Control System Unit 1 (5 TH Sem.)

CONTROL SYSTEM (EEE1008) FOR B.
TECH EE & EEE (CORE)/

CONTROL SYSTEM (EEE1408) FOR B. TECH ETC (CORE)
UNIT – 1
(Module I)
VOL-1: K 1 Date: 08.02.2022
I. INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEM EXAMPLES
II. TERMINOLOGY IN CONTROL SYSTEM (OPEN LOOP AND CLOSE LOOP SYSTEMS)
III. CLASSIFICATIONS: (A), (B), (C), (D), (E), (F), (G), (H), (I).
IV. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SERVO MECHANISM (TRACKING CONTROL) AND A REGULATOR OR A REGULATING CONTROL:
VOL-1: K 2
I.MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL DYNAMIC SYSTEMS (differential equation / transfer
function of linear time-invariant systems),
2. ANALOGIES: (A), (B); EXAMPLE 6, EXAMPLE 7 AND EXAMPLE 8; ANALOGIES C; EXAMPLE 9 AND EXAMPLE 10: (i), (ii)
VOL-1: K 3
I. BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA; EXAMPLES 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
2. SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH (SFG): A: SFG CONSTRUCTION - EXAMPLES 1, 2, 3, 4; B: SFG CONSTRUCTION FROM BLOCK
DIAGRAMS – EXAMPLES 1, 2; C: MASONS GAIN FORMULA: EXAMPLES - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
VOL-1: K 4
I. TYPES OF FEEDBACK
II. EFFECT OF DEGENERATIVE FEEDBACK: EFFECT ON OVERALL GAIN, STABILITY, SENSITIVITY, BANDWITH, EXTERNAL
DISTURBANCE OR NOISE, LINEARIZING EFFECT
III. REGENERATIVE FEEDBACK
1
SEQUENCE-1: UNIT- 1
INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEM

1) HISTORY: (a) 1st Era (Beginning of 1950 and before) all the techniques developed (Classical).
(b) 2nd Era (Late 1950 and early 1960) State Space developed (Modern), Optimal,
Advance Optimal etc.
(c) 3rd Era (Late 1970 and early 1980) Robust Control (Combination of Modern & Classical).
Includes uncertainties (random noise and disturbance)eg. H ∞
(d) 4th Era (Late 1980 and after) Fuzzy, ANN, GA, Evaluationary NN, the most of the Soft
Computing Methods developed (Post Modern)
2) CONCEPT: A system is a co-ordinate unit of individual elements performing a specific function where the
parts or elements or components are included inside a specified boundary. This boundary is the separation
of the system with the surrounding systems which interfere with its operation.
In short a system is a collection of interacting objects or subsystems whose main purpose
‘is’ to convert a quantitative input ‘u’ into a quantitative output ‘C’ according to some specific rule.
3) CLASSIFICATIONS: (a) Closed loop – Open loop, (b) Dynamic – Static, (c) SISO – MIMO, (d) Linear – Non Linear,
(e) Continuous – Discrete, (f) Time Invariant – Time Variant, (g) Lumped – Distributed,
(h) Deterministic – Stochastic, (i) Servo/Tracking System – Regulating/Regulators.
4) MODELLING: Direct Analog, Mathematical, Graphical: 3 Aspects (Design, Analysis and Stability)
5) EFFECT OF FEEDBACK: (Gain, B.W, Stability, Sensitivity, etc.)
6) STATE SPACE: Facilitates State Feedback
7) POLE PLACEMENT: State Feedback – From Riccati Equation, Equivalent ARE for Optimal Solution
8) OPTIMAL CONTROL: ARE & Equivalent ARE (Kalman Filter)
9) ROBUST CONTROL (H∞)
10) ADAPTIVE CONTROL: MRAC, STR
11) VARIABLE STRUCTURE: (Sliding Mode Control)
12) FUZZY AND NN CONTROLLERS: (Electronic Based)
2
VOL 1 - K1
CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING
Date: 11.07.2022
Regulation Year: 2022-23 L.T.P: 3-1-2 = 6 P
Course Code: ECE23307 L: 3
T: 1
Credit: 5
Course Category: Theory (4Hours) + (Practical: 2Hours)
Recommended Pre-requisite: Basic Electrical Engineering, Mathematics, Circuit Theory
Module1: Introduction to control problem (10 hours):
Industrial Control System Examples; Terminology in control system (open loop and close loop systems)
Classifications of Control System. Mathematical models of physical dynamic systems. Transfer function
models of linear time-invariant systems. Analogy between mechanical and electrical systems, Graphical
Representation of Systems: Block diagram algebra, Signal Flow Graph, Mason’s Gain Formula and its
application. Feedback Theory: Effect of degenerative feedback on system performance and its application.
Feedback Theory: Effect of degenerative feedback on system performance, Regenerative feedback.
I. INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEM EXAMPLES

II. TERMINOLOGY IN CONTROL SYSTEM (OPEN LOOP AND CLOSE LOOP SYSTEMS)
III. CLASSIFICATIONS: (A), (B), (C), (D), (E), (F), (G), (H), (I).
IV. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SERVO MECHANISM (TRACKING CONTROL) AND A REGULATOR OR A REGULATING CONTROL:
Introduction: The subject Control System Engineering is interdisciplinary an embraces all the
disciplines of engineering including Electronics, Computer Science, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical
Engineering, Instrumentation Engineering, and Chemical Engineering or any amalgamation of these.
What is a control system? There are numerous “Objectives” that need to be accomplished: (i) in the
domestic domain, we need to regulate the temperature and humidity of homes and buildings for comfortable
living, (ii) for transportation, we need to control the automobile and airplane to go from one point to another
accurately and (iii) industrially manufacturing process contain numerous objectives for products that will
satisfy the precision and cost effectiveness requirements.
Control systems are in abundance in modern civilization: space technology and weapon systems,
computer control, transportation systems, power systems, robotics and many others.
Examples of control system Applications: (a) Speed Control System (Fig. 1)
(b) Temperature Control System (Fig.2), (c) Steering Control of Automobile (Fig.3), (d) Industrial
Sewing Machine (Fig.4) and (e) Embedded Computers (Fig. 5)
Controlled System
Fig. 1: speed control system

3
(a) Speed Control System: The basic principle of a Watt’s speed governor for an engine is: Illustrated in
the schematic diagram of Fig.1. The amount of fuel admitted to the engine is adjusted according to the
difference between the desired and the actual engine speeds.
In this speed control system, the plant (Controlled System) is the engine and the controlled variable
is the speed of the engine. The difference between the desired speed and the actual speed is the error
signal. The control signal (the amount of fuel) to be applied to the plant (engine) is the actuating signal.
The external input to disturb the controlled variable is the disturbance. An unexpected change in the load is
a disturbance.
(The principle of operation: the centrifugal force of the governor causes the control of valve opening
and closing.)
(b) Temperature Control System: The Fig. 2 shows a schematic diagram of a temperature control of an
electric furnace. The temperature in the electric furnace is measured by a thermometer, which is an analog
device. The analog temperature is converted to a digital temperature by and A/D converter. The digital
temperature is fed to a controller through an interface. This digital temperature is compared with the
programmed input temperature, and if there is any discrepancy (error), the controller sends out a signal to
the heater, through an interface, amplifier, and relay, to bring the furnace temperature to a desired value.
Fig. 2: Temperature Control System

Error
(c) Steering Control of Automobile:
Fig. 3: Steering control of automobile.

