk; vhpkiyfs; ckpoyhk;.
2. jzpe;j vhpkiyfs;  .V: >Vo  ksB, kVF 
3. capuw;w vhpkiyfs; \BV
B_|D \^
 ,t;nthpkiyfs; rPuhf yhthit
ntspNaw;WfpwJ.
 kpf mjpfkhf nray;gLk; vhpkiyfs;
e/t
flyb kiyj;njhlh;fspy; fhzg;gL
fpwJ.
.m
 v.fh : `tha; jPtpy; cs;s \VVkV
cyfpNyNa kpfg;nghpa nray;gLk;
vhpkiy.
>VolK^ ksB \
 ,e;jpahtpy; cs;s xNu nray;gLk; clu \^
://t
 ,it ,we;j vhpkiyfs; vd;W

vhpkiy : V[ ys_ cs;sJ (me;jkhd;)
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,itfs; Kd;G
yhthit ckpo;e;J nfhz;bUe;jd.
Mdhy; jw;nghOJ ckpo;tJ ,y;iy.
vjph;fhyj;jpYk; ckpohJ.
ps
 v.fh : Mg;gphpf;fh : kTz;l; fpsp

khQ;rhNuh
 ,e;jpah : ehh;fz;lk; jPT
\ z]^  jkpo;ehL : jpUtz;zhkiy Fd;W
htt
 Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; : gdfh Fd;W
••••••
13
s
scg
>tV| 
np
 : TNPSC Group II >

VD : AslB_
z] :  k^ e/t
]BV xD, ]BV \sD, ]BV >Vu^, ]BV
VW, ]BV g^, >tV| xD, >tV| BuB\A,
>tV| g^, >tV[ VW
VA\
.m
>tV|  BV >kVBD z2 x>_W \uD x>[\
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
://t
\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\

>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V
FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
ps
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z

gB,
htt
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
AslB_
 k^
s
scg
]BV xD
 ,e;jpah Mrpaf; fz;lj;jpd;  ,e;jpahtpd; epyg;gFjp tlf;Nf fh\;khP ;
np
njd;gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ. Kjy; njw;Nf fd;dpahFkhp tiu
 ,e;jpah ‘V>D” vd;Wk; 3214 .* tiu gutpAs;sJ.
‘m>V[” vd;Wk; miof;fg;  mNjNghy; fpof;Nf mUzhryg;
gl;lJ. Kw;fhyj;jpy; typik tha;e;j
gpuNjrj;jpy; ,Ue;J Nkw;Nf F[uhj;
murdhf ,Ue;j gujd; vd;gijg;
fl;r; tiuapYk; 2933.* tiu
gpd;gw;wp ,e;jpahit ghujk; vd;Wk;>
rpe;J Mw;wpd; ngauhy; ‘m>V[”
vd;Wk; miof;fg;gl;lJ.
 ,jd;gpd; te;j
e/t
INuhg;gpah;fs;
gutpAs;sJ.
 ,e;jpahtpd; Nkw;Nf mugpf; fliyAk;>
fpof;Nf tq;fhs tphpFlhitAk;>
‘Em” vd;w nrhy;ypd; mbg;gilapy; njw;Nf ,e;jpag; ngUq;fliyAk;
.m
,e;jpah vd;W ngahpl;ldh;. nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 ,e;jpah 804’ tl ml;rk; Kjy; 3706’
 230301 tlf;F ml;rkhd flfNuif
tl ml;rk; tiuapYk;> 6807’ fpof;F
,e;jpahtpd; FWf;fhf nrd;W ehl;il
jPh;f;fk; Kjy; 97025’ fpof;F jPh;f;fk;
tiuapYk; gutpAs;sJ. ,U gFjpfshfg; gphpf;fpd;wJ.
 ,e;jpah cyfpd; gug;gstpy; 2.4%
://t
 ,e;jpahtpd; njd;Nfhb Kidg;

gFjp 6045’ tl ml;rk; tiuapyhd ,lj;ijf; nfhz;L cs;sJ.
epNfhghh; jPTfs; tiu mlq;fpAs;sJ.  ,e;jpahtpd; epyg;gug;gsT 15,200.*
,e;j njd;Nfhb Kidf;F ‘]V MFk;. ,jDld; yl;rj;jPTfs; kw;Wk;
x” my;yJ ‘\oB[” vd;W epNfhghh; jPTfSk; mlq;Fk;.
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ps
 ,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpa epyg;gFjpapd;

]BVs[ W>Vu ^: flw;fiuapd; ePsk; 6100.*me;jkhd;
1. rkntsp - 43.3% epNfhghh; kw;Wk; ,yl;rj;jPTfisAk;
2. gPlG+kp - 27.7% Nrh;j;J 7516.6.* ePsk; nfhz;L
htt
3. Fd;Wfs; - 18.6% cs;sJ. 13 khepyq;fs; kw;Wk;

4. kiyfs; - 10.7% A+dpad; gpuNjrq;fspy; fly; njhl;Lr;
nry;fpwJ.

AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
]BVD >[ _D
 ,e;jpahtpy; ,sk; kbg;G kiyfs;

(Fold Mountains) kz, k\uz  #a]; fhy;tha; 1869_ jpwf;fg;
kw;Wk; k wz gFjpfspy; mike; gl;ljhy; ,e;jpahtpw;Fk;> INuhg;gh
Js;sJ. tpw;Fk; ,ilNaahd njhiyT
ps
 F[uhj;jpw;Fk;> mUzhryg; gpuNjrj; 7000.* Fiwf;fg;gl;lJ.

jpw;Fk; fhyNeuk; 2 \ D NtW  rPdh> [g;ghd; kw;Wk; M];jpNuypah
gLfpwJ. ehLfSld; \VV ePh;re;jp
 ,e;jpahtpy; uh[];jhd; khepyk; topahfTk; ,e;jpah thzpfk;
htt
gug;gstpy; kpfg;nghpa khepykhfTk;> kw;Wk; nghUshjhu nray;fspy;

gug;gstpy; kpfr;rpwpa khepykhf <LgLfpwJ.
NfhthTk; tpsq;FfpwJ.
2
AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
flfNuif FWf;fpLk; vl;L khepyq;fs;
1. F[uhj; 2. uh[];jhd; 3. kj;jpag; gpuNjrk; 4. rl;B];fh;
://t
5. [hh;fz;l; 6. Nkw;F tq;fhsk; 7. jphpGuh 8. kpNrhuhk;
s_ V|[ k

ps
 ,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;jg; gug;gsT

,e;jpag; gug;gstpy; 7tJ ,lj;jpy; 32,87,263 ..*.
,Uf;fpwJ.  2011-y; kf;fs; njhif fzf;
1. u\;ah 2 . fdlh 3. mnkhpf;fh nfLg;gpd;gb 1210 t_oB[ kf;fs;
htt
4. rPdh 5. gpNurpy; njhifiag; ngw;Ws;sJ.

6. M];jpNuypah 7. ,e;jpah

AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
]BVs_ ]D z|D \VW^
]B ] D (IST)

 jPh;f;ff; NfhLfs; Xh; ,lj;jpd;
]B ] ][ wz yD
Neuj;ijf; fzf;fplg; gad;gLfpwJ.
VD \VW^:
ps
,e;jpahtpd; eLNt VV

topahfr; nry;Yk; 82 30E fpof;Fj;
0 1. cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;
jPh;f;fk; ,e;jpaj; jpl;l Neuj;ijf; 2. kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;
fzf;fpl cjTk; jPh;f;fkhf vLj;Jf; 3. rl;B];fh;
htt
nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ. 4. xbrh
 ,e;jpa jpl;l Neuk; [s jPh;f;f 5. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
Neuj;ijtpl 5 kzp 30 epkplk;
Kd;djhf cs;sJ.
4
AslB_
]BV  mD   ,uz;L jPTfshd  kw;Wk;

w|km ...
s
\Vy^ ,e;jpag; ngUq;flypy;
nghJthf fz;lk; vd;gjw;F gpd;tUk; mike;Js;sd.
scg
fhuzpfisg; G+h;j;jpr; nra;a Ntz;Lk;. ]BV[ _ z] m
1. ,aw;if mikg;Gg; gphpTfisAk;> V^D V|[ B^ \uD
2. fhyepiyfisAk;>
^
3. ,aw;ifj; jhtuq;fisAk;
k.. V|^ _
z]l[
4. fdpk tsq;fisAk;
D (.*)
5. kdpj thoplq;fisAk;
np
1 tq;fhsNjrk; 4096.7
6. fyhr;rhu $WfisAk;
2 rPdh 3488
7. Kw;fhy ,dq;fisAk; kw;Wk; 3 ghfp];jhd; 3233
nkhopfisAk;> 4 Neghsk; 17515
8. kpfg;gue;j epyg;gug;igAk; nfhz;lJ.
 xU fz;lj;jpw;Fhpa
e/t
gz;Gfs;
midj;Jk; ,e;jpahtpy; fhzg;gLtjhy;
,e;jpahit ‘ mD”
5
6
7
kpahd;kh;
G+lhd;
Mg;fhdp];jhd;
1643
699
106
nkhj;jk; 15106.7
vd;W miof;fpNwhk;.
fp.kP.
.m
 ,e;jpah kV>m[ mjpf
,e;jpah 29 khepyq;fshfTk;> 7 A+dpad;
epyg;gug;igg; gfph;e;J nfhs;fpwJ.
mNjNghy; gVM>V[ Fiwe;j gpuNjrq;fshfTk; nkhop mbg;gilapy;
epyg;gug;igg; gfph;e;J nfhs;fpwJ. eph;thf trjpf;fhfg; gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
://t
k.. \VWD >\lD >\

l_
_V>
cB]\[^
1 jkpo;ehL nrd;id -
ps
2 Nfush jpUtde;jGuk; vh;zhFsk;

3 Nfhth ghdh[p Kk;ig
4 fh;ehlfh ngq;f@h; -
5 Me;jpugpuNjrk; mkuhtjp i`juhghj;
htt
6 njYq;fhdh i`juhghj; -
7 xhp]h GtNd\;tuk; fl;lhf;

AslB_
8 k`huh\;buh Kk;ig -
s
9 rl;B];fh; uha;G+h; gpy;];G+h;
10 [hh;fz;l; uhQ;rp -
scg
11 kj;jpagpuNjrk; Nghghy; igy;G+h;
12 F[uhj; fhe;jp efh; mfkjhghj;
13 ,uh[];jhd; n[a;G+h; N[hj;G+h;
14 `hpahdh rz;Bfh; -
15 gQ;rhg; rz;Bfh; -
np
16 [k;K kw;Wk; Fsph;fhyk; - [K;K -
fh\;kPh; Nfhilfhyk; - =efh;
17 `pkhrygpuNjrk; Kjy; jiyefuk; - rpk;yh -
,uz;lhk; jiyefuk; - jh;krhyh
18 cj;jufhz;l; e/t Nluh^d; iedplhy;
19 cj;jpug;gpuNjrk; yf;Ndh myfhghj;
20 gPfhh; ghl;dh
21 Nkw;F tq;fhsk; nfhy;fj;jh -
22 rpf;fpk; fhq;lhf; -
.m
23 m];]hk; b];G+h; nfsfhjp
24 Nkfyhah rpy;yhq; -
25 mUzhrygpuN- ,l;lhefh; nfsfhjp
jrk;
://t
26 ehfyhe;J Nfhfpkh nfsfhjp

27 kzpg;G+h; ,k;ghy; -
28 kpNrhuhk; n[a;];thy; nfsfhjp
29 jphpGuh mfh;jhyh -
RMB[ >^ \uD >\lD
ps
k.. RMB[ >^ >\lD cB]\[^

1 nly;yp GJjpy;yp nly;yp
2 ghz;br;Nrhp ghz;br;Nrhp nrd;id
htt
3 rz;Bfh; rz;Bfh; rz;Bfh;

4 me;jkhd; kw;Wk; Nghh;l;gpNsah; nfhy;fj;jh
epNfhghh; jPTfs;

AslB_
5 yl;rj;jPTfs; ftuhb vh;zhFsk;
s
6 lhkd; kw;Wk; ilA+ lhkd; Kk;ig
7 jj;uh kw;Wk; rpy;thrh Kk;ig
scg
ehfh;`Ntyp
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
]BV \uD \VW^
••••••

AslB_
s
]BV \sD
scg
NtWghL Njhd;Wkstpw;F ,e;jpah
kpfg; nghpaJ.
np
 mjhtJ mUzhry gpuNjrj;jpy;
#hpad; Njhd;wpa gpd; Rkhh; 2-kzp
Neuj;jpw;F gpd;dNu F[uhj;jpy;
#hpad; Njhd;WfpwJ.
e/t _V|
kf;Nkhfd; vy;iy
V|^
,e;jpah - rPdh
Nul; fpsp‡g; ,e;jpah-
ghfp];jhd;
.m
]BV \uD  V|^ ghf; ePh;re;jp ,e;jpah-,yq;if
 Gtpapay; mbg;gilapy; ,e;jpah  ,e;jpahtpw;Fk;> rPdhtpw;Fk; vy;iyahf

,kakiyfs; tpsq;FfpwJ.
yuD (Peninsula) vdg;gLfpwJ.
 xU ehl;bd; ,aw;if Njhw;wq;fisg;
,jw;F fhuzk; ,e;jpah %d;W gf;fk;
://t
gw;wp tpthpg;gNj ,aw;ifaikg;G

flyhYk;> xU gf;fk; epyg;gFjpahYk;
vdg;gLk;.
(,kakiy) #og;gl;Ls;sJ.
 ,e;jpah nghpJk; khWgl;l
 Gtpapd; epyg;gug;gpy; 2.4% epyj;Njhw;wq;fis nfhz;l ehL
ngw;Ws;sJld;> jw;NghJ .% MFk;. ,e;jpa jPgfw;g gPlG+kp
kf;fs; njhifiaAk; ngw;Ws;sJ.
ps
GtpapYs;s epiyahd> njhd;ik

,e;jpahitg; Nghy; 7 klq;F nghpa ahd ghiw mikg;Gfspy; xd;whf
ehlhf u\;ah tpsq;FfpwJ. tpsq;FfpwJ.
 ,e;jpah Gtpapd; tlmiuNfhsg;  ,kakiyfSk; ngUk; rkntsp
fSk; mike;Js;sd.
htt
gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ. mUzhryg;

gpuNjrj;jpw;Fk;> F[uhj;jpw;Fk;  ,e;jpahtpd; Nkw;F kw;Wk; fpof;Nf
,ilapy; jy Neuj;jpy; 2 \  gy;NtW nraw;if kw;Wk; ,aw;if
JiwKfq;fs; mike;Js;sd.

AslB_
s
scg
np
\\V[ _
 mugpf;flypy; Nfushf; flw;fiuia

e/t
xl;b mike;j ,yl;rj;jPTfs; kw;Wk;
fpof;fpy; tq;fhs tphpFlhtpy; tlf;F 
rhh;f; mikg;gpd; jiyikaplkhfTk;
fhj;khz;L tpsq;FfpwJ.
>VF vdg;gLk; rJg;G epyr;rkntsp
njw;fhf ePz;l rq;fpypj; njhluhf cs;sJ.
.m
mike;Js;s me;jkhd; epNfhghh;-  ,q;F thOk; ngUk;ghd;ikahd
jPTfs; Mfpad ,e;jpahtpw;Fs; kf;fs; VD VD
mlq;Ffpd;wd. Mth;.
]BV   V|^  Neghsk; kl;LNk cyfpd; xNu m
VD \> VV tpsq;FfpwJ.
://t
 Neghsk; ,e;jpahtpd; tljpirapy;  Neghsj;jpd; njw;F Kidapy;

,Uf;ff;$ba mz;il ehL MFk;. EkVo z[^ cs;sd.
vdNt ,it ‘| \B][  kTz;l; vtnu];il mile;j V
^” vd;W th;zpf;fg; gLfpd;wd. [E Neghsj;ijr; Nrh;e;jth;.
Neghsk; xU kiyg;ghq;fhd  mhprp ,th;fspd; Kf;fpa czthfj;
ps
ehlhFk;. jpfo;fpwJ.
 cyfpy; cah;e;j rpfukhd \  ,e;ehl;il Rw;wpAs;s gFjpfs;
k (4m) kw;Wk; jtsfphp midj;J epyq;fshy; epug;gg;gl;L
htt
Nghd;w rpfuq;fs; Neghsj;jpy; cs;sd. s;sjhy; ,it WV_ 

,e;ehl;bd; kj;jpapy; mike;Js;s  z]BV fUjg;gLfpwJ.
V\V| mjd; jiyefuhFk;.

AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
 _
 ,e;ehl;bd; k V  gdpahy; #og;gl;l Fsph;g;gFjpahFk;.

vdNt ,jd; ikag;gFjp kf;fs;
.m
mike;Js;sJ. ,U ehLfSf;
fpilNa jd;Dila vy;iyfisg; trpg;gjw;F Vw;wjhf ,y;iy.
gfph;fpwJ. Gfo;ngw;w D ^>Vz ,q;F
 gdp Nghh;j;jpa kiyg;gFjpfs; cs;sJ. G+lhd; epyg;gFjpfshy;
mjpfkhf fhzg;gLtjhy; vtnu];l; milf;fg;gl;l ehL MFk;.
://t
rpfuj;ij miltJ kpfTk; fbdk;.  tlf;Nf rPdhTk;> njw;Nf ,e;jpahTk;>

Kjd;Kjypy; n\h;gh nld;rpq; fpof;Nf mUzhryg; gpuNjr
Neghsj;ijr; Nrh;e;jth; vtnu];l; khepyKk;> Nkw;Nf rpf;fpk; khepyKk;
rpfuj;ij mile;jhh;. cs;sJ.
V[ G+lhdpd; Nlhf;yhk; vd;w gFjp fspy;
ps
 ,e;jpahtpw;Fk;> jpngj;jpw;Fk; rPdh rhiy mikg;gjw;fhd gzpfis

kj;jpapYs;s epyq;fshy; #og;gl;l Jtq;fpa fhuzq;fshy;; G+lhDf;F
ehL G+lhd; MFk;. MjuthfTk;> rPdhtpd; vy;iy
 G+lhdpd; jiyefh; ]DA MFk;.
htt
kPwp EioAk; Nehf;fj;jpidf; fl;L

,e;ehl;bd; ngUk;ghyhd kf;fs; Gj;j gLj;Jtjw;fhf Nlhf;yhk; gFjpfspy;
rkaj;jpdh; Mthh;. ,e;jpa uhZtk; Ftpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
0
AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
Em gu[ >VuD
tBV[\  BV[\V kpahd;khpd; jiyefuhf

.m
 ,e;ehl;bd; gioa ngah; \V MFk;. tpsq;FfpwJ.
,e;jpahtpw;Ff; fpof;fpy; mike;Js;s  mz;ikapy; VBV ,dj;jth;
FbauR ehL MFk;. fspd; Fbngah;g;G nghpa
 ,J xU kiy kpFe;j ehlhFk;. gpur;rpidfis Vw;gLj;jp tUfpwJ.
://t
 ,e;ehl;by; tlf;F njw;fhf V>i

[BV\V zBV\V kiyfs;  kpf mjpfsT ,e;jpahTld; vy;iy
nry;fpd;wd. fis gfph;e;J nfhs;Sk; ehlhfj;
 ,jd; fpof;F gFjpapy; V[ t jpfo;fpwJ.
cs;sJ.  ,e;ehl;by; D\A]V,  Mfpa
ps
 VkV, V_s[, EV Nghd;w ,UejpfSk; ,ize;J tq;fhs

Kf;fpa MWfs; gha;fpd;wd. tphpFlhtpy; fyf;FfpwJ.
 gh;kh neLq;fhykhfNt EkA  mjpfsT ePsk; nfhz;ljhf MW
uz (&gpfw;fs;) Gfo;ngw;wJ. gpuk;kGj;jpuh jpfo;fpwJ.
htt
 Gj;jkjNk ngUk;ghYk; gpd;gw;wg;  Kjypy; 1947ypUe;J fpof;F

gLfpwJ. ghfp];jhd; vd;w ngahpy; ghfp];
jhdpd; fl;Lg;ghl;by; ,Ue;jJ. gpwF

AslB_
,e;jpahtpd; cjtpAld; 1971_ ePhpizg;gpdhy; ,e;jpahtpdpd;W
s
Rje;jpuk; ngw;W tq;fhsNjrkhf gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
cUntLj;jJ.  ,uhNk];tuj;jpw;F mUfpy; cs;s
scg
 cyfstpy; mjpfsT _ jD\; Nfhbf;Fk;> ,yq;ifapd;
cu] nra;Ak; ehlhf jpfo;fpwJ. jiy kd;dhh; gFjpf;Fk; ,ilapy;
fdpktsq;fs; kpff; FiwT. fw;fs;> kzyhy; Md xU ghyk;
 ,jd; jiyefuk; VV MFk;. cs;sJ. ,g;ghyk; ‘gD ”
 VB_ kV Ao kpfr; rpwg;G vdg;gLfpwJ.
tha;e;jjhfTk;> mjpf vz;zpf;if  ,yq;if Kj;J tbtpy; mike;Js;sJ.
np
apYk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. mjpfsT vdNt ‘wz ]l[ xm”
kf;fs;njhif mlh;j;jpiaf; nfhz;l vdg;gLfpwJ.
ehL MFk;.  rpq;fs kf;fs; mjpfkhf thof;$ba
 80% epyj;Njhw;wq;fs; tsk; kpFe;j ehlhf fUjg;gLfpwJ. jkpo;
pV
tz;ly; kz;zhy; gutpAs;sJ. e/t
 ,e;jpahtpd; njd;fpof;fpy; ,yq;ifj; 
Ngrf;$ba kf;fSk;
fhzg;gLfpd;wdh;.
mjpfkhf
ehd;fhtJ Gj;j khehL ,e;ehl;by;

jPT mike;Js;sJ. ,j;jPT ghf; jhd; elj;jg;gl;lJ.
.m
://t
ps
htt
V gtA z]^

2
AslB_
 rhh;f;> fhkd;nty;j;> If;fpa rig>
mikg;Gfspy; Kf;fpa cWg;gpduhf
s
cs;sJ.
scg
V
 ,e;jpah 1947-tpYk;> rPdh 1949-
tpYk; me;epa Mjpf;fj;jpypUe;J
tpLgl;Lr; Rje;jpu ehLfs; Mapd.
,e;jpah [dehafg; ghijapYk;> rPdh  V^ _k|
fk;A+dpr topapYk; eilg;Nghl;ld. ]BVsuzD, VsuzD
np
 1954 [_d; khjk; rPdg; gpujkh; lK^ ^
# vd;yha; ,e;jpahTf;F tUif 1. mf;rha;rpd; gpur;rid
je;jNghJ mtUk; ghujg; gpujkh; 2. rPdh Mf;fpukpg;G
NeUTk; gQ;r rPyf; nfhs;ifiaf; 3. rPdh-,e;jpah kf;Nkhfd; vy;iy
$l;L gpufldk; nra;jhh;. gpur;rid
 V^
1. ehLfspd; ,iwikf;Fk;>
e/t
epy
4. fh\;kPh; gpur;rid
5. Nlhf;yhk; gpur;rid
 cyfpd; mjpf kf;fs;njhif nfhz;l
vy;iyf;Fk; gu];gu kjpg;gspj;jy;. ehlhFk;. rhq;fha; xj;Jiog;G
.m
(Mutual Respect of each other’s territorial mikg;gpd; Kf;fpa epWtduhf
integrity and sovereignty) ,e;ehL tpsq;FfpwJ.
2. Mf;fpukpf;fhik (Non-Aggression)
mjpf ,uhZt egh;fisf; nfhz;l
3. gpw ehl;bd; cs; tptfhuq;fspy; jiy
ehlhff; fUjg;gLfpwJ. ,uhZtj; -
aplhik (Non-Interferece in each others
://t
jpw;F mjpf epjp xJf;Fk; ehLfspy;

internal affairs)
mnkhpf;fhTf;F mLj;j ehlhf
4. rkj;Jtk; kw;Wk; gu];gu ed;ikiaf;
cs;sJ.
fhj;jy; (Equality and Mutual Benefit)
5. rkhjhd rftho;T (Peaceful Co- V>V[
exristence)  ,e;jpahtpd; tlNkw;fpy; mike;
ps
Js;sJ. ,];yhkhghj; ,jd;

jiyefuhf cs;sJ. , V[,
V\_ fztha;fs; mike;Js;sd.
htt
,e;jpah-ghfp];jhd; Nghh; eilngw;w

Mz;Lfs;
1. 1947> 2. 1965> 3.1972> 4. 1999

AslB_
 ,Uehl;bw;F ,ilNa ,uapy;> tpkhd

>Vi  c[ :
s
kw;Wk; rhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;Jfs;
10 [dthp 1966-y; jh\;fz;l; gpufld
ghJfhg;ghf Nkw;nfhs;sg; gLfpwJ.
cld;gbf;if ,e;jpag; gpujkh; yhy;gfJ}h;
scg
,Uehl;bw;Fkhd J}jufk; mikf;fg;
rh];jphpf;Fk; ghfp];jhd; mjpgh;
gl;Ls;sJ. midj;J tpjkhd
mA+g;fhDf;Fk; ,ilNa Vw;gl;lJ.
Kf;fpa jfty;fs; ghpkhw;wg;gLfpwJ.
EDV >D:
 ,U ehl;L mZ ciyfs; njhlh;ghd
,e;jpah-ghfp];jhd; 1972 Nghh; rpk;yh
jfty;fis tUlj;jpw;F xU Kiw
xg;ge;jj;jpd; %yk; KbTf;F nfhz;L
ghpkhw;wk; nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Vnddpy;
tug;gl;lJ. ,e;j xg;ge;jk; ,e;jpa gpujkh;
np
Kf;fpa tpgj;Jfis jtph;g;gjw;fhf
,e;jpuhfhe;jpf;Fk;> ghfp];jhd; gpujkh;
,t; nthg;ge;jk; ifahsg;gLfpwJ.
Ry;gpfh; myp Gl;NlhTf;Fk; ,ilNa
Vw;gl;lJ. ]BVzD  V>VzD
l_ c^ ^
 ,e;jpahtpw;Fk;>
,ilapy; uhZt
ghfp];jhDf;Fk;
vy;iyfs;
mikf;fg; gl;Ls;sd. ‘”
e/t 1. uhd; M‡g; fl;r; gpur;rid (Rann of
Hutch)
2. fh\;kPh; gpur;rid
vd;w vy;iyf;NfhL tiuaWf;fg;
3. rpahr;rpd; fpNs\pah;]; gpur;rid
gl;Ls;sJ.
.m
(Siachin Glacier)
4. rh; fphPf; gpur;rid - F[uhj; (Sir Greek)
••••••
://t
ps
htt
4
AslB_
s
]BV - >Vu^
scg
BuB\A:  ,kakiyfs; tpy; Nghd;w tbtj;jpy;
 xU ehl;bd; ,aw;if epyj;Njhw;wq; 2500.* ePsj;jpw;F Nkw;F-fpof;fhf
np
fis gw;wp tpthpg;gNj ,aw;ifaikg;G mike;Js;sd.
vdg;gLk;. ,e;jpah nghpJk;> khWgl;l  Nkw;Nf [k;K fh\;kPhpy; cs;s
epyj;Njhw;wq;fis nfhz;l ehL rpe;J gs;sjhf;fpypUe;J fpof;Nf
MFk;. ,e;jpah jPgfw;g gPlG+kp. mUzhr;ryg; gpuNjrj;jpYs;s
GtpapYs;s epiyahd> njhd;ikahd
ghiw mikg;Gfspy; xd;whf
tpsq;FfpwJ. ,kakiyfSk; ngUk;
e/t gpuk;kg;Gj;jpuh gs;sjhf;F tiu ePz;L
nry;fpd;wd. ,q;Fs;s gy kiyfs;
fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J 8000 kPl;lUf;F
rkntspfSk; ,e;jpahtpy; mike; Nky; cauk; nfhz;lit.
.m
Js;sd. ,kakiy gutpAs;s khepyq;fs;:
,e;jpahtpd; ,aw;ifaikg;ig Ie;J 1. [k;K fh\;kPh;
ngUk;gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;. mit> 2. ,khr;rygpuNjrk;
1. tlf;F kiyfs; (m) ,kakiyfs; 3. cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;
2. tl,e;jpah ngUk; rkntspfs;
://t
4. cj;jufhz;l;
3. jPgfw;g gPlG+kp 5. Nkw;F tq;fhsk;
4. flw;fiur; rkntsp 6. mUzhr;ryg; gpuNjrk;
5. jPTfs; 7. rpf;fpk;
1. kz \^ () \B\^ \uz \B\^
ps
 tlf;F kiyfs; vd;gJ ,kakiy

 tlNkw;F ,e;jpahtpYs;s ghkPh;
fisf; Fwpg;gjhFk;. cyfpNyNa kpf
Kbr;rpypUe;J fpof;fhf fhuNfhuk;
cah;e;j kiyfshFk;. ,k;kiyfspd;
kiyfs; tiu nry;fpd;wd.
cah;e;j rhpTg; gFjpfs; vg;NghJk;
njd;Nkw;F fh\;kPhpy; mike;J cs;s
htt
epue;jukhd gdpahy; %bAs;sjhy;

,k;kiyfs; Mg;fhdp];jhdj;jpw;Fk;>
,kakiyfis ‘Ml[ csD;”
rPdhtpw;Fk; ,ilapy; ,e;jpa
vd;W miog;ghh;fs;.
vy;iyfshf mike;Js;sd.

AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
]BVs[ xB kVF^

ps
cyfpd; ,uz;lhtJ cah;e;j rpfukhd \]B \B\ >V^

K2 vdg;gLk; fhl;tpd; M];bd;  ghkPh; Kbr;rpypUe;J njd;fpof;F jpir
,k;kiyj; njhlhpy; mike;Js;sJ. Nehf;fpr; nry;Yk; ,kakiyfis
htt
kj;jpa ,kakiyfs; vd;fpNwhk;.

 yhlhf; gPlG+kp ,e;jpahtpYs;s kpf ,k;kiyfspd; mfyk; Nkw;fpy; 400
cah;e;j gPlG+kpahfTk; mikfpwJ. fp.kP Kjy; fpof;Nf nry;y nry;y 50

AslB_
fp.kP tiu khWgLfpwJ. ,jd; cauk; ruhrhp cauk; 1000 kP MFk;. ,J
s
Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;fhf mjpfhpj;Jf; fspkz;zhYk;> nkd;ghiwfshYk;
nfhz;Nl nry;fpwJ. Md gs;sj;jhf;Ffs; rpthypf;
scg
 tlf;F njw;fhf %d;W ,izahd kiyj;njhlhpy; mike;J cs;sd.
kiyj;njhlh;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. wz  \B\^
1. `pkhj;hp 2. ,khr;ry; 3. rpthypf;  gpuk;kGj;jpuh MW ,kakiyapd;
1. N\V fpof;Nfhug; Gtp vy;iyahf
 ,kakiyapd; tlf;F kiyj; mikfpwJ. ,e;jpahtpd; fpof;F
njhliu `pkhj;hp vd;fpNwhk;. vy;iyfSld; cs;s ,k;kiyfis
np
,jd; ruhrhp cauk; 6000 kP MFk;. G+h;thQ;ry; vd;W miof;fpd;Nwhk;.
,k;kiyj;njhlh; tlNkw;Nf rpe;J kD \k^:
gs;sj;jhf;fpypUe;J tlfpof;fpy;  ,kakiyapd; njw;Nf mike;
cs;s gpuk;kGj;jpuh gs;sj;jhf;F Js;sit MFk;. ,it rpe;J> fq;if
tiu ePz;L nry;fpd;wd.
 cyfpNyNa kpf cauKs;s 8848 kP
cauk; nfhz;l vtnu];l; kiyr;
e/t kw;Wk; gpuk;kGj;jpuh MWfspd; gbT
fshy; cUthdjhFk;. ,r;rkntsp
2400 r.fp.kP ePsk; nfhz;lJ.
rpfuk; ,q;F mike;Js;sJ.
.m
xB E^
1. fQ;rd;[q;fh (8598 kP)
2. jtsfphp (8167 kP)
3. eq;fgh;tj; (8126 kP)
4. ee;jNjtp (7817 kP)
://t
xB kVF^
1. nrh[pyh fztha; - fh\;kPh;
2. \pg;fpyh fztha; - ,khr;ryg;
gu ^
ps
gpuNjrk;
3. ehJyh kw;Wk; [pyg;Gyh fztha; - tl,e;jpa rkntspia ehd;F
rpf;fpk; gphpTfshf gphpf;fyhk;. mit
2. \V_ 1. uh[];jhd; rkntsp
htt
 ,kakiyapd; njd;gFjpapy; 2. fq;ifr; rkntsp

rpthypf; kiyfs; cs;sd. ,jd; 3. gQ;rhg;-`hpahdh rkntsp
4. gpuk;kg;Gj;jpuh - rkntsp

AslB_
V : ,J fuLKulhd gbTfs; yu t

 tl,e;jpa rkntspf;F njw;Nf
s
MFk;.
mike;Js;sJ. ,J Kf;Nfhz
>VF : rJg;Gg; gbtq;fs; MFk;. NrWk;>
scg
tbtk; nfhz;lJ. 16 ,yl;rk; r.fp.kP
rf;jpAk; nfhz;l xU epyg;gFjp MFk;.
gug;gsitf; nfhz;lJ.
ghfh; gbTfspy; kiwe;jpUe;j MWfs;  tlf;Nf - gk_o, s]BV, VV,
kPz;Lk; ,g;gFjpapy; Njhd;Wfpd;wd. V\V_ kiyj;njhlh;fSk;
V : ghfh; kz; gbTfs; kiyab  \u  \u >VE \D,
thuj;jpy; Vwj;jho 8 Kjy; 16 fp.kP tiu wz >VE \D cs;sd.
np
mfyj;jpw;F gbe;Js;sJ. tz;ly; gbT  ,J fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J ruhrhpahf
fshy; cUthd epyj;Njhw;wk;. ,g;gbT 600-900 kP cauj;ijAk; nfhz;lJ.
fs; ahTk; gioa tz;ly; kz;zhy; Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;F Nehf;fp rhpe;J
cs;sJ. Mdhy; eh;kij - jgjp
Mdit.
e/t gFjpfspy; fpof;fpypUe;J Nkw;fhf
V : Gjpa tz;ly; gbTfisf;
rhpe;Js;sJ.
nfhz;lJ. MWfshy; nfhz;L tug;gLk;
 ‘\> b” jPgfw;g gPlG+kpia
Gjpa tz;ly; kz;. ,J nts;sg; ngUf;F miog;ghh;.
rkntspapd; ,U fiufspd; kPJk; gba
.m
itf;fg;gLk; gbTfshFk;.
://t
ps
htt
]BVs[ xB t^

AslB_
\]B cBW^
1. \Vk t
s
 Muty;yp kiy> tpe;jpa kiy
scg
kw;Wk; gz;ly;fhz;l; Mfpatw;why;
#og;gl;L cs;sJ. ,J yhth
vdg;gLk; vhpkiyf; Fok;gpy; cUthfp
fUg;G kz;zhy; Md gFjpahFk;.
2. _
 ,J aKid Mw;wpd; njd;gFjpapy;
np
mike;Js;sJ. ,J jPg;ghiw fshYk;
cUkhwpa ghiwfshYk; Mf;fg;
gl;lJ. ,jd; tlgFjpapy; fq;if
kw;Wk; aKid MWfs; tz;ly;
kz;izg;gba itf;fpd;wd. e/t
3. _
 ,J ikf;fhyh kiyj;njhlhpd;
fpof;Nf mike;Js;sJ. ,J Nkw;fpy; >V t
kzw;ghiwfshYk;> Rz;zhk;G ghiw
.m
fshYk; fpof;fpy; fUq;fw; fshYk;
mdJ.
VD g^
4. VV VA t 1. kfhejp 3. ngz;zhW
 kj;jpa cah;epyq;fspd; tlfpof;Fg; 2. Nfhjhthp 4. fpU\;zh
gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ. jhNkhjhh;>  njYq;fhdh gPlG+kpapypUe;J
://t
Rgh;zNufh> Nfhay; kw;Wk; guhf;fh; Nfhjhthp fpU\;zh kw;Wk;

MWfs; ,jd; topahfg; gha;fpd;wd. ngz;zhW MWfs; XLfpd;wd.
 ,e;jpahtpd; &h; vd yu ]BVsK^ \>V^
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. 1. Muty;yp kiyj;njhlh;
ps
>V t 2. tpe;jpa kiyj;njhlh;

 tlNkw;F jpirapy; tpe;jpa rhj;G+uh
3. rhj;G+uh kiyj;njhlh;
kiyj;njhlh;fisAk;> Nkw;fpy; Nkw;Fj;
4. Nkw;F njhlh;r;rp kiyj;njhlh;
njhlh;r;rp kiyfisAk;> fpof;fpy;
5. fpof;F njhlh;r;rp kiyj;njhlh;
htt
fpof;Fj; njhlh;r;rp kiy fisAk;

vy;iyfshff; nfhz;Ls;sJ.

AslB_
u \k^  fh;ehlfh rkntsp> NfhthtpypUe;J

kq;f@h; tiu ruhrhp mfyk;
s
 jPgfw;g gPlG+kpia Rw;wpAs;s flw;fiu
rkntspfs; khWgl;l mfyj;ijf; 30ypUe;J 50 fp.kP tiu ePz;L
scg
nfhz;lit. ,J Nkw;fpy; fl;r; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,r;rkntsp rpy
tisFlhtpypUe;J fpof;Nf fq;if- ,lq;fspy; nrq;Fj;Jr; rhpit
gpuk;kGj;uh rkntsp tiu 6000 fp.kP nfhz;Ls;sjhy; ePh;tPo;r;rpfis
J}uk; gutpf; fhzg;gLfpwJ. cUthf;Ffpd;wJ.
 Nkw;F njhlh;r;rp kiyf;Fk;> mugpf; 2. wz u \k
flYf;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l epyg;gFjp  fpof;Ff; flw;fiur; rkntsp Nkw;F
np
Nkw;F flw;fiur; rkntsp tq;f Mw;Wr; rkntspapypUe;J
vdg;gLfpwJ. fd;dpahFkhp tiu gutpAs;sJ.
 fpof;F njhlh;r;rp kiyf;Fk;>  jkpo;ehl;Lr; rkntsp Gypfhl;L
tq;fhs tphpFlhtpw;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l VhpapypUe;J fd;dpahFkhp tiu 992
epyg;gFjp fpof;F flw;fiur; rkntsp fp.kP ePz;L gutpAs;sJ.
vdg;gLfpwJ.
1. \uz u \k
 tlf;fpy; fl;r; tisFlhg; gFjp
e/t ]B y^
 ,e;jpahtpd; A+dpad; gpuNjrq;fshd
me;jkhd; kw;Wk; epNfhghh; jPTfs;
Kjy; njw;Nf fd;dpahFkhp tiu
tq;fhs tphpFlhtpYk;> ,yl;rj; jPTfs;
ePz;Ls;sJ. F[uhj;jpd; njd;
.m
mugpf; flypYk; mike;Js;sd.
gFjp kw;Wk; fhk;gl;bd; flw;fiu
 ,it 572 rpwpaJk;> nghpaJkhd
gFjpAk; Nrh;j;J F[uhj; rkntsp
jPTfisf; nfhz;lit. ,tw;wpy;
vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
38 jPTfs; kl;LNk thoplq;fshf
 ,J rJg;G epyq;fspd; njhlh;r;rp
cs;sd.
://t
MFk;. cah; Xjq;fspd; NghJ

 ,jd; nkhj;jg; gug;G 8249 r.fp.
flw;fiuapy; nts;sg;ngUf;F
kP me;jkhd; jPTf;$l;lq;fis
Vw;gLfpwJ. epf;Nfhghh; jPTf;$l;lq;fspypUe;J
 ,q;F fly; miy mhpg;Gfshy; 100 tlf;F fhy;thahf gphpf;fpwJ.
cUthd Xq;fy;> (Cliff)> KUiffs;  me;jkhd; epNfhghhpd; njd;Nfhb
(Reef) kw;Wk; jPTfs; Kk;igf;F
ps
Kidia ‘]Vx” vd;wiof;

njw;fpy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. fpd;wdh;.
••••••
htt
20
AslB_
s
]BV - VW
scg
 cyfpNyNa mjpf kiongWk;
gFjpahd Nkfyhah khepy
np
nksrpd;Nuhk; (1221 nr.kP) gFjpAk;>
13 nr.kP Fiwthf kiongWk;
jhh;ghiy tdKk; ,e;jpahtpy; jhd;
cs;sd.
e/t xU
kVM
(Weather)
Fwpg;gpl;l
,lj;jpy; 24 kzp
VW
(Climate)
nghJthf xU ePz;l
fhyj;jpy; kw;Wk; xU
Neuj;jpw;Fs; epyTk;> ngUk; gug;gstpy;
.m
tsp kz;lyj;jpd; fhzg;gLk; thdp
epiyahFk;. iyapd; ruhrhp
MFk;.
ntg;gk;> fhw;w xU jpl;lkhd
Oj;jk;> <ug;gjk;> ruhrhp fhyk; vd;gJ
://t
kioasT> Nkf Kg;gJ Mz;L

%l;lk;> fhw;wpd; fshFk;.
]BVs[ _k VW Ntfk; kw;Wk; mjd;
jpir Mfpa tw;why;
tiuaWf;fg;
 ‘\V[[” vd;w nrhy; mNugpa gLfpwJ.
ps
nrhy;yhd ‘\ED;” vd;gjpypUe;J fhyepiy vd;w

te;jJ. ,jd; nghUs; gUtfhyk; nrhy; ‘\V”
vd;gjhFk;. vd;w fpNuf;fr;
 ,e;jpahtpd; fhyepiyapYk;> nrhy;ypUe;J ngwg;
gl;lJ. nghUs;:
htt
epyj;Njhw;wj;jpYk; kpfg; ngUk; NtW

‘    o  m
ghLfs; epiwe;J fhzg; gLfpwJ.
sz>_”
2
AslB_
 Nfhilf;fhyj;jpw;Fk;> Fsph;fhyj;jpw; kVD
Fk; ,ilNa jq;fsJ jpiria ,e;jpahtpd; fhyepiyia ehd;F ntt;NtW
s
KOtJk; khw;wpf; nfhz;L tPRk; gUt fhyq;fshfg; gphpf;fpd;wdh;.
scg
fhw;WfSf;F ‘gUtf;fhw;W” vd;W 1. Nfhilf;fhyk; (khh;r; Kjy; Nk
ngah;. ,g;gUtf;fhw;wpdhy; ,e;jpah tiu)
tpy; ‘k \ k Vu”
2. njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;W ([_d;
fhyepiy epyTfpwJ.
Kjy; nrg;lk;gh; tiu)
k\ kVu
3. tlfpof;F gUtf;fhw;W (mf;Nlhgh;
VWl[ xB D^
Kjy; etk;gh; tiu)
np
 gUtf;fhw;wpid mJ tPRk;
4. Fsph;fhyk; (brk;gh; Kjy; gpg;uthp
jpiria mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L
njd;Nkw;Fg; gUtf;fhw;W kw;Wk; tiu)
tlfpof;Fg; gUtfhw;W vd ,U 1. VVD
tiffshfg; gphpf;fyhk;.  ,g;gUt fhyk;> khh;r; khjk; njhlq;fp
 ,it epyk; kw;Wk; fly; ntg;gk;
miltjhy; Vw;gLk; khWghl;lhy;
cUthfpd;wd.
e/t Nk khjk; tiu ePbf;Fk;.
 #hpadpd; nrq;Fj;Jf; fjph;fs;
flfNuifapd; kPJ tpOfpwJ. ,jdhy;
 gUtf;fhyq;fis khw;wp khw;wp ,e;jpahtpd; tlgFjpapy; ntg;gj;jpd;
.m
mikg;gNj gUtf;fhw;Wfspd; Kf;fpa msT mjpfkhfpwJ. mjpf ntg;gk;
mk;rkhFk;. ,JNt ,e;jpahtpd; fhuzkhf tl,e;jpahtpy; Fiwe;j
fhyepiyiaj; jPh;khdpf;fpwJ. fhw;wOj;jk; cUthfpwJ.
m \w (Blossom Shower)
://t
fhg;gpr; nrb Jsph;tpl ,J kpfg; gad;

gLtjhy;> ,jid Jsph; kio vd;gh;.
\VV_ (Mango Showers)
,bAld; $ba kioahdJ Nfush
kw;Wk; fh;ehlff; flw;fiu gFjpfspy;
ps
tpisAk;> khq;fha;fs; tpiutpy; Kjph;

tjw;F cjTfpwJ.
 ,jd; tpisthf jhh; ghiytdg;

htt
gFjpj; njhlq;fp> Nrhl;lh ehfGhp

gPlG+kp tiu xU Fiw mOj;jg;
]BVs[ kVD gs;sk; gutp mikfpwJ. ,f;Fiw
22
AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
]BVs[ \wk_
mOj;jj;ijr; rhh;e;J Mq;fhq;Nf ,e;jpahtpd; tlf;F kw;Wk; tlNkw;Fg;

://t
jPtpu jy fhw;Nwhl;lq;fs; Vw;gL gFjpfspy; Nfhilf;fhyj;jpy; gfy;

fpd;wd. ,g;gUtj;jpy; Vw;gLk; Neuj;jpy; tPRk; ntg;gf;fhw;W ‘” (Loo)
,b Gayhy; ngUk; kiog;nghopT
2. >[\uz kVu
Vw;gLfpwJ.
 ,g;gUtf;fhw;W kiof;fhyj;Jld;
Vk (Norwesters) njhlq;FfpwJ. ,e;jpahtpd; tl
ps
 tlfpof;F ,e;jpag; gFjpfspy; tPRk;

Nkw;Fg; gFjpapd; ngUk;gug;gpy; jho;
jyf;fhw;W ‘ehh;nt];lh;” (Norwesters)
tOj;jk; mikfpwJ. mNj Neuj;jpy;
vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ngUq;fly;fs; Fsph;tiltjhy;>
_V (Kalbaisagi) mq;F cah; mOj;jk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
htt
 ,j;jyf;fhw;W gQ;rhgpy; fy;ig ,g;gUtfhw;W [_d; Kjy; nrg;lk;gh;

rhfp (igrhfp khjk;) vd;wiof;fg; tiu njhlh;fpwJ.
gLfpwJ.
2
AslB_
 fhw;W flypy; ,Ue;J ,e;jpa 2. kVszV 

epyg;gFjpia Nehf;fp tPRfpwJ.  tq;fhs tphpFlhtpy; ,Ue;J
s
,f;fhw;iwNa njd;Nkw;Fg; gUtf; tPRk; ,f;fhw;whdJ <ug;gjj;ijj;
scg
fhw;W vd;W miof;fpNwhk;. ,f;fhw;W jhq;fp tUk; fhw;whFk;. ,J fhrp>
G+kj;jpa Nuifia flf;Fk; NghJ fNuh> n[ae;jpah Fd;Wfspd; kPJ
mjd; jpir khw;wg;gl;L njd;Nkw;F NkhJfpwJ. <ug;gjk; jhq;fptUk;
gUtf;fhw;whf tPRfpwJ. ,f;fhw;whdJ Gdy;tbt Fd;Wfspd;
kPJ Nkhjp jpBnud Nky; vOk;gtjhy;
k\w kA (Monsoon Burst):
njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;W ,e;jpag; ,e;jpahtpNyNa mjpf kiongWk;
np
ngUq;flypypUe;J Njhd;Wtjhy;> mjpf ,lkhd nksrpd;uhKf;F
ntg;gj;ij jhq;fpa fhw;whf cs;sJ. fdkioiaj; jUfpwJ.
Nfushtpd; njd; gFjpia milAk;  ,f;fhw;wpd; xU gFjp ,kakiyfshy;
NghJ gyj;j> ,b kpd;dYld; $ba jLf;fg;gl;L Nkw;F Nehf;fp efu efu
kioia mspg;gjd; %yk; njd;Nkw;F
gUtf;fhyk; Muk;gpg;gijf; fhl;LfpwJ.
,jid gUtkio ntbg;G vd;gh;.
e/t jk;kplKs;s <ug;gjj;ij ,og;gjhy;
gQ;rhg; kw;Wk; `hpahdhtpw;F kpff;
Fiwe;jsT kioiaj; jUfpd;wJ.
nghJthf njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;W 3. kwz kVu
 ,g;gUt fhw;W mf;Nlhgh; Kjy;
,e;jpa jPgfw;g mikg;ghy; ,Ufpisfshfg;
.m
etk;gh; tiu cz;lhfpwJ.
gphpfpwJ.
 #hpadpd; kfuNuifia Nehf;fp efu
1. mugpf;fly;
Muk;gpg;gjhy;> njd;Nkw;F gUtf;
2. tq;fhs tphpFlh fpis
fhw;W tl ,e;jpahtpy; ,Ue;J
1. _ 
://t
nrg;lk;gh; khjk; ,uz;lhtJ thuj;jpy;

 gUtf;fhw;wpd; mugpf;fly;fpis
gpd;Ndhf;fp tu Muk;gpf;fpwJ.
Xh; typik kpf;f fhw;W. ,J mjpf
 ,e;jpa epyg;gFjp ntg;gj;ij
kiog;nghopitj; jUfpwJ.
,of;fpwJ. epyj;jpd; ntg;gepiy
 mugpf;flypy; ,Ue;J tPRk; ,f;fhw;wpd;
Fiwe;J nrd;whYk;> flypd; ntg;gk;
xU gFjp Kjypy; Nkw;F njhlh;r;rp
ps
,d;Dk; kpjkhfNt cs;sJ. ,jdhy;

kiy kPJ NkhJfpwJ. <ug;gjkpf;f
fly;gFjpapy; Fiwe;j mOj;jKk;>
,f;fhw;W kiyr;rhpTfspd; topNa
epyg;gFjpapy; cah; mOj;jKk;
cau vOk;gp Fsph;tile;J Nkw;Ff;
Vw;gLfpwJ. mjhtJ> epyj;jpypUe;J
flw;fiuf;F gyj;j kioiaj;
htt
fhw;W fliy Nehf;fp tPRfpwJ. ,J

jUfpwJ.
Nrhokz;ly flw;fiuf;F> fdj;j
kioiaj; jUfpwJ.
24
AslB_
]BV  >[\uz kVu k_ _m 4. zVD
s
x[D k Vu  Fsph;fhyf; fhw;W
brk;gh; Kjy; gpg;uthp
scg
tiu Vw;gLfpwJ.
,g;gUtj;jpy;
#hpadpd; nrq;Fj;J
fjph;fs; kfu Nuifapd;
kPJ tpOfpwJ.
 ,e;jpahtpd; tl
np
Nkw;Fg; gFjpapy;>
Fiwe;j ntg;gk;
fhzg;gLtjhy;
mq;F cah; mOj;jk;
e/t c U t h f p w J .
,jw;F
njd;
khwhf
,e;jpahtpy;
mugpf; fly; kw;Wk;
.m
tq;fhs tphpFlh
Mfpag; gFjpfspy;
jho;T mOj;jk;
c U t h f p w J .
,jd; tpisthf
://t
fhw;whdJ> cah;
mOj;jg; gFjp
apypUe;J njd;
,e;jpahit Nehf;fp
tPRfpwJ. ,e;jf;
ps
fhw;Wf;F [D
 nghJthf Gay;fs; Mw;W Kfj;Jthuq;fis kVu
tpUk;Gtjhy; fq;if> kfhejp> Nfhjhthp> fpU\;zh> gpd;dilAk; gUtf;
fhtphp Mfpa MWfspd; Kfj;Jthuq;fs; Gaypd; fhw;W (Retreating
htt
ghijfshf mikfpd;wd. Monsoon) vd;W ngah;.

 ,e;jpahtpd; Fsph;
fhyj;jpy; kj;jpaj;
2
AslB_
jiuf;flypy; xU jho; mOj;jk; ]BV  kwz kVu _m
s
; ~V[
cUthfpf; fpof;F Nehf;fp efh;eJ [D k Vu
kw;Wk; Mg;fhdp];jhidf; fle;J
scg
,e;jpahit te;jilfpwJ. ,j;jho;T
mOj;jk; ‘\u]B RVu”
vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
\wk_
 kiog;guty; ,uz;L Kf;fpa
fhuzpfshy; eph;zapf;fg;gLfpwJ.
np
mit 1. kioia jhq;fp tUk;
fhw;wpd; jpir 2. kiyfspd; mikT
 kiog;nghoptpd; mbg;gilapy; ek;
ehl;il gpd;tUk; ehd;F gphpTfshf
gphpf;fyhk;. mit> e/t
.m
z]^ t ] ] t>\V zkV
\wD \wD \wD \wD z]^
z]^ z]^ z]^
kioapd; 300 nr.kPf;Fk; 200 nr.kP 100 nr.kP 50 nr.kP-f;Fk;
://t
msT Nky; Kjy; 300 Kjy; 200 FiwT

nr.kP tiu nr.kP tiu
kiongWk; fpof;F kj;jpa fq;ifg; fh\;kPhpd;
gFjpfs; ,kakiyapd; fq;ifr; gs;sj;jhf;F> tlgFjp> Nkw;F
njw;Fr; rhpT> rkntsp> fpof;F ,uh[];jhd;>
m];]hk;> Nkw;F Nkw;F ,uh[];jhd;> njd; gQ;rhg;>
ps
tq;fhsk;> kiyj;njhlh;> gQ;rhg;> Nkw;F njhlh;r;rp

nfhq;fzk;> fpof;F fh;ehlfk;> kiyfspd; kio
Nkw;F k`huh\;buk;> Me;jpug; kiwTg; gFjp
flw;fiug; kj;jpag; gpuNjrk;>
htt
gFjpahd gpuNjrk;> jkpo;ehL

kyghh; flw;fiu xbrh
••••••
2
AslB_
s
]BV - g^
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
]B g[ k_^
2
AslB_
 MWfshdJ gy;NtW Njhw;wq;fspy; axD : Mw;W Kfj;Jthuj;jpy;
s
cUthfpwJ. ,e;jpahtpy; gy;NtW Xjq;fspd; fhuzkhf> Mw;wpd; ey;y
topfspy; MWfs; jdJ Njhw;wj;jpid
scg
ePUk;> flypd; cg;G ePUk; xd;W fyf;fpwJ.
mikj;Jf; nfhs;fpwJ. ,g;gFjp nly;lh Nghy; ,y;yhky; mofhf
m g^ ,Uf;Fk;.
 xU MwhdJ mUfpYs;s kiyg; v.fh: eh;kij Mw;wpd; fopKfg; gFjp
gFjpapy; cUthfp mit Kjd;ik  ,e;jpahtpy; MWfs; ngUk;ghYk;
Mw;Wld; Nrh;fpwJ. kiyg;gFjpfspy; ,Ue;J cUth
np
v.fh: aKid: fq;ifapd; Jiz fpd;wd. gdpkiyg; gFjpfspy; ,Ue;J
MW> gthdp> neha;ay;> mkuhtjp - tUlk; KOtJk; ejpahfg; gha;fpwJ.
fhtphpapd; Jiz MWfs;
 ,e;jpahtpy; ghAk; MWfis mtw;wpd;
_V:Mw;wpd; Kfj;Jthuj;jpy; Kf;Nfhz tbfhyikg;gpd; mbg;gilapy; ,U
tbtkhd tz;ly; kz; gbTfs; MFk;.
 g^: xU MW mjd; filg;
gFjpapy; fliy NrUfpd;w gFjpfspy;>
e/t gphpthf gphpf;fyhk;.
1. jPgfw;g MWfs;
2. GwjPgfw;g MWfs;
Kjd;ik MwhdJ gy fpisfshfg;

.m
gphpe;J flypy; fyf;fpwJ.
yu g^ Ayu g^
 ngUk;ghyhdit Nkw;F njhlh;r;rp  ngUk;ghyhdit ,kakiyfspy; Njhd;W
kiyfspy; cUthfpd;wd. ,j;njhlh; fpd;wd.
://t
kiyfs; njd;Nkw;Fg; gUtf;  ,kakiyfs; caukhf ,Ug;gjhy; gdp

fhw;wpdhy; fd kioiag; ngW MWfs; Njhd;Wfpd;wd.
fpd;wd.
 Mz;L KOtJk; ePNuhl;lj;Jld;
 MWfs; cUthFk; ,lj;jpy; kiog; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
nghopT ,Ug;gjdhy; kiof; fhyq;
 rkntspapy; XLtjhy; Nghf;Ftuj;jpw;F
ps
fspy; kl;Lk; ePh; gha;e;J kioaw;w

cjTfpwJ.
fhyq;fspy; twz;L Nghfpd;wd.
 nghpa tz;ly; nly;lhf;fis
 mfykhd> Mokw;w gs;sj;jhf;Ffspd;
cUthf;FfpwJ.
topNa gha;fpd;wd.
 nghpa Mw;W tbepyq;fisAk;> ePh;
htt
 Nghf;Ftuj;jpw;Fg; gad;gLtJ ,y;iy.

gpbg;GfisAk; nfhz;lit.
 rpwpa fopKfq;fisAk;> rpwpa
 ,it Mokhd U tbt FWfpa
nly;lhitAk; cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
gs;sj;jhf;Ffs; topNa gha;fpd;wd.
2
AslB_
]B g^
s
k o_  o_ c^V| g^
scg
zD g^ zD g^
1. D\A]V 1. >VtV 1. M
2.  2. >]
3. \V] 3. \>
4. V>Vk 4. BV
5. iV 5.\]
6. Vs
np
7. >VtV
8. VV
9. k
 nghJthf ,e;jpahtpy; ghAk; k ]B g^

MWfis ,Utiffshfg; gphpf;f
yhk;. NkYk; ,t;thWfs; tq;ff; fly;
kw;Wk; mugpf; flypy; fyf;fpwJ.
e/t  tl ,e;jpa MWfspy; rpe;J> fq;if>
gpuk;kGj;jpuh Mfpad Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
tha;e;jitahff; fUjg;gLfpd;wd.
1. tl ,e;jpa MWfs;  njd;Nkw;Fg; gUtf;fhw;W kw;Wk; gdp
.m
2. njd;dpe;jpa MWfs; my;yJ cUfp tUk; ePuhy; Mz;L KOtJk;
jPgfw;g MWfs; nts;sk; nfhz;lit. ,t;thWfs;
://t
ps
htt
Em gu[ k_
2
AslB_
ePh; kpd; cw;gj;jpf;Fg; nghpJk; ePh;ghrdj;jpw;Fk;> kpd;rf;jpf;Fk;
s
gad;gLfpd;wd. gad;gLj;jp tUfpd;wd.
 ,t;thWfs; cs;ehl;L ePh; topg;  ,e;ejpapd; ngauhNyNa ek; ghujk;
scg
Nghf;Ftuj;Jf;Fg; gad;gLfpd;wd. ,e;jpah vd;W ngah; ngw;wJ.
1. Em 2. 
 ,kakiyapy; cs;s fapiyf;  ,kakiyapy; cs;s fq;Nfhj;hp
Fd;Wg;gFjpapy; mike;j khdrNuhth; cj;uhq;ry; vd;w gzpahw;wpy;
Vhpapy; cw;gj;jpahfp> gQ;rhg; topahfg; cw;gj;jpahfpwJ.
gha;e;J> gpwF ghfp];jhd; gFjpapy;  `hpj;Jthh; vd;w ,lj;jpy;
np
Eioe;J mugpf;flypy; fyf;fpwJ. rkntspia te;J milfpd;wJ.
,jd; ngUk;gFjp ghfp];jhdpy;  fq;if ejpapd; ePsk; Rkhh; 2510 fp.kP
gha;fpwJ. MFk;. ,e;jpag; gug;gpd; 25 rjtPjk;
 ,e;ejp fh\;kPh; khepyj;jpy; gha;fpwJ. ,e;ejpapd; gug;Ng MFk;.
,J cyfpd; kpf ePz;l MWfspy;
xd;whFk;.
 ,e;ejpapd; nkhj;j ePsk; 3100 fp.kP.
e/t  ] VD \VW^
1. cj;jufz;l;
2. cj;jpugpuNjrk;
,J ,e;jpahtpy; 709 fp.kP gha;fpwJ. 3. gPfhh;
.m
Em ]  >D: 4. Nkw;F tq;fhsk;
,e;jpahTf;Fk;> ghfp];jhDf;Fk; ,ilapy;  myf;ee;jh kw;Wk; ghfPujp vd;Dk; ,U
nrg;lk;gh; 19-k; ehs; 1960y; rpe;Jejp ePh; jiyg;gphpTfshf cUthfpwJ. ,it
xg;ge;jk; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ. ,jd;gb ,uz;Lk; NrUkplk; ‘>kBV”
uhtp> gpah];> rl;y[; Mfpa MWfspd; vdg;gLk;.
://t
ePiu tuk;gpd;wp ,e;jpah gad;gLj;Jk;

fq;ifapd; Kf;fpaj; JizahW
mjpfhuk; ngw;wJ. [Pyk;> rPdhg; kw;Wk; aKid ejp MFk;.
rpe;J ejpfspd; ePiu tuk;gpd;wpg;
gad;gLj;Jk; mjpfhuk; ghfp];jhDf;F
fq;if ejpapd; fq;if
cs;sJ. tlf;F Jiz ejpapd; njw;F
ps
m ]^ ahWfs; JizahWfs;

1. [Pyk; 2. rPdhg; 3.uhtp 1. uhk; fq;fh 1. aKid
2. Nfhkjp 2. jhNkhjh;
4. gpah]; 5. rl;y[;
3. fhf;uh 3. Nrhd;
 rpe;J ejpahy; ekf;Ff; fpilf;Fk;
htt
4. fhz;lhf;
ePiu gQ;rhg;> `hpahdh kw;Wk; 5. Nfhrp
,uh[];jhd; khepyq;fs; 6. aKdh
0
AslB_
>[ _V
 fq;if jdJ fopKfg; gFjpapy; jpngj;jpy; ,t;thw;wpd; ngah; :
s
gy gphpTfshfg; gphpe;J Re;jutd jp rhq;Ngh
mrhkpy; ,t;thw;wpd; ngah; :
scg
nly;lhg; gFjpia cUthf;fpa gpd; gpuk;kGj;jpuh
tq;fhs tphpFlhtpy; fyf;fpwJ.
 m];yhkpd; ngUk;ghd;ikahd
D\A]V
Nghf;Ftuj;J gpuk;kGj;jpuh Mw;wpd;
 ,e;ejp ifyha kiy gdpahW
khdrNuhth; vd;w ,lj;jpy; gdp %ykhfNt eilngWfpwJ.
Mw;why; cw;gj;jpahfpd;wJ.  gpuk;kgj;jpuh> gq;fshNj\py; gj;kh
np
 gpuk;kGj;jpuh Mw;wpd; nkhj;j ePsk; Mw;Wld; ,ize;J cyfpd;
2880 fp.kP ePsk; cilaJ. ,e;jpahtpy; kpfg;nghpa nly;lhit cUthf;fpag;
725 fp.kP ePsk; ,e;ejp gha;fpd;wJ. gpd;> tq;fhs tphpFlhtpy; fyf;fpwJ.
,e;ejpapd; ngUk; gug;G jpngj;jpy; gpuk;kGj;jpuh Mw;wpd; JizMWfs;:
gha;fpwJ. 1. jP];jh 2. Nyhfpj; 3. Rgd;=
 mUzhr;ryg; gpuNjrj;jpy; ‘]V
(Dihong)”
EiofpwJ.
vd;w
e/t
ngaUld;
4. khd]; 5. jpghq;
7. Rgd;= 8. jd;=
6. [hy;jhfh
.m
://t
ps
htt
Em gu[ k_

AslB_
>[M]B g^  ,e;ejpapd; kPJ kpfg;nghpa `PuhFl;
s
 njd;dpe;jpa MWfspy; eh;kij> miz fl;lg;gl;L cs;sJ.
jgjp> Y}dp> rgh;kjp Mfpa MWfs;  ,e;ejpapd; ePsk; : 530 fp.kP
scg
kl;Lk; fpof;fpypUe;J Nkw;F Nehf;fpg; kfhejp ghAk; khepyq;fs;:
gha;e;J> mugpf;flypy; fyf;fpd;wd. 1. rl;B];fh; 2. xbrh
gpw MWfs; Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;F 3. [hh;fz;l; 4. kfhuh\;buh
Nehf;fpg; gha;fpd;wd.
fpof;F Nehf;fp ghAk; MWfs; kl;Lk; 2. \>

 kj;jpag; gpuNjrj;jpYs;s mkh;fz;lf;
np
nly;lhit mikf;fpd;wd.
vd;Dk; gFjpapy; cw;gj;jpahfpwJ.
1. \V] ,J ikf;fhy; kiyj;njhlhpy;
 kj;jpa ,e;jpahthd kj;jpag; cw;gj;jpahfpd;wJ.
gpuNjrj;jpy; rhj;G+uh kiyj;njhlhpy;  ,e;ejp ngUk;ghYk; kj;jpag;
cs;s >V
cw;gj;jpahfpd;wJ.
z[_ e/t gpuNjrj;jpNyNa gha;fpwJ. ,jpy;
10-y; xU gFjp kl;LNk F[uhj;jpy;
gha;fpwJ.
.m
://t
ps
htt
>[M]BVs_ VD g^

2
AslB_
 ,e;ejp mugpf;flypy; cs;s fhk;Ng  jf;fhz gPlG+kp> ehrpf; Fd;Wfs;

tisFlhtpy; fyf;fpwJ. mUfpy; ]BD vd;w ,lj;jpy;
s
ghAk; khepyq;fs;: Njhd;WfpwJ.
scg
1. kj;jpag; gpuNjrk; jl;rpz fq;if kw;Wk; tph;jh
2. F[uhj; fq;fh vd;Wk; Nfhjhthp ejp
3. kfhuh\;buh miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
>] g m g^

 Nkw;F Nehf;fpg; ghAk; MWfspy; 1. ngz; fq;fh 2. ntapd;fq;fh
np
,uz;lhtJ kpf ePskhd MW 3. gpuhz`pjh 4. khQ;rpuh
MFk;. 5. ,e;jpuhtjp 6. rghp
 ,e;ejpapd; ePsk; 724 fp.kP MFk;. 7. th;jh
 kj;jpag; gpuNjrj;jpy; cw;gj;jpahfp> 5. iV
mugpf;flypy; fyf;fpwJ. e/t  ,e;ejpapd; ePsk; 1400 fp.kP.
ghAk; khepyq;fs;: tq;ff;flypy; fyf;fpwJ
1. kj;jpag; gpuNjrk;  kfhgNy];tuh; kiyapd; mUfpy;
2. F[uhj; Njhd;WfpwJ.
3. kfhuh\;buh  ,f;fpU\;zh ejpapy; njYq;F
.m
fq;ifj; jpl;lk; nray;gLj;jg;
4. V>Vk g
gl;Ls;sJ.
 njd;dpe;jpa MWfspy; kpfg;nghpa
VD \VW^
MW MFk;.
1. kfhuh\;buk;
 ,e;ejpapd; ePsk; 1440 fp.kP.
://t
2. fh;ehlfk;
 ,e;j MW kfhuh\;buhtpy; cs;s VE
gFjpapy; ,Ue;J cw;gj;jpahfpd;wJ. 3. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
B[D \VW^
ghAk; khepyq;fs; 1. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; 2. jkpo;ehL
1. kj;jpag; gpuNjrk; m g^
ps
2. fh;ehlfh
1. nfha;dh 2. gQ;rfq;fh
3. xhprh
3. fl;g;ugh 4. kyg;ugh
4. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
5. gPkh 6. %rp
7. Jq;fg;gj;uh
htt

AslB_
6. Vk m g^

1. kzpKj;jhW 2. rpw;whW
s
 FlF kiy - nkhf;fhuh - jiyf;
fhtphpapy; Njhd;WfpwJ. ePh;tPo;r;rpfs;:
scg
 ,e;ejpapd; ePsk; 790 fp.kP. 1. ghgehrk; 2. rpw;whW
 G+k;Gfhh; mUNf flypy; fyf;fpwJ. 3. Fw;whyk;
 fhtphp MW nfhs;splk;> fhtphp>
ntd;dhW vd %d;W fpisfshfg; 8. VV
gphpf;fpd;wJ.  ee;jp kiyapy; Njhd;WfpwJ
 fh;ehlfh khepyj;jpy; fpU\;zuh[ VD \VW^
np
rhfh; mizAk;> Nryk; khtl;lj;jpy; 1. fh;ehlfh 2. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
Nkl;^hpy; ];lhd;yp mizAk; m g^
fl;lg;gl;Ls;sd. 1. nra;ahW 2. Ntftjp
 Nkl;^hpy; fl;lg;gl;l mizapypUe;J 9. k
kpd;rhuk; jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
VD \VW^
1. fh;ehlfh 2. jkpo;ehL
e/t nghpahh; gPlG+kpapy; itif ejp
cw;gj;jpahfpd;wJ.
 Nfus murpd; Ky;iy nghpahW
3. Nfush 4. ghz;br;Nrhp gpur;ridahy; itif ejpapy; ePh;
m g^ ,Ug;gjpy;iy.
.m
1. gthdp 2. neha;ay; m g^
3. mkuhtjp 4. fgpdp 1. RUspahW 2. kQ;rshW
5. N`khtjp 6. rpk;rh 3. Ky;iyahW 4. tuhf ejp
7. jhkpuguzp 8. Nyhfghzp 10. BV
://t
9. jpUkzp Kj;jhW  Nfushtpd; caph;ehb MFk;.

10. ,yl;Rkzd; jPh;j;jk; Nfushtpd; kpfg;nghpa MW MFk;.
 ,J Vykiy (Cardamom) - apy;
 mfj;jpa kiyapy; Njhd;wp kd;dhh;
Njhd;WfpwJ.
tisFlhtpy; fyf;fpwJ.
 ,jd; ePsk; 244 fp.kP
 jhkpuguzpapd; ePsk; : 122 fp.kP
ps
 ,t;thw;wpd; FWf;Nf ,Lf;fp miz

 ,e;ejpapid ‘V ]” vd;Wk;
fl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
11. \]
 ,uh[];jhdpy; cs;s cja;G+h;
htt
khtl;lj;jpy; Muty;yp kiyj;njhlhpy;

Njhd;WfpwJ.
4
AslB_
 fhe;jpabfs; rgh;kjp Mrpukk;  320 fp.kP Xbagpd; F[uhj;jpd; fl;r;
s
,e;ejpapd; fiuapy; cs;sJ. tisFlhtpd; jiyg;gFjpahd
c^V| g^ rJg;G epyg;gFjpapy; kiwfpwJ.
scg
M  ,e;j MW twz;l njw;F ,uh[];jhd;
 Muty;yp kiyj;njhlhpy; cs;s gFjpf;F kpFe;j ed;ik mspf;fpwJ.
m[;kPh; mUNf Njhd;WfpwJ.
 Nfhtpe;j;fhh;f; vd;Dkplj;ij fle;J
ru];tjp Mw;Wld; fyf;fpwJ.
np
••••••
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt

AslB_
s
scg
>tV| xD
 njd;dpe;jpahtpd; fpof;F flNyhug; Nkw;fpy; NfushitAk;> tlf;fpy;

gFjpapy; mike;Js;s ekJ khepykhd fh;ehlfk; kw;Wk; Me;jpug;
np
jkpo;ehL Am, V, VD, gpuNjrj;jpidAk; jkpofk;
g]>D Mfpa khepyq;fis vy;iyfshff; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
vy;iyfshf nfhz;Ls;sJ.  1858D g| k 14D V^,
 fpof;fpy; tq;fhs tphpFlhitAk;> jkpo;nkhop khepyj;jpd; Ml;rp
e/t
njw;fpy; ,e;jpag; ngUq;fliyAk;> nkhopahff; nfhz;L tug;gl;lJ.
.m
://t
ps
htt
>tV| \A

AslB_
 ,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j kf;fs; njhifapy; Gypfs; fhg;gfk;> ahidfs; fhg;gfk;
s
gVkm > ngw;Ws;s jkpofk;> vdg; gy;NtW tpjkhd ,aw;ifapdhy;
tptrhak; kw;Wk; ,ae;jpug; nghUl;fs; cz;lhf;fg;gl;l caphpd Nfhsq;fs;
scg
cw;gj;jpapy; Kd;dzp khepyq;fspy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
xd;whfj; jpfo;fpwJ. >tV_ c^ V^, V^ \uD
 jkpo;ehL tlf;Nf 8041N ml;rj;jp VB[ 
ypUe;J 13035N ml;rk; tiuapYk;> Njrpag; G+q;fh 5
fpof;Nf 76018E jPh;f;fj;jpypUe;J gwitfs; ruzhyak; 13
80020E jPh;f;fk; tiu gutpAs;sJ. ahidfs; fhg;gfk; 4
np
 Vwf;Fiwa xV kk mikg;gpy; Gypfs; fhg;gfk; 4
mike;Js;s jkpo;ehL gug;gstpy; caph;f;Nfhs fhg;gfk; 3
,e;jpa khepyq;fspy; ]V[Vkm tdtpyq;F ruzhyaq;fs; 29
,lj;ij tfpf;fpd;wJ. >tV[ \Vk^
 ,e;jpahtpy; efukakhjypy; mjpf
tsh;r;rpaile;j
xd;whfj; jpfOk;
e/t
khepyq;fspy;
jkpo;ehL
 jkpo;ehl;bd; nkhj;j epyg;gug;G
1,30,058 ..* gzD. ,J ,e;jpahtpd;
nkhj;jg; gug;gpy; V[z >T>\VzD.
jdpj;jnjhU Gtpapay; kz;lykhfj;  ,d;iwa jkpo;ehL ,e;jpahtpd; 29
jpfo;fpd;wJ.
.m
\VW_ xd;whFk;.
 mofpa ,aw;if tsq;fSk;> mlh;e;j  jkpo;ehl;bd; jiyefh; [.
fhLfSk;> mhpatd tpyq;FfSk;> ,jd; jiyikr; nrayfk; AM> V
Fsph; kiyg; gpuNjrq;fSk;> jpuhtpl Vl_ nray;gl;L tUfpwJ.
fiyeak; kpf;f m Vl_D,  >tD, gxD jkpofj;jpd;
://t
Eu D jkpofj;jpd; Ml;rp nkhopfs; MFk;.

jdpg;ngUk; cilikahf cs;sJ.  jkpofj;jpd; nkhj;j kf;fs; njhif
 flw;fiu tpLjpfs;> ngUik kpf;f ,2,4,00.
kjtopghl;Lj; jyq;fs; kw;Wk;  kf;fs; neUf;fj;jpy; 6km ,lj;jpYk;>
And];Nfhthy; mq;fPfhpf;fg;gl;l tsh;r;rpapy; 3km ,lj;jpYk;> kdpj
ps
cyf gz;ghl;Lj; jyq;fs; epiwe;j ts Nkk;ghl;by; 6km ,lj;jpYk;

khepykhf ,J jpfo;fpwJ. cs;sJ.
 NkYk; jkpofj;jpy; NkYk; Njrpag;
G+q;fhf;fs;> gwitfs; ruzhyaq;fs;>
htt

AslB_
>tV[ c^VE \A 22 Njdp 1996
s
khefuhl;rpfs; 12 efuhl;rpfs; 23 jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp 1956
- 125
24 jpUney;Ntyp 1956
scg
Ng&uhl;rpfs; 529 khtl;l
Cuhl;rpfs; 25 jpUts;@h; 1997
- 31 26 jpUtz;zhkiy 1989
Cuhl;rp xd;wpaq;fs; 385 Cuhl;rp 27 jpUth&h; 1991
kd;wq;fs; 28 J}j;Jf;Fb 1986
- 12>524 29 jpUg;G+h; 2009
np
kf;fsit njhFjpfs; - 39 30 NtY}h; 1989
rl;lkd;w njhFjpfs; - 234
khepyq;fsit njhFjpfs; - 18 31 tpOg;Guk; 1993
32 tpUJefh; 1985
1 mhpaY}h; 2007
2 nrd;id 1956
3
4
Nfhak;Gj;J}h;
flY}h;
1956
1993
e/t
5 jUkGhp 1966
6 jpz;Lf;fy; 1985
.m
7 <NuhL 1979
8 fhQ;rpGuk; 1997
9 fd;dpahFkhp 1956
10 f&h; 1995
://t
11 fpU\;zfphp 2004
12 kJiu 1956
13 ehfg;gl;bdk; 1991
14 ehkf;fy; 1997
15 ePyfphp 1956
ps
16 nguk;gY}h; 1995
17 GJf;Nfhl;il 1974
18 ,uhkehjGuk; 1956
htt
19 Nryk; 1956
20 rptfq;if 1985
21 jQ;rhT+h; 1956 >tV| \A

AslB_
\VVE^ VEAD
1. nrd;id 7. jQ;rhT+h;
s
 `Pz;lha; fhh; njhopw;rhiy
2. kJiu 8. jpUney;Ntyp
 kNfe;jpuh Nghh;l; njhopw;rhiy
3. jpUr;rp 9. jpUg;G+h;
scg
4. Nfhit 10. <NuhL  nrapz;l; Nfhigd; kpjit
5. Nryk; 11. NtY}h; fz;zhb njhopw;rhiy mfpait
6. jpz;Lf;fy; 12. J}j;Jf;Fb mike;Js;sJ.
 xt;nthU khtl;lj;jpd; jiy efuKk;  Q V gpwe;j Ch; MFk;.
me;je;j khtl;lq;fspy; mike; VBDA#
Js;sJ. ,uz;L khtl;lq;fspd;  ,k;khtl;lj;jpYs;s DVl_
np
jiyefuk; kl;Lk; NtWgl;Ls;sJ. ePh;kpd; tpir cw;gj;jp nra;ag;
mit. gLfpwJ.
 >[M]BVs[ \V[ vd;Wk;
fd;dpahFkhp - ehfh;Nfhtpy;
Nfhit miof;fg;gLfpwJ. (tl
ePyfphp - cjfkz;lyk;
>tw][kV\Vk[
>MEA^
e/t ,e;jpahtpd; khd;nr];lh; fhd;G+h;
MFk;).
 ghujpahh; gy;fiyf;fofk;> jkpo;ehL
~V| Ntshz;ikg; gy;fiyf;fofk;>
=mtpdhrp ypq;fk; kidapay; gy;fiyf;
.m
 efu tsh;r;rpapy; jkpofj;jpd;
,uz;lhtJ nghpa efh;. fofk; Mfpait ,k; khtl;lj;jpy;
 <NuhL ,jd; Jzp tpahghuKk; cs;sd.
Ek
,e;jpa mstpy; [kf;fhsKk; kpfg;
 cyfpd; kpfTk; juk;tha;e;j fpuhigl;
Gfo; ngw;wjhFk;.
://t
 fdpkk; fpilf;fpwJ.

[
 nea;Ntyp mdy;kpd; epiyak;.
 ,e;jpahtpd; ‘Vl” vd;W
 ney;ypf;Fg;gk; rh;f;fiu Miy.
$wg;gLk; tpjj;jpy; gd;dhl;L fhh;
(,.I.b. ghhp rh;f;fiu Miy)
 jahhpg;G Miyfs; nrd;idapYk;>
ps
 jkpo;ehL fhfpj Miy mijr; Rw;wpYk; mike;J cs;sd.

 $l;LwT E}w;ghiy  ‘gk” njd;dpe;jpahtpd; fyhr;
 nrl;behL rpnkz;l; Miy rhuj;jpd; EioT thapyhff; fUjg;
[MBVz\ gLfpwJ.
htt
 ehQ;rpy; ehL vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ D

 ,e;jpa mUkz; njhopw;rhiy  nghpahh; gy;fiyf;fofk; ,k;khtl;lj;jpy;
Fwpg;gplj;jf;fjhFk;. mike;Js;sJ.

AslB_
 ,e;jpahtpNyNa \V cw;gj;jp D \uD B

 jkpofj;jpNyNa mjpfstpy; rpnkz;l;
s
nra;Ak; gFjpfspy; xd;whfj;
jpfo;fpwJ. cw;gj;jpahFk; ,lk;.
scg
 NkYk; [t;thprp kpFjpahf cw;gj;jp  [pg;rk; mjpfkhf ,k;khtl;lj;jpy;
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. fhzg;gLfpwJ.
>V #mz
 jQ;rhT+h; nlf;];ily;];  Mh;fhdpf; nfkpf;fy;]; ];gpf;
 NguwpQh; mz;zh rh;f;fiu Miy J}j;Jf;Fb mdy; kpd; epiyak;.
 jpUkz;lFb MUuhd; rh;f;fiu  jhuq;fjhuh nfkpf;fy;]; ypkpnll;
np
Miy  cg;ngLj;jy; kw;Wk; kPd; gpbj;jy;
 ngy; nkl;ly; A+dpl; Mfpatw;Wf;F J}j;Jf;Fb khtl;lk;
 <fhd; Nkf;fpq; ypkpnll; mfpait cyfg;Gfo; ngw;W tpsq;FfpwJ.
mike;Js;sd.  jkpo;ehL fly;rhh; gapw;rp fofk;
]|_
 fhe;jp fpuhkpag; gy;fiyf;fofk;
 md;id njurh gy;fiyf;fofk;
e/t cs;sJ.

 Gifg;glr; RUs; jahhpg;G
 Jg;ghf;fp kUe;J njhopw;rhiyfs;
 jpz;Lf;fy; G+l;L rpwg;Gkpf;fJ.
]E  ANudpak;> gpdhapy;> A+fypg;l];
.m
 kiyf;Nfhl;il> fy;yiz> Kf;nfhk;G vz;nza; jahhpg;G
Nghd;w Kf;fpa Rw;Wyh jsq;fs;  Crpj; njhopw;rhiy
cs;sJ.  GNuhl;Bd; jahhpg;G
 ghujpjhrd; gy;fiyf;fofk; mike;  thdpiy Ma;T epiyak;
://t
Js;sJ.
kiytho; goq;Fbapdh;:
]_ko
1. FWk;gh; 2. Njhlh;; 3. Nfhlh;
 kNdhd;kzPak; Re;judhh;
4. gdpah; 5. ,Ush;
gy;fiyf;fofk; mike;Js;sJ.
 rpw;gf; fiyf;F Gfo;ngw;w iV sm
ps
AD  jPg;ngl;b kw;Wk; gl;lhRj;

 $lq;Fsk; mDkpd; epiyak;> njhopw;rhiyfs; Mfpad
mhpaFsk; %d;wilg;G gwitfs; ,k;khtl;lj;jpd; rpwg;Gfs;.
ruzhyak;  ,jdhy; rptfhrpia ‘z V[”
htt
 fsf;fhL - Kz;le;Jiw Gypfs; vd;W miof;fpd;wdh;.

ruzhyak;
40
AslB_
k rh;f;fiu> Njhy; gjdpLk; njhopw;
s
 ,uhzpg;Ngl;il xU njhopy; rhiy Nghd;wit mike;Js;sd.
ikakhFk;.  Mrpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa njhiy
scg
 ngy;> vd;gPy;L> <.I.b ghhp Nghd;w Nehf;fp ikak; Vk_ cs;sJ.
epWtdq;fs; ,q;Fs;sd.  MrpahtpNyNa Gfo;ngw;w E.D.E.
 jkpo;ehL ntbnghUs; Miy> v‡F \mk\ cs;sJ.
Miy> vk;.Mh;.vg;. lah;> re;jdk;>
>tw][ EA^
np
1 kpf caukhd rpiy (133 mb cauk;> jpUts;Sth; rpiy
fd;dpahFkhp)
2 kpfnghpa njhiyNehf;fp (MrpahtpNyNa fhtY}h; (itDghg;G) NtY}h;
kpfg;nghpaJ)
3
4
5
kpf ePskhd MW
jkpofj;jpd; khd;nr];lh;
e/t
kpf cah;e;j rpfuk; (njd;dpe;jpah) MidKb (2697 kP)
fhtphp (760 fp.kP)
Nfhak;Gj;J}h;
6 kpf cah;e;j NfhGuk; =uq;fk; (240 mb)
.m
7 kpf nghpa ghyk; ghk;gd; ghyk;
8 jkpofj;jpd; `hye;J (kyh; cw;gj;jp) jpz;Lf;fy;
9 kpfg;nghpa Njh; jpUth&h;
10 Kjy; ngz; MSeh; ghj;jpkh gPtp
11 kpfr; rpwpa khtl;lk; nrd;id
://t
12 kpfg; nghpa khtl;lk; <NuhL (8162 sq.km)

13 Kjy; ngz; ePjpgjp gj;kpdp N[RJiu
14 jkpofj;jpd; new;fsQ;rpak; jQ;rhT+h;
15 Kjy; ngz; kUj;Jth; lhf;lh; Kj;Jnyl;Rkp nul;b
ps
16 Kjy; ehspjo; kjuh]; nkapy; (1873)

17 Kjy; jkpo; ehspjo; RNjrkpj;jpud; (1829)
18 kpfg;nghpa Nfhtpy; jQ;ir gpufjP];th; Nfhapy;
19 kpfg;nghpa mizf;fl;L Nkl;^h; mizf;fl;L
htt
20 kpfg; gioa mizf;fl;L fy;yiz mizf;fl;L

21 Kjy; khefuhl;rp nrd;id (1688)
4
AslB_
22 Kjy; ngz; Kjy;th; [hdfp uhkr;re;jpud;
23 Kjy; NgRk; glk; fhspjh]; (1931)
s
24 Kjy; ,Ug;Gg; ghij uhaGuk; - thyh[h (1856)
scg
25 Kjy; Cikg;glk; fPrftjk; (1916)
26 kiyfspd; uhzp cjfkz;lyk;
27 kiyfspd; ,sturp nfhilf;fhdy;
28 Viofspd; Cl;b Vw;fhL
29 jkpofj;jpd; EioT thapy; J}j;Jf;Fb JiwKfk;
30 Nfhtpy; efuk;/cwq;fh efuk;/jpUtpoh kJiu
np
efuk;
31 kiyf;Nfhl;il efuk; jpUr;rp
32 Fl;b [g;ghd; efuk; rptfhrp
33 njd;dfj;jpd; Eiothapy; nrd;id
34
35
36
njhopy; efuk;
nerthsh;fspd; tPL
G+l;L efuk;
e/t tpUJefh;
f&h;
jpz;Lf;fy;
37 jkpofj;jpd; `hypTl; Nfhlk;ghf;fk;
.m
38 kpf cah;e;j fl;blk; vy;Irp kTz;l;NuhL> nrd;id
39 njd;dpe;jpa fq;if fhtphp
njd; fq;if Nfhj;jhthp
40 Kjy; ngz; jiyik nrayh; jpUkjp.yf;RkpgpuhNd\;
://t
41 jkpofj;jpd; Kjy; Nehgy; ghprhsh; rp.tp.uhkd; (1930 - ,aw;gpay;)

42 jkpofj;jpd; Kjy; ePh; kpd; jpl;lk; igfhuh (ePyfphp)
43 jkpo;ehl;bd; Kjy; ngz; IPS mjpfhhp jpyftjp
44 jkpo;ehl;by; Kjy; thndhyp epiyak; nrd;id
45 jkpo;ehl;bd; Kjy; ngz; Nkah; jhuh nrhpad;
ps
(nrd;id)
46 jkpo;ehl;by; Kjy; Nrhjidf;Foha; lhf;lh;. fkyh nry;tuh[;
Foe;ijia cUthf;fpath;
47 Kjy; mdy; kpd; jpl;lk; nea;Ntyp
htt
48 jkpofj;jpd; nghw;fhyk; rq;ffhyk;

49 jkpofj;jpd; ,Uz;l fhyk; fsg;gpuh;fs; fhyk;
50 jkpo;ehl;by; fy;tp tsh;r;rp ehs; [_iy 15
42
AslB_
51 jkpopy; vOe;j Kjy; ehty; gpujhg Kjypahh; rhpj;jpuk;
s
52 jkpo;ehl;by; Kjd;Kjypy; uaj;Jthhp rh;.jhk]; kd;Nwh
scg
Kiw nfhz;L te;jth;
53 kQ;rs; cw;gj;jpf;F ngah; ngw;w <NuhL
khtl;lk;
54 ghuj uj;dh tpUJ ngw;w Kjy; jkpof ,uh[h[p
Kjyikr;rh;
>]]uz x[
np
>tw BV^
 ,e;jpahit Mq;fpNyah; murpay;
khepy rpd;dk; =tpy;ypGj;J}h;
kw;Wk; ,uhZt fhuzq;fSf;fhf
Mz;lhs; Nfhapy;
gk;gha;> fy;fj;jh> kjuh]; vd;W
NfhGuk; %d;W ngUk; khfhzq;fshfg;
khepy tpyq;F
khepy kyh;
tiuahL
nrq;fhe;js;
fhh;j;jpifg;G+
e/t
(m)
gphpj;jpUe;jdh;. ,e;jpa rpw;wurh;
fSld; 1799-k; Mz;L Vw;gl;l
xg;ge;jk; ,k;%d;W khfhzq;fSk;
khepy gwit kufjg;Gwh cUthf;fg;gl;ld.
khepy kuk; gidkuk;  kjuh]; khfhzj;jpy; 1881-k; Mz;L
.m
26 khtl;lq;fs; ,Ue;jd.
khepy fgb
tpisahl;L
>]]uz [
 ,e;jpah 1947-k; Mz;L Rje;jpuk;
khepy fPjk; ng.Re;juk; gps;isapd;
mile;jNghJ kjuh]; khfhzk;
ePuhUk; flYLj;j
://t
 jkpo;ehL  Nfush
vd;Wk; ghly;
 Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; Mfpa gFjp
fis cs;slf;fpaJ.
kD |D \VkD Am >M \VkD

ps
1966 Nryj;jpypUe;J jUkGhp

1974 jpUr;rpapypUe;J GJf;Nfhl;il
1979 Nfhak;Gj;J}hpypUe;J <NuhL
1985 kJiu kw;Wk; ,uhkehjGuj;jpypUe;J tpUJefh; kw;Wk; rptfq;if
htt
tpUJefh; kw;Wk; rptfq;if

1985 kJiuapypUe;J jpz;Lf;fy;
4
AslB_
1986 jpUney;NtypapypUe;J J}j;Jf;Fb
s
1989 tl Mw;fhl;bypUe;J jpUtz;zhkiy kw;Wk;
NtY}h;
scg
1991 jQ;rhT+hpypUe;J ehfg;gl;bdk; kw;Wk; jpUth&h;
1993 njd; Mw;fhl;bypUe;J flY}h; kw;Wk; tpOg;Guk;
1995 jpUr;rpuhg;gs;spapypUe;J f&h; kw;Wk; nguk;gY}h;
1996 kJiuapypUe;J Njdp
1997 Nryj;jpypUe;J ehkf;fy;
np
1997 nrq;fy;gl;bypUe;J fhQ;rpGuk; kw;Wk; jpUts;@h;
2004 jUkGhpapypUe;J fpU\;zfphp
2007 nguk;gY}hpypUe;J mhpaY}h;
2009 Nfhak;Gj;J}h; kw;Wk; <NuhbypUe;J jpUg;G+h;
 Me;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpy;
Nghuhl;lj;jpdhy;
Vw;gl;l
,e;j
epyg;gug;gpy; nkhopthhp khepyq;fs;
e/t 1.
2.
3.
kjuh];
nrq;fy;gl;L
tlMw;fhL
8. jQ;rhT+h;
9. jpUr;rp
10. kJiu
cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. 4. njd; Mw;fhL 11. ,uhkehjGuk;
 kjuh]; khfhzk; 1956-k; Mz;L 5. ePyfphp 12. jpUney;Ntyp
.m
,uz;lhfg; gphpf;fg;gl;L >Kz 6. Nfhak;Gj;J}h; 13. fd;dpahFkhp
\Va D \ g]> 7. Nryk;
\VW\VD, >t \Va D  jkpof muR Nkw;$wpa 13 khtl;lq;
\ \>V \VW\VD fisAk;> 1965 x>_ 2009 tiu
://t
mikf;fg;gl;lJ. eph;thf rPuikg;gpw;fhf 32

 mg;nghOJ kjuh]; khfhzj;jpy; 13 \VkV khw;wpaikj;jJ.
khtl;lq;fs; ,Ue;jd. mit>
ps
••••••
htt
44
AslB_
s
>tV| BuB\A
scg
 tlf;Nf tpe;jpa kiyapypUe;J 1. \z]
njw;Nf fd;dpahFkhp tiu gutpAs;s  jkpofj;jpd; kiyg;gFjpia
np
jf;fhzj;jpd; njd;fpof;Fg; gFjpapy; ,uz;lhfg; gphpf;fyhk;. mit
mike;Js;sJ jkpo;ehL.  Nkw;Fj; njhlh;r;rp kiyg;gFjpfs;
>tw][ _ z]^  fpof;Fj; njhlh;r;rp
tlf;fpy; - Me;jpugpuNjrKk;> kiyg;gFjpfs;
fpof;fpy;
njw;fpy;
fh;ehlfhitAk;
- tq;fhs tphpFlhitAk;>
e/t
- ,e;jpag; ngUq;fliyAk;
 ,e;j ,uz;L kiyg;gFjpfSk;
ePyfphpapy; cs;s ‘>VV” vd;w
,lj;jpy; ,izfpd;wd.
Nkw;fpy; - Nfusj;ijAk; zuV \
.m
nfhz;Ls;sJ.  jpUney;Ntyp khtl;lj;jpy;
 gue;j> mhpf;fg;glhj cah;epyq;fSk;> mike;Js;sJ.
Mw;Wr;rkntspfSk; nfhz;l  ,q;F jkpofj;jpd; Gfo;ngw;w
gFjpahFk; ekJ jkpo;ehL. ePh;tPo;r;rpfs; cs;sJ.
 ,q;F Vk, VV, >[, \] \
://t
FBV, >Vt, k,  jpUney;Ntyp khtl;lj;jpy; mike;J

\x>V, kVM, VFB_ cs;sJ.
Nghd;w ejpfs; gha;e;J jkpo;ehl;il  ,jd; cauk; 1650 *.
tsg;gLj;J fpd;wd.  ,J ]B \ vd;Wk; miof;fg;
ps
 jkpo;ehl;bd; ,aw;if mikg;gpid gLfpwJ.

ehd;F gFjpfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;.  NkYk; Nkw;fpy; mike;Js;s
mit. rpWFd;Wfs; k VVzD.
1. kiyg;gFjp  Mz;bg;gl;bf; Fd;WfisAk;> tUr
htt
2. gPlG+kpg;gpuNjrk; ehl;ilAk; fk;gk; gs;sj;jhf;F

3. rkntspg;gpuNjrk; gphpf;fpwJ.
4. flNyhug;gFjpfs;
4
AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
>tV| Bu \A
4
AslB_
>tV[ \^
s
\uz >VE \^ wz >VE \^
 Nkw;F flw;fiuf;F ,izahfr;  fpof;F flw;fiu Xuj;jpy; kiyfspd;
scg
nrd;whYk; mjd; xU gFjp xU gFjp jkpofj;jpy; cs;sJ.
kl;Lk; jkpo;ehl;bd; vy;iyf;Fs;  [t;thJ kiy> fy;tuhad; kiy>
fhzg;gLfpwJ. Nrh;tuhad; kiy> gr;ir kiy> nfhy;yp
 ePyfphp kiyfs;> Midkiy> godp kiy Mfpa kiyfs; mlq;Fk;.
kiy> nfhilf;fhdy; Fd;W>
Fw;whykiy> kNfe;jpukiy> mfj;jpah;
np
kiy MfpaitahFk;.
ePyfphp kiy [t;thJ kiy
 fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J Rkhh; 1800 Kjy;  ,it ik#h; gPlG+kpia tpl cauk;
2400 kP cauj;jpy; cs;sd. mjpfk;.
MFk;. ,jd; cauk; 2673 kP.

 njhl;lngl;lh
e/t
 ,jd; cah;e;j rpfuk; ‘njhl;lngl;lh”
cjfkz;lyj;jpd;
 jkpofj;jpd;
NtY}h;
tlNkw;Fg;
khtl;lj;jpy;
Fd;WfshFk;.
gFjpapy;
fhzg;gLk;
fpof;Fg; gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ.  ,tw;wpd; cauk; 1090 Kjy; 1160 kP

 ,jd; rhpT kpfr; nrq;Fj;jhdJ. MFk;. ,J 252 r.kP tiu gutpAs;sJ.
.m
 2 kPl;lhpypUe;J 1800 kPl;lh; tiuapYs;s  ,jpy; mike;Js;s Vyfphp Nfhil
J}uk; 4 fp.kP jhd;. thoplkhFk;.
 ePyfphpkiy Nfhak;Gj;J}h; gPlG+kpia
Nehf;fp nkJthf rhpfpwJ.
 cjfkz;lyk;> Fd;D}h;> Nfhj;jfphp
://t
Mfpait Kf;fpakhd kiy

thoplq;fshFk;.
Mid kiy fy;tuhad; kiy
 njd;fhrpf;F Nkw;fpy; fhzg;gLk;  tpOg;Guk; khtl;lj;jpy; cs;sJ.
,ilntsp Nfushtpw;F nry;Yk;  nts;shw;wpd; Jiz MWfs; ,e;j
ps
ghijahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. Fd;Wfspy; cw;gj;jpahfpd;wd.

 ,jpy; cah;e;j rpfuk; MidKb (2652  ,q;F Kf;fpakhd kiyrhjp Fbap
kP) ,jw;fpilapy; ghyf;fhl;L fztha; Ug;Gfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
cs;sJ.  cah;e;j rpfuk; Nrhiyf;fhL (1640 kP)
htt
 ,q;F ghf;irl; jhJf;fs; fpilf;

fpd;wd.
4
AslB_
godp kiy gr;ir kiy
s
 ,J xU jho;e;j Fd;WfshFk;.  nguk;gY}h; khtl;lj;jpy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
 ,jd; cauk; 150 kPl;lhpypUe;J 2000  ,q;F fUg;Gf; fUq;fy; fpilf;fpwJ.
scg
kPl;luhFk;.  ,J cyfpNyNa juk; tha;e;jjhff;
 njw;fpy; Vyfphp kiyfs; cs;sd. fUjg;gLfpwJ.
 ,jpy; nghpahh; Vhpf;F mUfpy; Njf;fb
ruzhyak; cs;sJ.
nfhilf;fhdy; kiy nfhy;yp kiy
 ,J godpkiyapd; njhlh;r;rp MFk;.  ehkf;fy; khtl;lj;jpy; cs;sJ.
np
 ,J jpz;Lf;fy; khtl;lj;jpy; cs;sJ.  ,q;F ghf;irl; jhJ fpilf;fpwJ.
 ,J xU Nfhil kiy thoplk; MFk;.  gr;ir kiy> nfhy;ypkiyf; fpof;fpy;
,q;F 12 Mz;LfSf;F xUKiw ghykiyf; Fd;Wfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
FwpQ;rpg;G+ kyh;fpwJ. ,q;Fk; fUq;fy;> fy;J}s;fs;
fpilf;fpd;wd.
e/t
 fQ;rkiy> rhf;Ff; Fd;W Mfpait
Nryk; gFjpapy; cs;sd.
 ,tw;wpy; ,Uk;Gj;jhJ kw;Wk; Nkf;d
irl; jhJf;fs; mjpfk; fpilf;fpd;wd.
.m
2. tz]  Nkw;F njhlh;r;rp kiyfNshL
 Nkw;Fj; njhlh;r;rp kiyfSf;Fk;> xg;gpLk; NghJ fpof;F njhlh;r;rp
fpof;Fj; njhlh;r;rp kiyfSf;Fk; kiyfs; njhlh;r;rpaw;w kiyfshf
,ilapy; gPlG+kpg; gFjpf; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
://t
fhzg;gLfpwJ.  ePyfphpapypUe;J> jh;kGhp tiu cs;s

 ,jd; cauk; Nkw;fpy; 45 kPl;lhpype;J gFjpia Nfhak;Gj;J}h; gPlG+kp
fpof;fpy; 150 kPl;lh; tiuahFk;. vd;fpNwhk;. ,jd; cauk; 150 Kjy;
epyk; Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;F Nehf;fpr; 450 kP tiuahFk;.
rhpfpwJ. ,q;Fk; ghAk; MWfshy;  ,J ghiw tbtpy; mike;Js;sJ.
ps
mhpf;fg;gl;Lk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; Nryk;> Nfhak;Gj;J}h;> <NuhL

 jkpo;ehl;bd; Nrh;tuhad; Mfpa khtl;lq;fs; mlq;Fk;.
Fd;WfSf;F Nkw;fpy; fhzg;gLk;   t 2560..* ePyfphp gPlG+kp
VV\V_ t ik#h; gPlG+kpapd; 2560 r.fp.kP gug;gsT nfhz;lJ.
htt
njhlh;r;rpahFk;. ,jd; cauk; 350 ,jd; cauk; 1800* x>_ 2900*

Kjy; 710 kPl;lh; tiuahFk;. tiuahFk;.
4
AslB_
_k \Vk_ V|D wz  ,t;tpU gPlG+kp gphpTfSf;Fk;
s
>VE \^ ,ilNa gy jdpj;jdpf; Fd;Wfs;
\Vk^ \^ fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
scg
1. NtY}h; [t;thJ kw;Wk; Vyfphp 3. \k^
2. Nryk; Nrh;tuhad; kiy  jkpo;ehl;bd; rkntspg; gpuNjrj;ij
3. tpOg;Guk; fy;tuhad; kiy %d;W gphpTfshg; gphpf;fyhk;. mit.
4. jpUr;rp gr;ir kiy i. Nrhokz;lyf; flw;fiu rkntsp
5. ehkf;fy; nfhy;yp kiy ii. fhtphp tz;ly; rkntsp
np
6. jUkGhp kw;Wk; rpj;Njhp kiy iii. twz;l rkntspg;gFjpfs; Mfpad.
Nryk;  jkpo;ehl;bd; rkntspfis Mw;Wr;
7. jpUtz;zh nrQ;rp kiy rkntsp kw;Wk; flNyhur; rkntsp
kiy
vd ,U gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;.
fpof;Fj; njhlh;r;rp kiyfspy; cah;e;j
kiy Nrh;tuhad; kiy
(1500 kP - 1600 kP> Nryk;)
Nkw;Fj; njhlh;r;rp kiyfspy; cah;e;j
kiy Midkiy (2700 kP> Nfush)
e/t
 ,J tlf;Fg; gFjpapy; Nkahw;W
.m
ePuhy; ik#h; gPlG+kpapy; ,Ue;J
gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 nghJthf gPlG+kpfs; vd;gJ
jl;ilahd Nky;gFjpf; nfhz;l (i) Vw \ u \k
://t
kiyfs; vdf; fUjg;gLfpwJ. Mdhy;  flNyhur; rkntspfs; tlf;Nf

tiuaiwg;gb kpfg;nghpa jl;ilahd wkuV| Vhpapy; ,Ue;J njw;Nf
epyg;gFjp mjDila Rw;Wg;Gwj;ijf; [MBVz\tiu Rkhh; 1000 fp.kP
fhl;bYk; Vwf;Fiwa 15000 mbf;Fk; ePsj;jpy; gutpAs;sJ. ,r;rkntsp
Nky; cah;e;Jk; kw;Wk; Fiwe;Jk; xU fspd; ruhrhp cauk; 50 kPl;lh; MFk;.
ps
nrq;Fj;J gFjp nfhz;l mikg;ghf  ,jpy; VV, FBV,

tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. BV, k ejpfspd;
 ePyfphp caph;Nfhs ghJfhg;G mikg;G tbfhy;fSk; mlq;Fk;.
rpFh; gPlG+kp kw;Wk; ePykiyj;  ,jw;Fj; njw;fpy; gy kiyj;njhlh;fs;
htt
njhlh;fis cs;slf;fp cs;sJ. FWf;Nf nry;fpd;wd. ,r;rkepyk;

,J UNESCO caph;f;Nfhs ghJfhg;G NkL gs;sq;fshy; MdJ.
mikg;gpd; xU gFjp MFk;. fy;tuhad; kiyapy; cw;gj;jpahFk;.
4
AslB_
kzpKj;jhW kw;Wk; mjd; Jiz  flw;fiur; rkntspfs; ghyhw;Wf;Fk;>
s
ejpfs; rkepyq;fis mspf;fpd;wd. fhtphp Mw;Wf;Fk; ,ilapy; tz;ly;
 nts;shw;Wg; gs;sj;jhf;fpy; ‘ gEB[ gbTfshy; MdJ.
scg
u^” cs;sd.  ,jd; 50kP cauj;jpy; nrk;kz;
 tlf;fpy; nrq;fy; fzthAk;> njw;fpy; Fd;Wfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
Mj;J}h; fzthAk; gPlG+kpAk;>  jkpofj;jpd; flw;fiu mjpfk;
rkntspiaAk; gphpf;fpd;wd. cilglhky; tisahky; Neuhd
 ,r;rkntsp jpUth&h;> fhQ;rpGuk;> flw;fiu kzy;gug;Gfs; nfhz;ljhf
NtY}h;> jpUtz;zhkiy khtl;lq; mike;Js;sJ.
np
fspy; gutpAs;sJ. 4. V z]^
(ii) Vs k_ \k  J}j;Jf;Fbapy; flw;fiuf;F ,izahf
 fhtphp rkntspapy; fhtphp kw;Wk; 10kP cauj;jpw;Fk; Nkyhd Njhp kzy;
mjd; Jiz ejpfs; gha;fpd;wd. NkLfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
,jd; cauk; 300 kPl;lUf;Ff; Fiw
thdjhFk;.
 ,jpy; >\A, D, >V,
e/t  jkpo; ehl;by; ,uz;L flw;fiufs;
Fwpg;gplj;jf;fjhFk;.
i. nkhpdh flw;fiu
]E, ]kV, AmV, , ii. ,uhNk];tuk; flw;fiu
VD Mfpa khtl;lq;fs;
.m
(i) \V u
mlq;Fk;.  cyfpd; ,uz;lhtJ mofpa nghpa
 k_ \D, V_o flw;fiuahd nkhpdh Rkhh; 13
\D, >u_ sVo\D fpNyhkPl;lh;. ePsk; tiu gutpAs;sJ.
,r;rkntspiag; gphpf;fpd;wd. ,J nrd;id efhpd; Kf;fpa
://t
 ,J nropg;ghd tz;ly; kz; Rw;Wyhj; jyq;fSs; xd;whFk;.

rkepyj;ijf; nfhz;ljhFk;. (ii) V\kD u
(iii) k >[ \k^  mofpa fly; epyj;Njhw;wq;fSf;Fk;>
 ,r;rkntspfs; kiyabthuj;jpy; miyapy;yhf; flw;gug;gpw;Fk;>
cah;e;jg; gFjpfshff; fhzg;gL ,f;flw;fiu Gfo; ngw;wjhFk;.
ps
fpd;wd.  ,q;F fly; miyfs; 3. *zD

 \m, Ek, V\V>AD, kpfhj mstpw;F vOk;Gtjhy; ,J
sm, #mz, ]|_ ghh;g;gjw;F Xh; kpfg;nghpa g V[
Mfpa khtl;lq;fs; ,jpy; mlq;Fk;. Njhw;wj;ij mspf;fpd;wJ.
htt
••••••
0
AslB_
s
>tV| g^
scg
 jkpofj;jpd; MWfs; Nkw;Fj;  ,jd; Kf;fpaj; Jiz ejpfs; gthdp>
njhlh;r;rp kiyapy; gUt mkuhtjp MFk;. ,it jkpofj;jpd;
np
kioapdhy; cUthfpd;wd. fhy;tha; ghrdj;jpw;F Mjhukhf
,itfs; Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;fhfg; tpsq;Ffpd;wd.
gha;fpd;wd.  ,e;jj; Jiz MWfspd; ,ilNa
 tlf;fpy; ghAk; MWfs;: gy;NtW mizfs; fl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
1. ghyhW
2. nghd;dpahW
3. nra;ahW
e/t kVMV, _, xVDA
Nghd;w mizfs; cs;sd.
 fhtphpf;F njw;Nf kV, k,
Mfpa ejpfs; jkpo;ehl;bd; tlf;fpy; >Vt Nghd;w Kf;fpa MWfs;
.m
gha;fpd;wd. gha;fpd;wd.
Vs g fhtphp eLth; ePjpkd;w jPh;g;ghak;

 fhtphp kwz \uD >[wz 1990-fspy; mikf;fg;gl;lJ. ,j;jhP g
; g
; hak;
Mfpa ,uz;L gUtq;fspYk;> jkpo;ehL> Nfush> fh;ehlfh> ghz;br;Nrhp
://t
kioapidg; ngw;W fh;ehlfj;jpy; Mfpa vy;iy tiuaiwf;Fs; tUfpwJ.

cw;gj;jpahfp jkpo;ehl;by; gha;fpwJ.
jw;NghJ ,jd; jiytuhf VF
 jkpo;ehl;il tsg;gLj;jp fhtphp
\V V ,Uf;fpwhh;.
nly;lhthd jQ;ir khtl;lj;ij
‘uEBD;” vd miof;ff; kVM g
ps
fhuzkhf ,Ue;jJ.  gthdp jkpo;ehl;bd; \]

 Mdhy; jw;NghJ fh;ehlfj;jpy; ^>V_ (Silent Valley)
fhtphpapd; FWf;Nf gy mizfs; cw;gj;jpahfpwJ.
fl;lg;gl;Ltpl;ljhy; Nfhilf;  fhLfs; mlh;e;j ,g;gFjpapy;
htt
fhyj;jpy; jkpo;ehl;by; fhtphpapy; Njhd;Wk; gthdpAld; fpis

ePhpd;wp tptrhapfs; ngUk; mtjpf; MWfshf EkV, z>V, \BV
Fs;shfpd;wdh;. KjypaitAk; Nrh;fpd;wd.

AslB_
 ,J fhNthpAld; fyf;FfpwJ.  V> D, ,jd; FWf;Nf
s
,jd; ePsk; 20 fp.kP ,jd; FWf;Nf fl;lg;gl;Ls;sd. E[V, \V
kVMV | cs;sJ. g, kVBV ,jd; Kf;fpa fpis
scg
>[ MWfs; ,jd; ePsk; 396 .*
 fh;ehlfh khepyj;jpy; [VB[ VV
 vd;w ,lj;jpy; cw;gj;jpahfpwJ.  fh;ehlf khepyj;jpy; ‘] mD”
 gpwF jkpo;ehl;by; jh;kGhp> ]kV vd;w kiyg;gFjpapy; Njhd;wp
\ khtl;lq;fspy; Xb  fpof;fhf Xb k, VEAD
khtl;lj;jpy; flY}Uf;F mUfpy; khtl;lq;fisf; fle;J nrd;W rJuq;fg;
np
flypy; fyf;fpwJ. gl;bzj;jpd; mUfpy; flypy;
fyf;fpwJ.
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
>tw gu[ k_^
2
AslB_
 ngUkio nga;jhyd;wp ,jpy; kBV
s
nts;sk; tuhJ. ,jdhy; ghyhw;wpy;  Njdp khtl;lj;jpy; gy
epuk;g Ntz;ba Vhpfs; ngUk;ghYk; ,lq;fspypUe;Jk; Xilfshfg; ngUfp
scg
twz;Nl fhzg;gLk;. tUk; ePh; xd;Wgl;L itifahW Mfp
 nra;ahW> ngUk;ghYk; twz;Nl , \| \lV|D
fhzg;gLk;. FBV, VlM, V, kV| vd;gtw;iw fle;J
^V ,jd; Kf;fpa fpis MWfs; Nkfkiyia mile;J ts;spkiyj;
,jd; ePsk; 348 fp.kP. Njhl;lj;jpypUe;J Gwg;gLfpwJ.
np
>tw]_ V|^ W> 
k^
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt

AslB_
 ,g;gFjpfspy; ,jDld; \_  VxD \z ]D ,jd;
s
\V, \V, JV, k fpis MWfs; MFk;. ,jd; ePsk;
g KjypaitAk;> fk;gk; gFjpapy; 193 fp.kP.
scg
Ky;iyahWk;> godp kiyg;gFjp BV
topahf kQ;rshWk; fye;J itif  fd;dpahFkhp khtl;lj;jpy; XLk; gy
mizfl;b me;j ePiu jpUg;gp rpw;whWfs; Gfo; tha;e;jJ. ‘wBV”
tpLfpwhh;fs;. vd;W ,ij miog;gh;.
>VtBV  gy rpw;whWfs; xd;W$b ejpahfpwJ.
 ‘V” vdg;ngah; ngWk; ,tw;Ws; xd;W kNfe;jpufphpf;F
np
jhkpuguzp ]_ko, #mz tlf;Nf cw;gj;jpahfp >V,
khtl;lq;fis tsg;gLj;JfpwJ. VV, VVs_, ]D
 vfpg;J ieypd; ed;nfhil Mfpa Ch;fs; topahf 50.*ePsk; Xb
vd;gijg;Nghy; >[V V| kzf;FbaUNf Njq;fha;gl;bzj;jpy;
jhkpuguzpapd; ed;nfhil.
 ,J nghjpif kiyapy;
fhy;fshfj; Njhd;WfpwJ.
e/t
gy
tq;ff;flYld; fyf;fpwJ.
\x>V
 ,J jpUney;Ntyp khtl;lk; Nkw;Fj;
 BV, VDV, c^V, BV, njhlh;r;rp kiyapy; _>
.m
kBV vdg; gyTk; xd;W$b Vl_ cw;gj;jpahfp nghUid
jhkpuguzpahfp 121 .* ePsk; Xb Mw;Wld; fyf;FfpwJ.
Gz;izf; fhay; vd;w ,lj;jpy; V|>BV
tq;fhs tphpFlhTld; fyf;fpwJ.  ‘VuBBV, z>BV”
 ,jd; Kf;fpa fpis MW \x>V, vd;Wk; toq;fg;gLfpwJ. nrd;idf;F
://t
jhkpuguzpapd; ePsk; 130 fp.kP. tlNkw;F 160 fp.kP njhiytpy;

k^V Me;jpu khepyj;jpy; cs;s 
 Nrh;tuhad; kiyfs;> fy;tuhad; kiyapy; cw;gj;jpahfp jpUts;@h;
kiyfs;> gr;ir kiy Mfpatw;wpd; khtl;lj;jpy; gha;e;J tq;ff; flypy;
rhpTfspy; Js;spg;ghAk; mUtpfs; fyf;fpwJ.
ps
xd;Wf;$b nts;shW Mfpd;wJ.  tlfpof;F gUt kio nga;Ak;

 ,J fpof;F Nehf;fp Xb rpjk;guj;jpw;F V x>_ D tiuapyhd
tlf;Nf 16 fp.kP njhiytpy; cs;s fhyg;gFjpapy; ,jpy; 3 my;yJ 4
juq;fk;ghb mUNf tq;ff; flYld;
htt
Kiw nts;sk; fiuGuz;NlhLk;.

fyf;fpwJ.
4
AslB_
>tw]_ VD g[  ]^
s
g^  ]^
fhtphp MW gthdp> Nyhf; gthdp> neha;ay;> mkuhtjp MW
scg
gthdp MW rpWthzp> Fe;jhNkah;
njd;ngz;iz MW rpd;dhW> khh;f;fz;l MW> thzpahW
ghyhW nra;ahW> nghapdp> es;shW
jhkpuguzp kzpKj;jhW> Ngr;rpahW> rpj;jhh; MW> Nrh;itahW
nts;shW NfhKfp> kzpf;Fl;l ejp> fy;yhW> mizkLT
np
kzpKj;jhW fPo MW> tul;lhW
nfhr];jiyahW efhp MW
>tw][ _k \Vk_ VBD g[ B^ [kD
l_ VVD
nrd;id
\VkD
$tk;>
e/t
milahW>
VD g^
gf;fpq;fhk;> fhy;tha;> Xl;Nlhp
fhy;tha;fs;
.m
flY}h; njd;ngz;iz> nfbyk;
tpOg;Guk; NfhKfp
fhQ;rpGuk; milahW> nra;ahW> ghyhW
jpUtz;zhkiy njd;ngz;iz> nra;ahW
f&h; mkuhtjp
://t
jpUr;rp fhNthp> nfhs;splk;

jQ;rhT+h; ntl;lhW> ntz;zhW> nfhs;splk;> fhNthp
rptfq;if itifahW
ehfg;gl;bdk; ghkzpahW> fhNthp
ps
J}j;Jf;Fb ntz;zhW
Njdp itifahW
Nfhit rpWthzp> mkuhtjp
jpUney;Ntyp jhkpuguzp
htt
kJiu nghpahW> itif

jpz;Lf;fy; gug;gyhW> tujkhejp> kUjh ejp

AslB_
fd;dpahFkhp NfhijahW> guspahW> gioahW
s
,uhkehjGuk; Fz;lhW> itif
jUkGhp njhg;igahW> njd;ngz;iz> fhNthp
scg
Nryk; trpl;lh ejp> fhNthp
tpUJefh; nfsrpfhW> itg;ghW> Fz;lhW> mh;[PdhW
ehkf;fy; cg;ghW> neha;ay;> fhNthp
<NuhL gthdp> fhNthp
>tV[ ^ \uD >^
np
\VkD ^ \uD >^
jUkGhp njhg;igahW> fpU\;zfphp> ehfhtjp> ghk;ghW>
nfytusg;gh> NfruspFy;yh> gQ;rg;gs;sp>
thzpahW> <r;rk;ghl;b ePh;j;Njf;fk;.
<NuhL
ePyfphp
e/t
gthdprhfh;> tul;Lg;gs;sk;>
nfhbNthp> Xuj;Jg;gs;sk;> cg;ghW
mtyhQ;rp> vkuhy;L>
Fz;Nlhpg;gs;sk;>
fpsk;khh;f;fd;Fj;jh>
rhz;bey;yh> ghh;rd;];Ntyp> igf;fhuh>
.m
Nghf;j;jpke;J> kutfz;L> Kf;FUj;jp> Nky;gthdp.
Nfhak;Gj;J}h; mkuhtjp> rpd;dhW> guk;gpf;Fsk;> MspahW>
jpU%h;j;jp
jpUney;Ntyp ghgehrk;> fldhejp> ,uhkhejp> fUg;gh ejp>
Nrh;itahW> Fz;lhW> kzpKj;jhW
://t
jpUtz;zhkiy rhj;jD}h; miz

tpOg;Guk; kzpKj;jhW> NfhKfp tPLh; ePh;j;Njf;fk;
Nryk; Nkl;^h; miz> trpl;lh ejp
jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp fy;yiz> Kf;nfhk;G
ps
kJiu itif miz

Njdp kQ;rshW miz> itif miz
tpUJefh; gpstf;fy; miz
fd;dpahFkhp Ngr;rpg;ghiw miz
htt
••••••

AslB_
s
>tV[ VW
scg
‘\V[[” vd;w nrhy;yhdJ ‘\D” >tV[ \wVa 3 V _
|m.
np
vd;w mNugpa nrhy;ypy; ,Ue;J ngwg;
gl;lJ MFk;. ,r;nrhy;Yf;F kD vd;W 1. njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;W kiog;nghopT
nghUs;. Xh; Mz;by; xU Fwpg;gpgl;l 2. tlfpof;F gUtf;fhw;W kiog;nghopT
gUtj;jpy; Neh; vjph;jpirfshy; ,Ue;J 3. #whtsp kiog;nghopT

\wVa k_ (Rainfall
tPRk; fhw;Wfis k Vu^ vd;gh;.
 Mtpahjy; Fsph;fhyj;ij
Nfhilfhyj;jpy;jhd;
e/t
tpl
mjpfkhf
Distribution)
 jkpof khtl;lq;fSs; fd;dpahFkhp
khtl;lk; kl;LNk %d;W gUtf;
fhzg;gLfpwJ. kiog;nghopT jUk;
Nkfq;fs; Nfhilf;fhyq;fspy; fhyq;fspYk; kioiag; ngWk;
.m
ngUkstpy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. khtl;lkhFk;.
 Nfhil fhyj;jpd; mjpf ntg;gkhd  flNyhu khtl;lq;fSk;> ePyfphp
fhyk; ‘M ]D” my;yJ khtl;lq;fSk; Mz;bw;F Rkhh; 1400
‘] kl_” vdg;gLk;. kp.kPl;lUf;F Nky; kio ngWfpwJ.
 Mz;bd; nkhj;j kiomstpy;
://t
Fiwe;jsT kioia Nfhak;Gj;J}h;

khtl;lk; ngWfpd;wJ.
k^ >t k^ >t \V>^

ps
Nfhilf;fhyk; (Vg;uy; Kjy; ,sNtdpy;> KJNtdpy; rpj;jpiu> itfhrp> Mdp> Mb

Mf];l; tiu)
kiof;fhyk; (Mf];l; Kjy; fhh;fhyk;> Fsph;fhyk; Mtzp> Gul;lhrp> Ig;grp>
brk;gh; tiu) fhh;j;jpif
htt
Fsph;fhyk; (brk;gh; Kjy; Kd;gdp> gpd;gdp khh;fop> ij> khrp> gq;Fdp

Vg;uy; tiu)

AslB_
 Mz;L kiog;nghoptpd; msitf; jkpofj;jpd; fhLfs; Nkw;F kiyj;
s
nfhz;L jkpo;ehl;bd; khtl;lq;fis njhlh; kw;Wk; gpwkiyj;njhlh;fspYk;
Ie;J kio kz;lyq;fshfg; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
scg
gphpf;fyhk;.  jkpo;ehL 999 fp.kP nfhz;l ePz;l
Bu >Vk^ flw;fiuiaf; nfhz;L ghiw
 jkpo;ehl;bd; fhl;Lg; gFjpapd; flw;fiuahfk; cs;sJ.
tpfpjhr;rhuk; 17 rjtPjNk MFk;.
>[\uz kVu kwz kVu Vk \wVa
\wVa \wVa
np
fhyk;: [Pd; Kjy; mf;Nlhgh; Kjy; etk;gh; tiu etk;gh; khjk;
nrg;lk;gh; tiu
ePyfphp khtl;lk;> jkpo;ehl;bd; flNyhu kw;Wk;
fd;dpahFkhhp khtl;lk;> cs;ehl;L rkntspg; gFjpfs;
Nfhit khtl;lj;jpd;
Nkw;Fg; gFjp> jUkGhp
kw;Wk; Nryk;.
e/t
gad;ngWk; khtl;lq;fs;: fpof;F khtl;lq;fspy; mjpf tq;ff;flypd; njd;
Nkw;F njhlh;r;rp kio kiog;nghopitAk;> kj;jpa gFjpapy; Vw;gLfpd;w tsp
.m
apd; Nkw;Fg; gFjpapy; Nkw;F khtl;lq;fs; Fiwthd kz;ly mOj;j NtW
,g;gUtkio Kjypy; kiog;nghopitAk; ngWfpwJ. ghl;bdhy; jho;T mOj;jg;
njhlq;FfpwJ. gFjpapy; cz;lhfp> mJ
Nkd;NkYk; jPtpukile;J
://t
#whtspahf khWfpd;wJ.
ruhrhp kiog;nghopT: ruhrhp kiog;nghopT: 150 cm
150 cm. – 200 cm.
kioapd; msT Nkw;fp kioapd; msT fpof;fpypUe;J tlfpof;Fg; gUt kioAk;>
ypUe;J fpof;F Nehf;fpr; Nkw;fhf FiwfpwJ. #whtsp kiog;nghopTk;
ps
nry;y nry;y FiwfpwJ. rkkhd mstpy; flNyhu

khtl;lq;fSf;F kiog;
nghopit jUfpd;wd.
70% rjtPj kiog;nghopT jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp> Nryk; kw;Wk;
htt
ePyfphp khtl;lj;jpy; <NuhL khtl;lq;fspy; 100 cm

nga;fpwJ. Kjy; 150 cm ,g;gUt fhyj;jpy;
kioiag; ngWfpd;wd.