A simple example of steering control of an automobile is shown in fig.3.
The direction of the two front wheels can be regarded as the controlled variable, or the output, y;
the direction of the steering wheel is the actuating signal, or the input, u. The control system, or process in
this case, is composed of the steering mechanism and the dynamics of the entire automobile, then the
amount of pressure exerted on the accelerator is the actuating signal, the vehicle speed is the controlled
variable. As a whole, we can regard the simplified automobile control system as one with two inputs
(steering and accelerator) and two outputs (heading and speed). In this case the two controls and two
4
outputs are independent of each other, but in general, there are systems for which the controls are coupled.
Systems with more than one input and one output are called multivariable systems.
(d) Industrial Sewing Machine: Fig.4 shows an example of Industrial of Sewing Machine. The
simple principle of operation of the sewing machine can be explained through this diagram instead of a
sophisticated machine used to increase the speed and accuracy of the sewing operations.
Fig.4: Industrial Sewing Machine.
(e) Embedded Computers:
Fig.5: Embedded Computers.

Fig. 5 shows an on-board special purpose embedded computer.
In this case the sensors. Include an optical encoded for measuring engine speed, a rate gyro and
accelerometer to measure turns, and Global Positioning System(GPS) unit to obtain position and velocity
estimates of the vehicle. The actuators include two linear actuators to turn the front wheels and to brake and
accelerate. The communications device permits the rover (the traveler) to stay in contact with the ground
station.
2. TERMINOLOGY IN CONTROL SYSTEM
Open loop and closed loop systems
Reference Input or Input Command Controller output or control law
Controller or Compensator Controlled output or
Plant or Controlled Process
(Desired Output) Plant Input or Actuating Signal ‘U’ Plant Output or Actual Output ‘C’ or ‘Y’
‘r’
Means the set point
Fig. 6(a): Open – Loop Control System.
5
Input shaping Filter
+ Actuating Signal Controller Actual

Desired Output IF Controller or Plant with
for Controller Output Output
Compensator Actuator
Reference - or Error Signal Plant Input or C or Y
Input ‘r’ or ‘e’ Control law = ‘u’
Measured Output
Sensor
Fig. 6 (b) Closed – Loop control system.
Terminology:
(a) Basic components of Open Loop Control System:

(1) Plant with Actuator or Controlled Process: A process to be controlled, Labeled Plant.
(2) Plant Input or Actuating Signal or Control Law: The controlling variable of the plant called the Plant
Input or just Input for short.
(3) Plant Output or Controlled Output or Actuator Output or Actual Output: The Controlled variable of
the plant, called the Plant Output or just output for short.
(4) Reference Input or Desired Output or Input Command: Which dictates the desired value of the output
called Reference Input.
(5) Controller or Compensator: That acts upon the reference input in order to form the system input forcing
the output behavior in accordance with the reference signal, called Controller.
(b) Basic additional component of closed Loop Control System:
(6) Feedback loop: Where the output signal is measured with sensor and then the measured signal is
feedback to the summing function, called the feedback loop.
(7) Summing Junction or Point: Where the measured output signal is subtracted from the or summer
or Comparator, Reference (Command) input signal in order to generate or Error Detector
an Error Signal, also labeled as Actuating Signal.
(8) Input Shaping Filter: Whose role is to convert the reference signal to electrical form for later
manipulation by the Controller? (Signal Processing): It is a short of signal conditioning.
(9) Actuator: Whose output causes the process output to change?
Note: Actuator may be with Controller or Plant which can influence the controlled variable associated with
controller or the Plant as the case may be.
3. CLASSIFICATIONS:
(A) Depending upon whether the controlled variable affects the actual input to the control system or not,
i.e. whether some kind of a feedback is used or not.
(1) Open Loop: The system does not measure the output and there is no correction of the actuating
signal to make the output conform to the reference signal (input) i.e. no feedback is used. (Fig.
6a)
(2) Closed Loop: The system includes sensor to measure the output and uses feedback of the
sensed value to influence the control variable. (Fig. 6b)
(B) Depending upon whether the controlled variables vary or change with respect to time.
(1) Dynamic: When in a system, there is always a change of state i.e. one or more aspects (or variables) of
system change with time, the system is known as dynamic system.
(2) Static System: When there is a lasting steady state to fixed input, it is known as static system.
(C) Depending upon the number of inputs and outputs.
(1) Single Input Single Output (SISO) system: When there is single input and single-output, the system is
called SISO system.
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(2) Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) system: When there is multiple input and multiple – output,
the system is called MIMO system.
(D) Depending upon the nature of variation of Output magnitude with respect to the variation of input magnitude.
(1) Linear System: A system where the principles of super position holds good is a linear system. i.e.
satisfies ( i ) Principle of Superposition (Where more is the same) and ( ii ) homogeneity.
(i) Principle of Super position:
If y = output of a system = f(x) where x is input to the system and
If x=x 1 + x2 , then y=f ( x 1+ x 2 ) =f ¿
(ii) Homogeneity or Homogenous property.
y=f ( αx)where α x is the input ¿ the system .
¿ α f ( x ) ∧α is a constant .
Combining the above two properties: A liner system:
Linearity = homogeneity + super position
i.e. y=f ( α x 1 + β x 2 )=αf ( x 1 )+ βf ( x 2) where α ∧β are constants.
(2) Non – Linear System: A system where the principle of super position does not hold good is called
nonlinear system. (Where more is the different).
(E) Depending upon the availability of signals with respect to the time variation.
(1) Continuous System: A system where the signals at all points of inter connection and or parameters of
elements or sub – systems are continuous with respect to time is called continuous time system.
(2) Discrete System: A system where the signals at all points of inter connection and or parameters of
elements or sub-systems are discontinuous or discrete with respect to time is called discrete time system.
(F) Depending upon the variation of Parameters (not the variable) with respect to time variation.
(1) Time Invariant (Stationary): If all the parameters (not the variable) of a system are stationary i.e. do not
change with time, the system, the system is called as time – invariant or stationary system.
(2) Time Variant or Time Varying parameter (TVP) System: If all the parameters of a system are not
stationary i.e. change with time, the system is called time-variant or TVP system.
Time Invariant System:
For a time invariant or fixed system, the output is not dependant on the instant at which the input is
applied. If the output at t is y (t) corresponding to an input u(t) then the output for a fixed system will be:
L u( t – λ )= y( t – λ )
A system which is not time – invariant is a time varying one.