AslB_
\wVas[ \wVas[ k_ \Vk^
s

kpff;Fiwthd 800 kp.kPf;F fPo; Nfhak;Gj;J}h;> jpUg;G+h;
scg
kiog;nghopT
Fiwthd 800 kp.kP Kjy; 1000 ehkf;fy;> f&h;> J}j;Jf;Fb> <NuhL>
kiog;nghopT kp.kP tiu jUkGhp> kJiu> jpUr;rp> nguk;gY}h;
mhpaY}h;> fpU\;zfphp.
kpjkhd 1000 - 1200 kp.kP tiu GJf;Nfhl;il> tpUJefh;> rptfq;if>
np
kiog;nghopT jQ;rhT+h;> Nryk;> Njdp> NtY}h;.
mjpf 1200 - 1400 kp.kP tiu jpUney;Ntyp> jpUtz;zhkiy>
kiog;nghopT fd;dpahFkhp
kpf mjpf 1400 kp.kP f;F Nky; fhQ;rpGuk;> nrd;id> tpOg;Guk;>
kiog;nghopT e/t jpUts;@h;> flY}h;> jpUth&h;>
ehfg;gl;bdk;> ePyfphp
.m
://t
ps
htt

AslB_
 jkpo;ehl;by; cs;s fopKfq;fs;> V|[ k_
s
<uepyq;fs; rpwg;G mk;rq;fs;  jkpof khtl;lq;fspy; fhLfspd;
fhuzkhf mit Kf;fpakhdjhff;
guty; rjtPjk; rkkw;w epiyapy;
scg
fUjg;gLfpwJ.
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
 flw;fiu rhh;e;j kz;lyq;fspy;>
cyh;e;j gUtepiyAk;> tskw;w  Nryk; khtl;lq;fspy; mlh;j;jpahd
kz;Zk; rTf;F kuj;ij kl;LNk tsu fhLfs; cs;sd. ePyfphp khtl;lj;jpd;
mDkjpf;fpd;wd. mjpf kiog; nghopT nkhj;jg; gug;gpy; 50 >T>]uzD
ngWk; gFjpfspy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f Nkw;gl;l gug;G fhLfshfNt cs;sd.
msT mad kz;lyf;fhLfSk;  kw;w khtl;lq;fspy; fhLfs; 1 x>_ 5
np
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. >T>D k fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
Nfhukz;ly flw;fiu (jkpo;ehL)  jkpo;ehl;bd; fhLfspy; gy;NtW
1. vz;Z}h; tifahd kuq;fs; fhzg;gL
2. $tk; fpd;wd.
3. milahh;
4. cg;gdhh;
5. nts;shh;
e/t  jkpo;ehl;by; 5>88>000 n`f;lh;
gug;gstpy; re;jd kuf; fhLfs;
cs;sd. Nfhak;Gj;J}h;> ePyfphp kw;Wk;
6. nfhs;splk; fd;dpahFkhp khtl;lq;fspy; kuq;fs;
7. fhNthp
.m
mlh;e;J fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
8. mf;dpahh;
9. fy;yhh;
10. filahh;
,ug;gh; Njhl;lq;fs; fd;dpahFkhp

://t
fw;G+u kw;Wk; ijy kuk; ePyfphp

jPf;Fr;rp kuq;fs; jpUney;Ntyp kw;Wk; tpUJefh;
kh> gyh> ehty;> thio khepyq;fspd; gy;NtW khtl;lq;fspy;
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
ps
V|[ k^
B \ \ \V B \ [ xA> V|^
V|^  V|^
,it gRik khwhf; ,it gUtf;fhLfs; ePzl
; twz;l fhyKk;>
htt
fhLfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. vdg;gLfpd;wd. Fiw thd kiog; nghopTk;

cs;s ,lq;fspy; fhzg;
gLfpd;wd.
0
AslB_
,iyfs; cjph;f;fhjit ,iyfis cjph;j;J Mokhd Nth;fSk;>
s
tpLfpd;wd fdkhdj; jz;L
scg
mikg;Gk; kw;Wk; rijg;
gw;Ws;s ,iyfs;
kiog;nghopT: 200 cm kiog;nghopT:
100 cm – 200 cm
fhzg;gLk; ,lq;fs;: fhzg;gLk; ,lq;fs;: ,it twz;lfhy
ePyfphp> Midkiyr; Nkw;F njhlh;r;rp kiyapd; epiyfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
np
rhpT> flNyhug; gFjpfs; fpof;Fr; rhpTfspYk;
ngUk;ghd;ikahdit.
kuq;fs;: vNghdp> Njf;F> jhtuq;fs;: rpwpa Fl;il
nrk;kuk;> fUq;fhyp ahd kuq;fs;> Gjh;fs;
ruhrhpahf 60 kP cauk;
tiu tsUk;.
mA WV|^
e/t \B V|^
,it rJg;Gepyf;fhLfs; (m) Xjf; kiog;nghopT mjpfkhfTs;s kiyr;
.m
fhLfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. rhpTfspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
V|D ^: gpr;rhtuk;> V|D ^: jkpofj;jpy; cs;s
Nfhbaf;fiu> kw;Wk; Ntjhuz;ak; Midkiyg; gFjpapYk;> ePyfphp kiy
apYk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
://t
,it iuNrhNghuh jhtuf; FLk;gj;ij jhtuq;fs;:

rhh;e;jitfshFk;.

gpr;rhtuk; - 25 r.fpkP
Nfhbaf;fiu - 17 r.fp.kP
ps
htt

AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
>tw][ V|[ k^

htt
••••••
2
AslB_
>tw]_ c^ k^ \uD sz^ VB^
s
B \VkD
1. k^ VBD
scg
1. goNtw;fhL Vhp jpUts;@h;
2. Ntle;jhq;fy; fhQ;rpGuk;
3. nts;NshL <NuhL
4. fhiuntl;b nguk;gY}u;
5. cjakhh;j;jhz;lGuk; jpUth&h;
6. tLt+u; jpUth&h;
7. rpj;jpuq;Fb ,uhkehjGuk;
np
8. $j;jd;Fsk; jpUney;Ntyp
9. Nfhbaf;fiu ehfg;gl;bdk;
10. Nky nry;tD}h; - fPo nry;tD}h; ,uhkehjGuk;
11. fhQ;rpuq;Fsk; ,uhkehjGuk;
12. Ntl;ld;Fb e/t rptfq;if
2. >EB V^
1. ,e;jpuhfhe;jp Nfhak;Gj;J}u;
2. KJkiy ePyfpup
3. Kf;$u;j;jp ePyfpup
.m
4. fpz;b nrd;id
5. kd;dhh; tisFlh ,uhkehjGuk;
3. ksz^ VBD
1. ,e;jpuhfhe;jp Nfhak;Gj;J}u;
2. KJkiy ePyfpup
://t
3. Nfhbaf;fiu ehfg;gl;bdk;
4. jpUtpy;ypg;Gj;J}u; tpUJefu;
5. ty;yehL J}j;Jf;Fb
6. fd;dpahFkup fd;dpahFkup
7. fsf;fhL jpUney;Ntyp
8. Kz;le;Jiu fd;dpahFkup
ps
9. tlf;F fhNtup ju;kGup

10. fq;if nfhz;lhd; jpUth&u;
4. clV A^
1. kd;dhu; tisFlh ,uhkehjGuk;
htt
2. ePyfpup ePyfpup
3. mfj;jpau; kiy jpUney;Ntyp - fd;dpahFkup

AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
>tV| >EBV, k^ \uD sz^ VBD

ps
htt
4
s
scg
>tV| 
np
 : TNPSC I >

VD : AslB_
z] : VD e/t
_[ W >Vu^, _[ kW
\uD ], o[ ckBD, _ V^,
_ k^, k V^, {>^, xB >k_^, xB
VuD, >[ sD
.m
VA\
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
://t

\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\
>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V
ps
FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 

> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z
htt
gB,
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
AslB_
VD
s
scg
_[
W >Vu^
ngUq;fly;fspd; jiuapy; fhzg;gLk;  flw;fiuianahl;b kiyfs;
np
epyj; Njhw;wq;fis Ie;J tif fshfg; mike;Js;s gFjpfspy; jpl;Lf;fs;
gphpf;fyhk;. FWfyhf fhzg;gLk;.
1. fz;lj;jpl;L 2. fz;lr;rhpT  20% ngl;Nuhy; kw;Wk; thAf;fs; ,q;F
3. fz;l cah;T fhzg; gLfpwJ.
4. mfop  G+kpf;F mbapy; tUk; tpirapdhy;
5. Mo;fly; rkntsp
e/t
2.1 ]| (Continental Shelf):
 ,it flw;fiu gFjp Mdhy;
flw;fiuNahukhdg; gFjp fPo; ,wq;fp
(Submergence) fz;lj;jpl;L mfykhf
cUthFk;.
 ,it cyfpd; kpf tskhd kPd;
mjpf Mok; kw;Wk; rhpT ,y;yhjJ gpbj;jskhfTk; cs;sd. *[[
.m
mbg;gFjp rkkhdit. g^ z ]D.
 (150-200 kP) 100 ghjk;]; Mok;  ,it nkhj;j epyg;gug;gpy; 1%iag;
nfhz;lJ. (1 V>D  1.8*) ngw;Ws;sJ.
://t
ps
htt
_ W>Vu^

AslB_
2.2  (Continental Slope): nghpa Mokhd mfop (m) kiyf;
 fz;lj; jpl;bypUe;J fly; Nehf;fp fzthiaf; nfhz;lit.
s
tphpe;Js;sit.  kiy KfLfs; vOe;j gFjpfs; - v.fh.
 fz;lg; gpsT fz;lr; rhptpy;jhd; eL ml;yhz;bf; KfL (S - tbtpy;)>
scg
KbT ngWfpwJ. ,e;jpag; ngUq;fly; kiyKfL (Y-
 jpl;Lf;Fk; ,ilNaahd vy;iy tbtpy;)
g V| vdg; ngahplg;  kiy KfLfs; 1000 kP.f;Fk; mjpfkhf
gl;Ls;sJ. (Mz;birl; ghiwf;Fg; cah;e;J fhzg;gl;lhy; mit fly;
gpd;). kiyfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
 Mok; 2000 V>D (300-600 kP) ,it  rkkhd fly; kiyapy; cr;rp ""zBV^''
np
flw;gug;gpd; 8.5%iag; ngw;Ws;sJ. vdg;gLfpd;wd. (ngUk;ghYk; grpgpf;
2.3  cB (Continental Rise): ngUq;flypy; fhzg;gLfpwJ)
 rhpTg; gFjpapd; mbg;gFjp nky;ypa  kiy Kfl;bd; rpy gFjpfs; (m)
jhf cah;e;J fhzg;gLfpwJ. vhpkiy cr;rp (ngUq;flypd;)
 (Vnddpy; rhptpypUe;J tUk; e/t jPTfis cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd. vLj;Jf;
gbTfshy;). vz;nza; ,q;F fhzg; fhl;lhf kVF y.
gLfpwJ.  mfopfs; mfykhd kw;Wk; Mokhd
2.4 _ a^ (Ocean gs;sq;fshFk;. mit GtpNahl;bd;
Trenches): ,U gFjpfs; efh;tjhy; cz;lhfpwJ.
.m
 ngUq;fly; mfopfs; vd;git (xd;wpd; %yk; kw;nwhd;W mOj;jg;
ngUq;flypd; Mokhd gFjpahFk;. gLjyhy;). Mokhd mfop NryQ;rh;
 ,U fz;lj;jpl;Lfs; xd;NwhL xd;W Bg; (Challenger Deep) vdg;gLk;.
NkhJk; NghJ mlh;j;jp mjpfkhd  ,J khpahdh mfopapd; xU
jl;bd; mOj;jj;jhy; mlh;j;jp gFjpahFk; (grpgpf; flypy;)
://t
Fiwthd jl;bw;Ff; fPo; mlh;j;jp gpypg;igd;]pw;F mUfpy; ,J 11 fp.kP

mjpfkhd jl;L nry;tjhy; mfopfs; Moj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
cUthfpwJ. ,itNa flypd; kpf  ePhpy; %o;fpa kiyfs; vd;git
Mokhd gFjpahFk;. Mokhd ngUq;fly; gFjpfshFk;.
2.5 _ () g_\k ,it fz;l tisT vOr;rpiaj;
ps
(Abyssal or the Deep Sea Plains): jLj;J epWj;JfpwJ.

 ,it fly; mLf;fpy; kpfTk; Mokhd  Mo;fly; rkntspiag; gw;wp MuhAk;
kw;Wk; mfykhd gFjp. ,J fly; nghOJ rpy rpwg;ghd mikg;Gfisf;
gug;gpy; 40%iag; ngw;Ws;sJ. fhzyhk;. mit
htt
 ,it vOe;j kiyfs; KfLfs; 1. V^:

(m) %o;fpa kiyfs; kw;Wk;  ,it tl;lkhd my;yJ Kl;il
tbtpYs;s ngUk; gs;sq;fshFk;.

AslB_
 ngUk;ghyhdit epyj;Njhw;w 5. E^ (Rises):
s
NtWghL mjpfkpy;yhj mbj;  ,it Mo;flypd; mbj;jsj;jpy;
jsj;ijg; ngw;W ,Uf;fpd;wd. fhzg;gLk; cah;ej
; epyg;gug;ghFk;.
scg
 v.fh. tlgrpgpf; nfhg;giuapd;  ,it flypd; mbj;jsj;jpypUe;J
kj;jpa ghfk;. rpy epyj;Njhw;w NtW Fiwe;j rhpTld; vOfpd;wd.
ghLfSld; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. v.fh. 6. >V z[^ (Sea Mounts):
gpNurpy; nfhg;giu.  ,it Mo;flypy; fhzg;gLk; ePz;l
2.  ^^ (Troughs): cah;e;j gFjpfshFk;.
 ,it ePz;l mfyKs;sitahfTk;  ,tw;wpd; gf;fq;fs; mjpfr;
np
mike;Js;sd. rhpTld; fhzg;gLtjhy; ,it
 ,tw;wpd; gf;fr;Rth;fs; Fiwe;j vOr;rpapypUe;J NtWgLfpd;wd.
rhpTld; fhzg;gLk;.  ,tw;wpy; rpy epyg;gug;gpd; NkYs;s
3.a^ (Trenches): kiyj;njhlh;fisf; fhl;bYk; kpfg;
 ,it ePz;l FWfpa gs;sq; fshFk;. nghpadthFk;.
rhpTfSld; fhzg;gLk;.
e/t
,tw;wpd; gf;fr; Rth;fs; nrq;Fj;jhd
 v.fh. [g;ghd; mfop> g;A+h;Nlh hpfh

 rpy Neuq;fspy; ,e;jf; flyb njhlh;
Fd;Wfs; ePh; kl;lj;jpw;F NknyOe;J
jPTf; $l;lq;fis cUthf;Fk;. v.fh.
mfop> mlfhkh mfop. mfopfSf;Fk;> kj;jpa ml;yhz;bf; njhlh;Fd;W.
rKj;jpuq;fSf;Fk; ,ilNa vOr;rpfs; 7. _ \|^ (Sea Mounts):
.m
fhzg;gL fpd;wd.  flypd; Rw;Wg;Gw mbepyj;ijtplr;
 ,t;tfopfs; GtpaPh;g;G tpirapd; xOq; Rkhh; 3000 mb cauk; tiu vOk;
fw;w jd;ikahy; (Gravity Anomaly) kiyfSf;Ff; fly; NkLfs; vd;W
Vw;gl;ljhf mk;f;Nuht; (Umbgrove) ngah;.
://t
fUJfpwhh;.  ,tw;wpd; Nky; gug;G rkjskhd

4. \|^ (Deeps): ,Uf;FNkahdhy; ,tw;wpw;Ff;
 mfopfspy; fhzg;gLk; Mok; kpFe;j Fahl;Lfs; (Guyots) vd;W ngah;
gFjpfSf;F kLf;fs; vd;W ngah;.
••••••
ps
htt

AslB_
s
_[
scg
kW \uD ]
 ngUq;flypy; cs;s caphpdq;fspd; Nkw;gug;gpy; cs;s ngUq;fly; kw;Wk;
gz;Gfis eph;zapg;gjpy; ngUq; fz;lq;fspy; gy;NtW tifahd
np
flypd; ntg;gepiy Kf;fpa gq;F fhyepiy fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
tfpf;fpd;wd.  ngUq;flypd; Nkw;gug;G ntg;gepiy
 fly; ePhpd; ntg;gepiy khWghNl apid gy;NtW fhuzpfs; fl;Lg;
ngUq;flypy; ePNuhl;lq;fs; cUthff; gLj;Jfpd;wd.
fhuzkha; mikfpwJ.
 midj;J fly;fspDila ruhrhp
17.20 _EB
e/t  mit> ml;rNuiffs;> Nguhop
ePNuhl;lq;fs;> epyTk; fhw;Wfs; kw;Wk;
cs;@h; thdpiy MfpadthFk;.
 grpgpf; ngUq;flypd; ruhrhp ntg;g kW k V]zD
.m
msT ml;yhz;bf; ngUq;flypd; V^
ruhrhp ntg;g msittpl rw;W ngUq;fly; ePhpd; ntg;gepiyg;
mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;. kw;Wk; ,e;jpag; gutiy ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfshtd
ngUq;flypd; ruhrhp ntg;g msT 1. WV|:
170 nry;rpa];.
://t
 ePhpd; Nkw;gug;G ntg;gepiy G+kj;jpa

 ngUq;fly;fs; #hpa Mw;wiy Nrkpj;J Nuifapy; ,Ue;J JUtq;fSf;Fr;
itf;Fk; jpwd; nfhz;Ls;sjhy; nry;Yk; NghJ FiwfpwJ.
Gtpapd; ntg;gr; rkepiyapid rPh;  Vnddpy; JUtq;fis Nehf;fpr;
nra;tjpy; Kf;fpa gq;fhw;Wfpd;wd. nry;Yk; NghJ ngwg;gLk; #hpa
 epyj;jpd; Nkw;gug;ghdJ kpf tpiuthf
ps
xspapd; msT FiwfpwJ.

ntg;gkile;J kpf tpiuthf Fsph;r;rp
2. WD \uD [ \\u k_:
milfpwJ.
 njd; miuf;Nfhsj;jpy; cs;s
 Mdhy;> ePh;g;gug;ghdJ nkJthf
ngUq;fliyf; fhl;bYk; tl miuf;
htt
ntg;gkile;J nkJthfNt Fsph;r;rp

Nfhsj;jpy; cs;s ngUq;flyhdJ
milfpwJ.
mjpfg;gbahd ntg;gj;ijg; ngWfpwJ.
 ,t;thwhd epyk; kw;Wk; ePhpd;
ntg;gepiy NtWgl;lhy; Gtpapd;

AslB_
 Vnddpy; ,it mjpfg;gbahd ke;jhuk;> Mtpahjy; kw;Wk;
epyg;gug;Gld; njhlh;G nfhz;Ls;sd. ciwjy;
s
3. WVu: 3. flypd; miktplk; kw;Wk; tbtk;.
scg
 epyj;jpypUe;J ngUq;fliy Nehf;fp _ _ k k_:
tPRk; fhw;whdJ> ntg;gkhd  fly; ePhpy; nrq;Fj;J kw;Wk; fpilahd
Nkw;gug;G ePiu flw;fiuapy; ,Ue;J ntg;gepiy xNu khjphpahf ,y;iy.
js;SfpwJ. _ _ k Wl[ k_:
 ,jd; tpisthf fPo;ghfj;jpy; ,Ue;J  nghJthf Gtpapil Nfhl;Lg;
Fsph; ePuhdJ Nky;Nehf;fp tUfpwJ. gFjpf;F nry;yr; nry;y fly;ePhpd;
np
 ,jdhy; ntg;gepiyapy; ePz;l fhyk; Nkw;gug;G ntg;gepiy FiwfpwJ.
khw;wk; Vw;gLfpwJ.  Gtpapilf; Nfhl;Lg; gFjpapd;
 ,jw;F Neh;khwhf flw;fiu Nehf;fp ntg;gepiy 30.6 C JUtj;ij xl;b
0
tUk; fhw;whdJ> flw;fiuf;F 1.60C ,tw;iw itj;J ghh;j;jhy;

ruhrhpahf 10C FWq;Nfhl;L 50C
mUfpy; ntg;gkhd ePiu Ftpf;fpwJ. e/t vd;w mstpy; ntg;gepiy JUtj;ij
 ,jdhy; ntg;gepiy caUfpwJ.
Nehf;fp Fiwe;J nry;fpwJ.
4. _ V^:  ,Ug;gpDk; ,lj;jpw;F ,lk;>
 Fsph;e;j gFjpapy; ntg;gkhd fly; fhyepiyf;F Vw;g ntg;gepiyapd;
ePNuhl;lkhdJ ntg;gepiyia msit ngha;g;gpj;J tpLfpwJ.
.m
mjpfhpf;fpwJ.  Mdhy; Xh; ,lj;jpy; Vw;gLk;
 mNj rkak; ntg;gkhd ngUq;fly; ntg;gepiy NtWghLfs; 50C f;F
gFjpapy; Fsph; ePNuhl;lkhdJ Nky; NghtJ mhpJ.
ntg;gepiyia Fiwf;fpwJ.  FWq;NfhLfSf;Fs;Sk; ntg;gepiy
://t
 jho;e;j epy Neh;f;Nfhl;by; cs;s khWghLfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

KOtJk; #og;gl;l flypy; jpwe;j  tl JUtg; ghijapy; flypd;
fliy tpl mjpf rhh;T ntg;gepiy Nkw;gFjpapy; epyj;jpypUe;J tPRk;
gjpT nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Fsph; fhw;W fly; ePhpd; ntg;gepiyia
 mg;gbapUf;f> cah;e;j epyNeh;f; Fiwf;fpwJ.
 tlfpof;F tlmnkhpf;fh> irgPhpah>
ps
Nfhl;by; KOtJk; #og;gl;l flyhdJ

rPdh Mfpa gFjpfspd; fpof;Ff;
jpwe;j fliy tpl Fiwthd
flw;fiug; gFjpfspy; ,e;epiyiaf;
ntg;gepiyia nfhz;Ls;sJ.
fhzyhk;.
E V^:  Gtpapd; tl JUtg; ghijapy; Mf];L
htt
1. ePh; %o;fp fg;gypd; KfLfs; khjj;jpy; mjpf ntg;gj;ijAk;

2. cs;@h; thdpiyfshd Gay;> gpg;uthpapy; Fiwe;j ntg;gepiyiaAk;
#whtsp> ngUkio> %Lgdp> fhzg;gLfpwJ.

AslB_
_ kWl[ zm o[ ]:
s
k_:  mlh;j;jp vd;gJ xU nghUspd;
 flypd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J fPo; Nehf;fpr; xt;nthU myF fdmstpYk; cs;s
scg
nry;yr; nry;y Fiwe;J nfhz;Nl epiwfspd; msT MFk;. ,jd; z
tUfpwJ. 100kP tiu Nkw;gug;G /*2
ntg;gepiyNa fhzg;gLfpwJ.  40 nry;rpa]; ntg;gepiyapy; J}a
 Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J 18kP Mok; tiuAs;s ePhpd; (fha;r;rp tbf;fg;gl;lJ) ]
ePh; fliy te;jilAk; ntg;gj;jpy; 1.00 g/cm.
90% ngw;Wf; nfhs;fpwJ.  fly; ePhpd; mlh;j;jpahdJ ntg;gepiy
np
 200kP Mok; tiuf;Fk; #hpafjph;fspd; FiwthdJ nghUj;J gbg;gbahf
Neub ghjpg;G Vw;gLfpwJ. mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
 flypd; 80% ePh; epue;jukhf 50C fPo;  mlh;j;jp vd;gJ fly;ePhpd; kpf
Fiwthd ntg;gepiyapy; cs;sJ. Kf;fpakhd ,aw;gpay; gz;ghFk;.
 Mok; Nehf;fp FiwAk; tPjk; rPuhf
mikatpy;iy.
 Kjy; 200kP tiu ntg;gepiy Ntfkhf
e/t  Vndd;why;
ePhpd;
,J
,aq;Ftpay;
ngUq;fly;
jd;ikia
jPh;khdpf;fpwJ mjhtJ fly; ePh;
Fiwe;J gpd; nkJthf FiwfpwJ. %o;Fjy; my;yJ kpjj;jy; mjDila
.m
 Nkw;gug;G ntg;gepiy JUtk; Nehf;fp mlh;j;jpia rhh;e;jJ MFk;.
FiwfpwJ. Mdhy; Nguhopapd;  fl;lisapd;gb> kpjkhd fly;
Moj;jpy; mt;thW ,y;iy. ePuhdJ kpjf;fpwJ.
 nghJthf JUt gFjpapy;  NkYk; fpilkl;lkhf efUfpwJ.
ngUk;ghYk; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J fPo;tiu ,Nj Nghy; fdkhd fly; ePuhdJ
://t
ciw epiyia xl;ba ntg;gepiyNa %o;FfpwJ. (fPo;Nehf;fpa ,af;fk;).

fhzg;gLfpwJ.  ,jd; fhuzkhf mjpf cg;Gj;jd;ik
 flyb ePs; njhlh; C.tptpy;yp nfhz;l fly; ePhpd; kPJ xU eguhy;
jhk]pd; ePs;njhlh;> ePh; fphpiafs; kpjf;f KbfpwJ.
Nghd;wit fly; ePhpd; Fj;Jg; gutiy  Vnddpy; cg;Gj;jd;ikahdJ fly;
ps
ghjpf;fpwJ. ePhpd; mlh;j;jpia mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
••••••
htt

AslB_
s
o[ ckBD
scg
ckBD 3 kf;dPrpak; 4.7
np
 xU fpNyhfpuhk; fly; ePhpy;
ry;Ngl;L
fiue;Js;s jplg; nghUspd; nkhj;j
4 fhy;rpak; 3.6
msNt (fhh;gNdl;> caphpdg;
ry;Ngl;L
nghUs;fs;> GNuhkpd; kw;Wk;
5 nghl;lhrpak; 2.5
mNahbd; Mf;irLfs; cth;g;gpak;
vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 cth;g;gpaj;ij ill;Nu\d; Kiwapy;
fzf;fpLfpd;wdh;.
e/t ry;Ngl;L
ckB> V]zD V^:
1. VsBV>_
 ,k;Kiwapy; FNshhpid  fly; ePuhdJ #hpa ntg;gj;jpd;
.m
mse;J me;ePhpd; cth;g;gpak; fhuzkhf MtpahFk; nghOJ cg;Gfs;
fzf;fplg;gLfpwJ. flypNyNa jq;fptpLfpd;wd.
 fly; ePhpy; fiue;Js;s nghUs;fspd;  vdNt cg;Gfspd; msT khwhky;
msT ,lj;jpw;F ,lk; khWgl;lhYk; fly; ePhpd; msT Fiwtjhy; cg;gsT
mtw;wpd; msTr; rjtPjk; mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
://t
vt;tplj;Jk; khWtjpy;iy vd;w  G+kj;jpa Nuifg; gFjpia vLj;Jf;

cz;ikNa ill;Nu\d; Kiwf;F nfhz;lhy; ,q;F ntg;gepiy mjpfk;.
mbg;gilahFk;.  Mjyhy; ePuhtpahjYk; mjpfk;.
_ m^ cA^: Mdhy; kioasT ,q;F mjpfkhf
ps
cA^ ckBD ,Ug;gjhy; cg;gsT Fiwe;Nj

fhzg;gLfpwJ.
1 Nrhbak; 77.8
 cgmad kz;lyq;fspy; ePuhtpahjy;
FNshiuL
mjpfk;.
2 kf;dPrpak; 10.9
htt
 Mdhy; kioasT FiwT. vdNt

FNshiuL
mg;gFjpfspy; NtW tifapy; ePh;r;
Nrh;f;if ,y;yhjpUf;Fkhdhy;

AslB_
mg;gFjp mjpf cg;gsT cs;sjhf k\ >xD Vu[
s
mikfpd;wd. .V. \]B > ]D
_ -39‰ _; -41‰  rpwpa fly; gFjpfspy;; Vw;gLk;
scg
2. \wVa Gay;fs; flypd; Nky;jsj;jpy; ePhpid
 G+kj;jpa Nuifg; gFjpapy; ntg;gKk;> fyq;fr; nra;tjd; %yk; cg;gsit
ePuhtpahjYk; mjpfkhf ,Ue;j mjpfhpf;fNth> Fiwf;fNth
NghjpYk;> kioasT mjpfkhf nra;fpd;wd.
,Ug;gjhy; mg;gFjpfspy; cg;gsT ckBD zB V^:
FiwthfNt cs;sJ.  kioasT mjpfhpj;jy; - Gtpapilf;
np
 mad kz;lyg; ghiytdg; gFjpfspy; Nfhl;L fly; gFjp - ntg;g ,af;f
ntg;gKk; ePuhtpahjYk; mjpfk;. v.fh. kio
rhf;fly;> thd; Vhp> nrq;fly;.  ciwgdp cUFjy; - Mh;bf; fly;
gFjp - Nfhil fhyk;
 Mdhy; kioasT FiwT vdNt
e/t  ePNuhl;lq;fs; cth; Fiw ePiuf;
mg;gFjpfspy; cg;gsT mjpfkhf
nfhz;L tUjy; - (Nyg;uhlhh;
cs;sJ. MfNt kioasT
ePNuhl;lk;)
cg;gsitf; Fiwf;Fk; fhuzpahfr;
 cth; Fiw ePh; nrq;Fj;jhff; fyj;jy;
nray;gLfpwJ. - Gtpapilf;Nfhl;Lf; fly; gFjp
.m
3. g_ m kD :  Mw;W ePh; te;J Nrh;jy; - mNahrhd;
 MWfspy; ,Ue;J tUk; Rj;jkhd ePh; Mw;wpd; Kfj;Jthug; gFjp.
fyg;gjd; fhuzkhfTk; cg;gstpy; cA >[\l[ xBmkD:
khw;wk; Vw;gLfpwJ.  fly; ePhpy; cg;G $Ljyhfr;
 cjhuzkhf nrapz;l; yhud;];> Nrh;tjhNyh my;yJ fopf;fg;gLt
://t
mNkrhd;> ie[h;> iud; Nghd;w jhNyh ciwepiyailAk; kw;Wk;

MWfs; Fiwe;j cg;gsTr; nfhjpepiya ilAk; Gs;spfs;
rjtPjj;ij KiwNa 31‰, 15‰, 20‰, nghpJk; ghjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd fl;Lg;
32‰ vd ngw;Ws;sd. gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.
 kWGwj;jpy; kj;jpaj; jiuf;flypy;  ed;dPUld; xg;gpLifapy;> cg;G ePh;
ps
ePuhtpahjy; Mw;wpdhy; Nrh;f;fg;gLk; nkJthfNt ciwepiyailfpwJ.

ePiuf; fhl;bYk; mjpfkhf ,Ug;gjhy;  cg;G 1.910C ePh; ntg;g epiyapy;
cg;gsT mjpfkhf (36.5‰ - 39‰) ciw epiyailAk;> ,jw;F kW
Kidapy;> cg;G ePhpd; (fly; ePh;)
cs;sJ.
htt
nfhjpepiyg; gs;sp> ed;dUP ilaij

tpl mjpfkhdjhFk;.
••••••

AslB_
s
_ V^
scg
ngUq;fly;fspd; Nkw;gug;gpy; fpilahf fpisfshfg; gpupj;J xd;W njw;F
efUfpd;w fly;ePiu ePNuhl;lq;fs; vd Nehf;fp gpNurpy; ePNuhl;lkhfr;
nry;fpd;wJ. kw;nwhd;W tlf;F
np
miof;fyhk;.
_ V> V]zD Nehf;fpr; nrd;W Gtpapil
V^ ePNuhl;lj;NjhL ,izfpd;wJ.
 GtpaPu;g;G tpir  fhyepiy khw;wq;fSk;
ePNuhl;lq;fisg; ghjpf;fpd;wd.
 Gtpapd; Row;rpahy; Vw;gl;l tpyf;F
tpir
o[ kA]K^
V^
e/t G+kj;jpa Nuif ePNuhl;lq;fs; tlf;F
njw;fhf efu;tjw;Fk;
khw;wq;fNs fhuzkhFk;. (v.fh)
gUtfhy
tl ,e;jpag; ngUq;flypy; gUtf;

 tspkz;ly mOj;jq;fSk; mjpy; fhw;W ePNuhl;lq;fs; Nfhilapy;
.m
khWghLfSk;. kl;LNk rpwg;ghf mikfpd;wd. Fspu;
 fhw;Wfs; kw;Wk; cuha;T tpir fhyj;jpy; ,Ue;j G+kj;jpaNuif
 MtpahjYk;> #hpadpd; cs; vjpu; ePNuhl;lk; Nfhilapy; kiwe;J
fjpu;tPr;Rk; (Insulation) tpLfpwJ.
 kioasT  fhw;W ePNuhl;lq;fisj; Njhw;Wtpf;f
://t
Kz c^B^ V^ kl;Lky;yhky; ePNuhl;lq;fisg;

 mOj;jr; rupT (Gradient) ghjpf;fTk; nra;fpd;wJ. v.fh. fy;g;
 ntg;gepiy NtWghL ePNuhl;lk; 450 t-y; fpof;fhf> tl
 cg;gsT ml;yhz;bf; rydkhf khWtjw;Ff;
 mlu;j;jp fhuzk; Nkw;Fj; jpirf; fhw;WfNs.
ps
 gdp cUFjy;  mbepyj; Njhw;wq;fs; ePNuhl;lq;fspd;

V V]zD V^ Nghf;if khw;Wfpd;wd. v.fh.
 flw;fiuapd; mikg;Gk; tbtKk; Nkw;Ff; fhw;W rydk; (West Wind
ePNuhl;lq;fisg; ghjpf;fpd;wd. v.fh. drift) gy ,lq;fspy; tlf;fhf
htt
njd; mnkupf;fhtpd; GtpapilKid tise;J fhzg;gLtjw;Ff; fhuzk;

ml;yhz;bf;fpd; njd; Gtpapil flyb epyj;Njhw;wq;fNs MFk;.
ePNuhl;lj;ijj; jLj;J ,uz;L eL ml;yhz;l;bf; kiyj;njhlu;

AslB_
s
scg
np
_ V[ wuE
mjidf; flf;Fk; ePNuhl;lq;fspd; e/t mjpfkhd ntg;gj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;s
Nghf;ifr; rpwpJ khw;Wfpd;wJ. ePNuhl;lk; Fspu; ePNuhl;lk; (cool
V[ kV| current) MFk;. v.fh. fypNghu;dpah
 rpy ePNuhl;lq;fspd; ntg;gepiyia ePNuhl;lk;. fhdup]; ePNuhl;lk;> ngU
msTNfhyhff; nfhz;L ntg;g ePNuhl;lk;> ngq;FNtyh ePNuhl;lk;.
.m
ePNuhl;lq;fs;> Fspu; ePNuhl;lq;fs; _ V[ VmA^
(cool currents) fLq;Fspu; ePNuhl;lq;fs;  nghJthf vy;yh ntg;g ePNuhl;lq;
(cold currents) vdg;gpupf;fpd;wdu;. fSk; ntg;gk; Fiwe;j fly; gFjpia
ntg;g kz;lyj;jpypUe;J fpsk;Gk; Nehf;fpAk;> Fspu; ePNuhl;lq;fs;
vy;yh ePNuhl;lq;fSk; ntg;g ntg;gk; kpFjpahd fly; gFjpahd
://t
ePNuhl;lk; MFk;. Nehf;fpAk; efu;fpd;wd.

 v.fh. GNshuplh ePNuhl;lk;> FNuh\pah  JUtq;fspypUe;J tUk; fLq;Fspu;
ePNuhl;lk;> ehu;Nt ePNuhl;lk;> gpNurpy; ePNuhl;lk; cau; ml;rNuhifg;
ePNuhl;lk;. gFjpfspy; fpof;Ff; flw;fiuia
 cau; ml;rNuifg; gFjpapypUe;J xl;b efu;e;J ntg;gf; flypy; nrd;W
ps
fpsk;gp Gtpapilf; NfhL Nehf;fp fyf;fpwJ.

XbtUk; ePNuhl;lq;fs; fLq;Fspu;  jho; ml;rg; gFjpfspy; fz;lq;fspd;
fpof;Fg; gFjpfspy; nghJthf ntg;g
ePNuhl;lk; MFk;. v.fh. yhg;ulhu;
ePNuhl;lk; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
ePNuhl;lk;.
 fly; ePNuhl;lq;fSk; mtw;wpd;
htt
 kj;jpa ml;rNuif gFjpapypUe;J

,aw;ifg; gz;GfSk; gUt
Gtpapilf;NfhL Nehf;fp Xb tUk;>
fhyj;jpw;Nfw;g khWgLfpd;wd.
fLq;Fspu; ePNuhl;lj;ijtplr; rw;W
10
AslB_
 ,j;jifa tlf;F njw;F vjpu; G+kj;jpa Nuif ePNuhl;lq;fs;
s
ePNuhl;lq;fspdhy; fz;lq;fspd; Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;fhf ,U G+kj;jpa
Nkw;Fg; gFjpapy; Vw;gl;l ePu;j; Nuif ePNuhl;lq;fSf;F ,ilapy;
scg
Njf;fj;jpdhy; cz;lhd fly; kl;l efu;fpwJ.
NtWghl;il <Lfl;Lk; tifapy;
_ / Va V^

1. E _ k VD
 tlf;F G+kj;jpa Nuif
np
 njw;F G+kj;jpa Nuif
 vjph;kiw
 FNuh\pf;Nfh ePNuhl;lq;fs;
z VD
 xah\pNah> fyp‡Nghh;dpah> ngU ePNuhl;lq;fs;
2. V _ k VD
e/t
 tisFlh> gpNurpy;> G+kj;jpaNuif ePNuhl;lk;.
z VD
 Nyg;uhlh;> nfdhp> ghf;yhz;l;> ngd;Fyhh;> njd;
.m
ml;yhz;l;bf; ePNuhl;lq;fs;
3. ]B _ k VD
 njd; G+kj;jpa Nuif> nkhrhk;gpf;> klfh];fh;>
mFy;`hy; ePNuhl;lk;
://t
z VD
 njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;W> Nrhkhypah tlfpof;F
gUtfhw;wpd; ePNuhl;lq;fs;
••••••
ps
htt
11
AslB_
s
scg
_ k^
 mtw;wpy; 61 tiffis kl;Nk

gphpj;jwpa kdpjd; njhopy; El;gj;ijf;
np
fz;L gpbj;Js;shd;.
1.  M\^:
 [g;ghDf;Fr; nrhe;jkhd if\P jPit
xl;ba fly; gFjpapy; 1700 kpy;ypad;
e/t ld; ,Uk;Gj;jhJ ,Ug;gjhf fzpf;fg;
gl;Ls;sJ. Mdhy; NgusT cw;gj;jp
,d;Dk; Jtq;ftpy;iy.
 jha;yhe;J flw;fiug; gFjpapy;
D 19.1 : _ k>VuD jfuKk;. g`hkh]; flw;fiu
.m
gFjpapy; muNfhidl;Lk;> ngh;rpad;
 fly; xU fsQ;rpakhFk;. Vnddpy; tisFlhtpy; ANudpaKk; ,Ug;gjhff;
epyj;jpy; fpilf;Fk; ngUk;ghyhd fz;L gpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
tsq;fs; flypYk; fpilf;fpwJ.  njd;dhg;gphpf;fh jdJ fly;
 Gtpapd; nkhj;jg; gug;gpy; 71 gFjpapy;> fz;lj; jpl;by; ituk;
://t
rjtpfpjj;ij Mf;fpukpj;Jf; nfhz; ,Ug;gjhff; fz;lwpe;Js;sJ.

Ls;sJ fly; gug;ghFk;.  mij ntl;bnaLf;f kpjf;Fk;
 Mdhy; epyNkh 29 rjtpfpjj;ij fg;gypd; cjtpAld; flybr;
kl;LNk Mf;fpukpj;Js;sJ. Ruq;fj;ijj; Njhz;bAs;sJ.
 ,e;J kfh rKj;jpuj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;
 Mf> ePh; kw;Wk; epyg;gug;Gfspd;
ps
flybj; njhlh; Fd;Wfspy; FNuhikl;

tpfpjhr; rhuq;fis cw;W Nehf;F
mjpf mstpy; fhzg;gLtjhff;
tjhy; flypy; epyj;ijtpl mjpf fz;lwpag;gl;Ls;sJ.
msT fdpktsq;fs; Gije;Js;sJ  ,NjNghy; GNshhplh flw;fiug;
vdyhk;. gFjpapy; Ngiul;Lk; myh];fh
htt
 mtw;wpy; fPNo fhz;Nghk;. flypy; 104 flw;fiug; gFjpapy; gpshl;bdKk;

tif tsq;fs; fhzg;gLfpwJ. fhzg;gLtjhff; fz;lwpag;
gl;Ls;sJ.
12
AslB_
 flybj; jsj;jpy; FNshgpn[hpNdh  Nkw;fz;l gFjpfspy; jw;nghOJ
vd;Dk; NrW mjpf mstpy; th;j;jf hPjpapyhd cw;gj;jp njhlq;fp
s
fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; 95% fhy;rpak; eilngWfpwJ.
fhh;gNdl; gbTfisf; nfhz;lJ.  tlf;F M];jpNuypah> njd;nfhhpah>
scg
 ,ij mjpf mstpy; rpnkz;l; mh;n[d;bdh> fypNghh;dpah>
cw;gj;jpf;F %yg;nghUshf gad;gLj;j ,e;jpah> Ithp flw;fiu Mfpa
,aYk;.
ehLfspd; flw;fiug; gFjpfs;
 gOg;Gepwr; Nrw;wpy; mjpf msT
Xjkpd; rf;jpf;Fr; rhjfkhd
khq;fdPR> epf;fy;> nrk;G> Nfhghy;l;
#o;epiyiag; ngw;Ws;sjhff;
kw;Wk; fhhPak; Mfpait fhzg;
np
fz;lwpag;gl;Ls;sJ.
gLfpd;wd.
 ,Ug;gpDk; ,e;ehLfspy; thzpg
2. V F:
hPjpapyhd cw;gj;jp ,d;Dk;
 cyf fly; gug;gpy; 2.5 × 1012
Jtq;ftpy;iy.
gPgg
; ha;fs; (Nguy;fs;) itg;G ,Ug;gjhff;
fUjg;gLfpwJ.
 flypy; fpilf;Fk;
vz;nza; kw;Wk; vhpthA Mfpad
e/t
tsq;fspy;
{> gu_
1. fhk;Ng tisFlh (7000 nkfhthl;)
2. fl;r; tisFlh (1000 nkfhthl;)
flypy; fpilf;Fk; nkhj;j tsj;jpd;
3. Re;jutdk; (100 nkfhthl;)
kjpg;gpy; 90% kjpg;igg; ngw;Ws;sd.
.m
3. {>t[ ]: 4.  k t[]:
 cyfpy; Kjd; Kjypy; gpuhd;R ehL
 fly; ePhpd; fly; kl;lj;jpYk;
1966-k; Mz;L gpuhd;R Mw;wpd;
mbkl;lj;jpYk; fhzg;gLfpd;w ntg;g
Kfj;Jthug; gFjpapy; Xjkpd;
NtWghl;bd; fhuzkhf vOfpd;w
://t
rf;jpia cw;gj;jp nra;jJ.

 ,ijj; njhlh;e;J A.v];.X. ‡gz;b ePh;f;fphpiafs; (m) Row;rpiag; gad;
tisFlhtpy; ghrk;kh Nfhb vd;w gLj;jp fly; ePhpypUe;J ngwg;gLk;
,lj;jpy; Xjkpd;rf;jpapd; itg;gpy; kpd;rhuNk ePh; ntg;g kpd;rf;jpahFk;.
25% u\;ahtpy; cs;sjhff;  fly; ePhpd; Nkw;gug;gpw;Fk; Moj;jpw;F
fzf;fplg;gl;Ls;sJ. kpilNa mjpf ntg;g NtWghL
ps
 me;ehl;bd; fp];yah tisFlh kw;Wk; ntg;g kz;lyg; gFjpfspy; kl;LNk

Nfhyh jPgfw;gk; Mfpa gFjpfspy; ngUk;ghYk; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
,r;rf;jpf;F mjpf tha;g;Gs;sjhff;  MfNt ntg;g kz;lyg; gFjpfspy;
fUjg;gLfpwJ. mike;Js;s ehLfspy; ,r;rf;jpiag;
htt
 If;fpa murpy; nrtd; Mw;W Kfj; ngWtjw;F mjpf tha;g;Gs;sJ.

Jthuj;jpy; Xj rf;jpf;F tha;g;G  ,j;Jiwapy; If;fpa mnkhpf;fh
cs;sjhff; fUjg;gLfpwJ. Kd;dzpapy; ,Uf;fpwJ.
13
AslB_
 me;ehl;bd; cjtpAld; jkpo;ehl;by;  flw;fiuNahug; gFjpfspy; cs;s
s
kd;dhh; tisFlh (FyNrfug; vz;nza; kw;Wk; ,aw;if thA
gl;bzk;) tpy; ,r;rf;jpia vLf;f tsq;fs; cyfg; ngl;Nuhypa
scg
Kaw;rpfs; ele;J tUfpd;wd. cw;gj;jpapy; 17 rjtPjj;ij
5. \M> kVs_ Va[ mspf;fpd;wd.
g]D:  NkYk; Nguhopfs; khw;W rf;jpts
 Nguhopfs; kdpjDila ,aw;if Mjhukhf gad;gLtjw;fhd
#o;epiyapy; Kf;fpa gq;F tha;g;gpidAk; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd.
tfpf;fpd;wd. Nguhopfs; kdpjid  fly; #hpa ntg;gj;jpid
np
gy;NtW tiffspy; fl;Lg; cl;ftUtjhy; Nguhopfs; ntg;gg;
gLj;Jfpd;wd. gLj;jg;gl;L ePNuhl;lq;fs; Vw;gL
 fhyepiyia fl;Lg;gLj;JtjpYk;> fpd;wJ.
Mf;]p[id Rthrpg;gjw;Fk;> mtd;  ,ij kpd;dhw;wyhf khw;w ,aYk;.
cz;Zk; czT> nghUshjhu> r%f>
murpy; kw;Wk; ,uhZt epiyapidAk;
jPh;khdpf;fpd;wd.
e/t ,e;epfo;r;rpahdJ Val[ k
gu_ \VuD (Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion – OTEC) vd
 Nguhopfs; Kf;fpa tskhd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
.m
Gujrj;J kpFe;j kPd; cztpid
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 gy;NtW kjpg;G kpf;f cNyhfq;fisf;
flyhdJ kpFjpahf nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 mtw;wpy; jq;fk;> nts;sp> khq;fdpR>
://t
ngl;Nuhy; kw;Wk; Kj;J MfpadthFk;.

,tw;wpw;Fk; Nkyhf fly; ePhpy;
nkf;dPrpak;> GNuhkpd; kw;Wk; Nrhbak;
FNshiuL (my;yJ) rhjhuz cg;G
Mfpa jhJ cg;GfSk; cs;sd.
ps
 fl;Lkhdg; gzpfSf;fhd kzy;>

{>t[ ]
ruisf;fy;> rpg;gp XLfs; kw;Wk;
ituq;fs; Mfpad Nguhopfspd;
jiug;gFjpapy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
htt
••••••
14
AslB_
s
k V^
scg
x V^ >V[ >VmkV  KUifNahL tsUk;> My;fhtpw;F
np
w_^: xsp Njit ahjyhy;> KUiffs;
Fiwthdg; gFjpapy; jhd;
 200 Kjy; 300 bfphp ntg;gKila
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. rw;Nwwf;Fiwa
ePh;g;gFjpapNyNa kpf mjpfkhf
50 kPl;lh; Moj;jpy; jhd; KUiffs;
tho;fpwJ. MfNtjhd; ntg;g
mjpfkhf fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
kz;lyg; gFjpapy; KUif ghh;fs;
e/t  cth;g;gpak; 30% Kjy; 40% rjtPjk;
mjpfk;.
,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
.m
://t
ps
htt
xB kV ^
15
AslB_
 fyq;fpa ePh;> FWkz; gbTfs;  ,t;tifg; gl;il ngUk;ghYk;
s
fhzg;gbd; KUiffs; vhpkiyj; jPitr; Rw;wp rpwg;ghf
tsh;tjpy;iy. mike;Js;sd.
scg
 KUifgl;ilfs; Mz;Lf;F 1 Kjy; V[:
5 nr.kP tiu tsh;fpwJ.  M];jpNuypahtpd; nghpa fpNul;
x[ k^: ghhpah; hPg;
 flw;fiuia xl;ba gtsg; gl;il 3. kkk V _m V_:
 flw;fiuia tpl;L tpyfpa gtsg; gl;il  ikaj;jpy; Mok; Fiwe;j fhaiyf;
 tl;ltbt gts gl;il vd nfhz;L Rw;wpYk; KUifgl;il
np
KUiffs; %d;W tifg;ghfg; tsh;e;jpUg;gJ ml;lhy;
gphpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. vdg;gLfpwJ.
1. uB B k :  ,J ePs; tbtj;jpYk;> nrt;tf
 flw;fiuNahL xl;b tsh;e;jpUf;Fk; tbtj;jpYk;> tl;l tbtj;jpYk;
gtsg;gl;ilNa flw;fiu xl;ba
gtsg;gl;il
gLfpwJ.
vd;W
e/t
miof;fg;
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
4. x [ >VuD
uB V^^:
 flw;fiuf;Fk;> gtsg;gl;ilf;Fk;  ,f;nfhs;iffis fPo;f;fz;lthW
.m
,ilNa glFf; fhy;tha; ,U ngUk; gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;.
fhzg;gLk;. 1. jho;jy; nfhs;if
 rhd;W `tha; jPtpy; fhzg;gLk; (subsidence Theory)
mz;il gl;ilfs;. 2. jho; ,y;yh nfhs;if
2. k: (Nonsubsidence Theory)
://t
 ,J flw;fiuapypUe;J rpwpJ J}uk;

js;sp fiuf;F ,izahf Ntygl;il
Nghd;wike;jpUf;Fk;> KUif gl;il
]BVs_ V|D x
MFk;. ^
 ,r;#oypy; gl;ilf;Fk; flw;fiuf;Fk; 1. ,yl;rj; jPTfs;
ps
,ilNa mfykhd fhy;tha;> 2. me;jkhd; b epf;Nfhghh;

fhzg;gLk;. 3. `l;r; tisFlh
4. kd;dhh; tisFlh
htt
••••••
16
AslB_
s
{>^
scg
o[ u D (Tides):  t{>D(Spring Tides): G+kp> #hpad;>
np
 njhlh;r;rpahd fly; ePhpd; Vw;w epyh %d;Wk; xNu Neh;f;Nfhl;Lg;
,wf;fj;jhy; Vw;gLfpwJ. #hpad; Gs;spapy; ,Uf;Fk; NghJ ,tw;wpy;
kw;Wk; epyh ,uz;Lk; Gtpapd; kPJ mjpfkhd <h;g;G tpiriaf; nfhz;l
<h;g;G tpiriar; nrYj;Jfpd;wd. kpif Xjj;ij cz;lhf;Fk;.
vdNt miyfs; Vw;gLfpd;wd.
 epyh nghJthf G+kpf;F mUfpy;
cs;sJ. vdNt ,J flypd; Vw;w
e/t  miyfis #hpad; kw;Wk; epyhtpd;
tpir ,uz;Lk; xd;Wf; nfhd;W
,Of;Fk;. vdNt nghpa mstpyhd
,wf;fq;fspd; fl;Lg;ghl;by; Kf;fpag; miyfs; Vw;gLk;. ,it kpif Xjk;
gq;F tfpf;fpwJ. vdg;gLk;.
.m
 ,uz;L Vw;w ,wf;fq;fSf;Fk;
,ilNa ,ilntsp 12 kzp Neuk; 26
epkplq;fs; ,Uf;Fk;.
 t> {>D (Neap Tides): (Fiw fly;
://t
Vw;w ,wf;fk;) #hpad; kw;Wk; epyhtpd;

Fiwthd <h;g;Gtpir xd;Wf;nfhd;W
Neuhdit.
 ,J mkhthirapypUe;J Kjy;
fhy;gFjp kw;Wk; %d;whk; fhy;
ps
gFjpf;Fs; Njhd;Wk;. #hpadpd;

tpirahy; Vw;gLk; tpir> re;jpudhy;
Vw;gLk; tpirapy; rkg;gLj;jg;gLtjd;
tpisthf miyfs; rpwpadthfj;
htt
Njhd;Wk;. ,it kpj Xjk;

vdg;gLfpwJ.
{>[ k^
17
AslB_
 ,J khjj;jpy; ,U Kiw Njhd;Wk;. Xjq;fs; ed;whf tsh;r;rp ngw;W
s
mkhthirapd; NghJ #hpad; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
kw;Wk; epyh ,uz;Lk; NeuhfTk;>  cyfpNyNa mjpf cauKila
scg
ngsh;zkpapd; NghJ #hpad; kw;Wk; Xjq;fs; guhd; ml;yhz;bf;
epyh ,uz;Lk; vjpuhfTk; ,Uf;Fk;. fiug;gFjpapy; gz;b tis Flhtpy;
 fq;ifapd; Kfj;Jthuk; (fy;fj;jh Vw;gLfpwJ.
JiwKfk;)> fhz;l;yh JiwKfg;gFjp  ,t;thW Vw;gLk; cah; Xjq;fspypUe;J
Mfpa ,lq;fspy; ,e;jpahtpy; xjkpd;rf;jp ngwg;gLfpwJ.
np
••••••
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
18
AslB_
s
scg
xB >k_^
1. \]B lK^ V|^: 3. \lK^ V|^:
np
(Equator) (Tropic of Capricorn)
>[ \V (South America) >[ \V

1. <f;Ftlhh; 2. nfhyk;gpah 1. rpyp 2. mh;n[d;bdh
3. gpNurpy; 3. guhFNt 4. gpNurpy;
gV (Africa)
1. nfghd;
3. n[a;hp
2. fhq;Nfh
4. cfhz;lh
e/t gV
1. ekpgpah
2. Ngh];l;thdh
5. nfd;ah 6. Nrhkhypah
3. njd; Mg;gphpf;fh
gEBV (Asia)
.m
1. ,e;NjhNdrpah 4. nkh]hk;gpf;
(Rkj;uh jPgfw;gk;> Nghh;dpah> nrypg];) 5. klfh];fh;
E _
4. W]_ w V|^
fpUgjp jPT.
(Land Locked Countries)
://t
2. lK^ V|^: >[ \

(Tropic of Cancer) 1. nghyptpah 2. guhFNt
\]B \V g V|^

nkf;]pNfh 1. khyp 2. iefh;
ps
gV 3. gh;fpfdh ghNrh 4. rhl;

1. Nkw;F rfhuh 2. kThpj;Njdpah 5. kj;jpa Mg;gphpf;f FbauR ehLfs;
3. khyp 4. my;[phpah 6. vj;jpNahg;gpah 7. cfhz;lh
5. ypgpah
htt
8. uhtz;lh 9. GUz;b
6. vfpg;J (rptg;Gf;fly;) 10. [hk;gpah 11. khytp
E _ 12. [pk;ghg;Nt 13. Ngh];l;thdh
`thypad; jPT
19
AslB_
nVB V|^ 6. V[
1. Rtpl;rh;yhe;J 2. M];l;hpah 1. rpf;fpk; 2. Nkw;F tq;fhsk;
s
3. nrf; FbauR 4. ];Nyhthf;fpah 3. m];]hk; 4. mUzhr;ryg;
scg
5. `q;Nfhpah 6. khy;Nlhtpah gpuNjrk;.
7. ngyhu]; 7. gVM>V[
gEB V|^ [k;K kw;Wk; fh\;kPh;.
1. Mh;Nkdpah 2. kq;Nfhypah
3. fphpfp];jhd; 4. j[pfp];jhd;
6.  _KD ]BVs[
5. Mg;fhdp];jhd; 6. yhNth];
\VW^
np
1. F[uhj; 2. uh[];jhd;
5. ]BVs[ \VW[
3. kj;jpa gpuNjrk; 4. rl;B];fh;
_ m V^D
5. [hh;fz;l; 6. Nkw;F tq;fhsk;
V|^
7. jphpGuh 8. kpNrhuk;.
1. V>i e/t
1.Nkw;F tq;fhsk; 7. yz]^
2. m];]hk; 3. Nkfyhah
1. fphPd;yhe;J - cyfpYs;s
4. jphpGuh 5. kpNrhuk;
kpfg;nghpa jPT grpgpf; ngUq;fly;
2.V
.m
2. klfh];fh; - ,e;jpag; ngUq;fly;
1. [k;K kw;Wk; fh\;kPh;
3. [hth> Rkj;uh> nrypghy; -
2. ,khr;ry gpuNjrk;
,e;NjhNdrpah
3. cj;jufhz;l; 4. rpf;fpk;
4. ghh;ry;jPT - njd;rPdf; fly;
5. mUzhr;ry gpuNjrk;
5. n`hf; fha;Nlh> N`hd;R jPT -
://t
3. V>V[
1. F[uhj; 2. uh[];jhd; [g;ghd;
3. gQ;rhg; 4. [k;K kw;Wk; 8. s_ B V|^
fh\;kPh;
1. u\;ah 2. fdlh
4. VD
ps
3. rPdh 4. mnkhpf;fh
1. cj;jufhz;l; 2. cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;
5. gpNurpy; 6. M];jpNuypah
3. gPfhh; 4. rpf;fpk;
7. ,e;jpah
5. Nkw;F tq;fhsk;
5. tBV[\
htt
1. kpNrhuk; 2. kzpg;G+h;
3. ehfyhe;J 4. mUzhr;ryg;
gpuNjrk;
20
AslB_
9. ] \^ >V V 10. cK^ a^
s
V|^
1. khpahdh mfop Nkw;F grpgpf;
scg
1.rPdh 2. ,e;jpah 2. lhq;fh njw;F grpgpf;
3. mnkhpf;fh 4. ,e;NjhNdrpah nfh;nknlf
5. gpNurpy; 6. ghfp];jhd; 3. Fhpy; Nkw;F grpgpf;
7. gq;fshNj\; 8. ie[phpah 4. Nghdpd; mfop Nkw;F grpgpf;
9. u\;ah 10. [g;ghd; 5. epA+nfh;gpnl]; njd; grpgpf;
6. G&l;Nlh hpf;Nfh Nkw;F grpgpf;
np
7. Rz;lh mfop ,e;jpag; ngUq;fly;
(mugpf;fly;)

••••••
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
21
AslB_
s
xB VuD,
scg
>[ sD
 W] : tphpe;j ,uz;L epyg;gug;G epfo;tpw;Fg;gpd;) Xh; mlh;e;j
np
fSld; kpff;FWfpa epyg;gug;G mfiltpl;Lr; nry;Yk;. (ntg;];lh;
,ize;jpUe;jhy; mjid epyr;re;jp INuhg;gpa xd;wpa mfuhjp)
vd;gh;.  \>l_ (Sand Blasting):
 ] : ,uz;L ePh;g;gug;Gfis ntg;gg; ghiytdq;fspy; ghiwfspy;
,izf;Fk; FWfpa ePh;g;gFjpf;F fhw;wpdhy; cld; mbj;Jr;

ePh;r;re;jp vd;gh;
yuD : %d;W gf;fq;fs; ePuhYk;
xU gf;fk; epyj;jhYk; #og;gl;l
e/t nry;yg;gLk; kzy; Jfs;fspd;
cjtpAld; epfo;j;jg;gLk; rpuha;j;Jj;
Nja;j;jy;> tprpwp tbtj; jpiuahf;fy;>
gFjpf;Fj; jPgfw;gk; vd;W ngah;. thpg;gs;skply;> ntspf;fhl;b vLj;jy;
.m
 [(Zeigen): fspkz; ghiw> kw;Wk; nkUfpLjy; Nghd;w midj;J
khf;fy; ghiw> nkd;fsp kz;fw; mhpkhdpr; nray; KiwfSk; xl;L
ghiw Nghd;wtw;wpd; rkepiy nkhj;jkhf kz;D}ijaply; vd
nkd;ghiwj;J}z; kPJ %baplg;gl;l miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
ikg;Gl;b Nghd;W Njhw;wkspf;Fk;  As| \D (Pyrosphere):
://t
ml;ltizg; gbt ghiwj; jpus;fs; Gtpapd; eLg;gFjp 2780 fp.kP

]PAnfd; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. jbkd; cilajhfTk;> ruhrhp
 * s*[ (Supernova): xU mlh;j;jp 5.6 MfTk; nfhz;ljhf
el;rj;jpuk; ntbj;Jr; rpjWtijf; cs;s gFjp GtpeL kz;lyk; vd
Fwpf;Fk;. mNdfkhf <h;g;G miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ps
tpirahw;wy; Fiye;J Nghtjhy;  gdpahWfs; kw;Wk; gdpg;ghsq;fspd;

,J epfof;$Lk;. ,e;epfo;tpd; cUFjYf;Fg; gpwF gdpg;ghsg;
NghJ el;rj;jpuj;jpd; xsph;Tj; gbTfs; gbtjd; fhuzkhf
jpwd;> rhjhuz fhyq;fspy; cUthf;fk; ngWk; rkntspNa
htt
,Ug;gij tplTk; 20 klq;F mjpfg; J}a;ikg;gLj;jg;gl;l rkntspahFk;.

ghpkhzk; nfhz;ljhf mjpfhpf;Fk;.  \BVE: Fd;Wfs; my;yJ
ngUk;ghyhd rkaq;fspy; (,e; kiyfspd; cr;rpapD}lhf ePz;L
22
AslB_
xLq;fp mike;Js;s ePs;tiu Kfbd;  Ws\|: ,J
vjpnujph;g; gf;fq;fspy; mLf;fhfg; G+kpapDila NkNyhl;Lg; gug;gpd; kPJ
s
gbTfs; gbe;J kiy cUthf;fk; cah;e;njOe;J epw;Fk; gFjp. ,jd;
ngWk; nray;Kiw kiykuGf; $wpay;
scg
,uz;L gf;f gFjpfspyhtJ Fiwe;j
vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. gl;rk; ,uz;L ghiwaLf;Ffspd;
 k|>D: flypy; mike;Js;s ,ilKwpTfs; vy;iyfshf
nfhLQ;rhpTg; ghiwapd; mbj; mike;Js;sd. ,e;jg; Gilg;G
jsj;jpy; mike;Js;s mb ntl;Lj; mUfike;Js;s gFjpfSld;
jlk;. njhlh;Gs;s tifapy; cah;e;njOe;J
 kV[A () x_ D
np
cs;sJ. ,jd; rpfu cr;rpg;
(AV): el;rj;jpuq;fSf;fpilNa gFjpapy; jl;ilahd gbTfSk;>
cs;s khR my;yJ thAg;nghUspd; ,U vy;iyfshf mike;Js;s
jpus; njhFjp my;yJ jpushd ghiwaLf;F ,ilKwpTfshy;
tpz;kPd; njhFjpahy; ,utpd; thdpy; gpujp epjpj;Jtg;gLj;jg;gl;l kpf
Njhd;Wk;. Xz;kPd; / xz;Kfpy; glyk;.
,J ,Ul;L neGyh> xspAkpOk;
xz;Kfpy; glyk; kw;Wk; gpujpgypj;jy;
e/t nrq;Fj;jhd gf;fr; rhpTfSk;
nfhz;ljhf GtpNkNyhl;Lg; Gilg;G
tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
xz;Kfpy; glyk; vd tifg;gLj;jf;  ky : rpgpb my;yJ efh;
$bajhFk;.
.m
ikaj;jpy; cs;s cah; ntg;gepiy
 VDA >  : epyj;jb vd;gJ> ‘efh; ntg;gj;jPT” my;yJ
ePNuhilf;Fk;> gy Fopf;Fk; ePuhy; ntWkNd ‘ntg;gj;jPT” vd;W
epug;gg;gl;l fPo;g;gug;Gfspy; epiyapy;. miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 EB >Vz[^: ePl;rpaile;J  >VA k\VusB_:
://t
tphpe;j> nfl;by; Nghd;w Gtpg; gug;gpy; xU ghiwapDs; CLUtptUk;

cUthfp vOe;Js;s rpwpa kiyfs;> vhpkiyf; Fok;gpd; jPtpu ntg;gj;jpd;
jho;Fd;Wfs; (`k;Nkhf;];) epiyapy; fhuzkhf mg;ghiw milAk;
cs;s ciwkz; gLifapd; kPJ ntspAU khw;wk; njhlh;G my;yJ
rpwpa> cah;e;njOe;j Kbr;Rfs; ntg;g ntspAUkhw;wk; vd
ps
my;yJ RUf;fq;fs; `k;Nkhf;]; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. MhpNahy;fs;

vdg;gLfpd;wd. nraw;jpwDs;s vd mwpag;gLk; Rw;wpYk; cs;s
GtpNkyLf;F> ciwgLifahf ghiwfspd; fdpk cs;spizT>
Mfpa fhuzj;jhy; gf;fthl;Lg; cs;CLUTk; vhpkiyf; Fok;gpd;
htt
gFjpfspypUe;J mOj;J tpirahy; jPtpu ntg;gj;jpd; fhuzkhf

jil Nkw;gug;G mOj;jg;gLtjhy; khw;wj;jpw;Fs;shFk; nghOJ njhlh;G
,it tbtk; nfhs;fpd;wd. ntspAU khw;wk; epfo;fpwJ.
23
AslB_
 W> : G+kpapd; jiu  V[BV[ ^>Vz: kpf
Nkw;gug;gpw;Ff; fPNoAs;s mbj;jsg; Mokhd FWfpa nrq;Fj;Jr; rhpthd
s
ghiwfs; kw;Wk; jsh;ghiwg; gf;fq;fSilNa xU gs;sj;jhf;fpd;
scg
gFjpfspd; Jisfspy; epuk;gpAs;s ePl;bf;fg;gl;l tbtk; - fhd;Nahd;
ePh; epyj;jb ePh; my;yJ fPo;epyePh; vd vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. (v.fh)
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. nfhNyhuhNlh Mw;wpd; ngaUk;
 k u : fhyj;jpw;Ff; FilTg; gs;sj;jhf;F fhh;thy;
fhyk; ntg;g ePiuAk;> ePuhtpiaAk; ,khyhag; gFjpapd; myf;ee;jh Mw;Wf;
ntspg;gLj;jp tUk; xU rpwg;G ntg;g FilTg; gs;sj;jhf;F Kjypad.
 VuA V >Vu
np
ePh; Cw;W. mjhtJ ntg;g ePUk;>
ePuhtpAk; tpl;L tpl;L ntspNa (Yardangs): xg;gPl;lstpy; nkd;ik
gPwpl;L tUk; Cw;W. ahd ghiwfspd; ghiytd
 \uVWD: ,uz;L ngaUk; mbj; jsq;fspy; fhw;wirg;ghy;>
kzy; tiffisf; nfhz;Ls;s ntl;lg;gl;l ePz;l fhbf;FilTfs;
ghiytdq;fs; (‘vh;f;’ vd;w muhgpa
thh;j;ij ,lk;ngah;fpw
tiffs; cs;s gFjp vdg; nghUs;
e/t
kzy;
my;yJ ,iltopfshy; xd;wpypUe;J
kw;nwhd;W gphpf;fg;gLfpw nrq;Fj;Jg;
gf;fthl;Lr; Rth;fisf; nfhz;l>
jUtjhFk;) Mokhd fPo; ntl;Lfshy; mike;j
 a: tuyhw;wpd; xU Kf;fpa
.m
njhq;F ghiw KfLfs; - fhw;whpg;G
fhyg;gFjp ,J jdpj;jd;ik ghiwj; Njhw;WU vd mwpag;
tha;e;j mk;rq;fs;> Fwpg;gplj;jf;f gl;Ls;sd.
epfo;Tfs; Kjypatw;why; milahsg;  s[
gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. >El[\: G+kpapd; Mo;
://t
 s _: xU ghiwapd; cl;gFjpapd; cl;fU vy;iyapy;

gpstile;j jsq;fspy; vz;zw;w fl;likg;gpYk;-Mf;ff; $wikapYk;
neUf;fkhd thpirapyike;j ,iz Vw;gLfpw jpBh; khw;wNk tpf;nfh;l;
ahd jsq;fspd; fl;likg;G (v.fh. - $l;nld;gh;f; njhlh;r;rpapd;ik
];Nyl;) gpstpg; ngUfy; vd miof;fg; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. G+kpapd;
ps
gLfpwJ. cz;ikapy; xU ghijapd; cl;gFjpapy; 2900 fp.kP. Moj;jpy; ruhrhp

gpsTg;gLk; jd;ik my;yJ ciljy; nrwptlh;j;jpapy; Vw;glk; jpBh; khw;wk;
my;yJ nkd; jfLfshfg; gpstpg; 5.5 ypUe;J 10 Mf khw;wkile;J
ngUFjy; Nghd;w cz;ikahd ntspg;Gw cl;fUtpypUe;J fPo;epiy
htt
milahsg;gLj;Jk; rpwg;Gj;jd;ik nkd; ciwiag; gphpf;fpwJ.

tha;e;j NghypNa\d; MFk;.  _ z
(Uvala): Rz;zhk;Gf;fy; gFjpfspy;>
24
AslB_
Nlhypd;fis tplTk; nghpaitahf  | A: ,J xU
mike;j kpf tphpe;J ePz;l FilTfs; rpf;fyhd fhpkr; nray;KiwahFk;.
s
Rz;zf;fy; ngUq;FilT vd ,jdhy; cNyhfk; rhh;e;j Neh;kpd;
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
scg
madpfs; ePuff;fhpk %yf;$Wfshf
 ca VD: xU FWfpa> xUq;fpize;jike;jitahf
tpiuthd> fliy Nehf;fpa khWfpd;wd.
gputhfkhd ePNuhl;lk; ,J. flw;  VVM VD:
fiuapy; miy cilAk; ,lj;jpy; (epyf;fhpg; gbTf; fhyk;) Gtpapay;
,Ue;J ePiu <h;j;J fopKf ePNuhl;l tuyhw;wpy; xU fhyg;gFjp ,J
tbtpy; ,J gha;tjhf mikAk;.
np
,d;iwa epiyf;F Rkhh; 350
 ^ ^>Vz: Kjy; 270 kpy;ypad; Mz;LfSf;F
,uz;L GtpNkNyhl;Lg; gFjpfl;F Ke;ija fhyk; tiu njhlh;r;rpahf
,ilapyhd ePh;g;gs;sk;> gs;sk; epytpa fhyf;fl;lk; ,J. ngUk;
my;yJ gLif ,tw;iwg; gpujp mstpyhd gue;Jtphpe;j epyf;fhpg;
epjpj;Jtg;gLj;JfpwJ. cz;ikapy;
ePh;gpsTg; gs;sj;jhf;Ffs;> rhjhuz
khd xd;W my;yJ mjpfkhd gpsTg;
e/t 
gbTfs; cUthf;fk; epfoe;j fhyk;
vd;gjhy; ,g;ngah; ngw;wJ.
W|sB_: epyeLf;f miy
ngah;r;rpfshy; vy;iyaplg;gl;l fspd; ntt;NtW mk;rq;fs; Fwpj;J
ePz;l kw;Wk; FWfyhd gs;sq;fNs
.m
Muha;fpw mwptpay; epyeLf;ftpay;
MFk;. ,g;gs;sq;fs;> Gtpapd; cl;Gw MFk;.
kuGf; $Wfs; rhh;e;j Mw;wy;fspy;  W| ks: epyeLf;fq;fs;
fpilkl;lkhd kw;Wk; nrq;Fj;jhd miyfspd; ntt;NtW mk;rq;fs;
,af;fq;fshy; cUthfpd;wd. ,it Fwpj;J Muha;fpw mwptpay;
://t
nghJthf cilg;Gg; gs;sj;jhf;F> epyeLf;ftpay;MFk;.

gpstpilg; gs;sk; (Grapen) vd  W| ^: epy
mwpag;gLfpd;wd. eLf;fq;fs; epfo;tjhy; Vw;gLk;
 V_V \>V miyfs; epyeLf;f miyfs; vd
Vk: vz;zw;w kiyj;njhlh; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
ps
mikg;Gfspd; kw;Wk; FOf;fspd;  VDA_ Au (Stalagmite):

njhFjpiaf; nfhz;lJ. cz;ikapy; Rz;zhk;Gf;fy; Fifapd; jiuj;
xUkiyj;njhlh;f; Nfhit jsj;jpypUe;J Nky;Nehf;fp tsUk;
vd;gJ ntt;NtW KfLfs;> Rz;zhk;Gg; gbfj;ijf; nfhz;l
htt
njhlh;fs; kiyr;rq;fpypfs; kw;Wk; Jzpf;fw;fspd; nrq;Fj;jhd

kiyiaikg;Gfspd; xU kiyr;
r%fNkahFk;.
25
AslB_
J}z;fs; Nghd;w Gw;Wfs; Rz;zf;fy; epiyj;jd;ik vd;gNj IN]hlh]p
Gw;W vd mwpag;gLfpd;wd.
s
vd;gjd; nghUshFk;.
 Ow^(Sills): gbTg;ghiw  [_z^: twz;l
scg
fspd; mbj;jsq;fSf;F ,izahf cyh; gpuNjrq;fspy; jl;ilahd
mike;Js;s ghiwf; Fok;gpd; gug;GfSf;F Nkyhf> $h;ikahf
jbkdhd ghsj;jpy; jpz;ikg; cah;en ; jOe;Js;s vr;r kiyfs;
nghUs; tbtk; Eio gbTfs; vd ,d;nry;ngh;f;Ffs; my;yJ Nghh;d;
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. `hh;l;]; vd miof;fg; gLfpd;wd.
 V>VvV : epyf;fhpg; gbTfs; (GtpNkw; gug;gpay; mwpQh; Nghh;d;`hk;
np
cUthd fhyg;gFjpapy;> ghq;fap vd;gthpd; ngauhy; miof;fg;
ahtpd; vy;yhg; gf;fq;fspYk; gLfpwJ.
#o;e;jpUe;j khngUk; ePh; epiyia  k^ (Synclines): fpil
A.G.tPnfnduhy; ghe;jyh]h vd kl;lkhd njhLNfhl;L Mw;wy;fshy;
miof;fg;gl;lJ. Vw;gLk; mOj;J tpirfshy; cUthfpw
 VlBV: epyf;fhpg; gbTfs;
cUthd fhyg;gFjpapy;>
epyj;jpzpTfSk; xw;iw
e/t
vy;yh
epyj; 
fPo;Nehf;fp kbe;J ghiw mbj;jsq;fs;
fPo;tpisTfs; vdg;gLk;.
O ^ (Surf waves):
jpzpthf xd;wpize;J tbtk; %o;Ff; Nfhl;by; miyfspd; NkhJjy;
.m
ngw;w nray;Kiw A.G.tPnfnduhy; cUthFk; Eiu ePh; miyfs; my;yJ
ghq;fhapah vd miof;fg;gl;lJ. ePNuhl;lq;fs;> Eiu ePuiyfs; my;yJ
 AslB_ VD: Gtpapd; Nkhjiyfs; my;yJ Nky; Nehf;fpa
xl;Lnkhj;j Gtpapay; kw;Wk; Gtpg;Gw miyfs; vd miof;fg;gLk;.
khw;w tuyhw;iwg; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;  W>  \D: G+kpf;fbNa
://t
gLj;Jk; jpUfyhd RUs; mikg;G epuk;gpAs;s ePhpd; Nky;kl;lk; epyj;jb

Gtpapay; fbfhuk; vd miof;fg; ePh;kl;lk; my;yJ ntWkNd ePh;kl;lk;
gLfpwJ. vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 \ gsmkVD: ‡g;A+k  \l |z: nrq;Fj;jhd
Nuhy; thAf;fs; fUk;Gif kw;Wk; gs;sj;jhf;F gf;fr;Rth;fisf; nfhz;l
ps
ePuhtp Nghd;wit ntspg;gl;L Mokhd kw;Wk; FWfpa Mw;Wg;

tUtjw;fhd J}thuk; ‡g;`kNuhy; gs;sj;jhf;Ffs;> kiyapil ,Lf;F
vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 nvVVL: RoYfpd;w G+kpapd;  V>V V^: G+kpapd; mb
htt
NkYah;e;njOe;j gFjpfSf;Fk;> Moj;jpDs;> fw;Fok;ghf cs;s

fPo;f;fpil epiyg; gLiffSf;Fk; mdw;Fok;G FSikaile;J jplg;gl;L
,ilNa epytf; $ba ,ae;jputpay; te;j nray;Kiwapd; fhuzkhf
26
AslB_
cUthf;fk; ngw;w Mog; ghiwfs; mjpKf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;jJ. ,J
s
ghjhsg; ghiwfs; vd miof;fg; ghiwfisg; gytPdg;gLj;jp rpij
gLfpd;wd. (v.fh: fUq;fy; (Granite)) TWjYf;F tif nra;fpwJ.
scg
 >| AsV \A:  xk M^:
GtpNkNyhl;Lj; jl;Lfspd; xl;L gdpg;gbTfspd; njhlh; gbjyhy;
nkhj;jg; ghpzhkk;> ,aw;if kw;Wk; Vw;gLk; rpwpa kiyfs; my;yJ
,af;fk; Mfpatw;wpd; tpisthd vjph; Fd;Wfspd; jpus; my;yJ $l;lk;
tpidahf;fq;fs;> jl;Lg; Gtpg; nghiwf; Kl;ilAUtg; gdpg;gbTfs; vd
fl;likg;G vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. miof;fg; gLfpd;wd. ,it
np
 clkBuD: Rw;Wr;#oypy; ftpo;j;Jg; Nghlg;gl;l xU glF
cs;s Mf;]p[d;> nray;Kiw my;yJ Njf;fuz;b (];G+d;) Nghd;w
vd;gNj ,e;j Ntjpapay; nray; Njhw;wj;jpy; mikAk;.
Kiwapd; nghUshFk;. NtW  BVD: Nfhz tbtj; ruis
thh;j;ijfspy; nrhd;dhy;> caph; e/t fw;fshy; epug;gl;l vhpkiyf; Foha;
tspNaw;wr; nray;Kiwapd; NghJ vhpkiyf; fOj;J lahl;Nuk; vd
Rw;Wr; #oypy; cs; caph;tsp miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ghiwfSld; <uj;jd;ikAs;s #o;  D\VV: ,uz;L ,izahd
epiyapy; vjph;tpidahw;wpagpd;> kzw; Fd;WfSf;F ,ilg;gl;l
.m
gy;NtW tifahd caph;tspf; kzy; ,y;yhj ntw;W Nkw;gug;Gfs;
$l;Lfis cUthf;FfpwJ. mtw;wpy;> nuf; my;yJ `k;khlh vd miof;fg;
,Uk;G caph;tspf;$l;L kpf gLfpd;wd. ,it fh];]piag;
gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jgit.
://t
••••••
ps
htt
27
s
scg
>tV| 
np

VD : AslB_
z] : kW \VuD e/t
VA\
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\
.m
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\
://t
>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V

FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z
ps
gB,
htt
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
AslB_
s
kW \VuD
scg
kW \VuD Nkw;nfhs;gth;fs; jw;NghJ G+kpapd;
np
 gUtepiy khw;wk; vd;gJ xU ntg;gepiy mjpfhpj;Js;sjhff;
,lj;jpy; cs;s fhy epiyapy; khw;wk; $Wfpd;wdh;.
Vw;gLtjhFk;.  fle;j E}W Mz;Lfspy; G+kpapd;
 xU Fwpg;gpl;l ,lj;jpy; kiog; ntg;gepiy xU bfphp ghud;`Pl;
nghopT khWgLtijAk;> ntg;gepiy mstpw;F cah;e;Js;sJ.
khWgLtijAk; ,J Fwpg;gpLfpwJ.
 gUtepiy khw;wk;>
fhyepiyiaAk; khw;WfpwJ.
e/t
G+kpapd;


Mdhy; rpwpa ntg;gepiy mjpfhpg;G
$l nghpa tpisTfis Vw;gLj;Jk;.
ntg;gepiy mjpfhpg;G gdp kw;Wk;
 NkYk; ,J G+kpapd; ,ay;ghd gdpf;fl;bfs; cUff; fhuzkhf
.m
ntg;g epiyiaAk; kiog; nghopT> cs;sd.
gdpg;nghopT Mfpatw;wpy; Vw;gLk;  NkYk; ,J fly;ePh; kl;lk; cah;tjw;F
khWghLfisf; Fwpg;gpLfpwJ. fhuzkhf cs;sJ.
 thdpiy vd;gJ Fwpg;gpl;l kzp  jhtu tsh;rr
; papYk; ,J khWghLfis
Neuq;fSf;F kl;LNk ,Ug;gjhFk;. Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
://t
Mdhy; fhyepiy gy Mz;LfSf;F kW \Vu]uV V^

xU Fwpg;gpl;l ,lj;jpy;  gUtepiy khw;wj;jpw;F gy fhuzpfs;
ePbj;jpUg;gjhFk;. cs;sd. Kjd;ikf; fhuzk; kdpj
tl[ VWl_ u|D \VuD nray;ghLfNs MFk;. ,aw;ifahd
 G+kpapd; fhyepiy mbf;fb khwf; fhuzq;fs; rpyTk; cs;sd.
ps
$baJ. As k\V>_
 G+kpapd; fhyepiyapy; Fwpg;gpl;l  Gtp fle;j E}W Mz;Lfspy; ,y;yhj
fhyq;fSf;F mjpf ntg;gepiyAk;> mstpw;F jw;NghJ mjpf mstpy;
htt
Fwpg;gpl;l fhyq;fSf;F mjpf ntg;gkile;J tUfpwJ. Fwpg;ghf

FspUk; ,Uf;f tha;g;Gfs; cz;L. fle;J ,UgJ Mz;Lfspy; kpf
 G+kpiag; gw;wpa Ma;Tfis mjpfkhf ntg;gepiy cah;e;Js;sJ.

AslB_
 rpy mrhjhuz epfo;Tfshd {V[ |z z> >^
s
fhl;Lj;jP> ntg;g miyfs;> Gay;fs; 1. XNrhd; mLf;Fg; ghJfhg;gpw;fhd
Nghd;wit Gtp ntg;gkakhjyhy; tpad;dh xg;ge;jk; 1998.
scg
Vw;gLfpd;wd. 2. XNrhd; mLf;ifg; ghjpf;Fk;
 gRik ,y;y tpistpd; fhuzkhf fhuzpfs; Fwpj;j khz;l;hpay;
Gtpapd; ntg;gepiy mjpfhpj;Js;sJ. xg;ge;jk; 1989
Gijgbk vhp nghUl;fis vhpg;gjd; 3. Mkpy kio> A+l;NuhgpNf\d; kw;Wk;
%yk; ntsptUk; fhh;gd;-il- XNrhd; Fiwj;jy; njhlh;ghd
Mf;i]L kw;Wk;; fhLfis mopj;jy; Nfhj;jd;gh;f; xg;ge;jk; 1999.
np
Gtp ntg;gkakhjYf;F Kf;fpaf; \ _ s (Green House Effect)
fhuzq;fs; MFk;.  GtpapypUe;J tspkz;lyj;jpw;Fr;
V[ V]A nry;Yk; rpy mfr;rptg;Gf; fjPh;
 G+kj;jpa Nuif gFjpapypUe;J 25 km tPr;rhdJ (Infra Red Rays) ngUk;ghYk;
e/t rpy fhw;W mZf;fs; kw;Wk; gRik
Kjy; 50 km tiu fhzg;gLk; thANt
,y;y thAf;fshy; cwpQ;rg;gl;L
XNrhd; vdg;gLk;.
kPz;Lk; midj;J jpirfspYk;
2O3 → 3O2
ckpog;gLfpd;wJ.
 ,J xU epwKs;s thA. (ePy epwk;) CO2 : 60%
 ,J #hpadpy; ,Ue;J ntsptUk; Gw
.m
kPj;Njd; : 20%
Cjh fjph;fs; Gtpia te;J mila iel;u[d; Mf;irL : 16%
tplhky; jLf;fpwJ. CFC : 6%
 Mdhy; G+kpapypUe;J ntspNaWk;  ,jdhy; Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;Gk;>
CFC , CO thAf;fs; XNrhdpy; Xl;il tspkz;lyj;jpd; fPo; mLf;Fk;
://t
tpor; nra;fpd;wJ. ,jdhy; XNrhd; ntg;gkilfpwJ.

rkepiy ghjpf;fg;gLfpwJ.  vy; - epNdh tpisthy; flypy;
O3 + Clfc → O2 + Clo + F xOq;fw;w fhyepiy khw;wk;
 ,JNt XNrhd; rPh;NfL MFk;. Vw;gLfpwJ.
 ,jdhy; gdpg;ghiwfs; cUfp fly;ePh;
,jdhy; XNrhd; mLf;fpd; mlh;j;jp
ps
kl;lk; cah;fpwJ. gy ehl;L gFjpfs;

Fiwe;J> Gw Cjh fjph;fs; CLUtp>
flypy; %o;Ffpd;wd.
G+kpia milfpd;wd.
 Gtp> ruhrhp ntg;gepiy
s^
mjpfhpj;Js;sjhy; gUtepiy
1. Njhy; Gw;W Neha;
htt
khWghLfs; mjpfhpf;fpd;wd. rpy

2. fz; Giu Neha;
,lq;fspy; nts;sg;ngUf;F> rpy
3. nkydpd; epwkp khw;wk; gFjpfspy; twl;rp fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
4. Gtp ntg;gk; mjpfhpf;fpd;wJ

AslB_
As k\>_
s
scg
M cz>_ _ {>D \wVa_ u|D \VV|
_\D cB>_
>Vk \VV| VkD \V\V
BV k^D ckV>_ VW
np
mk> V ] V| l k_
V|^ kV|>_ k| V>_ u|D \VV|
k> J ~|V| Gtp ntg;gkiljYk;. fhy epiyapy;

 etPd tsh;r;rpg; Nghf;F Fwpj;J e/t Vw;gl;L tUk; khw;wq;fSk; cWjp
1970fspypUe;Nj rh;tNjr mstpy; nra;ag;gl;ld. cyf mstpy;
Nfs;tpfs; vOe;jd. cyfk; gUtepiy khw;wg; gpur;rpidfisg;
filgpbf;Fk; tsh;r;rpg; Nghf;F Ghpe;J nfhs;s I.gp.rp.rp. vd;w
epiyj;jJk;> ePbj;jJk; jhdh my;yJ mwptpayhsh;fs; mikg;Gk;>
.m
mg;Nghf;fhy; tUq;fhy te;jjpfs; Nfhl;ghl;L mstpy; murpay;
ghjpf;fg;gLkh vd;w Nfs;tpfSk; KbTfs; vLf;f A.vd;.v‡g;.rp.rp.rp.
vOe;jd. mf;fhyfl;lj;jpy; rh;tNjr vd;w mikg;Gk; KbntLj;Js;sd.
mstpy; eilngw;w ];lhf;N`hk;> I.gp.rp.rp. jd;Dila 5-tJ kw;Wk;
://t
N[hfd];ghh;f; khehLfspy; rkPgj;jpa kjpg;gPl;L mwpf;ifapy;

,f;Nfs;tpfs; tpthjg; nghUl;fshf vg;gbg;gl;l NguopT ek;ikj; jhf;fg;
mike;jd. NghfpwJ vd;gijf; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;sJ.
 1980-fspy; Gtp ntg;gkiljYk;> NguoptpypUe;J cyfk; jg;Gtjw;fhd
mjdhy; gUtfhy epiyapy; Vw;gl;Lf; topKiwfSk; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sd.
ps
nfhz;bUf;Fk; khw;wq;fisAk; gw;wp  A.vd;.v‡g;.rp.rp. mikg;G ,J tiu 20

cyfk; XusT mwpaj; njhlq;fpaJ. Kiw $b khehLfis elj;jpAs;sJ.
I.gp.rp.rpapd; Kjy; mwpf;ifiaj; hpNahtpypUe;J ypkh khehL tiu
njhlh;e;J 1992-y; gpNurpypYs;s ,e;j mikg;gpd; rhjidfs; vd;d
htt
upNah b n[dpNuh Gtp khehL (Earth vd;w Nfs;tp vOe;jhy;> nfhs;if

Summit) eilngw;wJ. ,k;khehl;by; hPjpapy; gy rhjidfisf; $wyhk;.

AslB_
\VV|^ nfhz;bUf;fpw fhh;gd;-il-
s
 jw;NghJ ghhp]py; eilngw;W tUk; Mf;irbd; MAs; gy E}w;whz;L
khehl;ilg; Nghd;w cyf khehLfs;> fSf;F ePbg;gNj ,jw;F mbg;gilf;
scg
cyif xl;L nkhj;j moptpypUe;Jk; fhuzk;.
NguoptpypUe;Jk; fhg;ghw;Wk; vd;w  ,e;j fl;lj;jpy; NtNwhU rpe;jidg;
ek;gpf;if ngUk; ghNyhhpilNa Nghf;ifAk; kdjpy; nfhs;s
Fiwe;J nfhz;Nl tUfpwJ. Ntz;Lk;. njhopw;Gul;rpf;Fg; gpd;
khehLfs; ntw;wpailahjjw;F gy Vw;gl;l ,ae;jpu kakhf;fg;gl;l
fhuzq;fs; cz;L. ehfhPfk; rpije;J tpLk; (The decline
np
 mjpy; Kf;fpakhdJ ,d;iwa of industrial civilization) vd;W rpy
nghUshjhug; Nghf;Ff;Fs;NsNa> tpQ;Qhdpfs; $wpAs;sdh;. mg;gb
rpw;rpy khw;wq;fNshL jPu;T elf;fhJ vd;W ,d;iwf;F kWf;Fk;
fhz Kw;gLtJ> ,d;iwa Jzpr;ry; ahUf;Fk; ,y;iy.
nghUshjhuj;ijf;
gd;dhl;L
kiwKfkhd> mNj Neuj;jpy; gykhd
e/t
fl;Lg;gLj;Jk;
ngUepWtdq;fspd;
gUtepiy khw;wk; Vw;glf; fhuzkhf
,Uf;Fk;
Fiwg;gjw;F
gRq;Fby; thAf;fis
td;Kiwaw;w>
mOj;jq;fs; fhyepiy murpaYf;Fs; ,aw;ifNa> kdpjNea rpe;jidfSk;>
CLUtpAs;sJk; jhd;. mj;Jld; nray;ghLfSk;> kdkhw;wq;fSk;
.m
xt;nthU ehLk; jq;fSila Raeyg; Njitg;gLfpd;wd.
ghh;itNahL khehl;by; gq;nfLg;gJ>  ,ijg; gw;wpa rpe;jidfSk;
tpspk;G epiy ehLfspd; Fuy; tpthjq;fSk; kf;fspilNa
vLglhky; NghtJ Nghd;wtw;iw gutyhf;fg;gl;L> tsh;f;fg;gl
://t
nrhy;yyhk;. Ntz;Lk;. G+Tyif ghJfhf;f

 ,e;j Kaw;rpfspd; tpisthy; Ntz;ba Kaw;rpapy; ek;
ek;Kila G+kp xU Ntis xl;L xt;nthUtUf;Fk; gq;F cz;L.
nkhj;j moptpypUe;Jk; jg;gpdhYk; G+TyF fhg;ghw;wg;gl;lhy; jhd;> ehKk;
$l> vjph;fhyj;jpy; njhlh;e;J gy ghJfhf;fg;gLNthk;
ps
E}w;whz;LfSf;F NguopTfspy;  cyf thdpiy epWtdk; (WMO),

rpf;fpj; jtpf;Fk;. kdpj r%fKk; I.eh. Rw;Wr; #oy; jpl;lf;FO
kw;w caphpdq;fSk; njhlh;e;J (UNEP0) Mfpa ,uz;Lk; ,ize;J
Jauj;ijNa mDgtpf;Fk;. 1988 Mk; Mz;by; cUthf;fpaNj
htt
 Vndd;why; ehk; Vw;fdNt I.eh. gd;dhl;L gUtepiy khw;w

ntspapl;l> njhlh;e;J ntspapl;Lf; Ma;Tf;FO (UNIPIC).

AslB_
 ,J gUt epiy rPh;NfLfshy; epWj;jp> mjd; %yk; Gtp ntg;gkilAk;
s
cyf mstpy; Vw;gLk; gd;Kfj; gpur;idfSf;F jPh;T fhz;gNj ,e;j
jhf;fq;fisg; gw;wpa KOikahd xg;ge;jj;jpd; Nehf;fk;. mjw;fhd
scg
epytuq;fs;> mtw;wpd; mstPL> Kjy; Kaw;rpahf epyf;fhp> ngl;Nuhy;>
mtw;iw vjph;nfhs;Sjy;> Bry; Mfpatw;wpd; gad;ghl;ilg;
Fiwf;Fk; topKiwfs; Mfpad gbg;gbahff; Fiwg;Nghk; vd;W ,e;j
gw;wpa Ma;T mwpf;iffis (1990 khehl;by; gq;Fnfhz;l ehLfs;
- 2014 fhy ,ilntspapy;) Ie;J njuptpj;jd.
tphpthd mwpf;iffshf (ARI – ARS) >][ xB VD
np
rkh;g;gpj;Js;sJ.  G+kpapd; ruhrhp ntg;g cah;T 1880
 1995 Kjy; Mz;Lf;F xUKiw Mk; ,Ue;jijtpl ,e;j E}w;whz;bd;
I.eh> gUtepiy khw;wk; gw;wpa ,Wjpapy; 3.5 bfphp nry;\pa];
cWg;G ehLfspd; fye;jha;T khehL cah;e;J tpLk;.
(COP) ntt;NtW
elj;jg;gLfpwJ.
 2005 Kjy;
ikaq;fspy;
Mz;LNjhWk;
e/t  ,jdhy; gUtepiyfs; tpghPjkhfp
tpLk;. gaph;fs; ghjpf;fg;gLk;
gQ;rk;> gpzp> td;Kiw Nghd;wit
elj;jg;gLk; UNFCC fye;jha;T jiytphpj;jhLk;!
$l;lq;fspy;> cWg;G ehLfs;  gRikf;Fby; ntspNaw;Wk;
.m
gUtepiy ghjpg;Gfis fl;Lg;gLj;j thAf;fshYk; ntg;gk; Vw;gLfpwJ!
Nkw;nfhz;l> Nkw;nfhs;s Ntz;ba mjhtJ Gw Cjhf;fjph;fis vspjpy;
eltbf;iffs; Fwpj;J Ma;T mDkjpf;Fk; fz;zhbj;jLg;Gfs;>
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. gRikf;Fby; jhtuq;fs; ntspNaw;Wk;
://t
VZ k W \Vu >D ntg;gk; epiwe;j thAf;fs; kWgb

 gUtepiy khw;wj;ijj; jLf;Fk; tsp kz;lyj;jpw;Fs; fyf;f vspjpy;
Nehf;fj;jpyhd rh;tNjr xg;ge;jk; tpLtjpy;iy. ,jdhYk; Gtp
ghhP]; efhpy; 2015 brk;gh; 12 Mk; Njjp ntg;gk; Vw;gLfpwjhk;! ,tw;iwj;
ifnaOj;jhdJ. ,e;j xg;ge;jj;jpy; jLf;f gRikf;Fby; thAf;fspd;
ps
,e;jpah> mnkhpf;fh> rPdh cl;gl 198 ntspNaw;wj;ijf; Fiwg;gjd;

ehLfs; ifnaOj;jpl;ld. G+kpapd; %yk; ruhrhp ntg;g cah;it ,e;j
fhw;W kz;lyj;jpy; fhpakpythA E}w;whz;L ,Wjpapy; ,uz;L bfphpf;F
cl;gl gRikf;Fby; thAf;fs; NkYk;> Nky; Nghfhky; ghh;j;Jf;nfhs;tJ
htt
NkYk; mjpfhpj;J tUtijj; jLj;J ,e;j xg;ge;jj;jpd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fk;.

AslB_
E  tsUk; ehLfs; kPJ mg;gbg;gl;l
s
 Rkhh; 150 tUlq;fshf njhopy; epge;jid tpjpg;gJ epahakhfhJ
tsh;r;rpf;fhf fhw;W kz;lyj;jpy; vd;gjw;fhf mtw;W ,yf;F vJTk;
scg
msTf;F mjpfkhf fhpakpy thA epu;zapf;fg;gltpy;iy.
Nrh;tNj G+kp ntg;gkiltjw;fhd VZ c[V|
Kf;fpa fhuzk;! cyfk;> Kd;Ndwpa  fhpakpy thA ntspg;ghl;ilf;
ehLfs;> Kd;Ndw Kaw;rpf;Fk; Fiwj;Jf; nfhs;tjpy; ahh; kPJk;
ehLfs; vd ,U gphpTfshf fl;lhak; fpilahJ. ,yf;F fpilahJ.
cs;sJ.
vdpDk; cyfpd; vy;yh ehLfSk;
np
 fhpakpy thAit
fhpakpy thA ntspg;ghl;ilf;
Fiwj;Jf;nfhs;tjpy; gzf;fhu ehL>
Fiwj;Jf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
Vio ehL vd;w ghFghL ,y;yhky;
 xt;nthU ehLk; ve;j Mz;Lf;Fs;
midtUNk rkkhf <Lgl Ntz;Lk;
vd;W ghhP]; cld;ghL nrhy;fpwJ. vt;tsT Fiwj;Jf; nfhs;s
Mdhy; me;j mZFKiw rhpahf
,Uf;fhJ
epytpaJ.
vd;W xU
e/t
fUj;J
Ntz;Lk; vd;gij me;je;j ehNl
jPh;khdpj;Jf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
 xt;nthU ehLk; ve;j Mz;Lf;Fs;
 Kd;Ndwj; Jbf;Fk; ehLfs; gy; vt;tsT Fiwj;Jf; nfhs;s
NtW njhopy;> cw;gj;jp Mfpatw;wpy; Ntz;Lk; vd;gij me;je;j ehNl
.m
<LgLtjhy; mitfshy; Kd;Ndwpa jPh;khdpj;Jf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
ehLfs; Nghy; fhpakpythAit  Kd;Ndwpa ehLfspy; epyf;fhp>
fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; nray;fspy; ngl;Nuhy;> Bry; Mfpatw;wpd;
cldbahf <LglKbahJ vd;fpw gad;ghl;ilf; Fiwj;J> #hpa
://t
fUj;Jk; epyTfpwJ. kpd;rhuk;> fhw;W kpd;rhuk;>

 1997 Mk; Mz;L [g;ghdpy;
Mfpatw;Wf;F khWk; Kaw;rpfspy;
fpNahl;Nlh efhpy; ele;j khehl;by;
<Lgl Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j Kiwf;F
rhpahd mZFKiw gpd;gw;wg;gl;L
khwpf; nfhs;s mtw;wplk; NghJkhd
Kd;Ndwpa ehLfs; xU tifahfTk;>
epjp trjp cz;L. jFe;j khw;Wj;
tsUk; ehLfs; ,d;ndhU
ps
tifahfTk; gphpf;fg;gl;ld. njhopy; El;gKk; cz;L.

 Kd;Ndwpa ehLfs; Fwpg;gpl;l  Kd;Ndwpa ehLfs; ,e;jj; njhopy;
Mz;LfSf;Fs; fhpakpy El;gj;ij tsUk; ehLfSf;F
thA ntspg;ghl;il Fwpg;gpl;l mspf;f Ntz;Lk;.
htt
msT Fiwj;Jf; nfhs;tJ  tsUk; ehLfSf;F Mz;LNjhWk;

fl;lhakhf;fg;gl;lJ. 10>000 Nfhb lhyh; tPjk; epjp cjtp
mspf;f Ntz;Lk;.

AslB_
 ,J jtpu G+kpapd; ntg;g kz;lyj;jpy; tpyFtjhf Gjpa mjpguhf gjtpNaw;w
s
mike;Jtpl;l ehLfSf;F xU Rik nlhdhy;L l;uk;g; 2017 Mk; Mz;by;
cz;L!... mJ fhw;W kz;lyj;jpypUe;J mwptpj;Jtpl;lhh;.
scg
fhpakpythAit NkYk; mjpf VZ c[l[ nm xB
mstpy; mfw;Wtjw;fhd tifapy; VV|^
epia fhLfis tsh;g;gjhFk; 1. cyf ehLfs; midj;ijAk;
\Kz k> >D fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; Kjy; cyfshtpa
VZ c[V| gUtepiy xg;ge;jk; ,J Gtp
 khehl;bd; Kbtpy; rpy epge;jidfs; ntg;gkakhjiyf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk;
np
tpjpf;fg;gl;ld. cld;ghl;il nghUl;L midj;J ehLfSk;
Fiwe;jJ 55 ehLfs; mq;ff P hpj;jpUf;f jkJ Gij tbt vhpnghUl;fspd;
Ntz;Lk;. mq;fPfhuk; mspf;Fk; 55 gad;ghl;il gbg;gbahff; Fiwf;f
ehLfs; ntspNaw;Wk; fhpakpy thA> Ntz;Lk;.
cyfpd; nkhj;j fhpakpythAtpd; e/t 2. Gtp ntg;g mjpfhpg;ig Mz;Lf;F
ntspg;ghl;by; 55 rjtPjk; kl;LNk ,uz;L bfphpf;F Fiwthf
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j epge;jidfs;
fl;Lg;gLj;JtJ.
G+h;j;jp nra;ag;gl;l NjjpapypUe;J
3. tsh;e;j gzf;fhu ehLfs;
rhpahf Kg;gJ ehl;fSf;Fg; gpwF
,j;jpl;lj;ij Vio ehLfs;
.m
cld;ghL mkYf;F tUk;.
mky;gLj;Jtjw;F cjtpahf
 cyfpd; fhpakpythA ntspg;ghl;by;
Kjy; ,uz;L ,lq;fis tfpf;Fk;> Mz;Lf;F 100 gpy;ypad; lhyh;fs;
rPdh> mnkhpf;fh Mfpa ehLfs; 2016 tPjk; 2020 Mk; Mz;L tiu
,y; cld;ghl;Lf;F mq;fPfhuj;ij epjpAjtp mspf;f Ntz;Lk;.
://t
mwptpj;jd. ,e;jpah 2016 Mk; 4. ehLfs; jd;dhh;tkhf ,J

Mz;L mf;Nlhgh; 2 Mk; ehs; njhlh;ghd jj;jk; nray;
kfhj;kh fhe;jp gpwe;j ehspy; jdJ jpl;lq;fis> jpl;lkpl;l ,yf;Ffis
mq;fPfhuj;ij mwptpj;jJ. ,ijj; cWjpg;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. 2023 Kjy;
njhlh;e;J gy INuhg;gpa ehLfSk; Ie;J Mz;LfSf;F xU Kiw
ps
jq;fsJ mq;fPfhuj;ij mspj;jd. cWjp nra;ag;gl;l ,yf;Ffs; kW

 2016 etk;gh; 3 Mk; Njjp ghhP]; rPuha;Tf;Fk;> Njitg;gl;lhy; Nghjpa
cld;ghL mkYf;F te;jJ. jpUj;jq;fSf;Fk; cl;gLj;jg;gl
sB \V Ntz;Lk;.
htt
 epjp xJf;fPL Rikahf ,Ug;gjhff;

5. 2050 - 2100 fhyj;jpw;Fs; cyf
$wp ghhP]; gUtepiy khw;w
‘fhh;Ngh epA+l;uhypb” G+[;ak; msit
cld;gbf;ifapy; ,Ue;J mnkhpf;fh
vl;l Ntz;Lk;.

s
scg
>tV| 
np

VD : AslB_
z] : As \uD D  B z|DD
e/t
>Vz] xD Bz|DxD, As, Asl[ \A
VA\
.m
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\
://t

>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V
FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z
ps

gB,
htt
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
AslB_
As \uD D  B z|DD
s
scg
>Vz] xD
Bz|DxD
\V> 
>Vz]l[ \A:
np
\m xk
Nguz;lk; (Universe)

mz;lq;fspd; njhFg;G
(Cluster of galaxies)

e/t
ghy;ntsp mz;lk; +
mz;il mz;lq;fs;
.m
(milky way Galaxies) (other Galaxies)  \A

#hpaf; FLk;gk; (Solar System) D (Galaxy)
  gyf; Nfhbf;fzf;fhd tpz;kPd;fspd;
://t
G+kp + gpw 7 Nfhs;fs; njhFjpNa mz;lk; vdg;gLk;.

(nkhj;jk; 8 Nfhs;fs;)  ,j;jifa mz;lq;fspy; xd;W
 ghy;ntsp mz;lk; - ehk; thOk;
re;jpud; (Moon) #hpaf; FLk;gk; ,Uf;ff; $ba
mz;lkhFk;.
D (Universes )
ps
 gy;NtW kpy;ypad; fzf;fpy;

V_k D (Milky Way Galaxy)
mz;lq;fisf; nfhz;l njhFg;G  #hpad; cl;gl> fz;fSf;F Gyg;gLk;
Nguz;lk; vdg;gLk;. tpz;kPd;fs; vy;yhk; ghy; ntsp
 ,J gue;J tphpe;J nfhz;Nl mz;lj;ijr; rhh;e;jit.
htt
nry;fpwJ. ,J Fwpj;j Ma;Tfs;  rpy ehs;fspy; njspe;j ,uT thdpy;

,d;Dk; njhlh;e;J eilngw;Wf; ntz;ik epwj;jpy; xspUk; gl;il
nfhz;Nl ,Uf;fpd;wd. Nghd;w gFjp Gyg;gLk;.

AslB_
vhpf;fw;fs;> thy; el;rj;jpuq;fs;> Fs;sf;

 ghy;ntsp mz;lj;ij ekJ Kd;Ndhh;
s
Nfhs;fs;> FWq;Nfhs;fs; kw;Wk; gy
V_k (Milky way) vdTk; gVB Mapuf;fzf;fhd tpz;kPd;fs;
scg
 vdTk; mioj;jdh;. fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 #hpaidr; Rw;wp 8 Nfhs;fSk; Rw;wp
tUfpd;wd.
 ghy; ntsp mz;lj;jpy; xU gFjpapy;
Nfhs;fs;> Jizf;Nfhs;fs; kw;Wk; gpw
thd;nghUs;fs; #hpaid ikakhff;
np
nfhz;L Rw;wp tUfpd;wd.
#hpaf; FLk;gj;jpd; Mu msT 5.6 × 109 fp.kP
s*[^
e/t  tpz;kPd; vd;gJ <h;g;G tpirapdhy;
V_k D gpizf;fg;gl;l xspUk; thAf;fisf;
nfhz;l xU kpfg;nghpa ge;J
 ekJ ghy;ntspAk; kpf mlh;j;jpahd
Nghd;wjhFk;.
tpz;kPd; njhFjpjhd;.
 G+kpf;F kpf mUfpy; cs;s tpz;kPd;
 ,e;j tpz;kPd;fs; ntFnjhiytpy;
.m
,Ug;gjhy; Gs;sp Nghyf; fhl;rp #hpad;
jUfpd;wd. ,jpy; Vwf;Fiwa 1011 thdj;jpy; xNu xU tpz;kPd; kl;Lk;
tpz;kPd;fs; cs;sd. epiyahf ,Ug;gJ Nghd;W Njhd;WfpwJ.
 ,e;j mz;lk; RUs; tbtkhff; ,e;j tpz;kPd; mk s*[ _m
://t
fhzg;gLfpwJ. VVZ vdg;gLk;.

B z|DD (Solar System) tpz;kPd;fs; ngUk;ghYk; [
 #hpaf; FLk;gj;jpy; 8 Nfhs;fs; \uD oBD thAf;fshy; MdJ.
kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; Jizf; Nfhs;fs;>
ps
htt
B z|DD

AslB_
B[  xU tpdhbf;F 700 kpy;ypad; ld;
s
 #hpad; #hpaf; FLk;gj;jpd; ikaj;jpy; i`l;u[d; vhpe;J `PypakhfpwJ
cs;sJ. Vuhskhd ntg;gk; ntspapLfpwJ.
scg
 ,J kpfg; nghpa ntg;gkhd vdNt ,J nghpa neUg;Gg; ge;J (Fire
thAg;ge;J ,jd; <h;g;Grf;jpjhd;
ball ).
#hpaf; FLk;gj;ijg; gpizj;J
itj;Js;sJ.  #hpadpd; tho;ehs; 10>000 kpy;ypad;
 #hpaf; FLk;gj;jpd; xsp kw;Wk; Mz;Lfs; MFk;. Mdhy; jw;NghJ
ntg;gj;jpw;F %y Mjhuk; #hpad; 5000 kpy;ypad; Mz;Lfs; fle;J
jhd;. tpl;lJ. #hpaid |kBm ]D
np
 #hpad; G+kpapypUe;J Rkhh; 15 Nfhb fp.kP (middle star) vdyhk;.
njhiytpy; cs;sJ. vdNt #hpad;
kpFe;j ntg;gkhf ,Ue;jhYk; kpjkhd #hpad; xU kz;lyj;ij xU Kiw
ntg;gNk G+kpia te;jilfpwJ. Rw;wp tu 250 kpy;ypad; Mz;Lfs;
 #hpaf; FLk;gj;jpy; jhNd xspUk; MfpwJ. ,JNt Vt g| _m
xNu thd;nghUs; #hpad; jhd;.
 ,J caphpdq;fs; tho mbg;gil
Njitahf ,Uf;fpd;wJ.
e/t B g| vd;fpNwhk;.
#hpadpy; cs;s thAf;fs; :
 tpdhbf;F 250 km Ntfj;jpy; cU  i`l;u[d; - 9.2 %
kz;ly ikaj;ij Rw;wp tUfpwJ.  `Pypak; - 7.8%
.m
BM[ c^\A
#hpadpd; mLf;fpid 3 gphpthfg;
gphpf;fyhk;
://t
fNuhNdh];gpah; ,J epwf;Nfhsk;
(Nkw;Gw mLf;F) vdg;gLk;. ,jd;
ntg;gepiy 6000oC
FNuhNkh];gpah; rptg;G epwk; MFk;.
(eL mLf;F) Vwf;Fiwa 14
ps
kpy;ypad; nfy;tpd;
mstpy; cs;sJ.
Nghl;Nlh];gpah; 1.5 Nfhb bfphp C
BM[ \A
(cs; mLf;F) MFk;. cl;gFjp
htt
xspf;Nfhsk;
vdg;gLk;.