Time Invariance:
Roughly speaking, a system is time – invariant if its characteristic does not change with time.
(G) Depending upon the distribution of parameter along the length of the systems.
(1) Lumped Parameter: If the system parameters considered as lumped along the length of the systems,
then the system is called lumped parameter system.
7
(2) Distributed Parameter: If the system parameters are considered as distributed along the length of the
system the system is called distributed parameter system.
(H) Depending upon the nature of variables.
(1) Deterministic System: If the variables of the system are of deterministic type such as sine, cosine,
trapezoidal (i.e. determinable at anytime) etc. variation, the system is called deterministic system.
(2) Stochastic System: If the variables of the system are of probabilistic type i.e. in the random variation, the
system is called stochastic system.
(I) Depending on the nature of output in the closed loop system.
(1) A Servo or Tracking Control System: A closed loop system designed to follow a changing reference
i.e. the output follows the reference input.
(2) A Regulator or a Regulating Control System: A closed loop system designed to maintain an output
fixed regardless of the disturbance present.
4. Difference between a Servo Mechanism (or Tracking Control) and a Regulator or a regulating Control:
(a) A Servo Mechanism: A feedback control system which is required to control position (displacement) or some
derivative of position is called a Servo Mechanism – It is designed to follow a changing reference. The name
is derived from the word Servant.
The essential features of servomechanism are:

(1) It is a closed loop system.
(2) It must have power amplifying stage as the system must be able to operate from the error signal which
will be quite small in amplitude.
(3) It is used to control position or some derivatives of the position i.e. (Velocity or acceleration etc.)
(4) Servo – amplifier must have sign (or polarity) sensitive property or characteristic.
Illustration: e.g. Amplifier If (constant)
VE G M Gears
Load
A B
θ
θ C
R
Input
Potentiometer 100V
Feedback
Potentiometer
Fig.8: A Servo Mechanism
Fig. 8 shows a servomechanism used to position a load shaft in which the driving motor is geared to the load
to be moved. The output and the input positions θc ∧θ r are continuously measured and compared by a
potentiometer pair whose output voltage V E is proportional to the error in angular position, i.e.
V E=K p ( θ r−θ c ) . This voltage is then amplified and used to control the excitation of a d.c generator which
supplies the armature voltage to the driving motor.
8
To understand the operation of the system, assume that initially the arms of the input and feedback
potentiometers are both set at +50 volts. The voltage of the input potentiometer is then reference input. For
this condition the actuating signal is zero, and so the motor has zero torque and the system is stationary.
Next consider that the command calls for a new position, namely, that corresponding to a
potentiometer voltage of +60V. When arm A is placed at the +60V position, arm B remains instantaneously at
the +50V position because of the system inertia. This situation creates a +10V actuating signal which is really
a measure of the lack of correspondence between the actual and the desired output position. A +10V input to
the amplifier applies an input (being amplified) to the generator which in turn applies voltage to the
servomotor which generates an output torque, which repositions the load. With negative feedback present the
load moves in a direction which causes the potential of B to increase beyond +50V. As this takes place, the
actuating signal gets smaller and finally reaches zero, at which B has the same potential as A. The actual
output thus equals the command. Note that, if the output is not exactly equal to the input, the actuating signal
will be different from zero, and hence a motor output torque persists, forcing the load to take the command
position.
One distinguishing feature which the amplifier of this type of control system must have sign
sensitivity. It must function properly whether the command places arm A at a higher or a lower voltage than
the original value.
(b) A Regulator: A feedback system which is required to control a constantly (continuously) changing output i.e.
it is designed to maintain an output fixed regardless of the disturbances present. Examples are: Voltage
control of Generator or Speed control of Motor etc.
The essential features of Regulator are:

(1) It is a closed loop system.
(2) The feedback signal (voltage) is always supper imposed on a fixed signal i.e. feedback signal is
subtracted from the fixed and the net signal acts as the actuating signal to the system.
Illustration: e.g. Prime Mover
c
Ra
Amplifier
+
Reference Voltage source Feedback Pot Load
e
b-
S d
a
Fig. 9: An elementary Voltage Control System (Regulator)
Fig. 9 Shows an elementary voltage regulating control system where in it is required to keep the voltage at
terminals ‘c’ and ‘d’ constant irrespective of the load current. With the generator driven by a Prime-mover at a
constant speed, the magnitude of the generated voltage is dependent upon the value of field current, which in turn is
determined by the slider arm setting of the reference voltage potentiometer. The input command to the system takes
the form of a specific setting of this slider arm, to which there corresponds a definite field current and in turn a
definite generator output voltage.
9
Placing the switch in position (a) causes the system to act as a feedback system, whereas putting the switch to
(b) gives open loop operation. The object of this control system is to provide a pre-established constant voltage at the
load terminals in spite of changes in the load requirements or changes in the prime-over speed.
If the generator is to be operated with the prime-mover running at constant speed, then an increase in
load current results in a decreased output voltage because of the internal resistance drop of the generator. Also, if the
load current is assumed constant and a drop in prime – over speed occurs the generator output voltage again decreases
because of the generated voltage is directly dependent upon speed.
To understand the operation, let us assume that we increase the load current. Had there been no
feedback control, the drop across armature resistance would have been more and output voltage would have been
reduced. Because of the feedback, however, the voltage which is feedback also reduces resulting is an increase in the
actuating signal which tend to offset the tendency for the output voltage to decrease. It is seen from the characteristics
shown in Fig. 10, that the voltage V a which would have been reduced to V b in the absence of feedback remains more
or less constant as the field current has also increased from If 2 to If 3 because of the feedback. With the parameters of
the system properly adjusted, it is possible to expect that voltage at the load terminals will be almost independent of
the load variations.
s
t
l
o (Va) 200 (For simplicity the curves are
V Idealized into straight lines)
e (Vb) 180
g If4 If4> If3> If2> If1
a
t If3
l
o If2
V
t If1
u
p IL (Load Current)
t
u
Fig. 10: Generator Output Characteristic
O
If voltage to be kept constant at 200V (V a ¿ , but due to load current increase the voltage can be reduced to
180 (V b ¿ at which field current is 1f 2 . with feedback reduction of feedback voltage by reduction of output voltage
due to increase of load current. In turn the net voltage applied across the field is increased due to less negative voltage
at comparator (summer). Which in turn increase of field current to I f 3. More field current ( I f 3 ¿ gives more output
voltage i.e. corresponding to 200(V a ¿ . Thus the output voltage remains constant even the load current is increased.
On the other hand, if the speed of the prime-mover increase, in turn the output voltage of the generator will be
increased. In such case the feedback voltage is also increases which results in a reduction in the field current thus
reduction in output voltage and output voltage remains constant in spite of increase of prime-mover speed.
5. Physical System Representation i.e.

Mathematical Models of Physical System;
To study and examine a physical system, it is always necessary to have some types of equivalent
representation which will describe the various components and their relations in the system. The system
dynamics can be studied in four stages.
(1) Description of the system physically (Physically Modeling)
(2) Description of the system mathematically (Model Construction)
(3) Analysis of the mathematical description (Model Solution)
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(4) Synthesis of a preferred manifestation of the system (System Design)
However the equivalent configuration prepared for physical system is known as Model of the system and
can be classified as:
(1) Direct Analog, (2) Graphical and (3) Mathematical Model.
The modeling is necessary and essential for (a) Analysis (i.e. Performance and Stability) of the system and (b)
Design (Synthesis and Construction) of the system.
(1) Direct Analog: The model of a system having a system reproduction of same or scaled dimensions or
prototype model is known as direct analog of the system e.g. Besides a mechanical system can also be
represented by an analogous electrical system for convince of analysis in the electrical network.
(2) Graphical Representation: The representation of the system by block diagrams, signal flow-graphs etc.
is known as the graphical representation on of the system.
(3) Mathematical Modeling: Mathematical description to represent the system parameters, properties and
their relations with some approximations (if necessary) is known as Mathematical Modeling or
representation of physical system. (e. g. Use of differential equation or state space model or Laplace
transforms).
Sometime block diagrams and signal flow graphs representations are also included in Mathematic
Modeling. Usually for Simulation block diagram or signal flow graph representation of physical systems
are used. The mathematical equations (Differential or Simultaneous equations) are used for analysis of
the dynamic system. Sometimes the differential equations formulated for physical system, the equations
itself are called System Dynamics.
11
VOL – VL-I – K2
(1) MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PHYSICAL SYSTEM
(2) TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
1. Mathematical Modeling of Physical System:

Mathematical Modeling is done for design and analysis of the system or in other words design means
the synthesis and construction and analysis means the performance and stability of the system.
There are three areas of analysis and design of the system such as: Classical Control Methods: use the
Laplace Transform (Transfer function of modeling) * (Page 9) Fourier Transforms in frequency domain and
classical solution of differential equation in time domain both for analysis and design of the system.
Modern Control Methods: Use of the State Space Approach for the systems represented in State Variable
form and the basic tool s Matrix Algebra.
Post Modern Control Methods: Use of the Fuzzy, ANN, G.A, Evolutionary NN etc.
However basically mathematical model is addressed to formulation of differential equation or transfer
function know the dynamic response of the system.
1. Mass Element
x(t)
v(t) 2
Mdv (t) M d x (t )
M
: F ( t )= =
dt dt
2
Reference
2. The Spring Element
X1(t)
X2(t) t t
F ( t )=k ( x 1−x 2 )=kx=k ∫ ( v 1−v 2) =k ∫ udt
dt
v1(t) v2(t) :
−∞ −∞
3. The Damper Element

v1(t) v2(t)
X1(t) x2(t) F ( t )=f ( v 1 −v 2 )=fv=f ( ẋ 1− ẋ 2 )=f ẋ
:
4. The Inertial Element
J dw d2 θ
: T =J =J 2
dt dt
T
12
5. The Torsional Spring Element
K
t t
T
: T =K ( θ1 −θ2 )=Kθ=K ∫ ( ω1−ω 2 ) dt =K ∫ ωdt
−∞ −∞
6. The Damper Element in rotational motion
ƒ
: T =f ( ω1−ω2 )=fω=f ( θ̇1−θ̇ 2) =f θ̇
T
θ ( rad ) , ω ¿
Transfer Function: The transfer function of a linear time – invariant system is defined to be the ratio of the
Laplace Transform of the output variable to the Laplace Transform of the input variable under the assumption
that all initial conditions are zero.
Impulse Response: The output of the system with the impulse input (excitation) in time domain is termed as
Impuse Response of the system.
C (s) R(s)+ R(s) C(s)
G ( s )= G(s)
R( S)
B(s)=0
Or C(s)=G(s)R(s)
If r(t) = Impulse = δ (t ) ;R ( s )=L [ δ ( t ) ] =1
Hence C(s) = G(s).1 = G(s) itself i.e. Output in Laplace domain is same as transfer function mathematically.
Hence C(t) = L−1 [ G ( s ) ] =g (t)
This g(t) is sometimes referred to as Weighting Function of the System.
System Modeling
E. g: 1. A mass – spring – K= Stiffness constant
dashpot arrangement. f= coefficient of
Viscous friction
K x
x M O
M O Zero Position
Zero Position Fig. (b) Freebody diagram
F
Fig. (a) A mass – spring – dashpot arrangement.
The zero position is taken to be at the point where the spring and mass are in static equilibrium (i.e the effect of
gravitation is eleminated by the choice of zero position). By applying Newton’s law of Motion to th free body
2
d x dx
diagram, the force equation is: F=M +f + Kx … … …(1)
dt 2 dt
X (s) 1
Or F ( s ) =M s2 × ( s ) + fs× ( s )+ K × ( s )Or G ( s )= = 2
F ( s ) Ms + fs+ K
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Eg. 2. Mechanical Accetero Meter
Ky Md2(y-x)/dt2fdy/dt It consists of a spring – mass dashpot system as shown in