AslB_
g[V\V vd;Dk; mz;lk;

BzD tz c^ EB
s
kV|^:
G+kpf;F kpf mUfhikapy; cs;s xU
 #hpad; G+kpia tpl 2000 klq;F
scg
nghpa mz;lkhFk;. ,J G+kpapypUe;J
vil mjpfk;
2×106 xsp Mz;Lfs; njhiytpy;
 #hpad; G+kpia tpl 10>00>000 klq;F
cs;sJ. mstpy; nghpaJ.
 #hpadpd; <h;g;G tpir Gtpapd; <h;g;G
tpiria tpl 28 klq;F mjpfk;.
np
B z|DD EA zA^
 V^^ B
1 kpfg;nghpa Nfhs; tpahod;
2 kpfr;rpwpa Nfhs; Gjd;
3
4
e/t
kpfg;nghpa Jizf;Nfhs;
kpfr;rpwpa Jizf;Nfhs;
fhdpNkL (tpahodpd;
Jizf; Nfhs;)
BNkh]; (nrt;thapd;
Jizf;Nfhs;)
.m
5 ePyf;Nfhs; (Blue Planet) G+kp
6 gr;irf; Nfhs; (Green Planet) ANud];
7 rptg;Gf; Nfhs; nrt;tha;
8 gpufhrkhd Nfhs; nts;sp
://t
9 ntg;gkhd Nfhs; nts;sp

10 mlh;j;jpahd Nfhs; G+kp
11 Fsph;r;rpahd Nfhs; neg;bA+d;
12 fhiy el;rj;jpuk; nts;sp
13 khiy el;rj;jpuk; nts;sp
ps
14 #hpaf; FLk;gj;jpw;F mUNf cs;s el;rj;jpuk; gpuhf;]pkh nrd;#hp

15 gpufhrkhd el;rj;jpuk; (#hpaf; FLk;gj;jpw;F rph;u]; (lhf; el;rj;jpuk;)
ntspNa)
16 #hpaDf;F kpfj; njhiytpYs;s Nfhs; neg;bA+d;
htt
17 #hpaDf;F kpf mUfpYs;s Nfhs; Gjd;

18 mjpf Jizf;Nfhs;fisf; nfhz;l Nfhs; tpahod; (63)

AslB_
19 Fiwthd Jizf;Nfhs; nfhz;l Nfhs; G+kp (1)
s
20 Jizf;Nfhs; ,y;yhj Nfhs; Gjd; kw;Wk; nts;sp
21 Ntfkhd Rw;Wf;fhyk; nfhz;l Nfhs; Gjd;
scg
22 nkJthd Rw;Wf;fhyk; nfhz;l Nfhs; neg;bA+d;
23 Ntfkhd jw;Row;rp fhyk; nfhz;l Nfhs; tpahod;
24 nkJthd jw;Row;rp fhyk; nfhz;l Nfhs; nts;sp
25 G+kpf;F kpf mUfpy; cs;s Nfhs; nts;sp
26 G+kpapd; ,ul;il nts;sp
np
27 G+kpiag; Nghd;W tho;tpay; #oiy nfhz;l ill;ld; (rdpapd; Jizf;
Jizf;Nfhs; Nfhs;)
V^^ fhiyapy; #hpa cjaj;jpw;Fr; rw;W
 Nfhs;fs; rPuhf xsph;e;jgb fhl;rp Kd;G Gyg;gLk; NghJ sk^ vd
jUk;. Nfhs;fs; kpDkpDg;gJ ,y;iy.
 Nfhs;fs; xNu epiyapy; ,Ug;g
jpy;iy
e/t miof;fpd;wdh;.
 kVF, sBVw[, M Mfpa %d;W
Nfhs;fSk; ,uT thdpy; fpof;fpNyh>
 #hpaf; FLk;gj;jpy; 8 Nfhs;fs; jiyf;F NkyhfNth Nkw;fpNyh
ntWk; fz;fSf;Fj; njhpAk;.
.m
cs;sd mit
1. Gjd; 2. G+kp  Ie;J Nfhs;fis kl;Lk; ehk; ntWk;
3. tpahod; 4. ANud]; fz;fshy; fhz KbAk;.
5. nts;sp 6. nrt;tha; mit>
7. rdp 8. neg;bA+d; 1. Gjd; 2. nts;sp
://t
 ,e;j 8 Nfhs;fspy; ntWk; fz; 3. nrt;tha; 4. tpahod;

fshy; kw;Wk; njhiy Nehf;fpahy; 5. rdp
ghh;f;ff;$ba Nfhs;fs; fhzg;
,Nj Nghy;> 5 Nfhs;fisAk;> #hpad;
gLfpd;wd.
kw;Wk; re;jpuidAk; ntWk; fz;fshy;
kD V_ VB
ps
ghh;f;f ,aYk;.
V^^
 A>[, k^ Mfpa Nfhs;fs; #hpa >VVBV_ V B
cjaj;jpw;F rw;W Kd;Gk;> khiyapy; V^^
htt
kiwe;j gpd;Gk; Gyg;gLk;. mit rpwpJ 1. ANud]; 2. neg;bA+d;

Neuj;jpw;F njhLthdk; mUNf
kl;Lk; Gyg;gLk; nts;spf;Nfhs;>

AslB_
 #hpadpd; tlJUtj;jpw;F NkNy

NkYk;> FWq;Nfhs;fisAk;> Fs;sf;
s
nrd;W> xU gUe;Jg; ghh;it ghh;j;jhy;
Nfhs;fisAk;> thy; el;rj;jpuq;fisAk;>
vy;yhf; Nfhs;fSk; fbfhuj;jpy;
gy Mapuf;fzf;fhd tpz;kPd;fisAk;>
scg
vjph;j; jpirapy; Rw;wp tUtJ Nghyg;
mz;lq;fisAk; njhiyNehf;fp topahf
Gyg;gLk;.
ghh;f;f ,aYk;.  vy;yhf; Nfhs;fSk; xNu jpirapy;
 #hpaf; FLk;gj;jpd; vl;Lf; Rod;whYk;> #hpaidr; Rw;wp tUk; fhyk;
Nfhs;fisAk;> jplf; Nfhs;fs; kw;Wk; xd;Wf;nfhd;W NtWgl;bUf;Fk;.
thAf;Nfhs;fs; vd ,uz;lhfg;  #hpaidr; Rw;Wk; Nfhs;fs; jk;
np
gphpf;fyhk;. ghijia tpl;L tpyFtjpy;iy.
]V^ kVV^^ vy;yhf; Nfhs;fSk; ePs;tl;lg;
1. Gjd; 1. tpahod; ghijapy; #hpaidr; rw;Nwwf; Fiwa
xNu rkaj;jpy; Rw;wp tUfpd;wd.
2. nts;sp 2. rdp
3. G+kp
4. nrt;tha;
3. ANud];
4. neg;bA+d;
e/t mt;thW Rw;wp tUk; ghijiar;
u V> vd miof;fpNwhk;.
ve;j Nfhs;fSf;Fk; jhdhf xspia ckpOk; jd;ik ,y;iy. mjhtJ

.m
Nfhs;fSf;F Ra xsp fpilahJ. #hpa xspiaNa mit gpujpgypf;fpd;wd.
V^ >uwuE u VD EA B mV^

V^ (V^)
Gjd; 58-65 88 ehl;fs; - ,y;iy
://t
nts;sp 243 ehl;fs; 224.7 ehl;fs; khiy kw;Wk; ,y;iy

fhiy Nfhs;
G+kp 23 kzp 56 235 ehl;fs; ePyf;Nfhs; epyh(1)
epkplk;
ps
nrt;tha; 24 kzp 37 687 ehl;fs; rptg;G Nfhs; Nghg];> ilNkh]; (2)

epkplk;
tpahod; 9 kzp 55 11 Mz;Lfs; thAf;Nfhs; 63 Jizf;Nfhs;fs;
epkplk; 10 khjq;fs; (ANuhg;gh>
htt
fhyp];Nlh>
fhdpNkL)

AslB_
rdp 10 kzp 40 29 Mz;Lfs; 5 tisaq;fs; 60 Jizf;Nfhs;fs;
s
epkplk; khjq;fs; cs;s Nfhs; nghpaJ illd;
ANud]; 17 kzp 14 84 Mz;Lfs; gr;irf; Nfhs; 27 Jizf;Nfhs;fs;>
scg
epkplk; kpuhz;lh>
Vhpay; Mfpad
Kf;fpakhdit.
neg;bA+d; 16 kzpfs; 164 Mz;Lfs; - 13 Jizf;Nfhs;fs;>
9 khjq;fs; Kf;fpakhdit
np
biul;lhd;> neiua;L
 g| : k^ kw;Wk;  Nfhs;fs;

thdpay; njhiytpw;fhd myF jw;Row;rpapy; wom \uV
xsp Mz;L vdg;gLk;. xU Mz;L u[. Mdhy; kw;w midj;Jf;
fhyj;jpy; xspf;fjph; Vwf;Fiwa 3 × 108
kPl;lh; / tpdhb Ntfj;jpy; nry;yf;$ba
e/t Nfhs;fSk; jw;Row;rpapy; Nkw;fpypUe;J
wV nry;fpd;wd.
njhiyT xU xsp Mz;L vdg;gLk;.
1  g| = 9.46 × 1012 .*. z^ V^^ (Dwarf Planets)
.m
 Kjypy; #hpaf; FLk;gj;jpy; 9
kVMB_ z :
Nfhs;fs; ,Ue;jd. 2006Mk; Mz;L
G+kpapypUe;J #hpadpd; njhiyT
midj;Jyf thdpay; xd;wpak;
1.46 × 108 fpNyh kPl;lh; MFk;.
(International Astronomical Unit) G@
,j;njhiyNt thdpay; myF (AU)
l;Nlh xU Nfhs; ,y;iy vdTk;
://t
vdg;gLfpwJ.
AjV xU Fs;sf; Nfhs; vdTk;
\ V^^ \uD \_ tifg;gLj;jpaJ.
\ V^^  AjV, , , \\
 Nfhs;fspd; Rw;Wg;ghij G+kpapd; *B Kjypad 2006k; Mz;L
ps
Rw;Wg;ghijia tpl rpwpajhf Fs;sf;Nfhs;fs; vdg; Gjpajhf

,Ug;gjhy; Gjd; kw;Wk; nts;sp tifg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd.
Nfhs;fs; fPo;kl;lf; Nfhs;fs;  ,it #hpaidr; Rw;wp tUfpd;wd.
vdg;gLk;. ,it mstpy; kpfr; rpwpait.
htt
 kw;w Nfhs;fs; Nky; kl;lf; Nfhs;fs; re;jpuid tplr; rpwpait. vdNt

vdg;gLfpd;wd. jhd;> ,it Fs;sf; Nfhs;fs;
vdg;gLfpd;wd.

AslB_
s
scg
np
z^ V^^
8 V^^ u >VzA:  fpof;fpypUe;J Nkw;fhf Rw;WfpwJ.
A>[  Jizf;Nfhs;fs; ,y;iy.
 #hpaDf;F kpf mUfpy; cs;sJ. e/t As (Earth)
 jd;idj;jhNd Rw;w 59 ehl;fs;.  V^ (Blue Planet) Vnddpy;
 #hpaidr; Rw;w 88 ehl;fs;. Gtpapy; ePh; cs;sJ.
 Jizf;Nfhs; ,y;iy.  5tJ nghpa Nfhs;. xNu xU
 #hpaid Rw;Wk; Nfhspy; kpfNtfkhf Jizf;Nfhs; cs;sJ.
.m
Rw;Wk; Nfhs; MFk;.  jd;idjhNd Rw;w 23 kzp 56 epkplk;
 ,J Ntfkhd Nfhs;. vLj;Jf; nfhs;fpwJ.
k^ (Venus)  #hpaid Rw;w 365.25 ehl;fs;.
 #hpadpypUe;J 2tJ Nfhs; MFk;. kVF (Mars)
://t
 fhiy el;rj;jpuk; kw;Wk; khiy  #hpadpypUe;J 4tJ Nfhs;.

el;rj;jpuk; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  EkA WV^ (Red Planet)
 mjd; mlh;j;jp> epiw Gtpiag;  twz;l MWfs;> nraypoe;j vhpkiy>
Nghd;wJ. ,jdhy; nts;spf; Nfhis ghiytdq;fs;> ghiwfs;> gdp%ba
Asl[  (Earth’s Twin) JUtq;fs; cs;sJ.
ps
vd;fpNwhk;.  Jizf;Nfhs;fs; - 2 (Nfhg];>

 #hpaid mLj;J gpufhrkhf nla;Nkh];)
njhptJ. nrt;tha; fpufj;jpy; caphpdk; ,Uf;
 Gtpf;F mUfpy; cs;sJ. fyhk; vd Muha 1979_ k
htt
 jd;idj; jhNd Rw;w 243 ehl;fs;.

sD mDg;gg;gl;lJ. 1998_
 #hpaidr; Rw;w 224.5 ehl;fs;.
V sD mDg;gg;gl;lJ.

AslB_
sBVw[ (z) (Jupiter)  jd; mr;rpy; 98 bfphp rha;e;Js;sJ.

 kpfg;nghpa Nfhs;> V> V^ vdNt cUz;L nfhz;Nl #hpaidr;
s
(Giant plant). Rw;Wk;.
scg
 kpfg;nghpa rptg;G Gs;sp  jd;idj;jhNd Rw;w 17 kzp Neuk;.
fhzg;gLfpwJ.  #hpaidr; Rw;w 84 Mz;Lfs;.
 jd;idj;jhNd Rw;w 10 kzp Neuk;  5 Nja;e;j tisaq;fs; cs;sJ.
vLj;Jf; nfhs;fpwJ.  fpof;fpypUe;J Nkw;fhf Rw;WfpwJ.
 #hpaidr; Rw;w 12 Mz;Lfs;. MV[ kB^
 Jizf;Nfhs;fs; - 63.
 njhiyNehf;fp topNa ghh;j;jhy;>
np
 G+kpia tpl 11 klq;F nghpaJ.
rdpf;Nfhisr; Rw;wp tisak; Nghd;w
 NfdpNkl; Jizf;Nfhs; kpfg;nghpaJ.
mikg;G fhzg;gLk;. Ez;fw;fSk;>
 kw;w Jizf;Nfhs; - VV,
J}Rk; gdpAk; nfhz;l njhFjpNa ,e;j
VoV
tisak;.
rdpf;F mDg;gg;gl;l tpz;fyk; -
VEM
e/t  rdpapd; tisak; jhd; vLg;ghdJ
vd;whYk; sBVw[, , R[
Mfpa Nfhs;fSf;Fk; tisaq;fs; cs;sd.
M (Saturn)
 2tJ kpfg;nghpa Nfhs;. R[ (Neptune)
.m
 7 tisaq;fs; (Ring) cs;sJ.
 1846 - K.G, V (o[)
 jd;idj;jhNd Rw;w 10.5 kzp
fz;lwpe;jhh;.
Neuk;.
 Jizf;Nfhs; - 13 Kf;fpakhdit :
 #hpaidr; Rw;w 29.5 Mz;Lfs;.
 ntWk; fz;zhy; ghh;j;jhy; kQ;rs; VF|
://t
epwkhfj; njhpAk;.  fUg;Gg; Gs;sp Nfhs;.

 Jizf;Nfhs;fs; - 60.  jd;idj; jhNd Rw;w - 16 kzp
 Kf;fpaj; Jizf;Nfhs; - [ Neuk;.
(Titan) kV_ ]D (comet )
 (Uranus)  thy; el;rj;jpuk; vd;gJ xU tpz;kPd;
ps
 Kjypy; njhiyNehf;fp %yk; ,y;iy.

fz;lwpag;gl;l Nfhs; 1781 s_oBD  gdp> J}R Kjypag; nghUs;fs;
s_[ fz;Lgpbj;jhh;. epiwe;j gdpg;ghiwjhd; (fhkl;).
 #hpaDf;F mUNf tUk; NghJ gdp
htt
 Jizf;Nfhs;fs; - 27
 Kf;fpa Jizf;Nfhs;fs; - cUfp MtpahjyhYk;> #hpa xsp
tVV, B_, DB_, DB_, gpujpgypg;gjhYk; thy;Nghy; ePz;L
VMBV Njhd;WfpwJ.

AslB_
 kV_ ]][ kV_ VmD tpLfpd;wd. ,jid ]D
s
Bz ] ]l_ mikAk;. (Falling Stars) vdyhk;.
 #hpadpypUe;J tUk; Ez;Jfs;fs; Tu^ (Meteroites)
scg
thy;el;rj;jpypUe;J ntspg;gLk;
o kV_ ]D (Halley Comet)
Mtpapd; kPJ NkhJtjhy; thy;gFjp
 1862y; vl;kz;l; N`ypahy; fz;lwpag;
cUthfpwJ.
gl;lJ.
zV^^ (Asteroids)  76 tUlq;fSf;F xU Kiwj;
 nrt;tha;f; NfhSf;Fk;> tpahod; Njhd;Wk;.
np
NfhSf;Fk; ,ilapy; ,yl;rf; fzf;fhd  ,Wjpahf 1986y; Njhd;wpaJ. ,dp
FWq;Nfhs;fs; cs;sd. 2062 y; Njhd;Wk;.
 rpW rpW fw;fs;> ngUk;ghiw Kjy;  1922 [Piy \P Nkf;fh; nytp - 9
300 - 400 fp.kP tpl;lk; cila thy;el;rj;jpuk; tpahodpy; NkhjpaJ.
ngUk; thd;nghUs;fs; Mfpatw;wpd;  rpy ghiwj;Jz;Lfs; KOikahf
njhFjpNa ,e;jf; FWq;Nfhs;fs;
 ,tw;wpy; rpytw;Wf;F
ngah;fSk; mspj;Js;sdh;
,e;jpag;
e/t vhpahky; Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; tpoyhk;.
,it kpfg;nghpag;
Gtpapy; cUthf;Fk;.
gs;sq;fis
 ,tw;iw gwf;Fk; Nfhs;fs; vdTk;

B z|D]uz K^
.m
rpWNfhs;fs; vdTk; miof;fyhk;.
] >Vz]
 ,e;jpahtpd; thdpay; mwpQh; -
 gpuhf;]pkh nrd;lh; p
kbVA
 My;gh nrd;lh; p
 mZrf;jpj; Jiwapd; je;ij -
://t
VVVF ][ _

 fzpj Nkij - V\VD  ,e;jg; gFjp xl;Lnkhj;j
el;rj;jpuq;fspd; mjpfgl;r cau
u^ (Metors)
vy;iy MFk;. ,jw;Fk; Nky; gFjp
 ghiwj;Jz;Lfs; xd;Wld; xd;W
apy; el;rj;jpuq;fs; ntbg;gjdhy;
ps
NkhJtjhy; Gtpia Nehf;fp tUk;

rpwpa msTila el;rj;jpuq;fs;
ghiwj;Jz;Lfs; tspkz;lyj;jpy;
my;yJ ciltjhy; fUk; Gs;spfs;
CLUTk; NghJ cuha;tpdhy; vhpe;;J
cUthfpd;wd.
htt
••••••
10
AslB_
s
scg
As (Earth)
 Gtpapd; Njhw;wk; gw;wpa nfhs;ifiaf;
$wpath; - vl;tpd; ^  ""
np
kA V^'' ehk; ,tuJ
nfhs;ifia ek;gp tUfpNwhk;.
 G+kpahdJ #hpadplkpUe;J 149.5
kpy;ypad; fpNyhkPl;lh; njhiytpy;
As k>VuD
e/t 
#hpaf; FLk;gj;jpy;
,lj;jpy; cs;sJ.
%d;whtJ
G+kpapy; eP&k; (71%)> epyKk; (29%)>

fhw;Wk; fhzg;gLtjhy; caph;fs;
Asl[ >VuD thoj; jFjpahd Nfhshf cs;sJ.
.m
 4.6 gpy;ypad; tUlk; Kd;
 fhw;W kz;lykhdJ Gtpiar;
Njhd;wpapUf;ff; $Lk; .
 #hpaidr; Rw;wpapUe;j J}Rf;fs; Rw;wpYk; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
kw;Wk; thA mlq;fpa Nkff;$l;lk;  G+kpapy; kl;LNk ePUk;> fhw;Wk;> cfe;j
(neGyh) RUq;fp Jfshf khwpaJ. ntg;gepiyAk; ,Ug;gjhy; caph;fs;
://t
ps
htt
 kA V^
11
AslB_
s
scg
np
Asl[ c^\A
cUthfpg; ngUFfpd;wd. #hpaf;

fphpg;lhd;> epahd;) kw;Wk; kPjKs;s
cs;sd.
 G+kpiaj; jtpu> kw;w Nfhs;fspy;
e/t
FLk;gj;jpy; G+kpapy; kl;Lk; caph;fs;
thAf;fSk; cs;sd.
>uwuE (Rotaion)
 Rkhh; 23 kzp 56 epkplj;jpw;F
caph;fs; ,y;iy. vdNt G+kp
xUKiw G+kp jd;idj;jhNd Rw;wpf;
.m
gy;Yaph;fSk;> gy;fpg; ngUFk;
nfhs;fpwJ. mijNa G+kpapd;
caph;Nfhskhf tpsq;FfpwJ. vdNt
jw;Row;rp vd;fpNwhk;.
G+kpia clVD (Biosphere)
 ,jd; fhuzkhfj;jhd; _, 
vd;Wk; miog;gh;.
khw;wk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
://t
 kA V^  G+kpapd; vy;yhg; gFjpfspYk;

xU kpfg;nghpa neUg;Gg; ge;jpypUe;J xNu Neuj;jpy; gfy; my;yJ ,uT
ntbj;Jr; rpjwpa gy Jz;Lfspy; xd;Nw Vw;glhJ.
#hpad;. ,e;j #hpaidr; Rw;Wk;  #hpaid Nehf;fp cs;s g+kpapd;
kw;w Jfs;fs; Fsph;e;J Nfhs;fshf ghjpg;gFjp gfy; nghOjhfTk;
ps
cUg;ngw;wd. #hpaDf;F kWGwk; cs;s g+kpapd;

kPjpg;gFjp ,uthfTk; mikAk;.
 G+kpapy; iel;u[d; 78.09%, Mf;]p[d;  vdNtjhd; ,e;jpahtpy; gfyhf
20.95% cs;sJ. Mh;fhd;> fhpa kpy ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> G+kpapd; kWgf;f cs;s
htt
thA> ke;j thAf;fs; (n[dhd;> mnkhpf;fhtpy; ,uTg; nghOjhf

,Uf;Fk;.
12
AslB_
G+kpj; jd;idj; jhNd Rw;WfpwJ vd;W ,uT 12 kzp tiu xU ehs; vdf;
fzf;fpLNwhk;.
s
mwptpay; topapy; tpsf;fpf; $wpath;
 G+kp jd;idj; jhNd Rw;WtJ
gB Mthh;.
scg
kl;Lky;yhky;> #hpaid ePs; tl;l
 g|: tbtg; ghijapy; Rw;wp tUfpwJ.
 nkhj;jKs;s 365.24 ehl;fspy;  G+kp> #hpaid xU Kiw Rw;wp tu
vLf;Fk; fhy ,ilntspiaj; jhd;
kPjKs;s 0.24 ehs; my;yJ ¼ ehs;
Xh; Mz;L vdf;Fwpf;fpNwhk;. Rkhh;
ehd;F Mz;LfSf;F xU Kiw
365.24 ehs;fs; nfhz;lJ xh; Mz;L
$l;b xU ehis $Ljyhf Nrh;jj
; y;
np
MFk;. ekJ trjpf;fhf 365 ehs;fs;
yPg; Mz;L vd;fpNwhk;.
vd mikj;Jf; nfhz;bUf;fpNwhk;.
 yPg; Mz;by; kl;Lk; gpg;uthp khjj;jpy;
 G+kpapd; kPJ jw;nghOJ cs;s epy
29 vd;w Njjpiaf; $Ljyhff; kw;Wk; ePh; gutyhdJ vg;nghOJk;
nfhs;fpNwhk;. mjhtJ Fwpg;gpl;l xNu epiyapy; ,Ue;jjpy;iy.
Mz;il kPjpapd;wp ehd;fhy; tFf;f
KbAkhdhy; mJ yPg;
vd;fpNwhk;. ,g;gb nra;jhYk; rpW
Mz;L
e/t jw;nghOJ cs;s midj;J fz;lq;
fSk; njd;JUtj;jpy; xd;wp ize;J
,Ue;jJ. me;epyg;gug;G ghd;[pah
jtW NehpLfpwJ. (Pangea) vd;W miof;fg;gl;lJ.
.m
 ,jidAk; jtph;ff
; V V ghd;[pah vd;gJ xU fpNuf;fr; nrhy;.
vd;gth; 16 Mk; E}w;whz;by; ,jd; nghUs; ‘_V WxD”; (All
xU jpUj;jk; nra;jhh;. ,jd;gb Earth) vd;gjhFk;.
E}w;whz;Lfspy; (1800> 1900> 2000)
://t
Nghd;w Mz;Lfs; yPg; tUlk; vd

vLj;Jf;nfhs;tjhy; mJ ehd;fhy;
tFgl;lhy; kl;Lk; NghjhJ> 400 MYk;
tFgl Ntz;Lk; vd;W tpsf;fpdhh;.
ps
 Kw;fhyj;jpy; #hpadpd; Kjy; ehs;

cjaj;jpypUe;J mLj;j ehs; cjak;
tiuapyhd fhy ,ilntspiaj;
jhd; xU ehs; vdf; fzf;fpl;ldh;.
htt
Mdhy;; ,g;NghJ ehk; es;spuT V[BV \A

12 kzp Kjy; njhlq;fp kW ehs;
13
AslB_
s
scg
np
Asl[ xB >|^
e/t
 ghd;[pahit #o;e;j Nguhop >VV
 grpgpf; jl;L jhd; kpfg;nghpa jl;L
MFk;. ,J 1/5 gq;F Gtp Nkw;gug;ig
(Panthalassa) my;yJ D\V\V
cs;slf;ff; $bajhf cs;sJ.
.m
Va vdg;gLk;. ,jd; fpNuf;fg;
>|^: (Bm)
nghUs; _V D MFk;. gpwF
1. ANurpah (INuhg;gh)
ghd;[pah gy jl;Lfshf cile;jJ.
2. mz;lhh;bfh
,t;thW cile;j ,j;jl;LfNs
3. tl mnkhpf;fh
WV^ >|^ (lithosphere plate)
://t
vd mwpag;gLfpd;wd. 4. njd; mnkhpf;fh

 ,j;jl;Lfs; nkJthf xU rpy 5. grpgpf;
kpy;ypkPl;lh; Kjy; nrd;b kPl;lh; tiu 6. Mg;gphpf;fh
xt;nthU Mz;Lk; efh;fpd;wd. 7. ,e;Njh - M];jpNuypah
ps
^ jw;NghJ Gjpa fz;lk; xd;W ,Ug;gjhf

 ghd;[pah VO nghpa jl;Lf;fshfTk;> $wg;gLfpwJ ‘[pyhe;jh”
gy rpwpa jl;Lf;fshfTk; cil
gl;Ls;sJ.
htt
14
AslB_
xB EB >|^  G+kpahdJ kpfg; nghpa Nfhsk;.
s
1. fhPgPad; gpypg;igd;]; epyeLf;Nfhl;Lg; gFjpapy; tphpe;Jk;>
2. NfhNfh]; tl njd; JUtq;fspy; Ftpe;Jk;
scg
3. eh];fh rw;W jl;ilahfTk; cs;s Xh; tbtk;
,e;Njh M];jpNuypad; jl;L 67 kpy;yp jhd; G+kp. ekJ G+kpapd; tbtk;
jdpj;jd;ik tha;e;jJ. Mq;fpyj;jpy;
kPll
; h; mstpw;F xt;nthU Mz;Lk;
mij BV (Geoid) vd;fpwhh;fs;.
cah;fpwJ. mLj;j 10 kpy;ypad;
Mz;Lfspy; ,it 1500 fp.kP mstpw;F
np
Mrpahtpw;Fs; gazpf;ff; $Lk; vd
mwpQh;fs; vjph;ghh;ff
; pd;whh;fs;.
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
xB \uD EB >|^
15
AslB_
tB uB E >k_^
s
G+kpapd; taJ 4.5 -4.6 gpy;ypad; tUlq;fs;
G+kpapd; Rw;wsT 40075.16 fp.kP
scg
tl kw;Wk; njd;JUtk; ,ilNa 40008 fp.kP
cs;s G+kpapd; Rw;wsT
G+kj;jpaNuifg; gFjpapy; 12> 756 fp.kP
G+kpapd; tpl;lk;
G+kpf;Fk; #hpaDf;Fk; ,ilNa 1.49 kpy;ypad; fp.kP
np
cs;s ruhrhp njhiyT
G+kpf;Fk;> re;jpuDf;Fk; ,ilNa 384>403.1 fp.kP
cs;s ruhrhp njhiyT
G+kpapd; kpf cah;e;jg; gFjp vntu];l; rpfuk; (8850 kP)
Mopapd; kpf Mokhd gFjp e/t
khpahd gs;sk; (Nkw;F grpgpf;
G+kpapd; fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J nksdhfpah (`tha;)
caukhd kiy
G+kpapd; kpf Mokhd gFjp rtf;fly; (Dead Sea) 417.27 kP
cyfpNyNa mjpf ntg;gepiy my;.m]p[ah (ypgpah) 57.70nr.bfphp
.m
gjpthd ,lk;
 G+kp VO fz;lq;fisAk;> Ie;J G+kpapd; Kf;fpa epy mikg;Gfs;

ngUq;fly;fisAk; nfhz;L cs;sJ. MFk;.
://t
,ijg;Nghy; G+kpapy; kiyfs;>  fly;fs; ,d;wp njhlh;r;rpahd

gPlG+kpfs;> rkntspfs; Mfpait mfz;l epyg;gug;Gfs; jhd;
fz;lq;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
^
ps
gEBV  kpfg;nghpa fz;lk;

 ehk; thOk; ,e;jpah ehL Mrpaf; fz;lj;jpy; cs;sJ.
 V, >V - Fsph; kw;Wk; ntg;g ghiytdq;fs;
htt
 ,kakiyj; njhlh;fs; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
16
AslB_
gV  gug;gstpy; ,J ,uz;lhtJ kpfg;nghpa fz;lk;
s
 tl miuf;Nfhsj;jpYk;> njd; miuf;Nfhsj;jpYk;
gutpAs;sJ.
scg
 epy eLf;NfhL ,e;j fz;lj;ij ,uz;lhfg; gphpf;fpwJ.
 cyfpy; kpf ePskhd_] (6695.*) gha;fpwJ.
 kpfg;nghpa ghiytdkhd VVD ,f;fz;lj;jpy;
cs;sJ.
 mlh;e;j fhLfs; kw;Wk; fdpk tsq;fspd; nrwpTkpf;fJ.
np
k \V  ml;yhz;bf;> grpgpf; kw;Wk; Mh;bf; ngUq;fly;fshy;
#og;gl;l fz;lk; ,J.
 ,jd; Nkw;F gFjpapYs;s V \>V kpf ePz;l
kiyj; njhlh;
>[ \V
cs;sJ.
e/t
 ,f;fz;lk; ngUk; msT njd; miuf;Nfhsj;jpy; mike;J
 cyfpd; kpf ePskhd g \>V ,e;jf; fz;lj;jpy;

jhd; cs;sJ.
.m
 cyfpd; kpf mfd;w \V[ g (6586)fp.kP ePsk;
,f;fz;lj;jpy; cs;sJ.
nV  Mrpahtpd; Nkw;Fg; gFjpapy; mike;Js;s fz;lk; ,J.
My;g;]; kiyj;njhlh; INuhg;ghtpy; cs;sJ.
g]oBV  ehd;F gf;fKk; fly;fshy; #og;gl;l xU jPTf; fz;lk;
://t
MFk;.
 ,f;fz;lk; epA+rpyhe;J> gp[p Nghd;w jPTfisf; nfhz;lJ.
 gp[pj;jPTfs;> ghg;Gth> epA+fpdpah Kjypa jPTfs; nghJthf
{EBVMB y^ vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd
ps
  VB vdg;gLk; cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa gtsg;ghiw

cs;sJ.
VV  njd; JUtg; gFjpapy; ,f;fz;lk; KOtJk; gy glh;e;J
cs;sJ.
htt
 ,J kpff; Fsph;e;jg; gFjp ngd;Fapd; gwit> rPy; Nghd;w

caphpdq;fspd; tho;tplkhf tpsq;FfpwJ.
17
AslB_
_^  ngUq;fly;fis mtw;wpd; gug;gstpd;
s
 G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; Rkhh; 71 mbg;gilapy; vspjhf epidtpy;
rjtPjk; (%d;wpy; ,uz;L gq;F) ePh; itj;J nfhs;s fPo;f;fz;ltw;iw
scg
cs;sJ. ngUe;jpushd ePh;g;gug;Gj; cgNahfpj;Jf; nfhs;sTk;.
njhFjpiag; ngUq;fly; vd;fpNwhk;. ‘PAISA’
 rkntspiag; Nghy; G+kpapd; P – Pacific (grpgpf; ngUq;fly;)
Nkw;gug;gpy; mike;Js;s kw;nwhU A – Atlantic (ml;yhz;bf; ngUq;fly;)
$W fly; gFjpahFk;. I – Indian (,e;jpag; ngUq;fly;)
 ngUq;fly;fis trjpf;fhff; fly;fs; S – South Antartica
np
vdg;gphpj;J tFj;Jf; nfhs;fpNwhk;. (njw;F mz;lhh;bf; ngUq;fly;
A – Artic (Mh;bf; ngUq;fly;)
nm _^
E _ 
e/t
cyfpd; kpf Mokhd ngUq;fly; MFk;
 ,q;Fj; njhlh;r;rpahd> jPTf; $l;lq;fs; mike;Js;sd.
.m
 ngUk;ghd;ikiaj; jPTfs; nray;gLk; vhpkiyfs; neUg;Gf;
Fok;igf; ff;Ftjhy; ,g;gFjp E >VzA kBD
(Pacific Ring of Fire) vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 cyfpd; kpf Mokhd \BVV a (Mariana Trench)
vDk; fly;gFjp ,g;ngUq;flypy; jhd; cs;sJ.
://t
V  ,J cyfpd; ,uz;lhtJ ngUq;fly;

_  kpf typikf; nfhz;l #whtspfs; ,g;ngUq;flypy; jhd;
mjpfkhfj; Njhd;WfpwJ.
 gy gFjpfs; gdpfshy; glh;e;Js;sJ.
ps
]B  ,J cyfpd; %d;whtJ nghpa ngUq;fly;

_  ,g;ngUq;flypy; cUthFk; gUtf;fhw;W kioapdhy; jhd;
,e;jpah tsk; ngWfpwJ.
htt
18
AslB_
V  njd;JUtg; gFjpapy; cs;s mz;lhh;bfh fz;lj;ijr;
s
_ Rw;wpg; gue;Js;s ,f;fly; ‘>[ _;” vdg;gLfpwJ.
 ,jid mz;lhh;bf; ngUq;fly; vd;Wk; miog;ghh;.
scg
g  tlJUtg; gFjpapy; mike;J cs;s kpfr;rpwpa ngUq;fly;
_ MFk;.
 ,q;Fg; gdpg;ghiwfs; kpFe;Js;sd.
mz;lhh;bf; ngUq;fly; gFjpfspy; Ma;Tfis Nkw;nfhs;tjw;fhf; V,
np
\l \uD V] vDk; Ma;T FbapUg;Gfis ek; ehL epWtpAs;sJ. Mz;L
KOtJk; ,e;jpa tpQ;Qhdpfs; gyh; ,q;F Ma;T nra;J tUfpd;wdh;.
e/t
.m
://t
D 2.8 Asl[ _^

ps
htt
19
AslB_
][ njhpfpwJ. re;jpudpd; kWgf;fj;ij
s
Y}dh 3 vd;w nraw;iff;Nfhs;
jhd; 1959y; Kjd;Kjypy; Gifg;glk;
scg
vLj;jJ.
 G+kpapy; cs;sJ Nghd;w tspkz;lyk;
re;jpudpy; ,y;iy re;jpudpy; <ug;gir
cs;sJ. Mdhy; jput epiyapy; ePh;
,y;iy. G+kpapy; cs;sJ Nghy kiyfs;>
][ rkntspfs;> gs;sj;jhf;Ffs; vdg;
np
 epyT> epyh> kjp> jpq;fs; gy epyj;Njhw;wq;fs; re;jpudpy;
vdg; gy ngah;fspy; re;jpud; cs;sd.
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. re;jpud; xU ]M[ V VD:
Nfhs; ,y;iy.  ek; #hpaf; FLk;gj;jpy; #hpad;
 re;jpud; Neubahf
Rw;Wtjpy;iy. mJ G+kpiaj; jhd;
Rw;wp tUfpwJ. vdNt re;jpuidj;
e/t
#hpaidr; kl;LNk xspUk; thd; nghUs; ,uT
thdpy; re;jpud; xsph;tJg; Nghyj;
Njhd;wpdhYk; cz;ikapNyNa
Jizf;Nfhs; vd miof;fpd;wdh;. #hpadpd; xspiaj; jhd; re;jpud;
 re;jpud;> G+kpapd; tpl;lj;jpy; Rkhh;
.m
gpujpgypf;fpwJ.
fhy; gq;F msT kl;LNk cs;s
\VkV \uD t
NfhskhFk;. Vnddpy; g+kpf;F
 re;jpuDk;> G+kpiag; NghyNt Nfhs
kpf mUNf cs;sjhy; jhd; mJ
nghpjhfg; Gyg;gLfpwJ. mJ 3>84>401 tbtk; nfhz;lJ. vdNt #hpaid
://t
fp.kP njhiytpy; G+kpiar; Rw;wp Nehf;fpag; gFjp xsp glh;eJ

; k;
tUfpwJ. #hpaDf;F vjph; jpirg; gFjp ,Us;
 re;jpud;> G+kpiar; Rw;wptu Vwj;jho #o;eJ
; k; fhzg;gLk;.
27.3 ehs;fs; vLj;Jf; nfhs;fpwJ.  re;jpud;> G+kpiar; Rw;wp tUk; NghJ
 re;jpud; jd;idj; jhNd mjd; ,Us; gFjp G+kpia Nehf;fp
ps
Rw;wpf;nfhs;s Vwj;jho 27.3 ehs;fs; miktNj mkhthir MFk;.

vLj;Jf; nfhs;fpwJ.  mjd; xspglh;ej
; gFjp KOikahfg;
 vdNt jhd; G+kpapypUe;J ghh;j;jhy; G+kpia Nehf;fp miktNj KOre;jpud;
re;jpudpd; xU gf;fk; kl;LNk
htt
(ngsh;zkp) MFk;.
20
AslB_
]M[  za^ ,jdhy; jhd; gUtfhyk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
s
 njhiyNehf;fpapy; ghh;j;jhy; ,it vdpy; [Piy khjk; Fsph;fhykhfTk;>
njhpAk; [dthp khjk; Nfhilf;fhykhfTk;
scg
 tpz;fw;fs; re;jpudpy; Nkhjp Nkhjp mika Ntz;Lk;.
,e;jf; Fopfs; Vw;gl;Ls;sd.  G+kp KOtJk; xNu gUtf;fhyk;
 vhpkiy ntbg;Gf;fshYk; gy Fopfs; vg;NghJk; miktjpy;iy.
Vw;gl;Ls;sd.
 G+kpapd; Roy; mr;R G+kp #hpaidr;
Revolution (B u k>_)
Rw;wp tUk; jsj;jpd; Nehf;fj;jpw;F
 G+kp #hpaid ePs;tl;lg; ghijapy;
np
23 ½ o rha;eJ
; s;sJ.
Rw;wp tUfpwJ. nghJthf
 ,g;gb rha;thf ,Ug;gjdhYk; gUt
[Piy khjj;jpy; G+kp #hpaDf;F
fhy khw;wk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
ntFnjhiytpy; ,Uf;Fk;. [dthp
khjj;jpy; kpf mUNf ,Uf;Fk;.
e/t
••••••
.m
://t
ps
htt
21
AslB_
s
scg
Asl[ \A
 G+kp> Gtp> cyfk;> cyF> Qhyk; vdg;  G+kpapd; nkhj;jf; Nfhz msT 360o
gy ngah;fspy; miof;fg;gLtJ MFk;.
np
,e;jg; g+kpf;Nfhsk;.  epyeLf;NfhL 0o ml;rf;Nfhlhf
mikfpwJ. ,J Kf;fpa ml;rf;NfhL
 0oml;rf; Nfhl;Lf;F tlf;Nf cs;s
G+kpg;gug;ig k VD vd;gh;.
e/t  njw;Nf
vd;gh;.
G+kpg;gug;igj; >[VD
Asl[ xBV|^
.m
 G+kpapd; fpiltrkhf my;yJ
fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk;
fw;gidf; Nfhl;bw;F V|
://t
(latitude) vd;W ngah;.

 G+kpapy; nrq;Fj;jhf my;yJ njw;F
tlf;fhfr; nry;Yk; Nfhl;bw;Fj;
yV| (longitude) vd;W
ps
ngah;.
Z[T yV|
 G+kpapd; ikaj;jpy; fpof;F Nkw;fhfr;
nry;Yk; NfhL W|V| [s yV|
(Equator) (m) G+kj;jpa Nuif  ,yz;ldpy; cs;s fPhpd;tpr; vd;fpw
htt
,lj;jpy; xU thdtpay; Muha;r;rpf;

vdg;gLk;.
$lk; mike;Js;sJ. mjd; topNa
nry;Yk; jPh;f;ff;NfhL 0o jPh;f;ff;NfhL
22
AslB_
MFk;. mijf; fphpd;tPr; jPh;f;ff;
NfhL vd;Wk; $Wth;.
s
23½o tl 23 ½o njd;
scg
ml;rf;NfhL - mlrf;NfhL -
flfNuif kfuNuif
66 ½o tl 66 ½o njd;
ml;rf;NfhL - ml;rf;NfhL-
Mh;bf; tl;lk; mz;lhh;bf; tl;lk;
90 tlf;F (Gs;sp 90 njw;F
np
kl;Lk;) - tlJUtk; (Gs;sp kl;Lk;) -
njd;JUtk;
Asl[ c^\A
 Kjd;Kjyhf tiuglj;jpy; ml;rf;
 G+kpapd; Nkw;gFjpia cl;fUtj;NjhL
NfhL> jPhf
; f
; f;NfhLfis tiue;jth; xg;gpLk; nghOJ kpf nkypjhd
Vt Mthh;.
 fp.gp. 2k; E}w;whz;by;
fpNuf;f thdtpay; mwpQh;.
e/t
tho;e;j
gFjpahff; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
 G+kpapd;
nghUl;fspd;
cl;gFjpahdJ
fl;likg;G
Ntjpg;
kw;Wk;
gz;Gfspd; mbg;gilapy; %d;W
 epyeLf;NfhL gFjpapy; Mz;L
.m
mLf;Ffshfg; gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
KOtJk; ,uTk;> gfYkhf (12 kzp
Neuk;) ,Uf;Fk;. 1. NkNyhL (Crust)
2. ftrk; (Mantle)
 flfNuif> kfuNuif> G+kj;jpa
3. fUtk; (Core) MFk;
NfhL %d;Wk; nry;Yk; fz;lk; -
\V| : (Crust)
://t
gV
 G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;G NkNyhL my;yJ
 ,U Kf;fpa ml;rf;NfhLfs; kl;Lk;
epyf;Nfhsk; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
nry;Yk; ehL- E_  fz;lj;jpd; Nky; mLf;fhdJ rpahy;
 ,e;jpahtpy; nry;Yk; Kf;fpa vd;W miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
mr;rf;NfhL - 
ps
rpahy; - rpypf;fh + mYkpdpak;

tl[ c^\A
 flyb NkNyhL grhy;l; mLf;Ffshy;
 Gtp %d;W mLf;Ffshf my;yJ
cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,J E\V vd;W
xLfshf cs;sJ.
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
htt
 G+kp (cs;sikg;G) mikg;Gg; gw;wpa

rpkh - rpypf;fh + nkf;dPrpak;
Nfhl;ghl;il Kjypy; cUthf;fpath;
n WR[ Mthh;.
23
AslB_
s
scg
np
Asl[ |z^
Asl[ |z^
\V| kD
e/t kD
EBV_ kkD kkD
.m
E\V ckD ckD
 G+kpapd; NkNyhL fz;lg;gFjpapy; kD (Mantle)

://t
jbkdhfTk; kw;Wk; fly; gFjpapy;  ftrk; G+kpapd; NkNyhl;bw;Fk;>

nkypjhfTk; cs;sJ. fUtj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapy; mike;Js;sJ.
 rpahy; mLf;fhdhJ rpkh mLf;fpd;  ,f;ftrk; G+kpapd; vilapy; 83
kPJ kpje;J nfhz;L cs;sJ. rjtPjj;ij nfhz;Ls;sd. ,it gy
jl;Lfshy; cUthf;fg;gl;ljhFk;.
ps
rpahypd; ruhrhp Mok; - 20 fp.kP  ,it fz;l efh;it cUthf;F

rpahypd; ruhrhp Mok; - 25 fp.kP fpd;wd. ,t;tLf;F 900 fp.kP mg;ghy;
 NkNyhl;bd; ruhrhp mlh;j;jp vz; 3 xNu khjphpahf fhzg;gLfpwJ.
g/cm MFk;.  ,t;tLf;fpd; Nky; gFjp
htt
]VB vd;W miof;fg;

gLfpwJ.
24
AslB_
 ,J 700 fp.kP Mok; tiu gutpf;  ntspf; fUtkhdJ jput epiyapYk;>
fhzg;gLfpwJ. cs; fUtkhdJ Rw;wpAs;s mLf;F
s
 ,f;ftr mLf;fpd; fPog; g
; Fjp Fok;G fspd; mOj;jj;jpd; fhuzkhf
scg
epiyiaAk; kw;Wk; nefpOk; jplepiyapYk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,jd;
jd;ikiaAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ruhrhp mlh;j;jp vz; 12 g/cm MFk;.
 ,jd; ruhrhp mlh;j;jp vz; 8 g/cm As \B z]l[ kW
MFk;.  Gtpapd; NkNyhl;bypUe;J fPo;Nehf;fpr;
kD (Core) nry;y nry;y ntg;gk; mjpfhpj;Jf;
 G+kpapd; cs; ika mLf;F fUtk; nfhz;Nl nry;fpd;wd.
np
my;yJ B (Barysphere) vd  Gtpapd; ikag;gFjpapy;
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ntg;gepiyahdJ 5000oC ,Uf;Fk;.
 epf;fy; kw;Wk; ,Uk;G ,Ug;gjd;
B_V  s>D (Normal
fhuzkhf ,J  vdTk;
Gain Rate) : xt;nthU 32 kPl;lh;
$wg;gLfpwJ. e/t
 ,t;tLf;F G+kpapd; fhe;j tpiria
cw;gj;jp nra;fpwJ.
Moj;jpw;Fk; 1oC mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
V ] :

 ,jpy; ,uz;L gphpTfs; cs;sd  NkNyhL (Crust) : 3 g / cm
1. ntspf; fUtk; 2. cl;fUtk;  ftrk; (Mantle) : 8 g / cm
.m
 fUtk; (Core) : 12 g /cm
••••••
://t
ps
htt
25
s
scg
>tV| 
np

VD : AslB_
z] : Vzkm \uD >V>VA
e/t
]BV  Vzkm \uD >k_ >VA, >tV|  Vzkm
\uD >k_ \VuD
.m
VA\
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
://t
\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\

>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V
FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
ps
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z


htt
gB,
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
AslB_
Vzkm \uD >V>VA
s
scg
]BV - Vzkm
\uD >k_ >VA
V Vzkm
np
V\ V^
 gy;NtW fpuhkq;fs;> efuq;fSld;
,izf;Fk; rhiyfshFk;.
 fpuhkg; gQ;rhaj;jhy; guhkhpf;fg;
gLfpd;wd.
e/t  ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa Njrpa
neLQ;rhiy NH 7 (fd;dpahFkhp
- fhrp) 2369 fp.kP
V Vzkm
 ,e;jpahtpd; ,uz;lhtJ kpfg;nghpa
 ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; fpuhz;l; buq;f;
.m
NuhL mikj;jth; : V  gug;G Njrpa neLQ;rhiy NH – 6 (Kk;ig
kw;Wk; fl;Lkhd mbg;gilapy; tifg; nfhy;fj;jh) 1450 fp.kP
gLj;jyhk;.  Njrpa neLQ;rhiyapy; Fiwthd
 V\A ePsKilaJ NH 47A. ,J 5.9 fp.kP
://t
Njrpa neLQ;rhiy kj;jpa muR ePsKilaJ MFk;. vh;zhFsk; -

khepy neLQ;rhiy khepy muR nfhr;rp ,ilapyhdjhFk;.
khtl;l neLQ;rhiy khepy muR \Vk V^
rh;tNjr neLQ;rhiy kj;jpa - khepy  fpuhkq;fis khtl;lj;jpd; jiy
muR efuq;fSld; ,izf;fpd;wd.
ps
 ,e;jpahtpy; mjpf neLQ;rhiy  khefuhl;rpfs; kw;Wk; efuhl;rpfs;

fisf; nfhz;l khepyk; : kfhuh\;buh guhkhpf;fpd;wd.
 ,e;jpahtpy; ,uz;lhtJ mjpf Njrpa \VW |V^
 khepyj;jpd; jiyefuj;Jld; gy;NtW
htt
neLQ;rhiyiaf; nfhz;l khepyk; :

jkpo;ehL khtl;lj; jiyefuq;fis ,iz
fpwJ.

AslB_
 khepy nghJg;gzpj;Jiwahy; ska V^
s
mikf;fg;gl;L guhkhpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.  Nkk;gLj;jg;gl;ll njhopy;El;gj; Jld;
>EB |V^ $ba cah;ju ,e;jpa rhiyaikg;G
scg
 khepyj; jiyefuq;fis Njrpaj; MFk;.
jiyefuq;fSld; ,izf;Fk; _BV V^
rhiyfs;  ek; ehl;bd; tlf;F kw;Wk; tlfpof;F
 ,it Kjd;ik rhiy mikg;G vy;iyfspy; mikf;fg;gl;L cs;sJ.
MFk;.  ,e;jpa muR 1960k; Mz;L
 kj;jpa nghJg;gzpj;Jiwahy; mikf;fg;gl;l vy;iyNahu
np
guhkhpj;J tUfpwJ.
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt

AslB_
mikg;G (Border roads organisation)  vhpnghUs; rpf;fdkhfTk;>
s
,r;rhiyfisg; guhkhpf;fpwJ. Rw;Wr;#oy; NfL tpistpf;fhkYk;
[V| |V cs;sg; Nghf;Ftuj;J MFk;.
scg
 ,J ek; ehl;il mz;il ehLfSld;  ,e;ePh; topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J
,izf;fpwJ. ,Utifg;gLk;
ka Vzkm 1. cs;ehl;L Nghf;Ftuj;J
 kypthd Nghf;Ftuj;J MFk;. mjpf 2. fly; top Nghf;Ftuj;J
vilAs;s fdkhd nghUs;fisf;
Fiwe;j nrytpy; nfhz;L nry;yj;
np
jFe;j top MFk;.
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt

AslB_
c^V| Vzkm  mjpy; 5685 fp.kP J}uk; MWfspYk;>
s
 ,e;jpah> MWfisAk;> 400 fp.kP J}uk; fhy;tha;fspYk; ve;jpug;
fhy;tha;fisAk; cs;slf;fpa ngUk; glFfs; %yk; eilngWfpwJ.
scg
tiyaikg;igf; nfhz;ljhFk;. _ka Vzkm
 nkhj;jk; ePh;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J  ,e;jpahtpy; flw;fiuapd; nkhj;j
14>500 fp.kP J}uk; eilngWfpwJ. ePsk; 7516 fp.kP MFk;. ,jpy; 13 nghpa
JiwKfq;fSk; 187 eLj;ju kw;Wk;
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt

AslB_
rpwpa JiwKfq;fSk; nfhz;L cuj; njhopyfq;fSf;Fk;> mdy;
s
mike;Js;sJ. kpd; epiyaq;fSf;F vLj;Jr; nry;y
 JiwKfq;fspd; topahf 75 rjtPj cjTfpwJ.
scg
ntspehl;L tzpfk; eilngWfpwJ.  fuLKulhd jiug;gFjpapYk;> ePUf;
 ,e;jpah fg;gy; fl;Lk; njhopypy; fbapYk; mikf;fyhk;
Mrpahtpy; ,uz;lhk; ,lj;jpy;  ,og;igAk; kw;Wk; jhkj;ijAk;
cs;sJ. Fiwf;fyhk;
]B >EB ka V>^  jq;Fjilaw;w Nghf;Ftuj;jhf
 NW1 - myfhghj; - `hy;bah
np
tpsq;FfpwJ.
 NW2 - irajpah - Jghp s\V Vzkm
 NW3 - nfhy;yk; - Nfhl;lhGuk;  ,e;jpahtpy; 1930D Mz;L tpkhdg;
 NW4 - fhf;fpehlh - GJr;Nrhp Nghf;Ftuj;J Jtq;fg;gl;lJ.
 NW5 - jy;yr;rhh; - jk;khuh  tpkhdj;ij fz;Lgpbj;jth;fs; :
]BVs_ 4 xB _ |D
>^
 ,e;J];jhd; fg;gy; fl;Lk; jsk; -
e/t gs_ , s_  (1903)
 ,e;jpa tpkhdg; Nghf;Ftuj;jpd;
je;ij : J.R.D. VV
tprhfg;gl;bdk;  ,e;jpa tpkhdk; Nghf;Ftuj;jpd; ,U
.m
 fhh;ld; hPr; njhopw;rhiy - gphpT : ]B[ [,  ]BV
nfhy;fj;jh 2007 _ |D 
 khrfhd;lhf; - Kk;ig  ,e;jpahtpd; nghJj;Jiw tpkhd
 nfhr;rp fg;gy; fl;Lk; jsk; - nfhr;rp Nrit epWtdq;fshd Vh; ,e;jpah>
zwVF ka Vzkm ,e;jpah Vh;iyd;]; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;
://t
 ePh;> vz;nza; kw;Wk; thA nfhz;L gl;l Mz;L : 1953

nry;yg; gad;gLfpd;wd.  ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; igyl; : >[
 vz;nza; kw;Wk; ,aw;ifthA VV
jsq;fspypUe;J Rj;jpfhpf;fg;glhj
vz;nza; kw;Wk; ,aw;if thA;it
ps
Rj;jpfhpg;G MiyfSf;Fk; ,uhrad

htt

AslB_
]BVs[ B mx^
s
\uz u mxD wz u mxD
fz;l;yh> F[uhj; : fy;fj;jh :
scg
 Xjj; JiwKfk;  ,e;jpahtpd; goikahd JiwKfk;
 Kjy; jilaw;w tzpf kz;lyk;  ,e;jpahtpd; xNu Mw;Wj; JiwKfk;
 ngl;Nuhypak;> vz;nza; nghUl;fs;  `Pf;sp Mw;wpd; Nky; cs;sJ.
Mfpait mjpfkhf ,wf;Fkjp `Pf;sp : Nkw;F tq;fk; : fy;fj;jhtpd;
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. nehpriyf; Fiwf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ.
np
Kk;ig JiwKfk; : ghujPg; xbrh :
 ,e;jpahtpd; nghpa JiwKfk;  ,Uk;G nghUl;fs;
[tfh;`hy; NeU JiwKfk; : tprhfg;gl;bdk; : Me;jpuh
 kWngah; : etNrth  ,e;jpahtpd; Mokhd JiwKfk;
 ,lk; : etp Kk;ig> kfhuh\;buh e/t  lhy;gpd; %f;F vdg;gLfpwJ.
 ,e;jpahtpd; mjp etPdj; JiwKfk;  ,aw;ifahfg;
JiwKfk;
ghJfhf;fg;gl;l
kh;k Nfhth: vz;Z}h;> jkpo;ehL

 ,Uk;G Vw;Wkjp mjpfkhf eil  ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; fhh;g;gNul;
.m
ngWfpwJ. JiwKfk;
epA+ kq;f@h; : nrd;id :
 fh;ehlf khepyk;  goikahd nraw;ifj; JiwKfk;
nfhr;rpd; : J}j;Jf;Fb :
://t
 mugpf;flypd; uhzp  t.C.rp. JiwKfk;

 nghpa ,aw;ifj; JiwKfk;
 ntypq;ld; jPtpy; cs;sJ.
vz;zak;> fd;dpahFkhp :
ps
 2015y; JiwKfk; fl;l cj;ju

tpl;ldh;.
Nghh;l; gpNsah; :
 me;jkhd; epNfhghhpy; cs;sJ.
htt
 [Pd; 2010y; mwptpf;fg;gl;lJ.

AslB_
 cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa tpkhd epiyak;
s
- nga;[pq; (rPdh)
scg
 cyfpd; ,uz;lhtJ kpfg;nghpa
tpkhd epiyak; : fypj; (rTjp
mNugpah)
 cyfpd; caukhd kiyg;gFjpapy;
mike;J cs;s tpkhdj;jsk; :
jTyj; ngf;xy;b (fh\;kPh;)
np
k> s\V WB^
nrd;id (kPdg;ghf;fk;) fhkuh[h; cs;ehl;L tpkhd epiyak;
mwpQh; mz;zh gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyak;
nfhr;rp
jpUtde;jGuk;
i`juhghj;
e/t
nfhr;rp gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyak;
jpUtde;jGuk; gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyak;
uh[Pt; fhe;jpgd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyak;
ngq;f@h; Nfk;g nfsTlh gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyak;
.m
Nfhth Nfhth gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyak;
Kk;ig [tfh;`hy; NeU gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyak;
mfkjhghj; rh;jhh; ty;ygha; gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyak;

n[ag;G+h; n[ag;G+h; gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyak;
://t
mkph;jru]; uh[h [hd;rp gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyak;

nly;yp ,e;jpuhfhe;jp gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyak;
Mf;uh Mf;uh tpkhd epiyak;
thuzhrp yhy; gfJ}h; rh];jphp gd;dhl;L epiyak;
ps
nfhy;fj;jh Nejh[p Rgh\; re;jpuNgh]; gd;dhl;L epiyak;

nfs`hj;jp Nyhf;gphpah Nfhgpehj; gh;Njhyp gd;dhl;L epiyak;
Nghh;l; gpNsh; tPh; rth;fh; gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyak;
htt

AslB_
l_ Vzkm  1951k; Mz;L midj;Jk; Njrpa
s
 gazp kw;Wk; ruf;Ffis kakhf;fg;gl;L ,e;jpa ,uapy;Nt vd
Xhplj;jpypUe;J kw;nwhU xUq;fpizf;fg;gl;lJ.
scg
,lj;jpw;Ff; nfhz;L nry;Yk;  cyfstpy; ehd;fhtJ ,lj;ijAk;>
kpfr;rpwe;j Nghf;Ftuj;J rhjd- Mrpahtpy; ,uz;lhtJ ,lj;ijAk;
khFk;. tfpf;fpwJ.
 ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J Kjd; Kjypy;  nly;ypia jiyikaplkhff;
1853k; Mz;L njhlq;fpaJ. nfhz;L ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J
vy;yhj; jpirfspYk; cs;sJiw
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt

AslB_
Kfq;fs;> tpkhd epiyaq;fs; kw;Wk; fisf; nfhz;lJ.