the figure (a). The frame of the accelerometer is attached to
M
y the moving vehicle.
f
+ -
Whenever
x the moving vehicle and hence the frme of the accelerometer is accelerated, the spring deflects
- untill it produces enough force to accelerate
+ Fig: (a) Simplified diagram of the mass at the same rate as the frame. The deflection of the spring
an Accelerometer
which may be measured by a linear motion potentiometer is a direct measure of acceleration.
Let, x= displacement of the moving vehicle (or frame) w.r.t a fixed reference frame, y = displacement of the Mass M
w.r.t the acclerometer frame.
The +ve direction for x and y are indicated on the diagram. Since y is measured w.r.t the frame, the force on
dy
the mass due to spring is –Ky and due to viscous friction is −f . The motion of the mass w.r.t the fixed reference
dt
frame in the positive direction of y is (y-x).
The force equation for the system becomes,
2
d ( y−x ) dy
M +f +ky =0
dt
2
dt
Or
2 2
d y dy d x
M +f +ky =M 2 =M . a … … ..(2), Where a is the acceleration.
y dt dt
Laplace transform of eqn. (2) yields.
2 f K
A ( s )=s Y ( s )+ sY (s)+ Y (s ) or
M M
Y ( s) 1
G ( s )= =
A (s) 2 f
s+
M
s+( ) ( )
K
M
(y-x) is the displacement from the initial position.
This displacement may be converted into a voltage ϱ 0 by the LVDT and so and that is E o(s)=L[ϱ 0 ¿ ¿ K lY(s) shown in
Fig. (b).
Eo Kl
Thus G ( s )= =
A (s )
S2 + ( Mf ) s +( MK ) LVTD K y
Accelerometer case
LVTD
M Sensing Axis in direction of Acceleration
Shaft
y
x
f
x
Body of the vehicle where acceleration
Fig: (b) Accelerometer with LVDT
14
If a constant acceleration is applied to the accelerometer, the output displaceeme y becomes constant under steady
– state as the derivatives of y becomes zero, i.e.
Ma = Ky
Or a= ( MK ) y
Or
The steady state displacement y is thus a measure of the constant input acceleration.
E. g 3: Rotation Mechanical System
Fixed Axis Rotation.

The disc rotates in a
θ viscous medium of ‘f’ J
T
Disc
Shaft
J Fig: (b) Free body diagram
T
Viscous fluid friction
K = Stiffness constant coefficient = f
Fig. (a) Rotation Mechanical System
d2θ dθ
T =J 2 +f + Kθ …………….. (3) (Describes the dynamics of the system.)
dt dt
θ( s)
Taking L.T, G(s)= = 1/(Js2+fs+K)
T (s)
Eg.4: Gear Train: Torque magnification and speed reduction are achieved by Geartrains: It acts as matching
devices like transformer.
Input torque
From Motor (Tm)
15
J1 = m.i of motor and gear 1
f1 = Coefficient of viscous friction of motor and gear 1
J2 = m.i of load and gear 2
f2 = Coefficient of viscous friction of motor and gear 2
For shaft 1: T m=J 1 θ̈1 +f 1 θ̇1 +T 1−−−−−(4)
Where T1 = load torque on gear 1 due to the rest of the gear train
Tm = torque developed by the motor.
For shaft 2: T 2=J 2 θ̈ 2+ f 2 θ̇2 +T L −−−−−(5)

Wher T2 = the torque transmitted to gear 2
TL = Load torque
Since the lenear distance travelled along the surface of each gear is same i.e. θ1 r1 = θ2 r2.
The number of teeth on gear surface being proportional to gear radius, we obtain,
θ2 N 1
= --------------(6)
θ1 N 2
or θ1 KN1 = θ2 KN2 and hence, ( Since ) r 1 =KN 1 , r 2=KN 2, ( θ1 N 2

=
θ2 N 1 )
Stiffness of the shafts of geartrain is assumed to be infinite. In ideal case of no loss in power transfer.
The work done by th gear 1 is equal to that of gear 2
∴ T 1 θ1=T 2 θ 2 ------ (7)
T 1 θ2 N 1
¿ = = ----- (8)
T 2 θ1 N 2
θ̈2 θ̇ 2 N 1
Differentiating eqn. (8), = = (9)
θ̈1 θ̇ 1 N 2
N1
If <1, from alone, the gear train reduces the speed and magnifies the torque.
N2
Eliminating T 1∧T 2 ¿ ( 4 )∧( 5 ) with thehelp of ( 8 ) ,
N1
J 1 θ̈ 1+ f 1 θ̇1 + ( J 2 θ̈ 2+ f 2 θ̇ 2+ T L ) =T m ------- (10)
N2
Eliminating θ̈ 2∧θ̇2 ¿ (10 ) with the helpof ( 9) ,
[ N1 2
] [ ( ) ] ( )
J 1+( ) J 2 θ̈1 + f 1 +
N2
N1 2
N2
N
f 2 θ̇1 + 1 T L =T m -----------(11)
N2
( ) ( )
2 2
N N
¿ J 1 eq=J 1+ 1 J 2 ; f 1+ 1 f 2= f1eq
N2 N2
hence J 1 eq θ̈1 + f 1 eq θ̈1+ ( ) N1

T =T
N2 L m
Here ( )
N1
T is the load refered to shaft 1. Similarly we can have,
N2 L
J 2 eq =J 2+
( )
N2 2
N1
J 1 ; f 2 eq=f 2 +
( )
N2 2
N1 ( ) N
f 1∧¿ hence J 2 eq θ̈2 + f 2 eq θ̇2 +T L = 2 T M
N1
Eg.5 Electrical System:

16
i
C
a) RLC – Series Circuit: L e
t
i
di I R
L + Ri + ∫ idt=e -------(12) ei C
dt C −∞
Fig. (b) RLC – Parallel circuit circuit
t
I
¿ ∫ idt=e0 --------- (13)
C −∞
2
d q dq i
L + R + q=e … . .(14) (Interms of q)
dt
2
dt c
b) RLC – Parallel Circuit:

t
I
and ∫ edt+ Re + c de
L −∞ dt
=i ( 15 ) ¿)
2
d ∅ I d∅ I
or C + + ∅=i --------(16) (Interms of Magnetic flux.)
dt 2 R dt L
Analogous Systems:
Systems whose differential equations are of identical form are called analogous sytems
(A) Analogous Quantities in Force (Torque) – Voltage Analogy: Equns (1), (3), (14)
Mechanical Translational Systems Mechanical Relational Systems Electrical Systems
Force ‘F’ Torque ‘T’ Voltage ‘e’
Mass ‘M’ Moment of Inertia ‘J’ Inductance ‘L’
Viscous friction Coefficient ‘f’ Various coefficient ‘f’ Resistance ‘R’
spring stiffness ‘K’ Torsional spring stiffness ‘K’ Reciprocal of Capacitance ‘1/c’
Displacement ‘x’ Angular displacement ‘θ ’ Charge ‘q’
Velocity ‘ ẋ ’ Angular velocity ‘θ̇ ’ Current ‘i’
(B) Analogous Quantities in Force (Torque) – Current Analogy: Eqns. (1), (3), (16)
Mechanical Translational Systems Mechanical Relational Systems Electrical Systems

Force ‘F’ Torque ‘T’ Current ‘I’
Mass ‘M’ Moment of Inertia ‘J’ Capacitance ‘c’
Viscous friction Coefficient ‘f’ Various coefficient ‘f’ I
Reciproca of Resistance ' '
spring stiffness ‘K’ Torsional spring stiffness ‘K’ R
Displacement ‘x’ Angular displacement ‘θ ’ I
Velocity ‘ ẋ ’ Angular velocity ‘θ̇ ’ Reciprocal of Inductance ' '
L
Magnetic flux linkage ‘∅ '
Voltage ‘e’
2
d θ dθ
T =J +f +kθ … .(3) d2 q dq I
d 2 x dx dt
2
dt L + R + q=e (14)
F=M 2 +f + kx … .(1)
dt dt dt
2
dt C
2
d ∅ I d∅ I
C 2+ + ∅=i..(16)
dt R dt L
E.g. 6 Thermal System: For simplified analysis of thermal systems, the systems is represented by a lumped
parameter model asuming that the teperature is uniform.
Let us consider a simple thermal system as shown in Fig. (a).
17
∞
The tank has been insulated to reduce heat loss and the liquid in the tank is kept at uniform temperatute by mixing
perfectly with a stirrer.
Fig. (a) The Thermal System
Let θi = The steady state temperature of the inflowing liquid
θ o = the steady state temperature of the out flowing liquid
H = steady state heat rate from the heating element.
Let us assume that the liquid flow rate is a constant.
Let, ∆ H = A small increase in heat input rate from its steady state value.
∆ H 1=Increase ∈heat out flow rate due ¿ increase ∈heat input ∆ H . Heater
∆ H 2 =A heat storage rate of the liquid ∈thetank due ¿ increase∈heat input ∆ H .
∆ θ i=Change∈the temperature of the inflowing liquid i . e . also due ¿ ∆ H .
∆ θ o=Rise of temperatureof the liquid ∈the tank∧also the out following liquid .
The increase of heat rate in the outflow liquid = ∆ H 1 = Qs ∆ θo.-------- (1)
Where , Q = steady liquid flow rate in Kg/min
s=specific heat of the liquid in joules/kg/oC.
∆ θo
Eqn. (1) can be written as, ∆H1 = ……. (2)
R
1
Where R = is called the thermal resistance∈¿ oC/joules/min
Qs
d (∆ θo )
The rate of heat storage in the tank is = ∆H 2 = Ms , … … … .(3)
dt
Where M = Mass of the liquid in tank.
d (∆ θo )
The eqn. (3) can be written as, ∆ H 2 =C ………(4)
dt
Where C = Ms is called “Thermal Capacitance” in joules/ oC/
∆ θo d (∆ θo )
The heat balance equation is: ∆ H =∆ H 1 +∆ H 2= +C
R dt
Or
d (∆ θ o) d ( ∆θ o ) ∆ θ0
Rc +∆ θo =R(∆ H ) … … .(5)[∵ ∆ H 2 =C , ∆ H 1= ]
dt dt R
Eqn. (5) gives the dynamic mathematical model of the thermal system assuming that the temperature of the
inflowing liquid is constant.
Since the temperature of inflowing liquid fluctates, we assume ∆θ i to be the change of temperature of the inflowing
liquid (assumed to be a disturbance signal), the heat-flow equation is written as,
∆ θi ∆ θ o d ∆θi(s)
from eqn. (5),∆ H + = +C ( ∆ θo ) +
R R dt ∆H(s) +
R (Rc(s)+1) ∆H(s)
d (∆ θ o)
or Rc +∆ θo =∆ θi + R(∆ H ) ------ (6)
dt Fig: (b) Thermal system
from Eqn. (6), taking LT we get Rcs ∆θ0(s)+ ∆θ0(s) = ∆θi(s)+R∆H(s)

or G(s)= ∆θ0(s)/∆H(s)=R/Rcs+1(taking ∆θi(s) a disturbance)
E.g. 7 Liquid – Level Systems:
Q+qi
18
R
H+h
R = Resistance to liquid flowing into the tank
Change∈Liquid Level
¿
Change∈flow rate
dH H
For laminar flow (linear), the resistance R= = is constant and analogues to electrical resistance, where: H=
dQ Q
the steady state head (height), in m
Q = the steady – state volumetric flow rate, in m 3/s
R = the valve resistance, in S/m3
For the system shown in above fig. (a) q i qo are the small deviations in the respective infow and outflow rates from
the steady – state flow rate Q and h=is the small deviation of the head from the steady – state head H.
Assuming laminar flow to get linear equation, the rates of change of fuild volume in the tank is equal to the flow in
dv
less (minus) flow out, i.e. =qi −q o
dt
Further, since dv=cdh, where C is the fluid capacitance of the tank defined as the ratio of change in volume stored to
dv
the change in head = =c , we get, cdh = (qi - qo)dt
dh
Again, qo = h/r
The differential equation for a constant value of R becomes,
dh dv h Rqi −h Rdv dh
Rc + h=Rqi ∵ =q i−q 0=q i− = ∨ =Rqi−h o r Rc +h=Rqi withq i as the input∧h as the output hea
dt dt R R dt dt
The electric circuit analog is shown in fig. (b). In this analysis, the resistance R includes the resistance due to exit and
entrance of the tank. The effect of compliance and inertia have been neglected.
However, if qo is taken as the output with the input q i being the same and
qo
h h qi - qo
where the relation used is qo = or Qo (s) = = H(s), then the transfer function R
R R i(qi) C
Q o (s) I
Becomes =
Q i (s ) Rcs+1 Fig: (b) Electric Circuit Analog
Eg. 8: Pneumatic Systems:
Assumptions: Velocities of gases are a small fraction of the velocity of sound implies the pneumatic flow to be
incompressible.
Let us define:
Pi = Air preassure of the source at steady state (Newton/m 2) Source Vessel
∆Pi = Small change in air preassure of the source from its steady state value. Pi + ∆ Pi Po + ∆ Po
∆Po = Small change in air preassure of the vessel from its steady state value.
The system dyanamics is described by,
d (∆ P o) ∆ P ∆ Pi−∆ P o
C = =
dt R R
Analogues Quantities:
Electrical Thermal Liquid Level Pneumatic