 Kjy; ,uapy; xD to >V  1853,
s
ngUefuq;fisAk; ,izf;fpwJ.
_ 16 (34 .*/21\_)
,uapy; Nghf;Fuj;J tiyahdJ
 ,uz;lhtJ ,uapy; : nfhy;fj;jh to
scg
1. mfyg; ghij uhzpfQ;r; 1854
2. kPl;lh;g; ghij  %d;whtJ ,uapy; : [ (VBAD) to
3. FWfpa ghijfspy; nray;gLfpwJ. VD (kVVV)  1850
l_ >kV[ T|^  cyfpNyNa kpf ePskhd uapy;Nt
1. gpuhl;Nf[; - 1.676 kP eilNkil mike;jpUf;Fk;
2. ];lhz;lh;LNf[; - 1.435 kP ,lk; : Nfhuf;G+h; ,uapy; epiyak;
np
(cj;jugpuNjrk; ) 820 kP
3. kPl;lh; Nf[; - 1 kP
 ,e;jpahtpd; kpf ePskhd ghyk; Nrhd;
4. NeNuhNf[; - 0.763 kP
ejpf;jz;
,uapy; F lthsq;
FWf;Nf
fspd; fl;mstP
lg;gl;L
Lfs;
s;s:J
 ,e;jpahtpd; uapy;Nt mjd;
NeUNf[;
1. gpuhl; - NrJ
ghyk; (10>044
- 1.676 kP mb (m)
150tJ Mz;bid 2003 _ 16_
nfhz;lhbaJ.
 KjyhtJ kpd;rhu uapy; nlf;fhd;
Fapd; (m) jf;fhz uhzp (1929>
e/t2. ];3013
lhz;kPl) h;LNf[; - 1.435 kP
 ,uapy;Nt Jiw Njrpakakhf;fg;gl;l
3. kPl;lh; Nf[;
Mz;L : 1957
4. NeNuhNf[;
- 1 kP
- 0.763 kP
G+dh - gk;gha;)
.m
 ,e;jpad; ,uapy;Nt 17 kz;lyq;
]B l_ Vzkm 17 \V |^m

\^ >\l^
kj;jpa ,uapy;Nt Kk;ig
://t
fpof;F ,uapy;Nt nfhy;fj;jh

fpof;F kj;jpa ,uapy;Nt ghl;dh
fpof;F flw;fiu ,uapy;Nt GtNd\;th;
nfhq;fd; ,uapy;Nt etpKk;ig
ps
tlf;F ,uapy;Nt nly;yp

tlf;F Nkw;F ,uapy;Nt n[a;g;G+h;
tlf;F kj;jpa ,uapy;Nt myfhghj;
tlfpof;F Nfhuf;G+h;
htt
tlfpof;F vy;iyNahu ,uapy;Nt khypfhd;

njw;F vy;iyNahu ,uapy;Nt nrd;id

AslB_
njw;F kj;jpa ,uapy;Nt nrfe;jughj;
s
njd;fpof;F kj;jpa ,uapy;Nt nfhy;fj;jh
njd;Nkw;F kj;jpa ,uapy;Nt gpyh;];G+h;
scg
njd;Nkw;F ,uapy;Nt `Pg;sp
Nkw;F ,uapy;Nt Kk;ig
Nkw;F kj;jpa ,uapy;Nt [ay;G+h;
l_k >VauV^
kpd;rhu vd;[pd; cw;gj;jp rpj;juQ;rd; (Nkw;F tq;fhsk;)
np
Bry; vQ;rpd; cw;gj;jp thuzhrp ( cj;jug;gpuNjrk;)
uapy; Nghl;b njhopw;rhiy nguk;G+h; (jkpo;ehL> fg+h; jyh (gQ;rhg;)
uapy; rf;fuk; kw;Wk; mjd; mr;R Ntyfq;fh (fh;ehlfh)
Bry; vQ;rpd; cjphpghfk; gl;bahyh
V m^ \
l_k >^
e/t >M >k_ >VA
_ k:
1. lhh;[pypq; `pkhyad; uapy;Nt  ,e;jpa mQ;ry; Nrit 1857 Mk;
2. ePyfphp kiy ,uapy; Mz;L njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
.m
3. fhy;fh rpk;yh uapy;Nt  cyfpy; kpfg;nghpa tiyg;gpd;dyhf
cUthfpAs;sJ
4. FthypahpypUe;J \pahg;G+h; tiu
As;s 198 fp.kP NeNuhNf[; topj;  ntspehLfSf;Fk;> cs;ehl;bYs;s
jlj;ij cyfpNyNa kpf ePskhd fpuhkq;fSf;Fk; mQ;ry;fisAk;>
://t
NeNuhNf[; topj;jlkhf And];Nfh fl;LfisAk; mDg;gg; gad;gLfpwJ.

mwptpj;Js;sJ.
mQ;rypy; ,Utiffs; cs;sd.
>k_ >VA
1. Kjy; tFg;G mQ;ry;
 jfty;fs;> vz;zq;fs;> fUj;Jfspd;
ghpkhw;wk; ,tw;iw cs;slf;fpaNj 2. ,uz;lhk; tFg;G mQ;ry;
x>_ kzA _
ps
MFk;.
 r%f nghUshjhu njhlh;Gfis mQ;ry; ml;il> cs;ehl;L mQ;ry;> mQ;ry;
ciwfs; mlq;Fk;.
Nkk;gLj;j cjTfpwJ.
VD kzA _
 fyhr;rhu xw;Wikia mjpfhpf;f
htt
cjTfpwJ. Gj;jff;fl;Lfs;> gjpT nra;ag;gl;l

nra;jpj;jhs;fs; kw;Wk; gUt ,jo;fs;
mlq;Fk;.
10
AslB_
>] ilNa tpopg;Gzh;it Vw;gLj;j
s
njhiytplq;fSf;F vOj;J %ykhf kf;fs; jfty; njhlh;G gad;gLfpwJ.
tpiuthf nra;jpfis mDg;Gk; Kiw kVVo
scg
MFk;. 2013 Kjy; iftplg;gl;lJ.  ,e;jpahtpy; 1927 k; Mz;L Kjy;
>VE thndhyp xypgug;ggl;lJ. 1936
 tha;top jfty; njhlh;G KiwahFk; Mz;L mfpy ,e;jpa thndhyp vdg;
 tzpf tsh;r;rpf;F kpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngah; khw;wk; nra;ag;gl;lJ.
tha;e;jit.  1957 Kjy; Mfhrthzp vd;W
 ,jdhy; njhiytpy; cs;sth; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
np
fisAk; njhlh;nfhz;L Neubahf  ,jd; %yk; kf;fSf;F ey;tho;T>
Ngr KbAk;. Rw;Wr;#oy; guhkhpg;G> FLk;g
E eyj;jpl;lk;> mwptpay; kw;Wk;
 ve;j Neuj;jpYk;> ve;j ,lj;jpw;Fk; njhopy; El;gk; Nghd;w tpopg;Gzh;T
njhlh;G nfhs;s top tFf;fpwJ. e/t Vw;gLj;jg;g gad;gLfpwJ.
 nghJj; njhiyNgrp tiy >VVE
aikg;gpdhy; cynfq;fpYk; cs;s  J}h;jh;\d; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
kf;fs; ifNgrpiag; gad;gLj;j  cyfpNyNa kpfg;nghpa tiyaikg;G
KbfpwJ. MFk;.
.m
 FWQ;nra;jp mDg;Gk; Kiw cs;sJ.  njhiyf;fhl;rp midj;Jj; jug;G
 nra;jpfis kl;Lkpd;wp> vOj;J kf;fisAk;> nrd;wilAk; tz;zk;
kw;Wk; tiujy; %ykhfTk;> fhl;rpg; Njrpa> kz;ly kw;Wk; cs;@h; vd
gjpkq;fisAk; ghpkhwpf;nfhs;syhk;. %d;W tifahd epfo;r;rpfis
://t
]^ xspg;gug;ghfpwJ.
 ,J xU kpd;dZ fUtpahFk;.  Nfspf;if> fy;tp> tpisahl;L>
 jfty;fs; vOjg;gl;L> mr;rbf;fg;gl;l Rfhjhuf NfLfs; gw;wpa epfo;r;rp
my;yJ Nfhl;Lg; glq;fs; my;yJ fis xspgug;GfpwJ.
tiug;glq;fs; Mfpatw;iw F]>V^
ps
njhiyNgrp %yk; cldbahf  vy;NyhuhYk; nghJthfg; gad;

mDg;gNth> ngwNth KbfpwJ. gLj;jg;gLk; rf;jp tha;e;j jfty;
\^ >VA V>D njhlh;G rhjdkhFk;.
 xNu Neuj;jpy; kpy;ypad; fzf;fhd  cs;ehl;L kw;Wk; gd;dhl;L epfo;r;rp
htt
kf;fs; jfty;fisg; ngWtjhFk;. fisg; gw;wp ntspapLfpwJ.

 gy;NtW Njrpaf; nfhs;iffisAk;>  ,e;jpah Nghd;w kf;fshl;rp eil
nray; jpl;lq;fisAk; gw;wp kf;fsp ngWk; ehLfspy; kf;fspd; fUj;Jf;
11
AslB_
fisAk;> vz;zq;fisAk; mwpe;J  Muk;gj;jpy; vOj;Jg; G+h;tkhd
s
nfhs;s rf;jp tha;e;j fUtpahf nra;jpfis kpd;dZ nra;jpfshf
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. (E-mail) mDg;gTk;> ngwTk; gad;
scg
B>D gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
 fzpzpfspd; kpfg;gue;j tiyaikg;G  nra;jpfisAk;> jfty;fisAk;
MFk;. gy;NtW tpjj;jpy; ngwTk; mDg;gTk;
 cyfpd; gy;NtW tzpf gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
epWtdq;fs; kw;Wk; jdpegh;fisAk;
,izf;fpwJ.
np
 Mapuf;fzf;fhd fzpzp tiyj;
jsq;fis xd;Wld; xd;W ,izf;Fk;
tiyg;gpd;dy; mikg;ghFk;.
e/t
••••••
.m
://t
ps
htt
12
AslB_
s
>tV|  Vzkm
scg
\uD >k_ \VuD
Nghf;Ftuj;J nryT kpf;fjhf
np
cs;sJ.
 rhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;jpy; gyjug;gl;l
thfdq;fs; gazpfis kw;Wk;
ruf;if Vw;wpr; nry;fpd;wd.
e/t  rhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;jpd;
mjpfhpj;J tUtJld;> nghUl;fis
vLj;Jr; nry;y
Njit
Nghl;bAk;
,Uf;fpd;wd.
.m
 jkpo;ehl;by; ey;yKiwapy;
khepyj;jpy; ngUfptUk; nghJkf;fspd;>
rhiytopfs; tsh;r;rp mile;J
Njitiag; G+h;j;jp nra;a> Kf;fpag; cs;sd. jkpo;ehl;by; 64 Nghf;Ftuj;J
Nghf;Ftuj;Jfs; nray;gLfpd;wd. thfd kz;lyq;fs; cs;sd.
1. rhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;J rhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;J mYtyf
://t
2. ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J ikaq;fspy;> nrd;id mjpfgl;rkhf

3. ePh;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J 61 ikaq;fisj; jd;dfj;Njf;
4. tpkhdg; Nghf;Ftuj;J nfhz;Ls;sJ.
V Vzkm V Vzkm kE
 gy;NtW Nghf;Ftuj;J topfistpl  tq;fhs tphpFlh fiuNahug;
ps
rhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;jpdhy; cs;@h; gFjpapy; nrd;idAk;> flY}iuAk;

kf;fs; nghpJk; gad;ngWfpd;wdh;. ghz;br;Nrhp topahf ,izf;Fk;
,uapy; topfSk;> ePh; topfSk; nghpa fpof;F flw;fiur; rhiy
htt
efuq;fis ,izf;fpd;wd. tpkhdg; mikf;fg;gl;bUf;fpwJ.
13
AslB_
V^ V[ NH - 49 kJiu Kjy; ,uhNk];tuk;
s
 (.*) tiu
Njrpa neLQ;rhiyfs; 4500 NH - 4 nrd;id Kjy; Kk;ig tiu
scg
khepy neLQ;rhiyfs; 5525 NH - 46 NtY}h; Kjy; fpU\;zfphp
khefu> efu rhiyfs; 17161 tiu
fpuhkg; gQ;rhaj;J 63>538 NH - 5 nrd;id Kjy; nfhy;fj;jh
rhiyfs;
tiu
gQ;rhaj;J A+dpad; 32>791
NH - 45A tpOg;Guk;> ghz;br;NRhp
rhiyfs;
np
NH - 7A jpUney;Ntyp> J}j;Jf;Fb
 jw;NghJ> fpof;Ff; flw;fiur;rhiy
rpjk;guk;> ehfg;gl;bdk;> ,uhkehj
Guk; kw;Wk; J}j;Jf;Fb tiu
tphpthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 Njrpa neLQ;rhiyapd; jq;f ehw;fu e/t
rhiyj;jpl;lk; jkpo;ehl;by; 1232 fp.kP.
njhiytpw;F mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
nrd;id Nfhak;Ngl;by; mikf;fg;
.m
gl;Ls;s Gwefh; NgUe;J epiyak;
MrpahtpNyNa kpfg;nghpa NgUe;J l_ Vzkm
epiyakhFk;.  ,uapy;jlk; xU Kf;fpakhd
Nghf;Ftuj;Jj; jlkhFk;.
>tVK^ xB\V >EB
://t
 jkpo;ehl;by; ,uapy;Nt Nghf;Ftuj;J

|V^
njd;dpe;jpa ,uapy;Ntapd; xU
NH -7 ngq;f@h; Kjy; fd;dpah
gFjpahf nrd;idia jiyik
Fkhp tiu
,lkhff; nfhz;L ed;F nray;gl;L
NH - 45 nrd;id Kjy; jpz;Lf;fy; tUfpwJ.
ps
tiu  jkpo;ehl;bd;; nkhj;j ,uapy;Nt

NH - 47 Nryk; Kjy; jpz;Lf;fy; ghijapd; ePsk; Vwj;jho 5952
tiu fp.kP. MfTk;> nkhj;j ,uapy;Nt
epiyaq;fspd; vz;zpf;if 533
htt
MfTk; cs;sd. ,it jkpo;ehl;bd;

Kf;fpa efuq;fis ,izf;fpd;wd.
14
AslB_
>tV[ xB l_k ]A^  nrd;id efu Gwefh; ,uapy;
s
1. nrd;id Nghf;Ftuj;J %d;W Kf;fpa
2. <NuhL topj;jlq;fspy; rpwg;ghfr; nray;
scg
3. Nfhak;Gj;J}h; gLfpwJ. [{d; 2015 Kjy; nkl;Nuh
4. jpUney;Ntyp uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J njhlq;fg;gl;L
nray;gLj;jg;gl;L tUfpwJ. ,J ,U
5. kJiu
topj;jlq;fis nfhz;lJ.
6. jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp
7. Nryk;  nrd;id - muf;Nfhzk; ,izg;G
 nrd;id - nrq;fy;gl;L ,izg;G
np
 epyf;fhp> ,Uk;Gj;jhJ kw;Wk; gpw
jhJf;fs;> v‡F> rpnkz;l;> czTj;  nrd;id flw;fiu - Ntsr;Nrhp
jhdpaq;fs;> cuq;fs;> ngl;Nuhypag;
l_ V>[ kE
nghUl;fs; Nghd;w fdkhd> ngUk;
 midj;J kPl;lh; ,Ug;G ghijfSk;>
,lj;ij milj;Jf; nfhs;Sk;
nghUl;fisf; nfhz;L nry;yTk;
,uapy; rpwe;j xd;whFk;.
e/t
 tlf;F Nkw;Fg; gFjpfspy; gpuhl;Nf[;
mfyg; ghijahf khw;wg;gl;L> mjpy;
26 tpOf;fhL ePsKs;s ghijfs;
kpd; kakhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 mfyg; ghij khw;Wj;; jpl;lk;
ghijfSk;> fpof;F njw;Fg; nrd;id flw;fiuapypUe;J jhk;guk;>
.m
gFjpfspy; kPl;lh;Nf[; ghijfSk; nrq;fy;gl;L kw;wk; Gwefh; gFjp
mjpfKs;sd. fSf;F tphpthf;fk; nra;ag;gl;L
 njw;F ,uapy;Ntapd; jiyikaplk; cs;sJ.
[l_cs;sJ. njw;F ,uapy;Nt  ePht
; opg; Nghf;Ftuj;ij ,Utifahfg;
kz;lyk; MW Nfhl;lq;fshfg;
://t
gphpf;fyhk; - mit>
gphpf;fg;gl;L cs;sd. mit> 1. cs;ehl;L ePh;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J
1. nrd;id 2. fly; ePh;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J
2. kJiu ka Vzkm
3. Nryk;  ePh; topfs; kpf nkJthd xU Nghf;F
ps
4. ghyf;fhL tuj;J MFk;. vil mjpfkhd

5. jpUtde;jGuk; nghUl;fis mjpfstpy; nfhz;L
6. jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp nry;y nryT Fiwthd Nghf;F
 ,J jkpo;ehL> Nfush> njd; tuj;J ePh; topahFk;.
htt
fh;ehlfh> njd; Me;jpug; gpuNjrk;  jkpo;ehL Vwf;Fiwa 1000 fp.kP.

Mfpag; gFjpfSf;Fg; Nghf;Ftuj;J ePsKs;s flw;fiuiaf; nfhz;L
trjp mspf;fpwJ> s;sJ.
15
AslB_
c^V| ka Vzkm _ka Vzkm
s
 Nrhokz;ly flw;fiuf;F ,izahf>  jkpo;ehl;by; Rkhh; 1000 fp.kP. ePz;l
flw;fiuNahukhf cs;s cg;gq;fopfs; flw;fiu cs;sJ.
scg
topahf gq;fpq;`hk; fhy;tha; mike;J  jkpo;ehl;by; nrd;id> J}j;Jf;Fb
cs;sJ. Mfpait Kf;fpa fly;
 jkpo;ehl;bYs;s flY}h; JiwKfq;fshFk;.
khtl;lj;jpYs;s kuf;fhzk; vd;w  nrd;idapypUe;J me;jkhd; epNfhghh;
,lj;jpypUe;J> Me;jpug; gpuNjrj;jpYs;s jPTfspd; jiyefuhd Nghh;l;
nge;jfQ;rk; vd;w ,lk; tiu Rkhh; 400 gpNsaUf;Fg; gazf;fg;gy; trjpAs;sJ.
np
fp.kP. ePsk; ,e;j fhy;tha; nry;fpwJ. rpq;fg;G+h; kw;Wk; =yq;fh Mfpa
 ehfg;gl;bdk; khtl;lj;jpYs;s ehLfSf;Fk;> jkpo; ehl;bw;FkpilNa
Ntjhuz;ak; fhy;tha; jkpo;ehl;bYs;s ruf;Ff; fg;gy; Nghf;Ftuj;J cs;sJ.
kpfg; goikahd ePh;topahFk;. ,J  nrd;id kw;Wk; J}j;Jf;Fb
1867-y; mikf;fg;gl;lJ. Mdhy;
,e;jg; gFjpapy; ,uapy; topfs; te;j
gpwF fhy;thapd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
e/t
JiwKfq;fs;
ifahSfpd;wd.
cs;ehl;L kw;Wk;
ntspehl;Lr; ruf;Fg; Nghf;Ftuj;ij
Fiwe;Jtpl;lJ.  ,j;JiwKfq;fs; topahf ,wf;Fkjp

 jw;NghJ ,e;jf; fhy;tha; topahf nra;ag;gLk; nghUl;fs; jkpo;ehl;bw;F
.m
rpwpa glFfs; nghUl;fis vLj;J kl;Lkpd;wp njd;dpe;jpa gFjpfSf;Fk;
nry;fpd;wd. nfhz;L nry;yg;gLfpd;wd.
>tV[ mx^ 6. fhay;gl;bdk;

://t
B mx^ EB mx^ (J}j;Jf;Fb

1. nrd;id 1. flY}h; khtl;lk;)
2. J}j;Jf;Fb 2. juq;fk;ghb 7. fPof;fiu
(ehfg;gl;bdk; (,uhkehjGuk;
khtl;lk;) khtl;lk;)
3. vz;Z}h; 3. ehfg;gl;bdk; s\V Vzkm
ps
4. Nfhbaf;fiu  kf;fisAk; kw;w nghUl;fisAk;>

(ehfg;gl;bdk; jghy;fisAk; Jhpj Ntfj;jpy;
khtl;lk;) nfhz;L nry;Yk; tpiy cah;e;j
5. Njtpg;gl;bdk; khh;f;fkhFk;. ,J cs;@h; gFjp>
htt
(,uhkehjGuk; tl;lhug; gFjp kw;Wk; Njrpa gd;dhl;L

khtl;lk;)
efuq;fisAk; ,izf;fpwJ.
16
AslB_
 jkpo;ehl;by; tpkhdj; jlq;fs; ey;y cjhd; jpl;lk;:
s
Kiwapy; mike;Js;sd. ,e;jpahtpy;  kpff; Fiwe;j nrytpy; Vio> vspa
Kk;ig> nly;ypf;F gpwF %d;whtJ
kf;fSk; tpkhdj;jpy; gazk; nra;tij
scg
nghpa tpkhd epiyak; nrd;idapy;
Nehf;fkhff; nfhz;L ,j;jpl;lk;
mike;Js;s tpkhd epiyakhFk;.
,e;jpahtpy; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ
 ePz;l J}u ntspehLfSf;Fr; nry;y
 jw;nghOJ ,j;jpl;lj;jpd;fPo;
Vh; ,e;jpah ,z;lh; Ne\dy; vd;w
jkpofj;jpy; nrd;id jQ;rhT+h; tpkhdg;
mikg;Gk; tpkhdq;fis ,af;fp
tUfpd;wJ. Nghf;Ftuj;J njhlq;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
np
 ,yq;if> n[h;kdp> [fhu;j;jh>  jkpo;ehl;by; gd;dhl;L kw;Wk;
kNyrpah> ,q;fpyhe;J> khyj;jPTfs;> cs;ehl;L tpkhd epiyaq;fs; tpkhd
rTjp kw;Wk; rpq;fg;g+h; Mfpa Nritfis toq;fp tUfpwJ.
ehLfSf;F nrd;idapypUe;J Neub
[V| s\V c^V| s\V
Nghf;Ftuj;J Nrit eilngWfpwJ.
jkpo;ehl;by; cs;s Kf;fpa gd;dhl;L
tpkhd epiyak; V s\V
WB\VzD. ,t;tpkhd epiyak;
e/t WB^
1. nrd;id
(mz;zh)
WB^
1. nrd;id
(fhkuh[h;)
2. Nfhak;Gj;J}h; 2. kJiu
19 ehLfSf;fhd tpkhdg; Nghf;F
.m
3. jpUr;rp 3. Nryk;
tuj;J Nrit Ghpfpd;wJ.
 ,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpa efuq;fshd 4. J}j;Jf;Fb
Kk;ig> nly;yp kw;Wk; nfhy;fj;jh >k_ \VuD
Mfpad nrd;idAld; tpkhd  vz;zq;fisAk;> jfty;fisAk;
topahf ,izf;fg;gl;L cs;sd. ghpkhwpf; nfhs;Sk; topKiwNa
://t
,Nj Nghy; jpUtde;jGuk;> ngq;f@ jfty; ghpkhw;wkhFk;.

h;> i`juhghj; MfpadTk;  ,j;jfty; ghpkhw;wk; ,Utifg;gLk;.
nrd;idAld; tpkhd khh;f;fkhf mit
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.  1. jdpg;gl;l jfty; ghpkhw;wk;
 2. nghJj; jfty; ghpkhw;wk;
ps
htt
17
AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
>tV| xB mx^ \uD s\V WB^
18
AslB_
>M >k_ Vm >k_  jdpahh; njhiynjhlh;G Nrit
s
\VuD \VuD epWtdq;fshtd : ghujp ,d;‡Ngh>
mQ;ry; ,it muR nly;> lhlh> hpiyad;];> Nthl‡Nghd;>
scg
Nrit> je;jp> epWtdq;fshy; Vh;nry;> Ibah kw;Wk; Adpehh;.
njhiyNgrp> nray; gLj;jg;
ghuj; rQ;rhh; epfhkpd; Nritfs;:
,izajsk; gLfpwJ. mit
kpd; mQ;ry; nra;jp mr;Rj;Jiw thbf;ifahsh;fSf;F Nll;lh - xd;
kw;Wk; 1. Gj;jfq;fs; gpuhl;Ngz;l; vd;w ngahpd; %yk;
njhiyJ}u efy; 2. gj;jphpf;iffs; ,izajs trjpia toq;FfpwJ. muR
MFk;. 3. E}y;fs;
np
4. ehNsLfs; kw;Wk; jdpahh; epWtdq;fs; %yk; Kd;
t[b m / gpd; gzk; nrYj;Jk; ifNgrp Nrit

 thndhyp> njhiyf;fhl;rp ngl;b> toq;fg;gLfpwJ.
njhiyj; njhlh;G> ifNgrp> kpd;dQ;ry;>
Bu V^
kpd;th;j;jfk;> nlypgphpz;lh;.
>V_ >] m
 jkpo;ehl;by; ehd;F
e/t
mQ;ry;
 ,e;jpa jfty; ghpkhw;wk; ,uz;L
Kf;fpa nraw;if Nfhs;fshd
1. ,e;jpa Njrpa nraw;iff;Nfhs;
khtl;lq;fspy; cs;sd.
(INSAT)
\D >\lD
.m
2. ,e;jpa njhiy Ez;Zh;T (IRS)
nrd;id nrd;id
Nkw;F kz;lyk; Nfhak;gj;J}u; nraw;iff;Nfhs; Mfpatw;wpd; %yk;
kj;jpa kz;lyk; jpUr;rp eilngWfpwJ.
njd; kz;lyk; kJiu  ,e;j ,uz;L nraw;iff; Nfhs;fSk;>
 jkpo;ehl;by; cs;s mQ;ry; je;jp
://t
jfty; ghpkhw;wj;ijj; jtpu> thdpiy

mYtyfq;fs;> mQ;ry; mYtyfq; Kd;dwptpg;gpw;Fk;> ,aw;if tsq;
fspd; vz;zpf;if kl;Lk; 12>115. fspd; Nkyhz;ikf;Fk; cjTfpwJ.
 ,e;jpahtpd; jfty; ghpkhw;wj;jpy;
ghuj;j rQ;rhh; epfhk; Kf;fpa Nrit  ]B kVVo WBD
nra;J tUfpwJ. ehL KOtjpYk; ,e;jpa thndhyp xypgug;G 1927k;
ps
Neubj; njhiy njhlh;Gf;F STD Mz;L njhlq;fg;gl;L cs;sJ. gpd;G

%yKk;> cs;@h; njhiy njhlh;Gf;F mJ mfpy ,e;jpa thndhyp vd;w
nghJ njhiyNgrp %yKk;> gd;dhl;L ngaiu 1986k; Mz;L ngw;wJ.
njhiy njhlh;Gf;F ISD %yKk;
htt
toptif nra;ag;gl;L cs;sJ.
••••••
19
s
scg
>tV| 
np

VD : AslB_
z] : \ k^ e/t
]BV  \ k^, >tV|  \k^
VA\
.m
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\
://t

>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V
FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z
ps

gB,
htt
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
AslB_
\ k^
s
scg
]BV - \ k^
\ k\ 1. tz;ly;kz;
 jhtuq;fspd; tsh;r;rpf;F Mjhukhd 2. fhpry; kz; (m) fUg;Gkz;
np
kz;zpYs;s rj;Jg; nghUl;fspd; 3. nrk;kz;
mstpidf; Fwpg;gJ kz;zpd; 4. ruis kz; (m) Nyl;iul; kz;
nrOik vdg;gLk;. 5. gPl;b kz; (m) kiykz; (m) fhl;L
 kz;zpYs;s ngUk; rj;Jg;
kz;
nghUl;fSk;> kz;zpd; nrOikia
eph;zapf;fpd;wd. kz;zpd; caphpg;
nghUl;fspd; msT mjpfhpf;f
e/t 6. ghiytd kz;
mjpfhpf;f kz;zpd; nrOikAk;

.m
mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
\K^ m^
B m t OB m
V^ V^
i`l;u[d;> fe;jfk;> FNshhpd;>
://t
nghl;lhrpak;> nrk;G> khq;fdP];>

gh];Ngl;fs; khyPg;bdk;>
Nghuhd;> ,Uk;G>
Nfhghy;L>
ps
Jj;jehfk;
xB \ k^
 ,e;jpahtpy; cs;s kz;iz>
mitfspd; gug;G kw;Wk; Ntshz;
htt
Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijg; nghWj;J Ie;J ]BV \ k^

tiffshfg; gphpf;fyhk;.

\ k A^ V|D z]^ cl m^ sD l^
tz;ly; kz; Mw;Wg;gbTfshy; cUthfpwJ. gQ;rhg;> `hpahdh> nghl;lh\; mhprp> NfhJik>
nts;sg;ngUf;fr; rkntsp> gPfhh;> Nkw;F kw;Wk; gh];gu]; fUk;G> vz;nza;
nly;lh kw;Wk; flw;fiu tq;fk;> fq;ifr; Fiwthff; tpj;Jf;fs; kw;Wk;
rkntsp Nghd;wtw;iw gba rkntsp> fpof;F fhzg;gLk; rzy;
itf;fpwJ. flw;fiu> kfhejp>
htt
,it mjpfk; fhzg;gLk; kz;. Nfhjhthp>
fhjh; - Gjpa tz;ly; gbT fpU\;zh> Nkw;F
ghq;fh; - goikahd tz;ly; flw;fiu> jg;jp -
gbT eh;kij
ps
ghgh; - ,uz;Lk; fye;jit.
fUg;G kz; (m) jPg;ghiwfspy; ,Ue;J kfhuh\;buh> ,Uk;G> ney;> NfhJik>
fhpry; kz; cUthdJ. jkpo;ehL> khq;fdP]; Nrhsk;> gUj;jp>
<ug;gjj;ij jf;f itf;Fk; jpwd; kj;jpag; gpuNjrk;> Rz;zhk;G> jpid tiffs;
://t
nfhz;lJ. Nfhjhthp> eh;kjh nghl;lhrpak;> kw;Wk; fUk;G
,k;kz; Rkhh; 6 kPl;lh; kw;Wk; jgjp Mw;Wg; mYkpdh
.m
Moj;jpw;F gbe;Js;sJ.
fUg;G epwk; Kjy; gOg;G epwk;
gs;sj;jhf;fpy;
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
epiwe;jJ.
iel;u[d;>
tiu fhzg;gl;L tUfpwJ. gh];gu];
Fiwe;jsT
nfhz;lJ.
nrk;kz; goq;fhyg; gbTg;ghiwfs; kw;Wk; jf;fhz gPlG+kpapd; iel;u[d;> NfhJik>
e/t
cUkhwpag; ghiwfs; njd;gFjp> Nkw;F gh];gu];> ney;> gUj;jp>
,Uk;Gr;rj;J mjpfstpy; njhlh;r;rp kiy> Rz;zhk;G gUg;G tiffs;>
fhzg;gLtjhy; nrk;kz; rptg;G rl;B];fh; FiwthfNt cUisf; fpoq;F>
epwkhf cs;sJ. cs;sJ. jpid tiffs;
np
epwk; gOg;G Kjy; kQ;rs; tiu kw;Wk; goq;fs;
NtWgl;Lf; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
Ez;Jfs;fis nfhz;L
cs;sjhy; <ug;gjj;ijj; jf;f
itj;Jf; nfhs;s Kbatpy;iy.

scg
AslB_
s
Nyl;iul; (m) mjpf ntg;gKk;> mjpf jkpo;ehL> Me;jpuh> fhy;rpak;> Njapiy> fhg;gp>
ruis kz; kiog;nghopT kw;Wk; twz;l Nfush> fh;ehlfh> nkf;dPrpak;> ,ug;gh;> Ke;jphp
fhyepiyiaf; nfhz;l m];]hkpd; rpy Nfush> Mfpait
gFjpfspy; fhzg;gLfpwJ. gFjpfs; fh;ehlfh>
ruis kz; Ez;Jfs;fisf; m];]hkpd; rpy
nfhz;bUg;gjhy; ,jpy; cs;s gFjpfs;
rpypfh mhpg;gpdhy; (Leaching)

htt
ePf;fg;gLfpwJ.
ghiykz; ,k;kz; ,aw;ifahfNt ,uh[];jhd;> gh];gu];> NfhJik> ney;>
ps kzyhfTk;> fhur;rj;ijg; F[uhj; kw;Wk; iel;u[d; ghh;yp> jpuhl;ir
ngw;wjhfTk;. Ez;Jfisf; njd; gQ;rhg; Fiwthf kw;Wk; jh;G+rzp
nfhz;ljhfTk; cs;sJ. cs;sJ. Nghd;wit.
,k;kz; tskpy;yhj kz;zhf
,Ue;jhYk;> ePh;ghrd trjpAld;
rpy gFjpfspy; Ntshz;ik
://t
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
mjpf ntg;gk; kw;Wk; Fiwe;j
.m
kioasT nfhz;l gFjpfspy;
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
gPl;b kz; mjpfkioAk;> NghJkhd kiy mbthuj;jpy; nghl;lhrpak; Gy;ntspfs;
tbfhy; trjpAk; ,y;yhj fhzg;gLk;. gh];Ngl; tpistjw;F Vw;w
,lj;jpy; cUthfpwJ. cj;jpufhz;l;> Fiwe;Nj kz;
cj;jpug; gpuNjrk;> fhzg;gLk;
e/t
gPfhh; kw;Wk; Nkw;F
tq;fk;
kiy kz; / caph;Ntjpg; nghUs;fs; Nkw;F kw;Wk; nghl;lhrpak;> goq;fs;> Njapiy>
np
fhl;L kz; rpijf;fg;gLtjhy; cUthfpwJ. fpof;F njhlh;r;rp gh];gu];> kw;Wk; fhg;gp
,iyr;rj;Jk;> rhk;gy; rj;Jk; kiyj; njhlh;fs; Rz;zhk;G
mjpfkhf cs;sJ. kw;Wk; ,kakiy Fiwe;J
,Uf;Fk;.

scg
AslB_
s
AslB_
\ A
s
,aw;if kw;Wk; kdpjdpd;
nray;ghLfshy; kz; ePf;fg;gLtJ kz;
scg
mhpg;G vdg;gLk;. kz; mhpg;gpd; jd;ik
kz;zpd; jd;ikiaAk;> kz;zpd; Jfs;
mikg;igAk; nghWj;Nj khWgL
-fpwJ. fhyepiy> epyj;jpd; rhpT> gaphpLk;
Kiw kw;Wk; ,ju fhuzpfisg; nghWj;Nj
mikfpwJ.
\ k VmVA
np
kz;tsj;ijj; jf;fitj;Jf;
nfhs;Stjw;fhf kdpjh;fs; vLf;Fk;
Kaw;rpNa kz;tsg; ghJfhg;ghFk;.
,jdhy; kz; mhpg;ig Kw;wpYk; jLf;f
,ayhJ.
e/t
••••••
.m
://t
ps
htt

AslB_
s
>tV|  \k^
scg
\ k^  fw;ghiwfspYs;s fdpk jhJf;fspd;
 GtpNahl;bd; Nkw;gFjpapy; cs;s %yk; ngwg;gLk; Ez;zpa
np
ghiwfis mhpg;gjd; fhuzkhf rj;Jf;fs; jhtuq;fspd; tsh;r;rpia
cUthFk; kpf Ez;zpa Jfs;fNs Cf;Ftpf;fpd;wJ.
kz; vdg;gLk;. tptrhaj;jpd;  xU nr.kP kz; cw;gj;jpahtjw;F E}W
tsh;r;rpiaj; jPh;khdpg;gjpy; kz;tsk; Mz;Lfs; Njitg;gLfpwJ.
Kf;fpag; gq;fpid Mw;WfpwJ. e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt

AslB_
\  ckVk>uzB V^ kz;zpy; cs;s ,iy kl;Fk;
s
1. x>[\ V : msitAk; jPh;khdpf;fpd;wd.
 Kjd;ikg; ghiwahy; 5. >VkD sD \uD OB
scg
jPh;khdpf;fg;gLk; gz;Gfs;> tz;zk;> cl^
Nkw;Gw jd;ik> ,urhadf; $Wfs;>  ,iy kl;Fk; msitAk;> Neuj;ijAk;
jhJf;fspd; msT> ePh; GFk; jd;ik. jPh;khdpf;fpd;wd.
2. VD >tV[ \ k^
 fhyk; kz; mLf;fpd; fdj;ij  jkpo;ehl;bd; kz; tsq;fis> mjd;
jPh;khdpf;fpd;wd. cUthf;fk;> kz; Jfs;fspd; msT>
np
3. W>VuD kw;Wk; epwk; Mfpatw;iwf; nfhz;L
 epyj;jpd; cauk; kw;Wk; rhpT kz; Ie;J tifahfg; gphpf;fyhk;. mit>
Ftpg;gpd; msit jPh;khdpf;fpwJ. 1. tz;ly; kz;
4. VW 2. fhpry; kz;
kiog;nghopthy; rpijTW jiyAk;>

e/t
 fhyepiyf; fhuzpfs; ntg;gk; kw;Wk;

3. nrk;kz;
4. JUf;fy; kz;
5. cth; kz;
.m
://t
ps
htt

\ k A^ V|D z]^ cl m^ sD l^
tz;ly; kz; tskhd kz;> flNyhug; gFjpfspYk;> ] ney;> fUk;G>
(Alluvial Soil) tz;ly; kz;Nz nly;lhg; gFjpfspYk; Rz;zhk;G> thio> kQ;rs;
vy;yhtw;wpYk; rpwg;G fhzg;gLfpwJ. nghl;lhrpak;>
tha;e;jJ. Vnddpy; jQ;rhT+h;> jpUth&h;> kf;dPrpak;
,jpy; tsUk; gaph;fs; ehfg;gl;bdk;> z>

htt
nropg;ghfTk;> ey;y tpOg;Guk;> flY}h;> iel;u[d;> gh];gu];
kf#y; jUgitahfTk; jpUney;Ntyp> kw;Wk; mkpyk;
,Uf;fpd;wd. fd;dpahFkhp
ps
fhpry; kz; ,J 65 Kjy; 85 Nfhak;Gj;J}h;> kJiu> ] gUj;jp kw;Wk;
(Black Soil) rjtPjk; tiu ,uhkehjGuk; kw;Wk; mYkpdpak;> Nrhsk;>
<ug;gjj;ij jpUney;Ntyp Rz;zhk;G> fhy;eil czT
jf;f itj;Jf; kf;dPrpak;> fk;Gk; Mfpait
://t
nfhs;sf;$ba jd;ik nghl;lhrpak; gaphplg;gL
nfhz;Ls;sJ. z> fpd;wd.
.m iel;u[d;
nrk;kz; ,k;kz; ePiu Kj;jpa khtl;lq;fspy; caph;rj;Jk; NfhJik> gUj;jp>
(Red Soil) Ntfkhf cwpQ;Rk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. jhtuq;fSf;Fj; gUg;G tiffs;
jd;ikAilaJ. rptfq;if> Njitahd
Mdhy; <ug;gjj;ij ,uhkehjGuk; Cl;lr;rj;Jk;
e/t
jf;f itj;Jf; Fiwthdjhf
nfhs;Sk; jd;ik cs;sd.
FiwT.
np
Rkhuhd tsk;
nfhz;l kz;
ePh;g;ghrd trjpAs;s
,lq;fspy; gaph;fs;
gaphplg;gLfpd;wd.

scg
AslB_
s
ruis kz; ,jpy; ,Uk;G Mf;i]L fhQ;rpGuk;> jpUts;@ jho;e;j gFjpfspy; ney;> ,Q;rp>
(Laterite Soil) fye;J fhzg;gLfpwJ. h;> jQ;rhT+h;> Nkw;F Ntshz;ikapd; kpsF kw;Wk;
mjpf kiog; nghopTk;> njhlh;r;rp kw;Wk; fPo; cs;s kz;zpy; thio
twz;l ntg;g fpof;F njhlh;r;rpapd; iel;u[d; rj;Jk;> gaphplg;gLfpwJ.
fhyKk; cs;s cah;e;j kiy cr;rp mjpf gh];gu];
gFjpfspy; ,k;kz; mkpyKk;

htt
cUthfpwJ. fhzg;gLk;.
,JNt caukhd
ps
gFjpfspy; cUthFk;
kz; kw;Wk; jho;e;j
gFjpfspy; cUthFk;
kz; vd;Wk;
gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
://t
cth; kz; ,k;kz; flw;fiu
.m Ntjhuz;aj;jpd; gh];gu];> fhy;rpak;> njd;id> ghh;yp>
(Saline Soil) Xuq;fspYk; kpff; ngUk;ghd;ik ry;gh;> Nghuhd; gUj;jp> gPd;];
Fiwe;j mstpy; gFjp> Nrhokz;ly
tbfhy; trjp flw;fiu> kw;Wk;
FiwthfTk;> xt;nthU flNyhu
e/t
Mtpahjy; khtl;lq;fspy; Rkhh;
mjpfkhfTk; 10 fp.kP gug;gpyhd
eilngWk; flNyhug; gFjp
np
gFjpfspYk;
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
••••••

scg
AslB_
s
s
scg
>tV| 
np

VD : AslB_
z] : \V |V|^ e/t
VA\
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\
.m
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\
://t
>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V

FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z
ps
gB,
htt
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
AslB_
s
\V |V|
scg
\V|>_ : (Pollution) Rw;Wr;R+oy; vDk; nrhy; nghJthf
np
 ehk; thOk; ,lj;jpd; ,aw;gpay;> ,aw;if R+o;epiyapid tpthpf;Fk;
Ntjpapay;> kw;Wk; caphpay; gz;Gfspy; nrhy;yhFk;.
Vw;gLk; tpUk;gj;jfhj> caphpfSf;F ,aw;ifr; R+oy; vdg;gLtJ ek;ikr;
jPq;F tpistpf;Fk; khw;wNk Rw;wpAs;s xl;L nkhj;j capUs;s
‘khRgLjy;” MFk;. ,k;khw;wk; epyk;>
ePh;> fhw;W vd vy;yh ,lj;jpYk;
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
\V|mD V^
e/t kw;Wk; capuw;w $Wfis Fwpg;gjhFk;.
 ,e;jpahtpy; gy;NtW tpjq;fspy;

khRf;fs; cUthfpd;wd. mit>
 R+o;epiy khRghl;bw;Ff; fhuzkhd 1. fhw;W khriljy;
.m
nghUl;fs; khRgLj;Jk; nghUl;fs; 2. ePh; khriljy;
(Pollutants) vdg;gLfpd;wJ. 3. epyk; khriljy;
uw_ \V>_ 4. xyp khRghL
 Rw;Wr;R+oy; khriljy; vd;gJ 5. caphp - kUj;Jtf;fopT khRghL
://t
Rw;Wr;R+oy; ghjpg;G miljy; MFk;. 6. fjphpaf;f khRghL

ps
htt

AslB_
1. Vu \V>_ (i) BulV_ u|D \VV|
s
 fhw;wpYs;s khRf;fs; ,aw;if  ,aw;ifapdhy; fhw;W khriljy;
ahYk;> kdpjh;fshYk; cz;lhf;fg; mjpfstpy; fpilahJ. NkYk;
scg
gLfpd;wd. jPq;F tpistpf;ff;$ba ,it Fiwthd ghjpg;GfisNa
nghUl;fs; ntspaplg;gLtjhy; kdpjh;fspd; MNuhf;fpaj;jpw;Fk;>
fhw;W khrilfpwJ. nghJthf Rw;Wr;R+oy; mikg;gpw;Fk;
,aw;ifapy; ekf;Ff; fpilf;Fk; Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
fhw;wpd; jd;ikfs; khRWk; NghJ V^
(,aw;gpay;> Ntjpapay; Kiwfshy;) 1. vhpkiy ntbg;G
np
mjid fhw;W khRWjy; vd;fpNwhk;. 2. fhw;whpg;G
3. kfue;jg; guty;
4. caphpfspd; $l;Lg; nghUl;fs;
Mtpahjy; cz;lhFk; thA
e/t 5. mZf;fjph; tPr;R
 ,aw;ifapdhy; khrilAk;> fhw;W
mjpfg; ghjpg;ig cz;lhf;FtJ
,y;iy.
.m
(ii) \M>V_ u|D \VV|
 kdpjh;fshy; gy;NtW khRghLfs;
cz;lhfpwJ. kf;fs; njhifg;
ngUf;fk; mjpfhpf;f mjpfhpf;f
 fhw;W khRghL kf;fspd; khRghL mjpfhpj;Jf; nfhz;Nl
://t
eytho;tpidg; ghjpf;fpwJ. nry;fpwJ.

xt;nthUehSk; kdpjd; ruhrhpahf V^
2200 Kiw Rthrpf;fpd;whd;. xU 1. thfdq;fspypUe;J ntspNaWk;
ehSf;F 16 fpNyh fpuhk; fhw;iw fhh;gd; Gif
Rthrpf;fpwhd;. jPq;F tpistpf;ff;
ps
2. mdy; kpd; epiyaq;fspypUe;J

$bait thAf;fshfNt my;yJ
ntspNaWk; fhh;gd; Gif
Ez;nghUl;fshfNth ,Uf;fyhk;.
3. njhopyfq;fspypUe;J ntspNaWk;
fhw;W khRiljiy ,uz;L
fhh;gd; Gif
htt
tiffspy; tifg;gLj;jyhk;. mit>

4. Rj;jpfhpg;G MiyfspypUe;J
 ,aw;ifapdhy; Vw;gLk; khRghL
ntspNaWk; fhh;gd;
 kdpjh;fshy; Vw;gLk; khRghL

AslB_
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
\VV^[ B D s^
fhh;gd; Nkhdhf;irL vhpnghUs; vhpj;jy; kdpj `PNkhFNshgpDs;
,ize;J fhh;ghf;rp `pNkh
://t
FNshgpd; Mtjhy; kuzk;.

fhpa kpy thA (co2) epyf;fhp> ngl;Nuhy;> tpwF cyfk; ntg;gkiljy;
vhpj;jy;
iel;u[d; Mf;irL thfdg; Gif mkpy kio
fe;jf-il-Mf;irL fe;jfk; vhpjy; Gw;WNeha;> M];Jkh> fz;
ps
vhpr;ry;
fhh;gd; Jfs; epyf;fhp vhpjy; fUg;G EiuaPuy; Neha;
FNshNuh GSNuh fhh;gd; F s p h ; r h j d g ; n g l ; b XNrhd; Xl;il> Gw;WNeha;
htt
(CFC) fiug;ghd;
kPijy; INrh raidL Nghghy;-A+dpad; fhh;igL caph;g;gyp> gpwtp FiwghL
(MIC) epWtdk;

AslB_
Vu \VVV_ \M>z nky;ypa glykhff; fhzg;gLk;
s
u|D gm^ XNrhd; glyk; jPik tpistpf;Fk;
 fhw;wpy; cs;s khRf;fis #hpadpd; Gw Cjhf; fjph;fis
scg
Rthrpg;gjd; %yk; kdpjh;fSf;F fpufpf;fpwJ.
jPq;F tpisfpwJ.  XNrhd; vd;gJ fpNuf;fr; nrhy;>
 ePh;> czT kw;Wk; Njhy; %yk; CLUtp mjd; nghUs; ‘kzk;’.
njhw;WNehia cz;lhf;FfpwJ. Xl;ilg; gug;G 20 kp.r.fp.kP
 fhw;wpy; cs;s khRf;fis fz;lwpe;jth; thd; k&k;
,uj;jf;Foha; kw;Wk; %r;Rf;Foy; fz;lwpe;j ,lk; mz;lhh;bfh
np
%yk; cs;Ns Eioe;J kdpjh;fSf;F ngah; #l;bath; \hd; gPd;
Rthrf; NfhshW> EiuaPuy;> fz;Lgpbg;G 1984/NASA
xt;thik> ,jaNeha; Nghd;wtw;wpw;F
302 - 203
fhuzkhfpwJ.
e/t XNrhd;
xB Vu \V^
 fe;jf-il-Mf;i]L (SO2) {V[ D ak>V_ u|D
 iel;u[d; Mf;i]L (NO) V]A^
 fhh;gd; NkhNdh Mf;i]L (CO) 1. Neha; vjph;g;G rf;jp FiwT
.m
 fhh;gd; Gif mjpfstpy; ntspNaWk; 2. fz; Neha;
ehLfspy; ,e;jpah 5-tJ ,lj;jpy; 3. Njhy; Gw;WNeha;
cs;sJ.
FNshNuh GSNuh fhh;gd;: (CFC)
VV_ sm
XNrhd; glyj;ij Fsph;rhjdg;
 cyfpy; epfo;e;j njhopyfg; Nguoptpy;>
://t
nghUl;fspy; gad;gLj;Jk; CFC

1984-k; Mz;L brk;gh; Nghghy;
Nrjg;gLj;jp tUfpwJ.
thAf;frpT kpf Nkhrkhd tUe;jjf;f
epfo;thFk;. ,jpy; 8000 kf;fs; O3+ Clfc-O2+ clo+F
caphpoe;jdh;.  XNrhd; xU epwKs;s thA (ePy
ps
Vu \VVV_ u|D epwk;)

y\^ t\w
1. {V[ |z a 1852-y; Kjd;Kjypy; mkpy kio
{V[ fz;lwpag;gl;lJ. thfdq;fspypUe;J
htt
 tspkz;lyj;jpy; Gtpapd; Nkw; tUk; Gif> epyf;fhp vhpf;fg;gLtjd;

gug;gpypUe;J 24-40 fp.kP cauj;jpw;F %ykhfTk;> ntspNaWk; fz;Zf;Fj;

AslB_
njhpahj thAf;fs; %yk; mkpy kio Nkw;fz;l thAf;fs; ePuhtpNahL Nrh;e;J
s
Vw;gLfpwJ. ,J kpfg;nghpa Rw;Wr;#oy; Mf;]p[d; kw;Wk; #hpa xspahy; ePh;j;j
gpur;rpidahFk;. fe;jf kw;Wk; iel;hpf; mkpykhf khWfpwJ.
scg
,e;jf; fyit kioahFk; NghJ 't
\w’ vdg;gLfpwJ.
Bu V^
 jP kw;Wk; nghUl;fs; mOFtjhy;
Vw;gLk; thAf;fs;
 gpshq;ld;:
np
mkpy kioapdhy; flypYs;s kpf
Ez;zpa caphpfshd gpshq;ld; caph;
tho ,ayhJ. kPd; czthd gpshq;ld;
,y;yhtpl;lhy; fly;tho; caphpdq;fs;
e/t ghjpf;fg;gLk;. NkYk; czTr; rq;fpypAk;
ghjpf;fg;gLk;. fly;ntg;gk; mjpfhpj;jhy;
gtsg;ghiwfspd; tsh;r;rp ghjpf;fg;gLk;.
t\wz V\V kV^ s^
 fe;jf-il-Mf;i]L  kz; mkpykhjy;: kz;zpd;
.m
 iel;u[d; rj;J mhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. #o;epiy
 iel;u[d; Mf;i]L kz;lyk; ghjpf;fg;gLk;> caphpdk;
nfhy;yg;gLk;.
://t
ps
htt

AslB_
 ePh; mkpykhjy;: MW> Fsk;
s
mkpyjd;ik miljy;> tpyq;fpdq;
fspd; XLfs; gytPdk; miljy;>
scg
ePh;tho; jhtuk;> tpyq;Ffs; ,wj;jy;.
 kdpj eyk; nfLjy;: epyj;jb ePh;
tPzhjy;> fz;> Njhy; vhpr;ry;
cz;lhjy;.
 fl;blq;fs; ghjpg;G: Rz;zhk;gpdhy;
fl;lg;gl;l ghuk;ghpa fl;blq;fs;
np
rpijjy;> fl;blq;fs; mhpj;J Nghjy;.
jh[;k`hypd; Nky; mkpykio  \V|>KV V^
nghoptjhy; mjd; epwk; khwpf; 1. >VauV a^
nfhz;Nl tUfpwJ.  njhopw;rhiyfspypUe;J ntsptUk;
 fhLfspd; Nky; mkpy kionghopAk;

NghJ fhLfs; ghjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
e/t Rj;jpfhpf;fg;glhj fopTfs; jpdKk;
ePh; epiyfspy; Nrh;f;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 Mh;nrdpf;> fhl;kpak;> jhkpuk;>
 flypd; mkpykiog;nghoptpd; FNuhkpak;> ghjurk;> Jj;jehfk;> epf;fy;>
fhuzkhf dy \uD
.m
ePhpy; er;Rj; jd;ikia mjpfhpj;J
>\V[ yK^ 70% k kdpj gad;ghl;bw;F Mfhjjhfr;
V^ mope;J tpl;ld. nra;fpd;wd.
khz;l;hpay; kw;Wk; tpad;dh xg;ge;jk;: ttV VF
30 ehLfs; cs;s ,f;$l;lj;jpy;  [g;ghdpy; 1952-y; ghjurk; ePhpy; fye;J
://t
FNshNuh ‡G@Nuh fhh;gd; (CFC) kPj;ijy; nkh;Fhp (eQ;R) Mdjhy; ePh;

gad;ghl;bidf; Fiwj;J XNrhd; tho; caphpdq;fs; ,we;jd
glyj;ij ghJfhg;gJ vd;gJ ,jd; 2. \_ \ A
Nehf;fk; MFk;.  tptrha epyq;fspypUe;J ntspNaw;wg;
gLk; G+r;rpf;nfhy;ypfs; ,urhad
ps
2.  \V|>_ cuk; fye;j ePh;> fhy;eil fopTfs;>

 tpUk;gj;jfhjg; nghUl;fspd; fpuhkg;Gw njhopw;rhiy ntspNaw;Wk;
Nrh;f;ifahy; ePhpy; Vw;gLk; ,aw;gpay;> $l;Lg;nghUs;fs; tptrha ghrd ePh;
Ntjpapay; khw;wq;fspdhy; kdpj khRgLjYf;F fhuzkhfpd;wd.
htt
tho;tpy; ePiu gad;gLj;j Kbahj 3. F a^

epiy vw;gLkhapd; mjid ePh;  vjph;ghuhj tpjkhf Vw;gLk;
khRgLjy; vd;fpNwhk;. vz;nza;f; fg;gy; tpgj;J>

AslB_
vz;nza;f; fpzWf; frpT> flypd;  rl;lg;gbahd eltbf;iffs; vLf;f
s
Nkw;gug;ig mRj;jg;gLj;Jfpd;wd. Ntz;Lk;.
,jdhy; fly;ePUk;> fopKfq;fSk; 3. WD \V|>_
scg
khRgl;L fly; caphpdq;fSf;Fg;  efuf;fopTfs; Xhplj;jpy; nfhl;lg;
ngUk; jPq;F Vw;gLfpd;wd. gLtjhYk;> rhf;fil milgl;L>
4. V a^ cilgl;L ,Ug;gjhYk;> G+r;rpf;
 rhf;filf; fopTfs; mjpf mstpw;Fg; nfhy;yp gad;gLj;JtjhYk;
nghUl;fisAk; blh;n[d;L fisAk; vz;nza; kw;Wk; vhpnghUs; nfhl;lg;
nfhz;L ,Uf;Fk;. gLtjhYk; njhopyff; fopTfs;
np
A+l;NuhgpNf\d; (EUTROPHICATION) Neubahf kz;zpy; fyg;gjhYk; epyk;
ePhpy; mjpfsT Cl;lr;rj;J mjpfkhfp khrilfpwJ.
>|zD ka^
jhtuq;fs; nropj;J tsUk;. ,jdhy;
 tPl;Lf;fopTfis kWgad;ghL kw;Wk;
ePhpd; Nkw;gug;G KOtJk;> %lg;gl;L ePhpy;
O2 msT FiwAk;. ,jd; tpisthf
ePh;tho; tpyq;Ffs; ,wf;fpd;wd. ,J
e/t kWRow;rp nra;ayhk;.
 ,uhradf; fopTfis kWRow;rp
%yk; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
A+l;NuhgpNf\d; (EUTROPHICATION) 4. o \V>_
vdg;gLk;.  kdpjh;fs; my;yJ ,ae;jpuq;fspdhy;
.m
Alagal Bloom: (My;fy; G@k;) Vw;gLk; xyp Rw;Wg;Gwr; #oy;
ePh; epiyfspy; mjpfstpy; Mfhaj; nray;ghLfSf;F ,ilA+whf
jhkiu (Icornia) tsh;tjhy; ePh;tho; cs;sJ. kdpj kw;Wk; tpyq;F fspd;
caphpdq;fs; Mf;]p[d; jl;Lghlhy; rkepiyiag; ghjpf;fpwJ. ,jid
://t
,we;J tpLfpd;wd. ‘xyp khriljy;” vd;fpNwhk;.

 Njitaw;w rg;jk; kdpjh;fsJ
 \V|> ||m>_
MNuhf;fpak; kw;Wk; kdepiyia;g
 mstpw;F mjpfkhfg; gad;gLj;jg;
ghjpf;Fk;. mjpfkhd mOj;jk;>
gLk; G+r;rpf;nfhy;yp> fisf;nfhy;yp
glglg;G> Nfl;Fk; jpwd; Fiwjy;
ps
kw;Wk; ,urhad cuk; gad;ghl;il

Nghd;w jPikfis mjpf xyp
jtph;f;f Ntz;Lk;. fopT ePhpid
Vw;gLgLj;JfpwJ.
ePh; epiyfspy; ntspNaw;Wk; Kd;
ol[ :
Rj;jpfhpf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,JNt fopT
 kdpjdpd; nrtpahy; 20Hz Kjy;
htt
ePh; Rj;jpfhpg;G vdg;gLk;.

20,000Hz tiu mjph;ntz;fis
 kf;fs; kj;jpapy; tpopg;Gzh;T
cila xyp miyfis Nfl;L czu
Vw;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
KbfpwJ.