Charge (coulomb) Heat flow(joule) Liquid flow(cub-m) Air flow (cub-m)
19
Current (Amps) Heat flowrate(jouls/min) Liquid Airflow rate (cub-m/minute)
flowrate(cub-m/minute)
Voltage (Volts) Temperature (oC) Head (m) Preassure (Newton/m2)
( )
Resistance (Ohms) Resistance Resistance Newton/m
2
oC m Resistance
( ) ( ) Cub−m/min
Joules /min cub−m/min
( )
Capacitance(Farads) Joules Capacitance Cub−m
Capacity Cub−m Capacitance ( 2
)
oC ( ) Newton/m
Newton/m2
Procedure for Deriving Transfer Function of a Physical System:

Assumptions: (1) There is no loading i.e. no power is drawn at the output of the system.
(2) The system should be approximated by a linear lumped constant parameters model by making
suitable assumptions.
(3) Initial conditions to be assumed zero while taking Laplace Tansforms.
Eg. 9: R. C. Circuits:
[It can be considered as two identical RC circuits
connected in cascade so that the output from,
R R
the first circuit is fed as input to the second]
t
I
∫ ( i −i ) dt+ Ri 1=e i
C −∞ 1 2 C
c
t t
I −I
And ∫
C −∞
( i 2−i 1 ) dt + Ri 2= ∫ i dt=−ϱ o
C −∞ 2
I
or
Sc 1
[ I ( s ) −I 2 ( s ) ] +¿RI1( s )=E i (s )
I −I
and
Sc
[ I 2 ( s ) −I 1 ( s ) ] + R I 2 ( s )=
SC 2
I ( s ) =−Eo (s)
eliminating I I (s)and I 2(s) from the above,
E (s) 1
G ( s )= o = 2 2 where τ =RC
Ei ( s) s ℸ +3 τs+1
1 I
Where G 1 ( s )= ; G2 ( s )=
1+ sτ 1+sτ
1
But G(s) ≠ G 1 G 2 (s)≠
( 1+ τs ) ( 1+τs )
Eg. 10: D. C. Servomotors:

Physical requirement: (1) Low inertia by reducing armature diameter with increasing length of the armature,
(2) High, starting torque, (3) Used in linear range of magnetisation curve.
(i) Armature Control: If (constant)

Ra, La = Armature resistance and inductance respectively in Ra La
ohms and Heneries. TM
Ia, if = armature and field currents in amps. e eb
e,eb = applied armature voltage back emfs respectively in volts.
ia
θ = Angular displacement of motor shaft in radian.
J = Equivalent m.i of motor and load referred to motor shaft in kg-m 2 θ J,fo
20
fo = Equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and load referrd
to motor shaft in Newton-m/rad/sec
Ø=Kf if where kf is constant
TM = Torque developed by motor in Newton-m = K I Kf if ia where KI is constant

When if is kept constant, TM = KT ia where KT = motor torque constant.
dθ
eb=Kb , where Kb=back emf constant
dt
2
dia d θ dθ
Now La + Ra ia+ eb=e∧J 2 + f 0 =T M =K T ia
dt dt dt
In Laplace domain:
E b (s) = Kb s θ (s)
(Las + Ra) I a (s) = E(s) – E b(s)
( Js 2+ f 0 s ) θ ( s )=TM ( s)=K T I a (s)

θ(s) KT
From above, G(s) = =
E(s) s [( Ra+ sLa )( Js+ fo ) + K T K b ]
In block diagram representation:
E(s) + Ia(s) Ia(s) θ(s)

-
Eb
(a) (b)
θ(s)
E b(s) K bs
(c)
E(s) + θ(s)
-
Eb
Kbs
(d)
or
E(s) Ia(s) Tm (s) (s) (s)
-
Eb(s)
Kb
21
If La is neglected :
θ (s) K T / Ra K /R Km
G ( s )= = 2 = T a=
E( s) Js + s(fo + K T Kb/ Ra) s (Js+ f ) s( sτ m +1)
f =f o K T K b / Ra = Effective viscous friction coefficient.
K b is in voltas /rad/sec where K m = KT/Ra = motor gain constant.
K T is Newton –m/amp and τ m = J/f = motor time constant.
e b i a=K b θ̇ ia=Electrical Power converted ¿ Mechanical form∈watts .
Power at shaft (i.e Mechanical Power)T θ̇=K T ia θ̇
At steady state these two powers balance. Hence
K b θ̇ ia=K T θ̇ i a or K T =K b (in MKS units).
(ii) Field Control:

Rf , Lf = field winding resistance and induction in ohm and henery Respectively.
Rf )
e, if = field control voltage and current
in volts and amps respectively.
Tm = torque developed by motor in Newton – m. TM
e Lf
J = equivalent m.i. of motor and load refered to motor shaft in Kg – m 2
f= equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and load referred to motor
shaft in Newton – m / rad/sec.
θ= angular displacement of motor shaft in radian.
The armature current is fed from a constant current source. J,f
∴ Tm=K 1 K f if ia= K 'T if , where K 'T is a constant.
dif
Lf + R f if =e ;
dt
d2 θ dθ '
J 2 +f =T m=K T i f . In Laplace Domain, (Lf s+Rf)If (s) = E(s),
dt dt
(Js2+fs)θ(s)=Tm(s)=K’TIf(s)
Hence :
'
θ (s) KT Km
G ( s )= = =
E( s) s ( Lf s+ R f ) (Js +f ) s ( τ f s+1 ) ( τ m s +1)
'
KT
Where K m = =motor gain constrant
Rf f
τ f =L f / Rf =time constant of field circuit
τ me=J /f =mechanicaltime constant E(s) (s) θ(s)
In block diagram representation:
Advantages and Disadvantages of Field Control and Armature Control D.C Servos.
(1) For small size motor, field control is advantageous because only a low power servo amplifier is required
while armature which is not large can be supplied from an inexpensive constant current source.
(2) For large size motor armature control is advantageous. Further in armature controlled motor, back e m f
contributes additional damping over and above that is provided by load friction.
22
Module-1: VOL – I- K3
1. BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA
2. SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH (S.F.G)
3. MASON’s GAIN FORMULA
4. APPLICATION OF S.F.G TO CONTROL SYSTEM.
I. Block diagram Transform:

1. Transform Equation Original blockdiagram Equivalent block diagram
Elimination of blocks X3(s)=G1(s) G2(s)X1(s) x3(s) X2(s)
X1(s) X1(s) G1(s) G2(s) X3(s)
in cascade G1(s) G2(s)
1 X2(s) = X1(s) G1(s); X3(s) = X2(s) G2(s) = X1(s) G1(s) G2 (s)
` Hence , G1(s) G2(s) = G(s) equivalent
+ X2(s)
2. Combining in parallel or X2(s)=G1(s) X1(s) G1(s) X1(s) G1±(s) G2(s) X2(s)
Eliminating forward loop ± G2(s)X1(s) X1(s)
+
2 G2(s) -
= X 1 (s) [ G1( s)±G 2( s) ]
X1(s) + X2(s) X1(s) + X2(s)