AslB_
s
scg
np
||mD ka^ 6. ]B \VV|
 gRik kz;lyq;fis cUthf;Ftjd; e/t  fjphpaf;fg; nghUl;fshd Nubak;>
%yk; xyp msitf; Fiwf;fyhk;. Njhhpak;> ANudpak; Nghd;wtw;why;
 neLQ;rhiy Xuq;fspYk;> kf;fs; fhw;W> ePh;> epyk; ghjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
$l;lk; mjpfKs;s ,lq;fspYk; s^
nlrpgy; kPl;lh; fUtpfisg;  caphpdq;fspy; jpBh; khw;wj;ijj;
.m
nghUj;jyhk;. (Mutation) J}z;LfpwJ.
 tPLfs;> gs;spfs;> kUj;Jtkidfs;  V[EBD  92 vYk;G Gw;WNeha;
Nghd;w ,lq;fspy; kjpw;Rtiu xl;b cz;lhf;Fk;.
kuq;fs; tsh;ffyhk;.  mNahbd; - 131 - vYk;G k[;i[>
kz;zPuy; jhf;Fjy; ,uj;jg; Gw;WNeha;
://t
5. cl  \mk a^

 capUf;F Mgj;jhd Neha;fisg; cz;lhf;Fk;.
gug;gf;$baJ.
2010-k; Mz;L Vg;uy; khj

••••••
njhlf;fj;jpy; nly;yp kUj;Jtkidapy;
ps
fjphpaf;f rpfpr;irahfg; gad;gLj;jg;

gl;l ,ae;jpuj;ij (COBALT– 60A)
fopTg; nghUl;fs; nfhl;Lk; ,lj;jpw;F
mDg;gpdh;. fjphpaf;f ,ae;jpuj; jpdhy;
htt
mq;F Ntiy nra;jth; fSf;F ,wg;G

Vw;gl;lJ.

s
scg
>tV| 
np

VD : AslB_
z] : k\D e/t
kVM \uD VW, Asl[ k\D, Asl[
kW \uD k_, k\ > \^,
Vu^, Vk^ \uD ]Vk^, k\ ~>D,
VWl[ k^
.m
VA\
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
://t

\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\
>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V
FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
ps
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z


htt
gB,
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
AslB_
k\D
s
scg
kVM \uD VW
kVM (weather) (climate)
np
VW
xU Fwpg;gpl;l ,lj;jpy; 24 kzp Neuj;jpw;Fs; nghJthf xU ePz;l fhyj;jpy; kw;Wk;
epyTk; tspkz;lyj;jpd; epiyahFk;. xU ngUk; gug;gstpy; fhzg; gLk;
thdpiyapd; ruhrhp MFk;.
e/t
ntg;gk;> fhw;wOj;jk;> <ug;gjk;> kioasT> xU jpl;lkhd ruhrhp fhyk; vd;gJ 30
Nkf%l;lk;> fhw;wpd; Ntfk; kw;Wk; mjd; Mz;LfshFk;.
jpir Mfpatw;why; tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ
- fhyepiy vd;w nrhy; '\V” vd;w
.m
fpNuf;fr; nrhy;ypUe;J ngwg;gl;lJ.
nghUs; : om sz>_.
://t
ps
htt
VWl[ >Vu^

AslB_
s
scg
np
VW V^
kVM \uD VWB

y\VMzD V^:
1. 
e/t NkYk; mit Fiwe;jsT ntg;gj;jpidNa
fpufpf;Fk; jd;ikf; nfhz;ljhYk; MFk;.
oom #D: V VW
epyeLf;Nfhl;Lg; gFjpahdJ #hpadpd; () V] VW:
.m
ntg;gf; fjph;fis Neh;f;fjph;fshfg; flyhdJ jhkjkhf ntg;gkile;J>
ngWfpd;wJ. mit xU rpwpa gug;gpy; kl;LNk fpufpj;j ntg;gj;jpid ntspapl ePz;l
tpOfpd;wd. JUtg; gFjpfspy; #hpadpd; Neuk; vLj;Jf;nfhs;Sk;. flw;fiuNahug;
rha;Tf; fjph;fisg; ngWfpd;wd. NkYk; gFjpfspy; Fsph;e;j <ug;gjk; epiwe;j fhw;W
mit ngUk; gug;gstpy; tpOfpd;wd. Mz;L KOtJk; tPRtjhy; Nfhil kw;Wk;
://t
,jd; tpisthf epyeLf;Nfhl;Lg; Fsph;fhyq;fspy; epyTk; jl;gntg;gj;jpid

gFjpapy; JUtg; gFjpfisf; fhl;bYk; khw;wpaikf;fpd;wd. ,t;tifahd
ntg;gk; mjpfkhff; fhzg;gLfpwJ. fhyepiy V VW vdg;gLk;.
2. cBD ysVW ()
ps
kiyfs; kw;Wk; kiyj;njhlh;fshy; VW:

khWghL milfpd;wd. caukhd epyg;gug;ghdJ Ntfkhf ntg;gKk;>
gFjpfspy; mike;Js;s ,lq;fs; rkntspg; Fsph;r;rpAk; milfpd;wJ. cs;ehl;L
gFjpfis tpl Fsph;e;J fhzg;gLfpd;wd. epyg;gug;ghdJ mg;NghJ twz;l
htt
,jw;Ff; fhuzk;> kiyfspy; fhw;wpd; ntg;gf;fhw;wpid czh;fpwJ. mq;Ff;

mlh;j;jp Fiwthff; fhzg;gLtjhYk; Nfhilapy; ntg;gk; fLikahfTk; kw;Wk;

AslB_
Fsph;fhyj;jpy; Fsph; fLikahfTk; RfkhdjhfTk; khw;wpaikj;Js;;sJ.
s
epyTfpwJ. ,t;tifahd fhyepiy jPtpuf; s^:
fhyepiy vdg;gLk;.  Gtp ntg;gkhjy; (Global Warming),
scg
3. _WV s (El Nino) : gRq;Fby; tpisT (Green House
 gUtf;fhw;W ngha;j;J Nghtjw;F Effect), khriljy; (Pollution)
Kf;fpa fhuzpahf tpsq;FfpwJ. Nghd;witAk; fhpakpy thAit
(CO2) fhw;wpy; mjpfhpj;J efu
vy;epNdh → ];ghdpa nkhop ntg;gj;jPTfis (Urban Heat Island)
nghUs; ‘zw> ”. cUthf;FfpNwhk;.
np
5. kW
 Rkhh; 5 Kjy; 6 Mz;LfSf;F Gtp kpff; Fiwe;jsT #hpa fjph;
xU Kiw ntg;gepiyahdJ ngU tPriyNa ngWfpd;wJ. NkYk; ,J Gtpapd;
kw;Wk; <f;tlhh; ehl;Lf; flw;fiu Nkw;gug;ig mila 8 epkplq;fs; vLj;Jf;
Nahuq;fspy; Jhpjkhf ,Ug;gjhy;
mq;Fj; jho;T kz;lykhdJ
Vw;gLfpd;wJ. ,J midj;J jpir
e/t nfhs;fpwJ. #hpadplkpUe;J tUk; #hpa
fjph;tPrNy ntg;gk; vdg;gLfpwJ.
ntg;g Mw;wiy #hpadplkpUe;J %d;W
fspypUe;Jk;> fhw;wpid <h;f;fpd;wJ.
topfspy; ngwg;gLfpwJ.
,jd; tpisthf grpgpf; Nguhop kw;Wk;
.m
1. fjph;tPry; (Radiation) KiwapYk;
,e;jpag; Nguhopfspy; tpahghuf;
fhw;Wfs; tYtpoe;J jpir tpyf;f 2. epyj;jpy; flj;jy; (Conduction)
kiltjhy;> ePz;l twl;rpahd 3. ePhpy; ntg;gr; rydk; (Convection)
epiyia ,e;jpahtpy; Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.  tspkz;lykhdJ #hpaf;fjph; tPriy
tpl (Insolation) Gtpf; fjph;tPryhy;
://t
4. \M>M[ g]D:
 njhopw;Gul;rpapd; nghpa khw;wq; (Terrastrial Radiation) mjpfk;
fspdhy; fhLfs; mopf;fg;gl;L> ,e;j ntg;gkilfpwJ
tsh;r;rpahdJ> ek; tho;f;ifapd;
Nghf;fpidr; RygkhdjhfTk;>
ps
••••••
htt

AslB_
s
Asl[ k\D
scg
 Gtpapd; tspkz;lyk; thAf;fshy;  \> kV^: tsp kz;lyj;jpy;
#og;gl;Ls;sJ. ,it Gtp <h;g;G ,it Fiwe;j msNt fhzg;gLfpwJ.
np
tpirapdhy; epiy epWj;jg; mit
gl;Ls;sd. 1. Mh;fhd;
 tspkz;lyj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; Kf;fpa 2. fphpg;lhd;
thAf;fshdJ. 3. fhh;gd;il Mf;i]L
 iel;u[d
 Mf;]p[d;
→ 78%
→ 21%
 ke;j thAf;fs; → 1%
e/t 4. epahd;
5. `Pypak;
6. xNrhd;
 ,e;j ke;j thAf;fs; jtpu ePuhtp
.m
kw;Wk; J}Rf;fSk; tspkz;lyj;jpy;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,itNa
thdpiy khw;wj;jpw;F fhuzkhf
mikfpd;wd.
://t
 tspkz;lyj;jpd; cauj;jpw;F
Vw;g thAf;fspd; msthdJ
NtWgLfpd;wJ. mit G+kpapd;
Nkw;gug;gpd; mUfpy; mlh;j;jp
mjpfkhfTk;> cauk; mjpfhpf;f
ps
mjpfhpf;f mlh;j;jp Fiwe;Jk;

fhzg;gLfpwJ.
 tspkz;lyk; mjd; gz;Gfspd;
mbg;gilapy; ehd;F mLf;Ffshfg;
htt
gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ. mit.
D 8.1 : k\ |z

AslB_
1. mbaLf;F (Troposphere) kVMlB_:
s
2. gilaLf;F (Stratosphere) tspkz;lyj;ijg; gw;wp gbf;Fk;
mwptpayhFk;> NkYk; tspkz;lyj;jpd;
scg
3. madpaLf;F (Ionosphere)
4. ntspaLf;F (Exosphere) fPo; mLf;fpy;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyj;jpy;
epfOk; thdpiy khw;wq;fis cw;W
Nehf;FtjhFk;.
|z #D A^ (Properties)
np
(cBD)
 |z 0-18 fp.kP.  thdpiy %yq;fshd ntg;gepiy> fhw;W>
(VVB) JUtg; fhw;wpd; mOj;jk;> Nkfq;fspd; cUthf;fk;
gFjpapy; kw;Wk; kiog;nghopT Mfpa midj;J
8fp.kP. tiu khw;wq;fSk; ,t;tLf;fpy; eilngWfpd;wd.
e/t
 midj;J caphpay; (Biologial) nray;ghLfSk;
,q;F eilngWfpwJ.
 ,q;F xt;nthU 165 kPf;Fk; 10C ntg;gk;
FiwfpwJ. cBD ]uz u kW
.m
zkm > |z \|\BVzD.
 |z -  mb mLf;ifAk;> gil mLf;ifAk;
(VV V) gphpf;fpwJ.
*k |z 18 Kjy; 80  ,t;tLf;F \k |z () {V[ |z
://t
(VVB) fp.kP tiu MFk;.

 n[l; tpkhdq;fs; ,e;j mLf;fpy; jhd;
gazpf;fpd;wd.
 gilaLf;fpd; cr;rp tpspk;gpy; XNrhd; thA
mjpfstpy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
 {V[
ps
 ,it #hpadplkpUe;J tUk; Gw Cjhf;fjph;fis

tbfl;b nfLjy;fspypUe;J ghJfhf;fpd;wJ.
 tbfl;lg;glhj fjph;fshdJ caphpdq;fspd;
jpRf;fis mopf;Fk; Mw;wy; nfhz;lit.
htt
Gtpapd; kPJ thOk; midj;J caphpdq;fSf;Fk;

XNrhd; thA kpf Kf;fpakhdjhFk;.

AslB_
*k B|z -  kPtsp mLf;fpw;Fk;> kPNrh];gpah; mLf;Ff;Fk;
s
(VVV) ,ilg;gl;l gFjp MFk;.
B|z 50 Kjy; 80  tspkz;lyj;jpd; Fsph;r;rpahd mLf;F>
scg
(*VB) fp.kP. ,q;F ntg;gk; - 900C msTf;F ,Uf;fpwJ.
k\ |z 80 fp.kP.  fhw;W kpf nky;ypa mstpy; fhzg;gLtjhy;
(>\VB) kw;Wk; ntg;gk; 20000C msT ,Uf;fpwJ. ,J madp
mjw;F mLf;ifAk;> tspkz;ly ntspaLf;ifAk;
Nky; cs;slf;fpaJ.
np
BM |z 80 fp.kP.  madpaLf;F vd miof;fg;gLtjw;fhd
(Ionosphere) Kjy; 500 fhuzk; tspkz;lyj;jpd; ,g;gFjpapy; #Hpaf;
fp.kP. fjph;fs; kpd;nrwpT+l;lg;gLtjhyhFk; (Ions).
 ,it thndhyp miyfis G+kpf;Fj; jpUg;gp
mDg;Gtjhy; etPdj; njhiy njhlh;gpw;F
e/t
kpfTk; cjTfpd;wJ.
 xU jpwd; nghd;ndw;wiof;fg;gLk; (Aurous)
tz;z kakhd fhl;rpaikg;Gk; tlNfhsj;jpy;
tlKid tsnuhsp (Northern lights) my;yJ
.m
tlJUt tpz;nzhsp (Aurora Borealis)
 njd;Nfhsj;jpy; njd;Kid tsnuhsp
(Southern lights) my;yJ njd;JUt
tpz;nzhsp (Aurora Australis) MfpaitAk;
,q;Nf fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
://t
k\ 650 fp.kP.  ntg;gk; kpf mjpfkhff; fhzg;gLk;. ,e;j

kB|z kw;Wk; mLf;fpy; jhd; nraw;iff; Nfhs;fs; G+kpiar;
(Exosphere) mjw;F Rw;wp tUfpd;wd.
Nky;  ,t;tLf;F ngUksT i`l;u[d; kw;Wk;
ps
`Pypak; thAf;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.

 ,it mz;l ntspapy; Gwg;gFjpahfNt
fUjg;gLfpd;wJ.
htt
••••••

AslB_
s
Asl[ kW
scg
\uD k_
 #hpadpd; xspf;fjph;fshy; Gtp  xU tUlj;jpy; Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy;
ntg;gkiltijAk;> Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;G
np
mike;Js;s xU Fwpg;gpl;l ,lk;
ngw;w ntg;gj;jhy; tspkz;lyk; ngw;w ntg;gKk;> ,oe;j ntg;gKk;
ntg;gkiltijAk; czh;fpNwhk;. Vwj;jho rkkhf cs;sJ. ,jidNa
gy kpy;ypad; Mz;Lfshf Gtp Gtpapd; ntg;gr;rkepiy vd;fpNwhk;.
#hpadhy; ntg;gg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. Asl[ kW \VV|:
MapDk; Gtpapd; ntg;gepiy xNu
rPuhf ,Uf;fpwJ. ,jw;Ff; fhuzk;
Gtp #hpadplkpUe;J ngWk; ntg;g
e/t  Gtp KOtJk;
ntg;gj;ijg;
Gtp KOtjpYk;
#hpadplkpUe;J
ngw;wNghjpYk;>
xNu rPuhd
mstpw;F Vw;g kPz;Lk; mNj msT ntg;gepiy epyTtjpy;iy. Gtpapd;
.m
ntg;gj;ij tpz;ntspf;Fj; jpUg;gp epyeLf;Nfhl;Lg; gFjpapd;
mDg;GfpwJ. ntg;gepiy mjpfkhfTk;> JUtg;
gFjpia Nehf;fpr; nry;Yk; NghJ
 Nfhilf;fhyj;jpy; #hpadpd; xspf; ciwepiyf;Ff; FiwthfTk;.
fjph;fs; nrq;Fj;jhf ,Ug;gjhYk;>
://t
Fiwe;J fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,jw;F

gfy; Neuk; ePz;ljhf ,Ug;gjhYk; ,uz;L kpf Kf;fpaf; fhuzq;fs;
Gtp ngWfpd;w ntg;gj;jpd; msT cs;sd. mit>
mjpfkhf cs;sJ. vdNt Nfhil
1. #hpaf; fjph;fs; Gtp Nkw;gug;gpd;
fhyk; mjpf ntg;gkhf cs;sJ.
kPJ tpOk; Nfhzk;>
 Fspf;fhyj;jpy; #hpadpd; xspf;
ps
2. #hpaf; fjph;fs; Gtp Nkw;gug;gpd;

fjph;fs; rha;thf ,Ug;gjhYk;>
kPJ tpOk; fhy msT
gfy; Neuk; Fiwthf ,Ug;gjhYk;>
Gtp ngWfpd;w ntg;gj;jpd;
1. B ]^ As \u[
msT Fiwthf cs;sJ. vdNt *m sD VD:
htt
Fsph;fhyj;jpy; ntg;gk; Fiwthf  Gtp Nfhs tbtpy; ,Ug;gjhy;> #hpaf;

cs;sJ. fjph;fs; Gtpapd; vy;yhg; gFjpfspYk;>
xNu Nfhzj;jpy; tpOtjpy;iy. #hpa

AslB_
s
mk cB > \D
scg
mk cB > \D
m mk >Vk> \D
m B cBk> \D
\]B >Vk> \D
np
m B cBk> \D
m mk >Vk> \D
e/t
mk cB > \D
kW \VV|
.m
xspf;fjph;fspd; Nfhzk; G+kj;jpa #hpa xspf;fjph;fs; nrq;Fj;jhf
Nuifg; gFjpfspy; nrq;Fj;jhfTk; tpOfpd;wd.
JUtg; gFjpia Nehf;fpr; nry;y 2. B]^ As \u[
nry;y Fiwe;J nfhz;Lk; nry;fpwJ. *m sD V :
://t
#hpadpd; nrq;Fj;Jf; fjph;fs;  Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; #hpa

Gtpapd; kpff;Fiwe;j gFjpiaNa xspf;fjph;fs; tpOk; Neuj;ij
ntg;gg;gLj;Jtjhy;> mg;gFjp gfy; Neuk; vd;fpNwhk;. gfy; Neuk;
mjpfsT ntg;gkilfpd;wd. mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ mg;gFjpf;F
 #hpadpd; rha;thd fjph;fs; mjpf ntg;gk; fpilf;fpwJ. gfy;
ps
kpf mjpfkhd gFjpia ntg;gg; Neuk; Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;nghOJ

gLj;Jtjhy; mg;gFjpfs; mjpfsT Fiwthd ntg;gNk fpilf;fpwJ.
ntg;gkilfpd;wd. fhuzk; #hpa G+kj;jpa Nuifg; gFjpapy; Mz;L
xspf;fjph;fs; rha;thf tpOfpd;wd. KOtJk; mjpf ntg;gk; epyTfpwJ.
htt
Mdhy; kjpa Ntisapy; ntg;gk; ,jdhy; jhd; G+kj;jpaNuifg;

mjpfkhf cs;sJ. Vnddpy; gFjpfspy; Mz;L ruhrhp ntg;gKk;>

AslB_
jpdrhp ntg;gepiy NtWghLk; G+kj;jpa Nuifg; gFjpapypUe;J>
s
Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;. JUtg; gFjpia Nehf;fpr; nry;y
 Gtp jdJ rha;e;j mr;rpy; #hpaidr; nry;y khWgLtjhy;> ntg;gepiyAk;
scg
Rw;wp tyk; tUfpwJ. ,jdhy; khWgLfpwJ.
Gtpapy; #hpa xspf;fjph;fshy;
tpOk; NfhzKk;> gfy; Neu msTk;
Mz;L KOtJk; khwpf;nfhz;Nl
,Uf;fpd;wd. vdNt Gtpapd; gUt
np
fhyq;fs; Vw;gLfpd;wd.
 thdpiy ikaq;fspy; jpdrhp
ntg;gepiy gjpT nra;ag;gLk;.
] kW \VV|

xU ehspy; Fiwe;j ntg;g msT
fhiy 5 kzpf;Fk;> mjpf ntg;g msT
e/t
kjpak; 2 kzpf;Fk; gjpT nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
 ntg;g NtWghLfspd; mbg;gilapy;
,it ,uz;bw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s Gtpia ehd;F ntg;g kz;lyq;fshfg;
.m
NtWghl;bidNa jpdrhp ntg;gepiy gphpf;fyhk;. mit>
NtWghL vd;fpNwhk;. 1. G+kj;jpa Nuif kz;lyk;
g| kW kV| (Equator)
 xU Mz;by; xU ,lj;jpy; 2. ntg;g kz;lyk; (Tropical)
://t
fhzg;gLk; mjpfgl;r khj ruhrhp 3. kpjntg;g kz;lyk; (Sub –

ntg;gepiyf;Fk;> Fiwe;jgl;r khj Tropical)
ruhrhp ntg;gepiyf;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s 4. JUt kz;lyk; (Polar)
NtWghl;bid Mz;L ntg;gepiy \]B  \D (Equator)
NtWghL vd;fpNwhk;.  ,e;j kz;lyk; 5o k kw;Wk; >[
ps
Asl[ k \^ l_ mike;Js;sJ.

 #hpa xspf;fjph; tpOk; Nfhzk;> gfy; ,g;gFjpapy; #hpa xspf;fjph;fs;
kw;Wk; ,uT Neu fhy msTfisg; Mz;L KOtJk; nrq;Fj;jhf
htt
nghWj;Nj Xhplj;jpd; ntg;gepiy tpOfpd;wd. vdNt ntg;gk;

mikfpwJ. ,t;tpU fhuzpfSk; ,q;F Mz;L KOtJk; mjpfkhf
epyTfpd;wd.

AslB_
k \D (Tropical) ,q;F epyTfpwJ. Mz;L KOtJk;>
s
 ntg;g kz;lyk; tl> njd; kpj ntg;gk; ,q;F epyTtjhy;
o ,g;gFjp kpj ntg;g kz;lyk; vd
scg
miuf;Nfhsq;fspy; 5 ml;rk; Kjy;
30o ml;rk; tiuapYk; gutpAs;sJ. miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,g;gFjpapy; Nfhilf;fhyj;jpy; mk \D (Polar)
#hpadpd; xspf;fjph;fs; nrq;Fj;jhf  JUt kz;lyk; tl> njd;
o
tpOtjhy; mjpf ntg;gk; epyTfpwJ. miuf;Nfhsq;fspy; 60 D x>_
 Fsph;fhyj;jpy; #hpadpd; xspf; 90o D tiuapYk; gutpAs;sJ.
np
fjph;fs; rha;thf tpOtjhy; Nfhilf; ,k;kz;lyk; JUtq;fisr; Rw;wp
fhy ntg;gj;ijtpl rw;W Fiwe;J mike;Js;sjhy; JUt kz;lyk; vd
fhzg;gLfpwJ. vdNt Fsph; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
fhyj;jpy; kpj ntg;gk; epyTfpwJ.  xspf;fjph;fsplkpUe;J tUk;
t> k \D (Sub Tropical) e/t ntg;gj;jpd; msT ,g;gFjpapy;
 kpj ntg;g kz;lyk; tl> njd; kpff;Fiwthf cs;sjhy;> ,q;F
miuf;Nfhsq;fspy; 30o D x>_ Mz;L KOtJk; ntg;gk; ciwgdp
60o ml;rk; tiuapYk; gutpAs;sJ. epiyf;F Nky; Oo cah;tjpy;iy.
Nfhilf; fhyj;jpy; kpj ntg;gKk;> vdNt ,k;kz;lyk; gdpglh;e;J
.m
Fsph;fhyj;jpy; kpff;Fsph;r;rpAk; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
••••••
://t
ps
htt
10
AslB_
s
k\ >
scg
\^
k\ >D 1. cBD
np
 xU rJu nrd;bkPl;lh; gug;Gs;s  Xh; ,lj;jpd; fhw;wOj;jk; vd;gJ
Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpd; caNu cs;s me;j ,lj;jpy; cs; fhw;wpd; viliaf;
nkhj;jf; fhw;wpd; vil 1 fpuhk; Fwpg;gjhFk;. fly; kl;lj;jpw;F Nky;
MFk;. Gtpiar; Rw;wpAs;s fhw;wpd; xU Fwpg;gpl;l cauj;jpy; mike;Js;s
vil KOtJk; Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;ig xU ,lj;jpd; fhw;wpd; mOj;jk; me;j
mOj;jpf; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ. ,e;j
mOj;jj;ijNa
vd;fpNwhk;.
fhw;W mOj;jk;
e/t ,lj;jpd; fly; kl;lj;jpw;F NkYs;s
fhw;wpd; mOj;jj;ij tplf; Fiwthf
,Uf;Fk;.
Vu >D mOj;jkhdp vd;w
.m
v.fh. ePyfphp kiyj;njhlhpy;
fUtpahy; msf;fg;gLfpwJ. fhw;wpd; mike;Js;s cjf kz;lyk; fly;
mOj;jk; t_oV vd;w myfpd; %yk; kl;lj;jpypUe;J 2000kP cauj;jpy;
Fwpf;fg;gLfpwJ. mike;Js;sJ. cjfkz;lyj;jpd;
fhw;wpd; mOj;jk;> fly; kl;lj;jpd;
://t
 fly; kl;lj;jpy; fhw;wpd; mOj;jj;jpd;

msT ruhrhpahf 1013 kpy;ypghh;fshf NkYs;s nkhj;jf; fhw;wpd; vilapypUe;J
cs;sJ. G+kpapd; kPJ rkkhd fhw;W 2000 kP cauKs;s fhw;wpd; viliaf;
mOj;jKs;s gy;NtW ,lq;fis fopj;Jf; fpilg;gJ MFk;.
,izf;Fk; fw;gidf;NfhLfs; rk
 fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J caNu
ps
mOj;jf; NfhLfs; MFk;.

nry;Yk;NghJ fhw;wpd; mOj;jk; xNu
Vu> k_
rPuhff; Fiwe;J nfhz;Nl tUfpwJ.
 fhw;wpd; mOj;jk; vy;yh ,lq;fspYk;
xNu khjphpahf ,Ug;gjpy;iy. xt;nthU 10 kP cauj;jpw;Fk;> 1 kpy;yp
htt
,uz;L fhuzq;fshy; fhw;wOj;jg; ghh; tPjk; mOj;jk; Fiwe;J nfhz;Nl

guty; khWgLfpwJ. mitahtd. nry;fpwJ.
1. cauk; 2. ntg;gk;
11
AslB_
2. Jiz ntg;g mjpf mOj;j
2. kD
kz;lyk; (Sub Tropical High
s
 nghJthf nghUs;fs; ntg;gk;
milAk; NghJ> tphptilAk; jd;ik Pressure)
scg
nfhz;lJ. mJ NghyNt fhw;Wk; 3. Jiz JUt Fiwe;j mOj;j
ntg;gj;jpdhy; tphptilfpwJ. vdNt kz;lyk; (Sub Polar Low Pressure)
fhw;W tphptile;J caNu nry;fpwJ. 4. JUt mjpf mOj;j kz;lyk;
vdNt ntg;gkhd ,lq;fspy; (Polar High Pressure)
tspkz;ly mOj;jk; Fiwthf 1. \]B  z> >
,Uf;Fk;. \D (Equator Low Pressure)
np
 ntg;gk; FiwAk; nghOJ nghUl;fs;  ,e;j kz;lyk; Oo x>_ 5o k \uD >[
RUq;Fk; jd;ik nfhz;lJ. vdNt D tiu gutpAs;sJ. ,g;gFjpapy;
Fsph;r;rpahd ,lq;fspy; fhw;W Mz;L KOtJk; #hpaDila xspf;
Fsph;r;rp mile;J> RUq;fp> mlh;j;jp> fjph;fs; nrq; Fj;jhfNt tpOfpd;wd.
mjpfkhf> fdkhff; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
vdNt Fsph;r;rpahd ,lq;fspy;
fhw;wpd; mOj;jk; mjpfkhff;
e/t nrq;Fj;Jf; fjph;fs;
fjph;fis tpl mjpf ntg;gj;ij
rha;thd
mspf;Fk;. ,jdhy; G+kj;jpa Nuifg;

fhzg;gLk;. gFjp mjpf ntg;gkhf cs;sJ
 tspkz;lyj;jpd; fhw;wpd; mOj;jk;
.m
 vdNt G+kj;jpaNuifg; gFjpapy;
xNu khjphpahff; fhzg;gLtjpy;iy cs;s fhw;Wk;> mjpf ntg;gkile;J
vd;gijAk;> rpy ,lq;fspy; Fiw tphptilfpwJ. vdNt mlh;j;jpf;
thfTk;> rpy ,lq;fspy; mjpfkhfTk; Fiwe;J> Fiwe;j mOj;jk;
,Ug;gij ek;khy; czu KbfpwJ. Vw;gLfpwJ. vdNt jhd; G+kj;jpa
://t
vdNt tspkz;lyj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; Nuif ‘\] \D” vd

fhw;wpd; mOj;jj;ij mjpf mOj;jk;> miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
Fiwe;j mOj;jk; vd ,Utifahfg;
,g;gFjpapy; jpdKk; 3 P.M. mstpy;
gphpf;fyhk;.
kio nga;Ak;. (Convectional rainfall)
 Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;ig xl;bAs;s tsp
ps
kz;lyj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; fhw;wOj;j 2. m k ] >

NtWghLfisf; nfhz;L Gtpia 4
\D
ngUk; fhw;wOj;j kz;lyq;fshfg;
 ,J Gtpapd; tl kw;Wk; njd;
gphpf;fyhk;. mit>
htt
miuf;Nfhsq;fspy; 30o
1. G+kj;jpa Nuif Fiwe;j mOj;j ]om 35o D k
kz;lyk; (Equatorial Low Pressure) fhzg;gLfpwJ. G+kj;jpa Nuifg;
12
AslB_
gFjpapy; mjpf ntg;gj;jjhy; 3. m mk z> >
s
fhw;W tphptile;J> Nyrhfp caNu \D
nry;fpwJ. ,t;thwhf NknyOk;Gk;  ,J tl kw;Wk; njd; miuf;
scg
fhw;W> G+kj;jpaNuifapd; tlGwk; Nfhsj;jpy; 60o x>_ 65o D k
tlf;fhfTk;> njd;Gwk; njw;fhfTk; mike;Js;sJ.
Gtpapd; Row;rp fhuzkhf  ,jdhy; Jiz ntg;g mjpf mOj;j
jpUk;GfpwJ. kz;lyj;jpw;Fk;> JUt mjpf mOj;j
 ,f;fhw;W tpz;Zah; gFjpfis kz;lyj;jpw;Fk;> ,ilNa cs;s
mile;jTld; Fsph;tile;J RUq;fp Jiz JUt kz;lyj;jpy; Fiwe;j
np
30o tl kw;Wk; njd; ml;rq;fspy; mOj;jk; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
fPopwq;FfpwJ. vdNt ,g;gFjpfspy; 4. mk ] > \D
fhw;wpd; mlh;j;jp mjpfhpf;fpwJ.  tl kw;Wk; njd; JUtg; gFjpfspy;
vdNt ,g;gFjpfspy; mjpf mOj;jk; kpff;Fiwe;j ntg;gk; fhuzkhf.
Vw;gLfpwJ. e/t mq;Fs;s fhw;Wk; Fsph;r;rpahf
mlh;j;jp kpFe;J fhzg;gLtjhy;
tl kw;Wk; njd; JUtq;fspy; mjpf
mOj;jk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
.m
••••••
://t
ps
htt
13
AslB_
s
scg
Vu^
fhw;W Gtpg;gug;G KOtijAk; > :

#o;e;Js;sJ. fhw;W vd;gJ gy thAf;fis  ,U ,lq;fspy; mOj;jq;fSf;
np
cs;slf;fpa xU fyitahFk;. fpilNa cs;s NtWghNl
Vu_ ^ kV^ rhpT vdg;gLk;. xU Fwpg;gpl;l
1. iel;u[d; J}uj;jpy; cs;s ,U ,lq;fspd;
2. Mf;]p[d; fhw;wOj;jq;fSf;fpilNa mjpfsT
3. fhh;gd; il Mf;i]L
4. Mh;fhd;
5. XNrhd;
e/t NtWghL fhzg;gl;lhy;> mOj;jr;
rhpT mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;. Fiwthf
,Ue;jhy; mOj;jr; rhpT Fiwthf
,Uf;Fk;. mOj;jr; rhptpid thdpiy
6. kPj;Njd;
tiuglq;fspy; tiuag;gl;Ls;s rk
.m
7. `Pypak;
mOj;jf; NfhLfspd; %yk; vspjhfg;
8. epahd; Ghpe;J nfhs;syhk;.
 Gtpapd; Nkw;g;gug;gpypUe;J Rkhh; 500  rk mOj;jf; NfhLfSf;fpilNa
fp.kP cauk; tiu fhw;W gutpAs;sJ. cs;s J}uk; mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy;>
://t
fhw;wpd; Ntfk; kw;Wk; mjd; mOj;jr; rhpT Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;.

jpiriaf; fl;LgLj;Jk; fhuzpfs; rk mOj;jf;NfhLfs; neUf;fkhf
,uz;L MFk;. mit> ,Ue;jhy; rhpT mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
1. mOj;jr; rhpT fhw;wpd; Ntfk; mOj;jr; rhpit
2. Gtpapd; Row;rp
ps
htt
Vu ^ kV^
14
AslB_
nghWj;Nj mikfpwJ. mOj;jr; rhpT Vu[ k^
mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy; fhw;wpd; NtfKk;  Gtpapy; tPRk; fhw;Wf;fis 4 tif
s
mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;. fshfg; gphpf;fyhk;. mit>
 mOj;jr; rhpT Fiwthf ,Ug;gpd;
scg
1. epiyahd kw;Wk; Nfhs; fhw;Wfs;
fhw;wpd; NtfKk; Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;. (Permanent winds)
fhw;W mjpf mOj;jg; gFjpapy; ,Ue;J 2. gUtf; fhw;Wfs; (Monsoon)
FiwtOj;jg; gFjpia Nehf;fp tPRk;. 3. fly; fhw;W
Asl[ wuE 4. epyf;fhw;W
 fhw;W mjpf mOj;jg; gFjpapypUe;J>
WBV \uD V^ Vu^
np
FiwtOj;jg; gFjpia Nehf;fp tPRk;.
 ,f;fhw;W Gtp KOtjpYk; tPRfpd;wd.
rk mOj;jf; Nfhl;Lf;F nrq;Fj;jhd
Gtpapd; ntt;NtW ml;rg;gFjpfspy;
jpirapy; fhw;wpd; jpir mikAk;.
Vw;gLk; ntg;g khw;wk; mOj;j
_ s] NtWghl;bd; fhuzkhf ,f;fhw;Wfs;
lhf;lh; ‡nguy; vd;gthpd; $w;Wg;gb>
Gtpapd;
xU
Nkw;gug;gpy;
nghUSk;
cs;s
Gtpapd;
e/t
ve;j
Row;rp
Njhd;Wfpd;wd.
 Nfhs; fhw;Wfs; Mz;L KOtJk;
njhlh;e;J xU Fwpg;gpl;l jpir
apypUe;J> xU Fwpg;gpl;l jpiria
fhuzkhf tl miuf; Nfhsj;jpy;
Nehf;fp mjpf mOj;jg; gFjpapypUe;J
.m
tyg;GwkhfTk;> njd; miuf;Nfhsj;jpy;
FiwtOj;jg; gFjpia Nehf;fp
,lg;GwkhfTk; jpUg;gg;gLfpwJ. ,jid
tPRfpd;wd. ,f;fhw;Wfs; ,it
‡nguy; tpjp my;yJ nfhhpahyp];
tPRk; jpirapd; mbg;gilapy;
tpisT (Coriollis Effect) vd;gh;. miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
://t
ps
htt
Vu[ k^
15
AslB_
 cjhuzkhf fpof;F jpirapypUe;J sBVV Vu^ 
s
tPRk; fhw;Wfis fpof;Ff; fhw;Wfs; w VD?
vd;W Fwpg;gpLfpNwhk;.
gz;ila fhyj;jpy; tpahghuj;jpw;F
scg
 Gtpapy; %d;W Nfhs; fhw;Wfs;
nghUl;fs; Vw;wpr; nry;y gha;kuf;
tPRfpd;wd. mit>
fg;gy;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld. fpof;Ff;
i) fpof;F fhw;Wfs; my;yJ
fhw;Wfs; gha;kuf; fg;gypd; gazj;jpw;F
tpahghuf; fhw;Wfs;
kpfTk; rhjfkhf ,Ue;jd. ,jdhy;
ii) Nkw;Ff; fhw;Wfs; my;yJ vjph;
,f;fhw;Wfs; tpahghuf; fhw;Wfs; vd
np
tpahghuf; fhw;Wfs;
miof;fg;gl;ld.
iii) JUtf; fhw;Wfs;
(i) wz Vu^ _m (ii) \uz Vu^ _m ]
sBVV Vu^ sBVV Vu^:
 G+kj;jpaNuifg; gFjpapy; mjpf  Jiz ntg;g mOj;j kz;lyq;fspy;
ntg;gj;jpdhy; FiwtOj;jk; cUth
fpwJ. G+kj;jpa Nuif FiwtOj;j
e/t
kz;lyj;jpw;F tlf;fpYk;> njw;fpYk;
,Ue;J Jiz JUt kz;lyq;fis
Nehf;fp tPRk; fhw;Wfs; Nkw;Ff;
fhw;Wfs; vdg;gLk;. ,it 40o
Jiz ntg;g mjpf mOj;j kz;lyk; ml;rk; Kjy; 60o ml;rk; tiu
.m
cs;sJ. vdNt ,t;tpU mOj;j miuf;Nfhsq;fspy; tPRfpwJ.
kz;lyq;fspypUe;J> fhw;W G+kj;jpa epyg;gug;gpd; kPJ fhzg;gLk;
Nuif FiwtOj;j kz;lyj;ij Fd;Wfs;> kiyfs;> gPlG+kpfs; Nghd;w
Nehf;fp tPRfpwJ. ,f;fhw;Wfs; epyj;Njhw;wq;fSk;> jhtuq;fSk;
fhw;W rPuhf tPRtjw;F jilahf
://t
KiwNa tlf;fpypUe;J njw;fhf tl

miuf;Nfhsj;jpYk;> njw;fpypUe;J cs;sd. Mdhy; ePh;g;gug;gpNyh
tlf;fhf njd; miuf;Nfhsj;jpYk; ,t;tpj jilfs; vJTk; ,y;iy.
tPRfpd;wd. Mjyhy; ePh;gug;gpd; kPJ fhw;Wfs;
 Gtpapd; Row;rp fhuzkhf tl rPuhfTk;> NtfkhfTk; tPRfpd;wd.
ps
miuf;Nfhsj;jpy;> ,f;fhw;W fpof;F  tl miuf;Nfhsj;jpy; epyg;gug;G

jpirf;F jpUg;gg;gl;L tPRfpwJ. mjpfkhf cs;sjhy;> mtw;wpy;
vdNt ,f;fhw;Wfs; fpof;Ff; cs;s kiyfs;> gPlG+kpfs; Mfpa
fhw;Wfs; vdg;gLfpwJ. ,it tw;why; fhw;wpd; jpirNtfKk;
htt
epiyahf tPRk; fhw;W MFk;. njhlh;r;rpAk; ghjpf;fg;gL fpd;wd.

njd; miuf;Nfhsj;jpy; ngUk;gFjp
ePh;g;gug;igf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. vdNt
njd; miuf;Nfhsj;jpy; ,f;fhw;Wfs;
16
AslB_
mjp Ntfj;JlDk;> njhlh;r;rpahfTk;  xU Fwpg;gpl;l jpirapypUe;J

tPRfpwJ. vdNt 40o njd; ml;rj;jpy;
s
xU Fwpg;gpl;l gUtj;jpy; tPRk;
,f;fhw;W kpf NtfkhfTk;> ngUk; fhw;Wfs; mNj Mz;bd; kw;nwhU
scg
rg;jj;JlDk; tPRfpwJ. gUtj;jpy; mjw;F Neh; vjpH jpirapy;
 ,jdhy; ,g;gFjpapy; tPRk; Nkw;Ff; tPRtjhy; mtw;iw gUtf; fhw;Wfs;
fhw;W fh;[pf;Fk; ehw;gJ (Roaring vd;fpNwhk;
Forties) vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
,e;jpah nghJthf njd;Nkw;F kw;Wk;
 40oS – fh;[pf;Fk; ehw;gJ tlfpof;F gUtf;fhw;wpd; %yk;
 50 S – rPWk; Ik;gJ (Furious Fifties)
np
o
kioiag; ngWfpwJ.
 60 S – Shrieking sixties / Screaming
o
3. _ Vu
Sixties
 ePh;g;gFjpiaf; fhl;bYk;> epyg;gFjp
(iii) mk Vu^ (Polarwinds)
tpiutpy; ntg;gj;ij vLj;Jf;
 JUt cah; mOj;j kz;lyj;jp e/t nfhs;Sk;.
ypUe;J Jiz JUt FiwtOj;j
V^
kz;lyj;ij Nehf;fp tPRk;. fhw;Wfs;
fhuzq;fs;:
kpfTk; Fsph;r;rpahfTk;> mlh;j;jp
 ePUf;F epyj;ijtpl ntg;g Vw;Gj;jpwd;
kpFe;jjhfTk; cs;sJ.
.m
mjpfk;. ,jdhy; rkmsT
2. k Vu^
ntg;gepiy mila epyj;ijf;
 xU ehspd; xU gFjpapy; my;yJ xU
fhl;bYk; ePUf;F mjpf Neuk; Njit
Mz;bd; xU gFjpapy; xU Fwpg;gpl;l
ePhpy; #hpa xsp mjpf Mok; cl;Gf
jpirapy; tPRk; fhw;W> me;ehspd;
KbfpwJ. ,jdhy; mJ mjpf msT
://t
my;yJ Mz;bd; kWgFjpapy;

ePiu ntg;gg;gLj;j Ntz;bAs;sJ.
vjph;jpirapy; tPRk;. ,ijNa
Mdhy; epyj;jpDs; #hpa xsp Gf
‘gUtf; fhw;Wfs;” vd;fpNwhk;.
Kbahjjhy; mjd; Nkw;gug;G kl;LNk
Mq;fpyj;jpy; ,f;fhw;W ‘Monsoon
ntg;gg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
fhw;W” vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 ntg;gr; ryd (convection) Kiwapy;
ps
,t;thh;j;ij nksrpk; vd;w mNugpa

ntg;gk; fPo;kl;lj;jpYs;s ePUf;Fs;
thh;j;ijapypUe;J ngwg;gl;ljhFk;.
gutp tpLfpwJ. Mdhy; epyj;jpy;
 #hpadpd; tlf;F kw;Wk; njw;F
mt;thW ntg;gr; rydk; epfo;tjpy;iy.
,lg;ngah;r;rpahy; gUt fhyq;fs;
,jdhy; epyg;gug;G Ntfkhf
htt
Vw;gLfpd;wd. vdNt tspkz;ly

ntg;gkilaj; njhlq;FfpwJ. vdNt
mOj;jk; gUtj;jpw;Nfw;g khWtjhy;>
ePh;g;gug;igf; fhl;bYk;> epyg;gug;G
gUtf;fhw;Wfisj; Njhw;Wtpf;fpwJ.
17
AslB_
mjpf ntg;gkhf cs;sJ. vdNt 11.2 >Vu^
s
ntg;gk; mjpfkhf cs;s epyg;gug;gpy;  xU rpwpag; gug;gstpy; FWfpa
FiwtOj;jk; cUthfpwJ. mNj fhyj;jpw;Fr; rpy rpwg;ghd
scg
rkak; ntg;gk; Fiwthf cs;s Fzhjpraq;fNshL tPRfpd;wd.
mjpf fhw;wOj;jKs;s ePh;g;gug;gpy;  midj;Jf; fhw;WfSk;> ngUk;ghYk;
,Ue;J Fiwe;j fhw;wOj;jk; cs;s gFjp Neuf;fhw;WfshfTk;> jyg;
epyg;gug;ig Nehf;fpf; fhw;W tPRfpwJ. ngah;fshfTk; nfhz;Ls;sd.
,ijNa fly; fhw;W vd;fpNwhk;. k > ^
fly; fhw;wpdhy; fiuNahug; Vu^
np
gFjpfspy; gpw;gfy; Neu ntg;gk; 1. ‡gphpf;gPy;lh; M];jpNuypah
jzpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
4. WVu 2. rpd;D}f; mnkhpf;fh If;fpa
 #hpad; cjpj;jJk; epyk; ntg;gkilaj; ehLfs;
Jtq;FtJ Nghy #hpad; kiwe;jJk;>
kpf Ntfkhf ntg;gj;ij ,of;fpwJ.
Mdhy; ePh;g;gug;Ngh kpf nkJthf
e/t 3. ‡ghd;
4. rpuhf;Nfh
tlf;F ,j;jhyp
rfhuh ghiytdk;
5. Y} ,e;jpahtpd; jhh;
ntg;gj;ij ,of;fj; njhlq;FfpwJ.
ghiytdk;
.m
,jdhy; es;sputpy; epyg;gug;G kpfTk;
Fsph;r;rpahfTk; ePh;gug;G epyg;gug;ig z > ^
tpl ntg;gk; mjpfk; cilajhfTk; Vu^
cs;sJ. vdNt ntg;gk; mjpfkhf 1. Mh;kj;jhd; kj;jpa Mg;gphpf;fh
cs;s ePh;g;gug;gpy; Fiwe;j
://t
2. kp];l;uy; My;g;]; kiy

fhw;wOj;jKk; cz;lhfpwJ.
 ,t;tOj;j khWghl;bd; fhuzkhf 3. Gh;fh ,u\;ah
fhw;W epyg;gFjpapypUe;J ePh;g;gug;ig
4. ehh;l; nkf;rpNfh
Nehf;fpf; fhw;W tPRfpwJ. ,f;fhw;W
tisFlh
epyf;fhw;W vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ps
5. ‡ghk;ngNuh mh;n[d;ildh
htt
••••••
18
AslB_
s
Vk^ \uD
scg
]Vk^
Vk^ ntg;gepiy kpfTk; mjpfKs;s fly;
np
 xU Fiwe;j mOj;jg; gFjpiar; Rw;wp gFjpapy; jhd; Njhd;Wfpd;wd.
fhw;whdJ. tl mh;j;j Nfhsj;jpy;  ,r;#whtspapd; ikag;gFjp
fbfhur; Rw;Wf;F vjph;j;jpirapYk; mikjpahd gFjpahfTk; td;ikaw;w
njd; mh;j;j Nfhsj;jpy; fbfhur; fhw;W tPRtjhfTk; cs;sJ.
Rw;wpYk; Rw;wp tUjy; #whtsp ,g;gFjpNa #whtspapd; fz; vd;W
vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ. #whtspfs;
,Utifg;gLk;.
e/t 
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ntg;gkz;ly
jq;fSf;Fj; Njitahd rf;jpia
#whtspfs;
 mitahtd: 1. ntg;gkz;lyr;
RUq;Fjypd; NghJ ntspapLk;
#whtspfs;. 2. kpjntg;g kz;lyr;
.m
ntg;gj;jpypUe;J (latent heat of
#whtspfs;.
condensation) ngWfpwJ.
 ntg;gkz;lyr; #whtsp: Gtpapd;
 kpjntg;gkz;lyr; #whtspfs;:
ntg;g kz;lyg; gFjpapy; 50 tlf;F
(Temperate Cyclones: (Or) Wave
kw;Wk; 250 njw;F tiu ,it
Cyclones (or) Extra Tropical)
://t
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. Mdhy; ,it kpf

 kpj ntg;g kz;lyr; #whtspfs;
mjpf mstpy; 100 Kjy; 150 tlf;F
ngUk;ghd;ikahf ,U mh;j;j
kw;Wk; njw;Fg; gFjpfspy; mjpfkhfj;
Nfhsq;fspYk; 30 - 65 tlf;F
0 0
Njhd;Wfpd;wd.
kw;Wk; njw;fpy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
 ntg;gkz;lyr; #whtspfs; Mz;bd; ,Ug;gpDk; ,it kpf mjpf mstpy;
ps
Fwpg;gpl;l xU gUtfs; fhyj;jpNyNa tl mnkhpf;fhtpd; kj;jpag; gFjp>

fhzg;gLfpd;wd. rhd;W: tq;ff; ANurpah fz;lj;jpd; kj;jpag; gFjp
flypy; njd;Nkw;F kw;Wk; tlfpof;F Mfpa gFjpfspy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
gUt fhyq;fspy; Njhd;Wk; Vnddpy; Nkw;fz;l gFjpfspy;
htt
#whtspfs;. jhd; JUt (Fsph;) tspKfKk;>

 ,r;#whtspfs; ngUk;ghYk; fly; ntg;gkz;ly tspKfKk;
kPNj Njhd;Wfpd;wd. mJTk; re;jpf;fpd;wJ.
19
AslB_
 JUt tspKff; nfhs;if my;yJ

AB_ V|^
s
miyf;nfhs;if (Polar front Theory
or Wave theory) ntg;g kz;ly njw;F Mrpa
scg
 Kjy; cyfg; Nghhpd; ,Wjpapy; Gay;fs; ehLfs; (,e;jpah)
(V.Jerkins) tp. n[h;fpd;]; kw;Wk; (Tropical Cyclones)
n[.m[h;f;fpd;]; Mfpa ,U ehh;Nt
ilG+d;]; rPdh kw;Wk;
ehl;L mwpQh;fs; gy;NtW kpjntg;g
(Typhoons) [g;ghd;
kz;ly #whtspfisAk; thdpiy
`hpf;Nfd;]; Nkw;fpe;jpa jPTfs;
tiuglq;fis (Maps) Muha;e;jdh;.
np
(Hurricane) kw;Wk; fhpgPad;
,t;thuha;r;rpapd; tpisthfj;
jPTfs;
Njhd;wpaNj Nkw;fz;l nfhs;if
nlhh;dhNlh]; tlmnkhpf;fh
MFk;.
 JUtg; gFjpfspy; gpwe;J (Tornodoes) (USA)
tUfpd;w
Kd;gFjpAk;
JUtf;
ntg;g
e/t
fhw;wpDila
kz;lyg;
gFjpapy; gpwe;J tUfpd;w ntg;g
tpy;yp - tpy;yp];
(Willy-Willies)
]Vk^
M];jpNuypah
kz;lyf; fhw;Wj; njhFjpapd;  cah; mOj;j mikg;gpd; ikakhFk;.

Kd;gFjpAk; kpj ntg;g kz;lyg;  fhw;W ntspj;jpiria Nehf;fp
.m
gFjpapy; re;jpg;gjd; tpisthf xU efh;fpd;wJ.
tspKfk; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLfpwJ.  ,it njspthd thdpiyNahL
mt;topKfj;ijNa n[h;f;fpd;]; njhlh;Gilajhy; kiog;nghopitf;
mth;fs; JUt tspKfk; vd;W nfhLg;gjpy;iy.
://t
mioj;jhh;.  tlNfhsj;jpy; fbfhur;Rw;W

AB_^ jpirapYk;>
 jho;tOj;j mikg;gpd; ikakhFk;.  njd;Nfhsj;jpy; vjph; fbfhur; Rw;Wj;
 fhw;wpid midj;J jpirfsp jpirapYk; efh;fpd;wd.
ypUe;Jk; <h;f;fpd;wJ. ]B o_ ckVzD
ps
 Gaypd; ikag;gFjp ntw;wplkhFk;. k \ Vkz

mJNt ‘AB_ ” (Eye of the B|D V|^
Cyclone) vdg;gLfpwJ. ,e;jpah ghfp];jhd;
tq;fhsk; Xkd;
htt
kpahd;ku; khyj;jPT
=yq;fh jha;yhe;J
20
AslB_
k \ Vkz ]BV VV k B^
s
mf;dp Mfh\; gp[pyp [hy;
ny`u; Nk‡f; rhfu; tA
scg
]B o_ ckV xB Vk[ BD >
B V|D
kD ABo[ B B k> V|^ V] z]^
1999 V  AB_  
np
2011 >V tBV[\ >tV|
2012 D V>V[ 
2013 o[ >VFVm 
2014   {\[
WV V>V[
2015
D, 2016
kD, 2016
V\[
k>V
VV
e/t >VFVm
V>V[
{\[
zV
>tV|
>tV| \uD V
2017  kVD >tV|
.m
••••••
://t
ps
htt
21
AslB_
s
scg
k\ ~>D
 ePh; Xhplj;jpd; ntg;gepiyiag;

nghWj;J Xh; epiyapypUe;J  xg;Gik <ug;gjk; vd;gJ xU
np
kw;nwhU epiyf;F khWfpwJ. ePh; Fwpg;gpl;l ntg;gepiyapy; cs;s
ntg;gj;ij vLj;Jf;nfhz;Nlh fhw;wpd; ePuhtpapd; mstpw;Fk;>
my;yJ ntg;gj;ij ,oe;Njh Xh; mNj ntg;gepiyapy; fhw;W Vw;Wf;
epiyapy; ,Ue;J kw;nwhU epiyf;F nfhs;sf;$ba cr;r msT
khWfpwJ. Fsph;g;gpuNjrq;fspYk;>
e/t ePuhtpapd; mstpw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s
caukhd kiyg;gFjpfspYk; ciw tpfpjk; MFk;. fhw;wpd; xg;Gik
epiyf;Ff; fPNo ntg;gepiy cs;sJ. <ug;gjkhdJ fhw;wpd; <ug;gjj;ijAk;
,q;F fhw;wpd; ntg;gepiy cauj; mjd; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sf;$ba cr;r
njhlq;fpaTld; ntg;gj;ij vLj;Jf;
msitAk; nghUj;J mikfpwJ.
.m
nfhz;L gdpf;fl;b cUfp ePuhf
 fhw;wpy; <ug;gjk; ePuhtpahjypd; %yk;
khWfpwJ.
mjpfkhFk;nghOJ xg;G <ug;gjKk;
 NkYk; tspkz;lyj;jpd; ntg;gepiy
mjpfhpf;Fk;. fhw;wpd; ntg;gepiy
mjpfhpf;Fk;nghOJ> ,e;ePh;
ntg;gj;ij vLj;Jf;nfhz;L khWk;nghOJk; fhw;wpd; xg;G
://t
ePuhtp ahf khWfpwJ. ,t;thW <ug;gjj;jpd; msT khWgLfpwJ.

ePuhtpahf khwpa ePh; fhw;Wld; fye;J fhw;wpd; ntg;gepiy mjpfhpf;Fk;
tpLfpwJ. kPz;Lk; ,e;ePuhtp ePuhf nghOJ fhw;wpd; <ug;gjj;ij
khWk;nghOJk;> ePh; gdpf;fl;bahf Vw;Wf; nfhs;sf;$ba cr;r msTk;
khWk; nghOJk; ntg;gj;ij ntsp mjpfhpf;fpwJ. fhw;wpd; ntg;gepiy
ps
tpLfpwJ. FiwAk; nghOJ fhw;wpd; <ug;gjj;ij

A\ ~>D Vw;Wf;nfhs;sf;$ba cr;r msTk;
 fhw;wpy; cs;s ePuhtpapd; msitNa FiwfpwJ.
<ug;gjk; vdf; Fwpg;gpLfpNwhk;. Vu[ > W (Saturation Point)
htt
thdpiy mwpf;iffspy; <ug;gjj;ij  fhw;W Vw;Wf;nfhs;sf;$ba cr;r

ehk; xg;Gik <ug;gjk; vdf; msT <ug;gjj;ij ngw;W ,Uf;Fk;
Fwpg;gpLfpNwhk;.
22
AslB_
nghOJ mf;fhw;W G+hpj epiyapy; Njitahd ePuhtpiaj; jhtuq;fs;
cs;sJ vdg;gLfpwJ. G+hpj epiyapy; tspkz;lyj;jpw;F jUfpd;wd. xU
s
cs;s fhw;wpd; xg;G <ug;gjk; 100 ,lj;jpy; cs;s fhw;wpd; ePuhtpapd;
scg
rjtPjk; MFk;. msT mq;Ff; fpilf;Fk;> ePhpd;
 fhw;W ve;j ntg;gepiyapy; G+hpj msitAk;> mq;F epyTk; ntg;g
epiyia milfpwNjh> mjidg; M epiyiaAk; nghWj;J mikAk;.
sW vd;fpNwhk;. ,e;epiyapy;  vq;F gue;j ePh;g;gug;Gk;> mjpfntg;gKk;
Nkw;nfhz;L ePuhtpia Vw;Wf; fhzg;gLfpwNjh mq;F Mtpahjy;
nfhs;shJ. Jhpjkhf eilngWfpwJ. ,jdhy;
np
 fhw;W ,U tiffspy; G+hpj epiyia fhw;wpd; ePuhtpapd; msT
milAk;. mjpfhpf;fpwJ. ghiy epyq;fspy; mjpf
1. fhw;wpy; ePuhtpapd; G+hpj epiyia ntg;gk; ,Ug;gpDk;> ePhpd;ikahy;
milAk;. ,q;Fs;s fhw;wpy; ePuhtpapd; msT
2. fhw;wpd; ntg;gepiy e/t
FiwAk; kpff;Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;.
nghOJ tspkz;lyj;jpw;F ePuhtpia Vu[ kW z>_
mspg;gJ ePuhtpahjy; %ykhf  tspkz;lyj;jpd; caNu nry;yr;
eilngWfpwJ. nry;y ntg;gepiy FiwtJ
NghyNt> fhw;W caNu nry;Yk;NghJ
VsBV>_
.m
mjd; ntg;gepiyAk; mf;fhw;wpd;
 jput epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; ePh;>
caUk; cauj;jpw;Nfw;g FiwfpwJ.
ePuhtpahf khWk; epfo;itNa ePuhtp
Xhplj;jpd; ntg;gepiy ez;gfypy;
ahjy; vd;fpNwhk;. ePuhtpahjy;
caUk;NghJ> mq;Fs;s fhw;Wk;
Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; midj;J
://t
ntg;gg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
ntg;gepiyfspYk; eilngWfpwJ.
 ,jdhy; fhw;W ntg;gkile;J>
vdNt ePuhtpahjy; xU njhlh;r;rpahf
tphptile;J NknyOk;GfpwJ.
ehs; KOtJk; eilngWk;
Gtp Nkw;gug;gpw;F mUfpy; cs;s
epfo;thFk;.
fhw;wpd; xg;G <ug;gjk; Fiwthf
 fly;> MW> Fsk;> Vhp Mfpa
ps
,Uf;Fk;. Mdhy; fhw;W caNu

ePh; epiyfspy; ePh; ngUkstpy;
vOk;Gk;nghOJ mjd; ntg;gepiy
njhlh;r;rpahf Mtpahfpf; nfhz;Nl
Fiwtjhy;> mf;fhw;wpd; <ug;gjj;ij
,Uf;fpwJ. mt;thNw jhtuq;fs;
Vw;Wf;nfhs;sf;$ba cr;r msT
Rthrpf;Fk; nghOJ ngUkstpy;
htt
FiwfpwJ. ,jdhy; mf;fhw;W G+hpj

ePuhtpia ntsptpLfpd;wd.
epiyia milfpwJ.
ntspaplg;gLk; ePuhtp fhw;wpy;
fyf;fpwJ. kiog;nghoptpw;Fj;
23
AslB_
Vs z>_ \^ _m x_^
s
 fhw;wpd; ntg;gepiy FiwAk;  tspkz;lyj;jpy; cs;s ePuhtpahdJ
nghOJk; <ug;gjk; mjpfhpf;Fk; ePh; RUq;Fjy; %yk; Ez;zpa
scg
nghOJk;> fhw;wpd; xg;G <ug;gjk; 100 jptiyfshfNth my;yJ gdpg;
rjtPjj;ij milfpwJ. gdp tpOk; gbfq;fshfNth khw;wg;gLtjpd;
epiyia mile;jgpd;dh; mjd; njhFg;Ng \^ vd;W
ntg;gepiy NkYk; FiwAk;nghOJ> miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ePuhtp RUq;Fjy; eilngWfpwJ.  tspkz;lyj;jpy; kpje;J nfhz;b
 fhw;wpYs;s ePuhtp ePh;j;Jspfshf Uf;Fk;> El;gkhd ePh;j;JspfNs
np
khWk; epfo;itNa ePuhtp RUq;Fjy; Nkfq;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
vd;fpNwhk;. fhw;wpd; ntg;gepiy  cauj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; ehd;F
0ocf;F FiwAk;nghOJ ePuhtp tiffshfg; gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
gdpj;Jspfshf RUq;FfpwJ. ePuhtp 1. fPw;W Nkfq;fs;
RUq;Fjy; tspkz;lyj;jpy; Gtpapd;
Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J vy;yh cauj;jpYk;
eilngWfpwJ.
e/t 2. gil Nkfq;fs;
3. jpus; Nkfq;fs;
4. fhh;gil Nkfq;fs;
.m
k. k^ A^
1 fPw;W Nkfq;fs; (m) cah;  5000kP cauj;jpy; cUthfpd;wd.
Nkfq;fs; (Cirrus) ,aw;ifapNyNa ,it twz;Lk;> gdpg;
gbfq;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sjhy; xU NghJk;
://t
kiog;nghoptpid nfhLg;gjpy;iy.
 ,k;Nkfq;fs; ePz;litfshfTk;> ehh; Nghd;w
mikg;gpidf; nfhz;ljhfTk; tise;Jk;>
Kidfspy; RUs; Nghd;w mikg;G ,y;yhj
jhfTk; ,Uf;Fk;.
ps
2 gil Nkfq;fs; (m)  2000kP ,ilNa cUthfpwJ. xNu

(Stratus) jho; Nkfq;fs; khjphpahfTk;> mlh; rhk;gy; epw tphpg;G Nghd;w
Njhw;wj;ijAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
htt
 ,it rpW J}uy;fisNah>

gdpg;nghoptpidNa nfhLf;f ty;yit.
24
AslB_
3 jpus; Nkfq;fs; (cumulus)  Njhw;wk; kpUJthd ntbj;jg; gUj;jpiag;
s
(m) eLj;ju Nkfq;fs; Nghd;Wf; fhzg;gLk;.
 ,k;Nkfq;fs; jdpj;jdpahfNth my;yJ
scg
mzpahfNth my;yJ rpjwpNah fhzg;gLk;.
 kiog;nghopT> kpd;dy; kw;Wk; ,b Mfpa
tw;wpypUe;J njhlh;GilajhFk;.
 Rkhh; 12>000 kP cauk; tiu fhzg;gLk;.
4 fhh;gil Nkfq;fs;  fUik my;yJ rhk;gy; epwj;jpy; mlh;j;jpahf
np
(Nimbus) (m) nrq;Fj;jhd fhzg;gLk;.
Nkfq;fs;  fdj;j kiog;nghoptpid nfhLf;Fk;. ,it
Gay; my;yJ kio Nkfq;fs; vd miof;fg;
gLfpwJ.
e/t
.m
://t
ps
\[ >Vu^
htt
••••••
25
AslB_
s
scg
VWl[ k^
 md;whl thdpiyapd; ePz;lfhy

tpOtjhy; gfy;> ,uT Neuq;fSk;
ruhrhpNa ‘fhyepiy” vd;fpNwhk;.
np
rkkhfNt fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ePuhtp
Gtpapy; epyTk; fhyepiyia 6 ngUk;
Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;ig xl;bAs;s
gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;.
tspkz;lyj;jpy; fyf;fpwJ.
 G+kj;jpa Nuiff; fhyepiy Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpw;F mUfpy; cs;s
 ntg;gkz;lyf; fhyepiy tspkz;lyKk; ntg;gkilfpwJ.
 Jiz ntg;gkz;lyf; fhyepiy
 kpjntg;g kz;lyf; fhyepiy
 Jiz JUt kz;lyf; fhyepiy
e/t ,jdhy;
ntg;gkile;J>
fhw;W
mq;Fs;s
tphptiltjhy;
fhw;W
tphptilfpwJ.
,Nyrhfp
 JUt kz;lyf; fhyepiy tspkz;lyj;jpd; caNu nry;fpwJ.
.m
1.\]B  VW 2. k\ VW
 ,f;fhyepiy Gtpapd; 5 kDx>_;
o
 tl miuf;Nfhsj;jpy; 5o x>_
5o >[ D tiuAs;s gpuNjrj;jpy; 25 k D; tiuapYk;> njd;
o
epyTfpwJ. ,g;gpuNjrj;jpy; #hpadpd; miuf;Nfhsj;jpy; >[ D 5o

xspf;fjph;fs; Mz;L KOtJk; x>_ 25o tiuapYk; ntg;gkz;ly
://t
nrq;Fj;jhf tpOfpd;wd. vdNt fhyepiy epyTfpwJ. Gtp jd; mr;rpy;

,g;gpuNjrk; mjpf ntg;gkilfpwJ. 23½o VFm Roy;fpwJ. ,jdhy;
,q;F Mz;bd; ruhrhp ntg;gk; #hpad; 23½o tl ml;rj;jpw;Fk;> 23½o
27oC MfTk;> Mz;bd; ruhrhp njd; ml;rj;jpw;FkpilNa efh;tJ
ps
kioasT 250 nr.kP MfTk; cs;sJ. Nghy; Njhd;WfpwJ. #hpad; tl

Mz;L KOtJk; mjpf ntg;gepiy miuf;Nfhsj;jpy; gpufhrpf;Fk; NghJ>
epyTtjhy;> ,q;F Fsph;fhyk; tl miuf;Nfhsj;jpYs;s ntg;g
,y;iy. ,uT> gfy; ntg;g NtWghLk; kz;lyj;jpy; #hpadpd; xspf;fjph;fs;
htt
kpff;FiwthfNt fhzg;gLfpwJ. nrq;Fj;jhf tpOfpd;wd. vdNt

 #hpadpd; xspf;fjph;fs; Mz;L mq;F Nfhilf;fhyk; epyTfpwJ.
KOtJk; ,q;F nrq;Fj;jhf
26
AslB_
mNj rkak; njd; ntg;g kz;lyj;jpy;  Nfhil kw;Wk; Fsph;fhyk; ntg;g
#hpaf;fjph;fs; rha;thf tpOtjhy; NtWghLk; mjpfkhfNt cs;sJ.
s
mq;F mjpf ntg;gk; epyTtjpy;iy mNj Nghd;W gfy;> ,uT ntg;g
scg
vdNt njd; miuf;Nfhsj;jpy; NtWghL mjpfkhfNt cs;sJ.
Fsph;fhyk; epyTfpwJ. 4. t> k \ VW
 tpahghuf;fhw;wpd; tpisthy;  ,f;fhyepiy 35o x>_ 60o
kiog;nghopT ehl;fs; kw;Wk; ruhrhp D k tl kw;Wk; njd;
kiog;nghoptpd; msT ,lj;jpw;F miuf;Nfhsq;fspy; epyTfpwJ. #hpa
,lk; NtWgLfpwJ. Nfhilf;fhyj;jpy; xspf;fjph;fs; Nfhilf; fhyj;jpy;
np
<ug;gjkhd fhw;W flypypUe;J rw;W rhpthfTk;> Fsph;fhyj;jpy;
epyj;ij Nehf;fp tPRtjhy; mjpf kpfr; rhpthfTk; tpOfpd;wd. vdNt
kiog;nghopT Vw;gLfpwJ. Mdhy; Nfhilfhyk; FspuhfTk;> Fsph;fhyk;
Fsph;fhyj;jpy; twz;l fhw;W kpff;FspuhfTk; cs;sJ. Nfhil
epyj;jpypUe;J fliy Nehf;fp
e/t kw;Wk; Fsph;fhy ntg;g NtWghL
tPRfpwJ. epyf;fhw;W <ug;gjkpd;wp mjpfkhfNt cs;sJ. Nfhilf;
twz;L ,Ug;gjhy; kiog;nghopT fhyj;jpy; gfy; Neuk;> ,uT Neuj;ij
Vw;gLtjpy;iy. tpl mjpfkhf cs;sJ.
3. m k \ VW 5. m mk \ VW
.m
 ,f;fhy epiy 25 x>_ 35 D k
o o
 Jiz JUt kz;lyf; fhyepiy 60o
tl kw;Wk; njd; miuf;Nfhsq;fspy; x>_ 70o D k tl kw;Wk; njd;
epyTfpwJ. ,k;kz;lyk; ntg;g miuNfhsf;Nfhsq; fspy; epyTfpwJ.
kz;lyj;jpw;F mg;ghy; ,Ug;gjhy; #hpadpd; xspf;fjph;fs; Mz;L
://t
Mz;L KOtJk; ,q;F #hpa KOtJk; kpfr;rhpthf tpOtjhy;

xspf;fjph; rhpthfNt tpOfpd;wd. ,q;F ntg;gk; FiwthfNt cs;sJ.
vdNt ,q;F Mz;L KOtJk; Fsph;fhyj;jpy; ciwepiyf;Ff; fPNo
Fiwthd ntg;gNk epyTfpwJ. ntg;gk; Fiwj;J fhzg;gLfpwJ.
Nfhilf;fhyk; kpj ntg;gkhfTk;> ,jdhy; kioj;Jsp> gdpj;Jspahf
ps
Fsph;fhyk; FspuhfTk; cs;sJ. khwp gdpahf khWfpwJ.

Mz;bd; xU rpy khjq;fspy; 6. mk \ VW
kl;Lk; kiog;nghopT vw;gLfpwJ.  ,f;fhyepiy 70o x>_ 90o k tl
Mz;bd; ruhrhp kioasT 90 kw;Wk; njd; miuf;Nfhsq;fspy;
htt
nr.kPf;Ff; Fiwthf cs;sJ. ,q;F epyTfpwJ. ,q;F Mz;L KOtJk;

Fsph;fhyj;jpy; gfy; Neuj;ij tpl ciwepiyf;F fPo; ntg;gepiy
,uT Neuk; mjpfkhf cs;sJ. epyTfpwJ. #hpad; njd;
27
AslB_
miuf;Nfhsj;jpy; gpufhrpf;Fk;  Nfhilf;fhyj;jpy; ,q;F #hpadpd;
s
nghOJ tlJUtg;gFjpapy; MW xspf;fjph;fs;> ehs; KOtJk;
khjq;fSf;F #hpa cjaNk gpufhrpg;gjhy; ,uT> gfy; ,uz;L
scg
Vw;gLtjpy;iy. mJNghyNt #hpad; Neuq;fspYk; ntspr;rkhfNt
tl miuf;Nfhsj;jpy; gpufhrpf;Fk; cs;sd. mjdhy; Nfhilf;fhyj;jpy;
nghOJ njd;JUtg; gFjpapy; ,uT vd;gNj ,y;iy. Fsph;fhyj;jpy;
MW khjq;fSf;F #hpaNd ,q;F #hpad; njhptNj ,y;iy.
fhzg;gLtjpy;iy.
np
••••••
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
28
s
scg
>tV| 
np

VD : AslB_
z] : kV\ x^ e/t
]BV  kV\ \uD l^, ]BV  V_ \uD
*[k^, >tV|  kV\
VA\
.m
>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\
>V VVo VE ]^, o] VzA^, \V] >
\[V^ ks_ >BV|^m. D\[V zAV VA\
://t

>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V
FD xBuElV ~||>_ Vm. *V_ ]B VA\ ][ 
> mkVzD  >s|m. m xuKD V >z
ps
gB,
htt
s
scg
np
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
]B AslB_
kV\ x^
s
scg
]BV - kV\ \uD l^
kV\
 Ntshz; njhopy; ,e;jpa r%fg;
np
nghUshjhu tsh;r;rpapy; Kf;fpag;
gq;F tfpf;fpwJ.
 ,e;jpah;fspd; tho;tpw;Fk;> czTg;
ghJfhg;gpw;Fk; Mjhukhf Ntshz;ik
]B kV\ e/t tpsq;FfpwJ.
kV\l[ k^
1. w\BV kV\ 2. >V kV\
 mjpf kiongWk; fhLfspy; ,k;Kiw  Ntshz;ikapy; kpfg; gue;j epyj;jpy; xNu
.m
gpd;gw;wg;gLfpwJ. xU gaph; kl;Lk; tpistpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 fhl;bd; xU gFjp Rj;jk; nra;ag;gl;L  ,g;gFjp ngUk;ghYk; jdpahUf;Fr;
,uz;L my;yJ %d;W Mz;LfSf;Fg; nrhe;jkhdJ.
gaph; nra;ag;gLfpwJ. >V l^ : >l, V, 
 ,k;Kiw tlfpof;F khepyq;fs; kj;jpag;  tlfpof;F khepyq;fspd; Fd;Wg;
://t
gpuNjrk;> xbrh> Me;jpug; gpuNjrk; gFjpfspYk;> Nkw;F tq;fhsk; kw;Wk;

kw;Wk; Nfush khepyq;fspy; rpwpa njd;dpe;jpahtpy; ePyfphp> Mid
mstpy; eilKiwg; gLj;Jfpd;wdh;. kiyapy; gaphplg;gLfpd;wd.
3. k kV\ 4. >[M kV\
 ,j;jifa Ntshz;ikapy; gaph; mjpf  ,e;jpa Ntshz;ikapy; ,t;Ntshz;ik
ps
stpy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gl;L me;epa nry tif mjpfk; ,lk; ngw;Ws;sJ.

thzpia <l;bj; jUtjw;fhf ntsp  cw;gj;jpapy; Rkhh; ghjpasT tptrhap
ehl;bw;F Vw;Wkjp nra;ag; gLfpd;wd. fspd; FLk;gj; Njitia G+h;j;jp
 ,k;Kiw gQ;rhg;> F[uhj;> kfhuh\;buk; nra;tjhy;> kPjp re;ijfspy; tpw;fg;
htt
kw;Wk; jkpo;ehL Mfpa khepyq;fspy; gLfpd;wJ.

gpd;gw;wg;gLfpwJ.  ney; kw;Wk; NfhJik Nghd;w jhdpaq;
 ,j;jifa Ntshz;ikia ‘> fisNa mjpfkhf tpistpf;fpd;wd.
kV\” vd;Wk; Fwpg;gpLth;.

]B AslB_
 ek; ehl;bd; Njrpa tUkhdj;jpd;  ePh;ghrd tptrhak;
ngUk; gq;fpid Ntshz; njhopy;
s
2. Njhl;lg;gaph; tptrhak;
<l;bj; jUfpwJ. 3. fyg;G tptrhak;
scg
 njhopy; kw;Wk; th;j;jfj;Jiw tsh;r;rp 1. ys >[M skVBD
Ntshz;ikia rhh;e;Js;sJ.  rpwpa mstpyhd tpisepyj;jpy;
 gy;NtW Gtpapay; fhuzpfshy; RaNjitf;F kl;LNk czT
,e;jpahtpy; ntt;NtW rhFgb jhdpaq;fis tsh;f;Fk; Kiw
Kiwfs; gpd;gw;wg;gl;L tUfpd;wd. MFk;.
l Vz x^: 1. [F skVBD 2. A[F
np
Vz x l^ skVBD
 Mz;L KOtJk;  ghrdkw;Wk;
 xU gaph;  ney;> fUk;G>
rhFgb kf;fhr;Nrhsk;> kioahNyh gUt kioia
Kiw (Mono vz;nza; ghrd kl;LNk
cropping) tpj;Jf;fs; e/t trjpahNyh> ek;gpapUf;Fk;
 ,U gaph;  ney;> cSe;J>
rhFgbKiw NfhJik> fLF ePh; fpilf;Fk; epyq;fspy;
(Dual cropping)  ney;> cSe;J> epyq;fspy; nra;ag;gLk;
 gy gaph; ghh;yp> fLF> nra;ag;gLk; tptrhaq;fs;
rhFgbKiw NfhJik>
.m
tptrhak; MFk;. MFk;.
(mixed Nrhsk;> fk;G>
cropping) epyf;fliy  v.fh. ney; kw;Wk;  v.fh. rpW
fUk;G jhdpaq;fs;
3. V skVBD
 ,e;jpahtpy; gUj;jp kw;Wk; fUk;G rhFgb
://t
ghrd trjpia nghWj;Nj mikfpwJ

2. >Vl skVBD (Plantation
Farming)
 kpfg;nghpa Njhl;lj;jpy; (m)
ps
gz;izfspy; gaph; rhFgb

nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
 l Vz x  v.fh. Njapiy> fhgp> ,ug;gh; kw;Wk;
skVB][ k^ kpsF
htt
1. jPtu jd;dpiwT tptrhak;

 ed;nra; tptrhak;
 Gd;nra; tptrhak;

]B AslB_
1. nrhpfy;rh; gl;LGO tsh;g;G
s
(sericulture) Kiw
2. vgpfy;rh; NjdPf;fs; tsh;g;G
scg
(apiculture) Kiw
3. tpl;b fy;rh; jpuhl;ir tsh;g;G
(viti culture) Kiw
4. g;Nshhp fy;rh; kyh;fs; tsh;g;G
(floriculture) Kiw
np
]BVs_ l|D w^
3. A skVBD (Mixed farming)
 kpfg;nghpa tpisepyq;fspy; gy
gaph;fis tsh;g;gJld; fhy;eil>
kPd;> NjdP kw;Wk; gwitfisAk;
tsh;f;Fk; KiwahFk;.
e/t
 epue;ju tUkhdk; jUk; ,yhgfukhd
KiwahFk;.
.m
l Vz
B s>zD k xB l^
://t
VD VD
1. fhhpg; (Kariff) [_d; (gUt etk;gh; ney;> Nrhsk;> gUj;jp> rzy;>
kio njhlq;Fk; fUk;G> fliy
fhyk;)
ps
2. uhgp (Rabi) etk;gh; khh;r; NfhJik> Gifapiy> fLF>

(Fsph;fhyj; (Nfhil gUg;G tif jhdpaq;fs;
Jtf;fk;) Muk;gk;)
htt
3. iraj; (Zaid) khh;r; [_d; (gUt goq;fs;> fha;fwpfs;>

(Nfhil kio Muk;gk;) jz;zPh; gok;>
Jtf;fk;) nts;shpf;fha;.

]B AslB_
kV >Va WlzD mjpfkhf ngWk; gFjpapNyh my;yJ
s
V^ ePh;ghrd trjpAld; $ba gFjhpfspNyh
1. W>VuD gaph; nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
scg
,e;jpah> kiyfs;> rkntspfs;> gPlG+kpfs; cl^
Nghd;w gy;NtW epyj;Njhw;wq;fisf; nfhz;l 1. _
ehL. Ntshz; cw;gj;jpia mjpfhpj;J  ,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpa czTg;gaph;
jUk; nrOikahd tz;ly; kz; epiwe;j ney; MFk;. cyfpd; cw;gj;jpapy;
rkntspfs; Ntshz;ikf;F cfe;jit. ,uz;lhk; ,lj;ij tfpf;fpwJ>
v.fh: fq;if kw;Wk; fhtphp Mw;Wr;  ,e;jpahTk;> rPdhTk; cyf ney;
np
cw;gj;jpapy; 90% rjtPjj;ij cw;gj;jp
rkntspfs;.
2. VW nra;fpd;wd.
 gQ;rhg; kw;Wk; `hpahdh
,e;jpahtpd; ngUk;gFjp ntg;g kz;lyj;jpy;
khepyq;fspy; kio Fiwthf
mike;J ntg;g kz;lyg; gUtf;fhw;W
fhyepiyiag; ngw;Ws;sJ.
KOtJk; gaph;fs; tsu Vw;w #hparf;jp
,q;F fpilf;fpwJ. gUtkioAld;
e/t
tUlk;
cs;sjhy; ePh;ghrdj;jpd; cjtpAld;
gaphplg;gLfpwJ.
 >  5 kw;Wk; >VV 1  tPhpa
fyg;gpd tpijfs; BVV, V,
ePh;ghrd trjpfSk; ,ize;J midj;Jg; _o, Dx Vi*, \V
.m
gUtq;fspYk; gaph; tpisr;ry; Nkw;nfhs;s >D, c>Vfspy; gaphplg;
toptFf;fpwJ. kiog;nghoptpd; msT gLfpwJ.
gaph;rhFgb Kiwia eph;zapf;fpwJ.
ney; tpistpf;fg;gLk; khepyq;fs;:
3. \ k^
tl khepyq;fs; :
://t
njhopy;El;gk; tsh;rr
; paile;j NghjpYk;
1. Nkw;Ftq;fhsk; 2. gQ;rhg;
Ntshz; rhFgb Kiwiaj; jPh;khdpf;fpd;w
3. cj;jpug; gpuNjrk; 4. gPfhh;
kpf Kf;fpakhd Gtpapay; fhuzq;fSs;
5. Xbrh
xd;whf kz; tpsq;FfpwJ. vdNt>
tskpf;f tz;ly; kz;> ney; kw;Wk; fUk;G
ps
njd; khepyq;fs; :
tpisr;rYf;Fk;> fhpry; kz; gUj;jp
1. jkpo;ehL 2. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
tpistpw;Fk; Vw;wjhf cs;sd.
4. 
_ _V z]_ l|D g^
,e;jpah rkr;rPuw;w kioiag; ngWk;
htt
1. kfhejp 2. Nfhjhthp
gUtf;fhw;W ju ,ayhJ. Mifahy; ePh;
3. fpU\;zh 4. fhtphp
mjpfk; Njitg;gLk; gaph;fspy; kio

]B AslB_
mhprp Vw;Wkjpapy; ,e;jpah Kjyplk; Vm\ l

 ,J Kf;fpakhd czTg;gaph;
s
ngw;Ws;sJ. jha;yhe;J> tpal;ehik
MFk;. ,e;jpahtpd; tlf;F kw;Wk;
gpd;Df;Fj; js;spaJ
scg
tlNkw;F khepyq;fspy; NfhJikg;
>tV_ _ cu] gaph; Fsph;fhyk; kw;Wk; tre;jfhyg;
 jkpo;ehl;bd; ‘ney; fsQ;rpak;” gapuhfTk; gaphplg;gLfpwJ.
vdg;gLk; jQ;rhT+h; khtl;lk; l|D \VW^
rpwg;ghdjhf tpsq;FfpwJ. 1. cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;
ney; tsh;r;rp vLj;Jf;nfhs;Sk; 2. uh[];jhd;
np
fhyj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; rk;gh> FWit> 3. kj;jpag; gpuNjrk;
jhsb %d;W tiffspy; ney; cw;gj;jpr; 4. rl;B];fh;
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. 5. kfhuh\;buk;
rk;gh - ePz;l fhyg;gaphpy; - 5 Kjy; 6 6. F[uhj;
khjq;fs;
FWit - 3 Kjy; 4 khjq;fs;
jhsb - Kd;dh; mWtil nra;ag;gl;l
e/t 7. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
l^
 Ra Njitf;F my;yhJ> re;ij
Nehf;Fld; tsh;f;fg;gLk; gaph;fis
epyj;jpy; cs;s ney; jhs;fSld; cOJ
.m
gzg;gaph;fs; vd;fpd;wdh;.
gaph; nra;Ak; Kiw.
 fUk;G> gUj;jp> rzy;> Njapiy> fhg;gp>
]B skVB gVFE wD vz;nza; tpj;Jf;fs;> Gifapiy
(ICAR) kw;Wk; ug;gh; Nghd;wit MFk;.
 1929-k; Mz;L njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.  njhopw;rhiyf;Fj; Njitahd
://t
czTg; gw;whf;Fiwapy; ,Ue;j %yg;nghUl;fis mspg;gJ

,e;jpahit cghp czT cw;gj;jp kl;Lkpd;wp Vw;Wkjp %yk; me;epa
ehlhf khw;wpajw;F ICAR nrythzpia ek;ehl;bw;F <l;bj;
fhuzkhf tpsq;FfpwJ. jUfpd;wd.
>tV[ _ gVFE 1. DA
ps
WkD  ntg;g kz;ly gapuhFk;.

 jkpo;ehl;bd; ney; Muha;r;rp epWtdk;  ,J mjpf ntg;gKk;> <ug;gjKk; nfhz;l
MLJiwapy; mike;J cs;sJ. fhyepiyapy; ed;F gapuhFk;.
jkpo;ehL tptrha gy;fiyf;fofj;jpd;  fUk;G cw;gj;jpapy; gpNurpYf;F
htt
jpUth&h; fpis TNRH 174 vd;w Gjpa mLj;j ,lj;jpy; ,e;jpah cs;sJ.
ney; ujj;ij mwpKfg;gLj;jpAs;sJ.  jkpo;ehl;bd; Kjd;ikg; gzg;gaph;.

]B AslB_
DA cu] FD \VW^  ,e;jpah Gifapiy cw;gj;jpapy;
1. cj;jpug;gpuNjrk; 2. jkpo;ehL %d;whtJ ,lj;ijg; gpbj;Js;sJ.
s
3. fh;ehlhfk; 4. F[uhj; cu] FD \VW^
scg
5. gPfhh; 6. gQ;rhg; 1. jkpo;ehL 2. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
7. `hpahdh 3. fh;ehlfk;
2. ] 5. F sm^
 Kf;fpakhd ,iog;gaph; MFk;.  ntg;g kw;Wk; kpj ntg;g kz;lyq;fspy;
 ntg;g kw;Wk; kpjntg;g kz;ly tpistpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
fhyepiyapy; tsh;fpwJ.  ,e;jpahtpy; gapuhFk; vz;nza;
np
 fhpry; kz; gaphpLtjw;F Vw;w kz; tpj;Jf;fs;
MFk;. 1. epyf;fliy 2. vs;
 ehd;fhk; ,lj;ij ,e;jpah gUj;jp 3. fLF 4. #hpafhe;jp
cw;gj;jpapy; ngWfpwJ. 5. Mkzf;F 6. Njq;fha;
l|D \VW^
1. F[uhj;
3. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
5. fh;ehlfh
2. kfhuh\;buh
4. jkpo;ehL
6. gQ;rhg;
e/t 7. NrhahgPd;];
F sm^ cu] FD xB
\VW^
1. F[uhj; 2. kfhuh\;buk;
7. `hpahdh 3. jkpo;ehL 4. Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
.m
3. _ l 5. kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;
 ‘> w” gaph; vd miof;fg;
6. Xhprh
gLfpwJ.
7. fh;ehlfk;
 rzy; kypthd tzpfj;
Njitkpf;fjhff; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ] k^
://t
 rhf;Fg;igfs;> fk;gsq;fs;> fapW  tskw;w kz;zpYk; ,it ed;F

E}opiyfs;> Nghh;itfs;> rzy; tsh;fpd;wd. ,it twl;rpiaj;
Jzpfs; kw;Wk; jhh;gha; jahhpf;f jhq;Fk; gaph;fs;> jhdpag; gapuhd
gad;gLfpwJ. jpiz tiffs; ney; kw;Wk;
 Nkw;Ftq;fhsk;> gPfhh;> xhp]h> NfhJikf;F ,ilg;gl;l gapuhFk;.
ps
m];]hk; kw;Wk; Nkfhyah Mfpag;  NfhJik kw;Wk; ney;iyf;fhl;bYk;

gFjpfspy; kl;LNk gapuhfpwJ. mjpfr; rj;Jkpf;fit. ,it
 tz;ly; kz;zpy; ed;F tsh;fpwJ. fhy;eilfSf;Fk; jPtdkhfpwJ.
4. Al xB ] k^
htt
1508-k; Mz;L Nghh;r;Rf;fPrpauhy; 1. Nrhsk; 2. fk;G

Kjd; Kjyhf ,e;jpahtpw;F nfhz;L 3. Nfo;tuF
tug;gl;lJ.

]B AslB_
xB cu] \VW^ kf;fhr;Nrhsk; nguk;gY}h;>
s
1. kj;jpag; gpuNjrk; 2. Me;jpug; gpuNjrk; jpz;Lf;fy;
3. jkpo;ehL 4. cj;jpug;gpuNjrk; Nfhuh (jpiz) Nryk;> ehkf;fy;
scg
5. fh;ehlfh 6. Xhprh
7. gPfhh; 8. kfhuh\;buk;
9. F[uhj;
A k^
 Gujr;rj;Jkpf;f mtiuapdj;ijr;
Nrh;e;j gaph; tiffs; MFk;.
np
xB A k^
1. gl;lhzp 2. Jtiu
V l
3. cSe;J 4. gr;irgapW
5. nfhs;S >V l^
 twl;rpapYk; $l gUg;G tiffs;
tsuf;$bait
 kpjkhd Fsph; fhyepiy> Kjy;
e/t  jw;fhy ehfhPfj;jpd;gb
fdp> kw;Wk; G+ rhFgb kpf mjpfg;
gug;gstpy; tsh;f;fg;gLfpd;wd.
fha;>
kpjkhf Fiwe;j kiog;nghopT gUg;G  kh> gyh> thio> nfha;ah kw;Wk;

.m
tpisaj; Njitg;gLfpwJ. jpuhl;ir goq;fs; nghpa Njhg;Gfspy;
xB cu] \VW^ gaphplg;gLfpd;wd.
1. kj;jpag; gpuNjrk; 2. gQ;rhg;  goq;fs; kw;Wk; fha;fwpfs;
3. uh[];jhd; 4. `hpahdh cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah VD
5. kfhuh\;buk; 6. F[uhj; > km.
://t
7. Me;jpug; gpuNjrk; 8. jkpo;ehL 1. Mg;gps; ,khr;ryg; gpuNjrk;>

fh\;kPh; kw;Wk;
z>VMB^ cu]l_ x>[\
cj;jufhz;l;
\Vk^
2. thiog;gok; jkpo;ehL kw;Wk;
Nrhsk; Nfhak;gj;J}h;>
kfhuh\;buh
jpUr;rp>
ps
jpz;Lf;fy; 3. MuQ;Rg; gok; kfuh\;buh>

cj;jufhz;l;>
fk;G tpOg;Guk;>
,khr;ryg;gpuNjrk;>
J}j;Jf;Fb
[k;K-fh\;kPh;>
Nfo;tuF fpU\;zfphp> Me;jpug; gpuNjrk;>
htt
jh;kGhp> Nryk; jkpo;ehL kw;Wk;

fh;ehlfh mjpfstpy;
cw;gj;jpahfpwJ.

]B AslB_
1. fpU\;zfphp khk;gok; kw;Wk;  3000 mb Kjy; 4000 mb tiu
s
khq;fha; rhFgb cauq;fSf;F ,ilNaAs;s
2. Nfhak;gj;J}h; thior; rhFgb kiyr;rhpTfs; ,g;gaph; tsu
scg
kw;Wk; Vw;witahFk;.
<NuhL xB cu] \VW^
3. Njdp jpul;ir rhFgbapYk; 1.m];]hk; 2. Nkw;F tq;fk;
ngah; NghdjhFk;
3. Nfush 4. jkpo;ehL
V
 Kf;fpakhd gzg;gaph;
np
 ,e;jpahtpy; fhg;gp juj;jpw;Fg;
Gfo;ngw;wJ.
 ,e;jpahtpy; 60% fhg;gp fh;ehlfhtpy;
cw;gj;jpr; nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
>V l^
e/t  fhgp gapuhFk; khepyq;fs; jkpo;ehL
kw;Wk; Nfush.

 ,ug;gh; kuj;jpypUe;J vLf;fg;gLk;
>Vl^
ghy; Nghd;w nghUspypUe;J
.m
 Njapiy> fhgp> ,ug;gh;> kpsF kw;Wk;
,ug;gh; jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,ug;gh;
Ke;jphp Mfpait jkpo;ehl;bd;
gaphplg;gLk; gug;gstpy; ,e;jpah
Kf;fpa Njhl;lg;gapuhFk;.
MwhtJ ,lj;ijAk;> ,ug;gh;
 Njrpa mstpy; m];]hk; khepyj;ijj;
cw;gj;jpapy; Ie;jhtJ ,lj;ijAk;
njhlh;e;J> Njapiy gaphpLk; gug;gpYk;>
://t
ngw;Ws;sJ.
cw;gj;jpapYk; jkpo;ehL ,uz;lhk;
 ,ug;gh; Njhl;lq;fs; njd;dpe;jpahtpy;
epiy tfpf;fpwJ.
mjpfkhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 ePyfphp> Nfhak;Gj;J}h; khtl;lq;fspd;
 95% Nfush khepyj;jpYk;> 5%
kiyr;rhptpy; Njapiy v];Nll;Lfspy;
jkpo;ehL> fh;ehlfk; kw;Wk;
ps
mjpfstpy; gaphplg;gLfpwJ.
me;jkhd epf;Nfhghh; jPTfspYk;
>l
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 Njapiyr;nrb MoKs;s> nropg;ghd
 ,ug;gh; jkpo;ehl;by; fd;dpah
kz;Zld; $ba ntg;g kz;ly
FkhpapYk;>
htt
my;yJ Jiz ntg;g kz;ly

 kpsF fd;dpahFkhp kw;Wk;
fhyepiyapy; gapuhfpwJ.
jpUney;Ntyp

]B AslB_
c V^ cu]l_ ]BVs[ _k AE^
s
W: kVs_ AE A]B >EB kV
c V^ D (c_) V^
scg
ghy;> gUg;G> rzy;> Kjyplk; gRikg; Gul;rp czT cw;gj;jp
ehh; kQ;rs; Gul;rp vz;nza;
ney;> NfhJik> ,uz;lhtJ tpj;Jf;fs; cw;gj;jp
fUk;G> fha;fwpfs;> ,lk; ntz;ik Gul;rp ghy; cw;gj;jp
goq;fs;> gUj;jp
ePyg; Gul;rp kPd; cw;gj;jp
Gifapiy %d;whk; ,lk;
ntsph; rptg;G ,why; cw;gj;jp
np
,aw;if ug;gh; ehd;fhk; ,lk; Gul;rp
Kl;il Ie;jhk; ,lk; fUg;G / gOg;G kuGr;rhuh Mw;wy;
Gul;rp %yq;fs;
rptg;G Gul;rp ,iwr;rp / jf;fhsp
e/t jq;fg; Gul;rp
rhk;gy; Gul;rp
rpy;th; Gul;rp
goq;fs; / Mg;gps;
cuq;fs;
Kl;il
cUz;il Gul;rp cUisf;fpoq;F
.m
••••••
://t
ps
htt

]B AslB_
s
]BV - V_ \uD
scg
*[k^
np
cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah Kjyplj;ijAk;>
Kl;il cw;gj;jpapy; 5-k; ,lj;ijAk;
ngw;Ws;sJ.
V_^  \VW^
k l_ ]l_
e/t khLfs;
vUikfs;
x>oD x>oD
cj;jpug; gpuNjrk; gPfhu;
cj;jpug; gpuNjrk; gQ;rhg;
nts;shLfs; gPfhu; gPfhu;
.m
nraw;ghLfs; Me;jpuh jkpo;ehL
V_ k^ V_ cu]
 ghy;> khkprk; kw;Wk; Njhypw;fhf ML>
 ghy; cw;gj;jpiag; ngUf;f 1965-k;
khLfis tsh;g;gij ‘fhy;eil
Mz;by; Njrpa ghy; cw;gj;jp Nkk;
tsh;j;jy;’ vd;fpNwhk;. ,e;jpahtpy;
ghl;Lf; fofk; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;lJ.
://t
cs;s fhy;eil tsq;fspy; khLfs;>

 1970-y; nts;isg; Gul;rp jpl;lj;ij
vUikfs;> nts;shLfs;> nrk;kwp
INuhg;gh ehLfs; cjtpAld; Muk;
MLfs; Mfpad Kf;fpakhdit.
gpj;jJ. ,jd; 3-tJ fl;lk; 1995-y;
cyfpNyNa mjpfkhd khLfs;>
Kbe;jJ. ,j;jpl;lj;jpdhy; 1996
vUikfs;> nts;shLfs; cs;s ehL
ps
tiu 73000 $l;LwT ghy; cw;gj;jp

,e;jpah MFk;.
rq;fq;fs; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;ld.
 tptrhapfSf;F Jiz tUkhdkhf
 1997 tiu ghy; cw;gj;jpapy; mnkhpf;fh
fhy;eilfs; kw;Wk; Nfhop tsh;g;G
Kd;dpiy tfpj;jJ. 1998 - 99-y; 74
cs;sJ. muR Nkw;nfhz;l
htt
kpy;ypad; ld;fs; ghy; cw;gj;jp nra;J

ntz;ikg; Gul;rpapd; fhuzkhf ghy;
,e;jpah jw;NghJ cyfpy; kpfg;nghpa
cw;gj;jpahsuhf jpfo;fpwJ.
10
]B AslB_
Kh;Nu gQ;rhg;> `hpahdh
s
Rh;jp F[uhj;
nkf;rhdh F[uhj;
scg
np
1. >EB V_ kE \B][
]D(National Dairy Development
Board) e/t
k\ AE ]BVs_ V_ cu]
 ghy; cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah jiyrpwe;J ,e;jpahtpy; cj;jpug;gpuNjr khepyj;jpy;
tpsq;FfpwJ. jhd; mjpfsT ghy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
 Kl;il cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah 5-k; ,lk; ntz;ik Gul;rpapd; je;ij vd th;fP];
.m
ngw;Ws;sJ. Fhpad; miof;fg;gLfpwhh;.
 ,e;jpahtpy; 26 khL ,dq;fSk;> 6
vUik ,dq;fSk; cs;sd. \VW][ z V_ cu]l_ x[M
xB \V| ^ V|D ^ kzD \VW^
1. cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;
://t
\V|^
xB ^ \VW^ 2. gQ;rhg;
eNfhhp uh[];jhd; 3. kj;jpag; gpuNjrk;
jh;gh;fhh; F[uhj;> uh[];jhd; 4. uh[];jhd;
ujp uh[];jhd; jdpegh; ghy; Efh;T gQ;rhgpy; mjpfk;
ps
fhq;f;nu[; F[uhj; cs;sJ.

fprhh; `hpahdh Va kA
fhq;Nfak; jkpo;ehL  nghJthf Nfhop tsh;g;G $l;LwT
Kiwapy; eilngw;W tUfpwJ. Nfhop
htt
\^
,d mgptpUj;jpf;fhd eltbf;iffs;
xB ^ \VW^
11
]B AslB_
fhy;eil guhkhpg;Gj;Jiw %yk;  fle;j 10 Mz;LfSf;F Kd;G tiu
s
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. ngUk;ghyhd kPd;gpbg;G flw;
 jkpo;ehl;by; ehkf;fy; khtl;lk; fiuapypUe;J 80 Kjy; 100 fp.kP
scg
Kl;ilf;F ngah;ngw;w Ch; MFk; tiuapyhd Moj;jpNyNa gpbf;fg;
[ kA gl;L te;jd. jw;NghJjhd; Mo;fly;
kPd;gpbg;G mjpfkhfpf; nfhz;L
 ,e;jpahtpy; ,aw;ifahd Kiw fspy;
gd;wpfspd; tsh;g;G Nkw;nfhs;sg; tUfpd;wJ.
gLfpwJ. ,jpYk; mjpf yhgj;ij cyfpd; kPd; cw;gj;jpapy;> ,e;jpah 7tJ
<l;lf;$ba tha;g;G Vw;gLfpwJ.
 ,e;jpahtpy; fhy;eilfis guhkhpg;g ,lk; tfpf;fpwJ. cs;ehl;L kPd; gpbg;gpy;
np
jw;Fk;> ghJfhg;gjw;Fk; gy;NtW cyfpy; ,uz;lhk; ,lk; tfpf;fpwJ.
mikg;Gfs; cs;sd. NkYk; midj;J
tpjkhd fhy;eil Neha;fSf;F  ,e;jpahtpy; nkhj;j kPd; cw;gj;jpapYk;>
rpfpr;ir mspf;Fk; tpjkhf muR cs;ehl;L kPd; gpbg;gpYk; \uz
kw;Wk; jdpahh; kUj;Jtkidfs; kVD Kjyplk; tfpf;fpwJ.
mjpfkhf epWtg;gl;Ls;sd. NkYk; e/t
fpuhkg;Gwq;fspy; jhd; fhy; eilfs;
tsh;g;G mjpfk; fhzg; gLfpwJ.
 fly; kPd;gpbg;gpy; jw;NghJ F[uhj;
khepyk; Kjyplk; ngw;W tUfpwJ.
1994 - 2000 Mz;L tiu Nfusk;
vdNt kUj;Jth;fs; fpuhkg;
Gwq;fspNy Neubahf nrd;W rpfpr;ir Kjyplk; tfpj;jJ.
.m
]BVs_ c^ B *[ mx^:
mspf;fpd;wdh;.
1. nfhr;rp 4. uha;nrsf;
2. nrd;id 5. ghuhjPg;
3. tprhfg;gl;bdk;
,ijj; jtpu 28 rpwpa kPd;gpb Jiw
://t
Kfq;fSk; cs;sd.
 ,e;jpahtpy; fpof;F flw;fiuia
tpl Nkw;F flw;fiuapy; jhd;
fz;lj;jpl;bd; mfyk; mjpfkhf
fhzg;gLfpwJ. vdNt Nkw;F
ps
flw;fiuapy; mjpf kPd;fs; fhzg;

*[ k^
gLfpwJ. ,e;jpahtpy; ‘nkf;fuy;”
 ,e;jpahtpy; flw;fiu ePsk; 7517.7
kPd;tif jhd; mjpfkhf gpbf;fg;
fp.kP MFk;.
gLfpwJ. ,J nkhj;j kPd; gpbg;gpy;
 jdp nghUshjhu kz;lyj;jpd; gug;G
htt
%d;wpy; xU gq;F MFk;.

20.2 yl;rk; rJu fp.kP MFk;. ,q;F
 AE vd;gJ fly;fspy; Nkw;
mjpfgl;rkhf 4 kpy;ypad; ld; kPd;fs;
nfhs;sg;gLk; gy;NtW tsh;g;G
fpilf;Fk;.
Kiwfs; MFk;.
12
]B AslB_
s
scg
np
g_ *[>_ c^V| *[>_
fly; kw;Wk; Nghuhopfspy; kPd; gpbj;jiy cs;ehl;bYs;s Fsk;> Fl;il> MWfs;
Mo;fly; kPd; gpbj;jy; vd;fpNwhk;. Kfj;Jthuk;> rJg;G epyq;fs; Mfpa
,lq;fspy; kPd; gpbj;jiy cs;ehl;L
e/t kPd; gpbj;jy; vd;fpNwhk;.
,uhl;rj ,ae;jpu glFfs;: ,t;tif kPd; fl;Lkuk;> rpwa kug;glFfs;> Bry;
gpbj;jypy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ glFfs; kpjitfs;> tiyfs; Mfpait
,t;tifapy; gad;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wJ.
.m
Rwh> nfSj;jp> ntz;il> nts;sp> nfz;il tpyhq;F> kph;fy;> fl;yh> Nuhf;>
••••••
://t
ps
htt
13
]B AslB_
s
>tV|  kV\
scg
 jkpo;ehl;L nghUshjhuk; xU
Ntshz; nghUshjhuk; MFk;.
 jkpo;ehl;bd; nkhj;j kf;fs;
np
njhifapy; 56 >T> \^
tptrhaj;ij njhopyhff; nfhz;Ls;
sdh;.
nrhpfy;rh; (Sericulture) gl;L tsh;g;G
e/t mgpfy;rh; (Apiculture)
tpl;bfy;rh; (Viticulture)
NjdP tsh;g;G
jpuhl;ir
tsh;g;G
>tw skVBD
GNshhpfy;rh; (Floriculture) G+f;fs;
.m
 jkpo;ehl;bd; Kjd;ikahdJk;> tsh;g;G
goikahdJkhd >Va_ Ntshz;ik nghypl;hp (Poultry) gz;iz
tsh;g;G
njhopyhFk;. Ntshz;ik vd;gJ
kdpjdhy; czTf;fhfTk;> kw;wg; skVB][ k^
gad;ghl;bw; fhfTk; gaph;fis 1. jPtpu jd;dpiwT tptrhak;
://t
mjpfstpy; tsh;f;Fk; nrayhFk;. 2. Njhl;lg;gaph; tptrhak;

 Ntshz;ik vd;gJ l kA, 3. fyg;G tptrhak;
V kA, k, *[ \uD 1. ys >[M skVBD
V| kA Nghd;w nray;ghLfs;  rpwpa mstpyhd tpisepyj;jpy;
ps
cs;slf;fpajhFk;. RaNjitf;F kl;LNk czT

 Ntshz;ik tsh;r;rp nghUshjhu jhdpaq;fis tsh;f;Fk; Kiwf;F
tsh;rr
; piaNkd;ikailar;nra;fpd;wJ. jPtpu jd;dpiwT tptrhak; vd;W
Ntfkhd nghUshjhu tsh;r;rp ngah;. jkpo;ehl;bd; ngUk;ghd;ik
htt
mbj;jskhfTk;> Ntshz;ikapd; ahd tptrhapfs; ,k;KiwiaNa

Kd;Ndw;wk; mikfpd;wJ. gpd;gw;Wfpd;wdh;.
14
]B AslB_
1. [F skVBD 2. A[F skVBD
s
Mz;L KOtJk; kioahNyh> ghrd ghrdkw;W gUt kioia kl;LNk
trjpahNyh> ePh; fpilf;Fk; epyq;fspy; ek;gpapUf;Fk;> epyq;fspy; nra;ag;gLk;
scg
nra;ag;gLk; tptrhak; MFk;. tptrhaq;fs; MFk;.
v.fh. ney; kw;Wk; fUk;G v.fh. : rpWjhdpaq;fs;
 NtY}h;> jpUtz;zhkiy> ,uhkehj
Guk; kw;Wk; jpUney;Ntyp
 twz;l khtl;lq;fspy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;
gLfpwJ.
3. V skVBD (Irrigation Farming)
np
jkpo;ehl;by; gUj;jp kw;Wk; fUk;G rhFgb ghrd trjpia nghUj;Nj mikfpwJ.
 ePh;ghrd Mjhuq;fspd; jd;ik kw;Wk;  v.fh. Njapiy> fhgp> ,ug;gh; kw;Wk;

gadPl;lsT Mfpatw;iwf; nfhz;L kpsF
tptrha Kiwia fPo;f;fz;lthW e/t 3. A skVBD (Mixed Farming)
tifg;gLj;jyhk;.  kpfg;nghpa tpisepyq;fspy; gy
2. >Vl skVBD (Planta- gaph;fis tsh;g;gJld; fhy;eil> kPd;>
tion Forming) Njd; kw;Wk; gwitfisAk; tsh;f;Fk;
 ,JTk; Xh; tif tptrhak; MFk;. Kiw MFk;. epue;ju tUkhdk; jUk;
.m
kpfg;nghpa Njhl;lj;jpy; my;yJ ,yhgfukhd KiwahFk;.
gz;izfspy; gaph; rhFgb >tV[ Vz l^
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.  tptrhapfs;> fhyepiy kw;Wk;
 jkpo;ehl;bd; kiyr;rhpTfspy; Njhl;lg; kz;tsk; Mfpatw;iwg; nghUj;J
://t
gapuhf rhFgb nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

1. VkV (E] 2. DV kD (g D) 3. k kD
D) (V] D)
 rpj;jpiuapy; elT el;L>  [Piy khjk; - tpijg;G  kw;nwhU ngah; - uhgp
Gul;lhrpapy; mWtil  [dthpapy; - mWtil  tpijg;G - etk;gh;
ps
 fhPg; kw;nwhU ngah; Nk -  tpijg;G fhykhd  mWtil - khh;r;

tpijf;fhyk; mf;Nlhgh; [_iy khjk;> jkpo; khjk;  tpijf;Fk; fhykhd
- mWtil Mb khjkhf ,Ug;gjhy; jkpo; khjkhd
 tpijg;G Nk khjk; jkpo; ‘Mbg;gl;lk;” MFk fhh;j;jpif khjkhf
htt
khjkhd rpj;jpiu ahf ,Ug;gjhy; ‘fhh;j;jpifg;

,Ug;gjhy; ‘rpj;jpiug; gl;lk;”
gl;lk;” MFk;.
15
]B AslB_
gaph;fis Njh;T nra;J %d;W  epy chpikia khw;w murhy;
s
ntt;NtW gUtq;fspy; rhFgb vLf;fg;gLk; rl;lk; kw;Wk; eph;thf
nra;fpd;wdh;. eltbf;iffis epyr;rPh;j;jpUj;j
scg
skVB> WlzD V^ eltbf;iffs; vdf; $wyhk;.
 Xh; ,lj;jpd; tptrhaj;ij> W ]>][ V^
eph;zapf;Fk; fhuzpfis ,aw;if  gioa epy chpikia khw;Wjy;>
r%f kw;Wk; nghUshjhu fhuzpfs;  rhFgbahsh;fSf;F epyj;jpd; kPJ
vdg; gphpf;fyhk;. mit> ghJfhg;G mspj;jy;
Bu V^  cw;gj;jpj; jpwd; cah;j;Jtjw;F
np
1. kz; tif> 2. jl;g ntg;gk;> 3. Kio Njitahd Ntshz;ik
msT> 4. <ug;gjk;> 5. epyj;jpd; rhpT (m) fl;likg;igj; Njhw;Wtpj;jy;.
rkd; msT  epyk; ,y;yhjth;fSf;F epyk; mspj;J
VV>V V^ rkjh;k rKjhaj;ij cUthf;Fjy;.
1. tptrhaf; flDjtp
2. muR khdpak;
3. Cf;fj; njhif
e/t  epyf;fpohh;fspd;
mePjpiaAk; mfw;Wjy;.
Ruz;liyAk;>
 cOgth;fSf;F ey;y nghUshjhu

l  epiyia cUthf;fpj; jUjy;.
 epy
.m
 gaph;lf;$ba nkhj;j tpis chpik KiwapYs;s
epyj;jpw;Fk;> gaphplg;gLk; tpis FiwghLfis mfw;Wjy;.
epyj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s njhlh;ig l^
Fwpg;gjhFk;. 1. jhdpaq;fs;>
 jkpofj;jpy; 1967-68y; Fiwe;j 2. gapW tiffs;>
://t
fhyj;jpy; mjpfg; gad;juf;$ba 3. FWj;jhdpaq;fs;

gaph;fis gaphpl;ldh;. Mfpa czTg; gaph; tifiar;
 jkpofj;jpy; xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l rhh;e;jjhFk;.
jlitfs; gaph; nra;ag;gl;l epyj;jpd; _
msT mjpfhpj;J te;jJ. Mdhy;
ps
 new;gaph; jkpo;ehl;by; Kjd;ikahd

ePh;g;gpur;ridfshy; mtw;wpd; msT czTg; gapuhFk;.
kWgbAk; Fiwa njhlq;fpAs;sd.  new;gaph; tsh;r;rpf;F rkjsk;> mjpf
>tV[ W ]>^ ntg;gk;> njhlh;r;rpahd ePh; ghrdk;
htt
 jkpofj;jpd; jpl;lkpl;l Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;F Njitg;gLfpwJ.

toptFf;Fk; Kf;fpa fhuzpahf
mikfpd;wJ.
16
]B AslB_
jkpo;ehl;bd; ghuk;ghpa new;gaph;: z>VMB^
s
1. nghd;dp 1. fk;G> 2. Nfo;tuF> 3. tuF> 4. jpid>
2. fpr;ryp 5. rhik> 6. Nrhsk;
scg
3. rk;gh z>VMB^ cu]l_ x>[\
mjptPhpa tpisr;ry; jUk; new;gaph;;:
\Vk^
Nrhsk; Nfhak;Gj;J}h;>
n[ah> I.Mh;.50
jpUr;rp>
_ cu]l_ x>[\BV jpz;Lf;fy;
\Vk^ fk;G tpOg;Guk;>
np
J}j;Jf;Fb
1. jQ;rhT+h;
Nfo;tuF fpU\;zfphp>
2. jpUth&h; jh;kGhp> Nryk;
3. ehfg;gl;bdk; kf;fhr;Nrhsk; nguk;gY}h;>
 fhtphp nly;lh gFjp njd; jpz;Lf;fy;
,e;jpahtpd; uEBD
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
e/t
vd;W Nfhuh (jpiz)
w l^
Nryk;> ehkf;fy;
>tV[ _ gVFE WkD:  _ rzy; kw;Wk; ]

jkpo;ehl;by; ney; Muha;r;rp epWtdk;  jkpo;ehl;bd; kpf Kf;fpa ,io gaph;
.m
g|ml_ mike;J cs;sJ. jkpo;ehL ]BVzD. gUj;jp cfe;j kz;
tptrhak; gy;fiyf;fofj;jpd; jpUth&h;
_ \VzD.
fpis TMRH 174 vd;w Gjpa ney;
,ufj;ij mwpKfg;gLj;jpAs;sJ.
://t
ps
]
htt
] l|D \Vk^

1. Nfhak;Gj;J}h;> 2. jpUney;Ntyp>
_ gVFE WkD 3. flY}h;> 4. tpOg;Guk;
17
]B AslB_
jkpo;ehl;by; gaphplg;gLk; gUj;jp >V
s
ufq;fs;:  Njrpa mstpy; m];]hk; khepyj;ijj;
njhlh;e;J Njapiyg; gaphpLk;
1. vk;.rp.A+.4>
scg
gug;gpYk;> cw;gj;jpapYk; jkpo;ehL
2. vk;.rp.A+.5>
,uz;lhk; epiy tfpf;fpwJ.
3. Mh;.V.5166
>tV[ xB >Vl
l 1. Njapiy> 2. fhgp> 3. kpsF> 4. ,ug;gh;>
 RaNjitf;F my;yhJ> re;ij 5. Ke;jphp
Nehf;Fld; tsh;f;fg;gLk; gaph;fis  ePyfphp> Nfhak;Gj;J}h; khtl;lq;fspd;
np
gzg;gaph;fs; vd;fpd;wdh;. kiyr;rhptpy; Njapiy v];Nll;Lfspy;
>tV[ l^ mjpfstpy; gaphplg;gLfpwJ.
1. fUk;G> 2. Gifapiy>
3. vz;nza; tpj;Jf;fs;> 4. kpsfha;>
5. kQ;rs;> 6. nfhj;jky;yp
DA
 jkpo;ehl;bd; Kjd;ik gzg;gapuhd
e/t
fUk;G kpfg;nghpa gug;gstpy;
gaphplg;gLfpwJ.
.m
 xd;gJ khj gapuhd fUk;G rhFgbf;F>
mjpf tsKs;s kz;> mjpf ntg;gk;>
G+f;Fk; fhyk; tiu mjpf ePh;g;ghrdk;
Mfpait Njitg;gLfpwJ. >l
://t
DA sD \Vk^ V

1. Nfhak;Gj;J}h;> 2. f&h;> 3. tpOg;Guk;>  fhgp rhFgbapYk;> fh;ehlfj;jpid
4. jpUts;@h;> 5. flY}h; mLj;J jkpo;ehL Njrpa mstpy;
Al ,uz;lhk; epiyapy; cs;sJ.
 jkpo;ehl;bd; ,uz;lhtJ Kf;fpa  Nkw;F njhlh;r;rp kiyj; njhlh;r;rp
ps
gzg;gaph; Gifapiy MFk;. apYk;> fpof;F kiyj;njhlh;r;rpapYk;

Al l|D \Vk^ fhgp gaphplg;gLfpwJ.
1. jpz;Lf;fy;> 2. Njdp> 3. kJiu V l|D ^
xB F sm^ 1. ePyfphp>
htt
1. Nth;fliy> 2. #hpafhe;jp> 3. mtiu> 2. kJiu>

4.Mkzf;F> 5. gUj;jp
3. Njdp>
4. Nryk;>
18
]B AslB_
5. Mz;bg;gl;b> >V l^
s
6. rpWkiy>  jw;fhy ehfhPfj;jpd;gb fha;>
7. Nrh;tuhad; fdp kw;Wk; G+ rhFgb kpf mjpfg;
scg
,ug;gh; - fd;dpahFkhp gug;gstpy; tsh;f;fg;gLfpd;wd.
kpsF - fd;dpahFkhp>  kh> gyh> thio> nfha;ah kw;Wk;
jpUney;Ntyp jpuhl;ir goq;fs; nghpa Njhg;Gfspy;
Ke;jphp - flY}h; gaphplg;gLfpd;wd.
np
••••••
e/t
.m
://t
ps
htt
19

TNPSC Geography Study Material

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

TNPSC Geography Study Material

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

https://t.

>tV|  BV >kVBD z1 x>_W \uD x>[\

>  >MV _m >MBV V > luE \B\V D\[V

>BV FD \Vkz kw|D t_V kBVzD.

Bu >VkD  cyfstpy; xg;gpLk;NghJ 2% V|^

Rkhh; 63.72 t_oB[ m .* 2. ,yl;rj;jPT 2. `hpahdh

kiog;nghopT> jiu mikg;G kw;Wk;

]B >Vk k^

fhuzpfshy; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. 5. kiyf;fhLfs;

Gy;ntspfs;:  1980-k; Mz;L kVmVA D

Fiwg;gJk; mjpfhpj;Jf; nfhz;Nl 12. Ntk;gehL Nfush

 GJg;gpf;f ,ayhj tsq;fs; 3. fh;ehlfh 4. F[uhj;

]BVs_ W V|D ^

fopT Nghd;wtw;iwg; gad;gLj;jp fhk;Ng tisFlh 7000 nkfhthl;

 kz;nzz;nza; kw;Wk; kuf;fhpia jpwd; nfhz;Ls;sjhf fzf;fplg;

 ,e;jpah 8000-9000 nkfhthl; epiyak; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

]BVs_ Vu cu] FD ^

Am> ] t[ cu] Xj rf;jp fhk;Ng tisFlh

(fhw;whiy) (jkpo; ehL)> rj;jhuh miy rf;jp tpopQ;rk; (Nfush)

rf;jp gpuNjrk;)> G`h  mad kz;lyj;jpd; ngUq;fhLfs;

Njhd;Wk; gbTg;ghiwfs; epyf;fhp

4. kuf;fhp ngwg;gLfpwJ. ,it fdpk vz;nza;

,uz;L gq;F epyf;fhp [hh;fz;l;>

tq;fk;> cj;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpypUe;J ngl;Nuhypak; jputj; jq;fk; (Liquid gold)

 F[uhj; fhk;Ng tisFlhg; gFjpapy; ]BVsK^ F ]A

]BVs_ VoBD V|D ^

t[] vhpthA Nghd;wtw;wpypUe;J cw;gj;jp

]BVs_ V|D _t[ WB^

_ t[]B mD Vm^ ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; ePh;kpd; epiyak;

3. bt[ ] ]BVsK^ bt[ ] cu]

Bu kV \uV^|D ^

Bu kV ]BVsK^ Bu kV

]BVs[ k_ Gfog;gLfpd;wd.

 Ntshz; njhopiy eph;zapf;Fk; ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; gy;Nehf;Fj; jpl;lk;

fhw;W ehL. ePhg;;ghrd trjpapid

Nkfyhahtpd; nksrpd;uhk; (1270 jpl;lkhFk;. ,j;jpl;lj;ij nray;

nts;sj;jpy; %o;fr; nra;fpwJ. fhy;thAk; ePh;khzpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

Kaw;rpNa ,j;jpl;lk;. ,j;jpl;lj;jpd; rpe;Jtpd; Jiz Mwhfpa rl;ny[;

mV ] `pkhr;ryg;gpuNjrk;> ,uh[];jhd;

nkfhthl; cw;gj;jpAld; ngq;f@h;

ePh;ghrd trjp ngWfpwJ. jpl;lk; mikf;fg;gl;lJ. nts;sj;

kpd; cw;gj;jpAld; Kk;ig-G+dh  kj;jpag; gpuNjrk; kw;Wk; ,uh[];jhd;

njw;F fpis ejpNa rk;gy; MFk;.

VVV V ]D Vz ]D

‡guhf;fh jpl;lk; fq;if kw;Wk; ghf;ujp ejpfspd; kPJ Nkw;F tq;fhsj;jpy;

eh;kij gs;sj;jhf;Fj; eh;kij Mw;wpd; kPJ kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;> F[uhj;> ,uh[];jhd;>

ryhy; jpl;lk; [k;K kw;Wk; fh\;kPh;

Nkl;^h;> ghgehrk; Mfpa ,lq;fspy; vhprf;jp cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.

 jkpo;ehl;by; ePh; kpd; epiyaq;fs;>

>tVK^ _t[ >tV_ c^ t[

xd;W> Ntfkhf XbtUk; Mw;WePiu

nra;tjd; %yk; ntspg;gLk;.

E}w;G MiyfspYk; Neub

Rj;jpfhpg;G nra;jy;> mZf;fopTfis

kpf mjpfNtf CJ ciyfis

 ,e;jpahtpd; KOikahd njhlq;fpAs;sJ. jkpo;ehL #hpaxsp

B ] tA

,jw;fhd Njrpa tpUij jkpo;ehL

 fhw;W tPr;rpdhy; Vw;glf;$ba cBV^

nrq;Nfhl;il fztha; (faj;jhW gFjp)

 jkpofj;jpd; khepy tUthapy; khtl;lq;fspYk; eilngWfpwJ.

NjitahfpwJ. nghUl;fs; jahhpf;Fk; njhopw;

itif> jhkpuguzp> guk;gpf;Fsk;> gLj;Jk; Miyfs; MFk;.