G1(s) G2(s)
3. Removing a block from X2 (s)=G1(s)X1(s)
a forward path ± G2(s)X1(s) + +
G2(s) -
-
G ( s ) . X 1 ( s) X1(s)+ E (s) X2(s)

4. Eliminating a feedback X2(s) = G1(s) X1(s) X2(s)
1± G1 ( s ) H ( s)
From feedback loop ∓
H(s)
3 X 2 ( s )=E ( s ) G1 ( s ) =[ X 1 ( s ) ∓ X 2 ( s ) H ( s) ] G1 ( s )
¿ X 1 ( s ) G1 ( s ) ∓ X 2 ( s ) H ( s ) G1 ( s )
Or X 2 ( s ) ± X 2 ( s ) H ( s ) G1 ( s )=X 2 ( s ) [1 ± G 1 ( s ) H ( s ) ]=X 1 ( s ) G1 ( s )
X 2 (s) G1 (s )
Or =
X 1 (s) 1 ±G1 ( s ) H ( s )
X1(s) +
G 1 ( s ) X 1 (s) X2(s) X1(s) + X2(s)
5. Removing a block from feedback loop. X2(s) = G1(s) G1(s)H(s)
1∓ G 1 ( s ) H ( s) + +
- H(s) -
X1(s) + X1(s) +
+ X2(s)
6. (a) Rearranging of summing points. X2(s) = X1(s)± X3(s)±X4(s) + + X2(s) + +
X3(s) - X4(s) - -
-
X4(s) X3(s)
X1(s) + + X2(s) +
X2(s)
(b) Rearranging of summing points. X2(s) = X1(s)± X3(s)±X4(s) + + X1(s) +
X3(s) - - +
X4(s) X3(s) -
+
X4(s) -
23
7. Moving a summing point a head of a block. X1(s) + X2(s) X1(s) X2(s)
X2(s) = G1(s)X1(s) ± X3(s) G1(s) G1(s)
+ X3(s) +
- - X3(s)
X1(s) + X2(s) X1(s) +

8. Moving a summing point a X2(s) = G1(s)[ X1(s)± X3(s)] G1(s) G1(s) X2(s)
+
beyond a block. X3(s) +
X(s) - G1(s) -
Pick off point X2(s)

X1(s) X1(s)
G1(s) G1(s)
9. Moving a pick off point ahead of a block. X2(s) = X1(s)G1(s) X2(s) X3s
X3s G1(s)
Pick off point

X1(s) X2(s) X1(s)
G1(s) G1(s) X2(s)
10. Moving a pick off pint X2(s) = X1(s)G1(s)
beyond a block. X3(s) X3s
11. Moving a pick off point ahead X2(s) = X1(s)±X3(s)

of a summing point. X1(s) X2(s) X1(s) +
± X2(s) + ± X2(s)
X3(s)
X2(s) ±
X3(s)
X1(s) X2(s) X1(s) + X2(s)

X1s ± X3s ±
12. Moving a pick off point X2(s) = X1(s)±X3(s)
X3(s) X1(s)
beyond a summing point.
Summing beyond: Multiplication (x)
Sign changed
Summing ahead : division (÷)
R(s) E(s) C(s)
Pick off beyond: division (÷) G(s)
Pickoff ahead: multiplication (x) -B(s)
H(s)
C( s)
G ( s )= =Direct ∨forward transfer function
E( s)
B( s)
H ( s )= =feedback transfer function
C( s)
G(s) H(s) = Loop transfer function
24
C ( s)
M ( s )= =closed loop transfer function∨control ratio
R( s)
E( s) 1
=Actuating signal∨error ratio=
R( s) 1 ±GH ( s)
B (s )
=Primary feedback ratio
R (s )
Characteristic Equation
a. Block diagram reduction procedure

1. Combine all cascade blocks using transformation 1.
2. Combine all parallel blocks using transformation 2.
3. Eliminate all minor feedback loop from the block diagram using transformation 4.
4. Shift summing points to the left and take off points to the right of the minor loops using
transformation 7, 10 & 12.
5. Obtain the canonical form of the block diagram for a particular input by repeating steps 1 to 4
6. Repeat the steps 1 to 5 for each input in the system to have single equivalent block for a
particular input (This is for multiple input linear system).
b. For Multiple input system to get the response
1. Set all the inputs except one in the block diagram equal to zero.
2. Transform the block diagram into canonical form for one input.
3. Determine the response due to selected input which is not zero.
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for all the remaining points.
5. Add algebraically the response of all the inputs determined in steps. This is the overall response
of the system with multiple inputs.
Eg. 1. Reduce the block diagram given below to canonic forms when:
(i) Block ‘K’ is isolated in the forward path. (ii) block ‘K’ is not isolated in the forward path. Hence
C(s)
determine in these cases.
R(s)
R(s)
R(s) ++ ++ c(s)
K
- -
0.1
(Pick off point)
25
(ii) Applying transform 9, R(s) ++ ++ c(s)
K
- -
R(s) + c(s)
K
-
Applying transform 1 +
+
R(s) + c (s)
K
Applying tranform 2 -
Applying transform 4 R(s) c(s)
26
(ii) Applying transform 1, R(s) + C(s)
-
-
s
0.1
Applying transform 4, R(s) + C(s)

-
0.1
R(s) C(s)
Applying transform 4,
C( s) K /[ ( 1+ k ) s +4 ] K
= =
R( s) 0.1 K ( 1+ K ) s+(4 +0.1 K)
1+
( 1+ K ) s+ 4
Eg. 2. Reduce the block diagram shown below into open loop form.
R(s)+ + + C(s)
G1(s) G2(s)
- +
- Loop 1 Loop 2
H1(s) H1(s)
H2(s)
R(s) + C(s)
Applying simplification: -
H2(s)
R(s) + G1 ( s ) G2(s) C(s)

Applying transformation 1,
- [ 1+ G1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) ] [1−G2 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) ]
H2(s)
( ) G1 ( s ) G2 ( s)
Applying transformation 4 M ( s )= C s =
R ( s ) [ 1+G1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) ] [1−G2 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) ]+G1 (s )G2 ( s) H 2 ( s)
R(s) C(s)
27
Eg. 3 Reduce the following block diagram to open loop from:
H1(s)
+ - +
A C(s)
R(s) + G3(s)
G1(s) G2(s)
+ + +
H2(s)
G4(s)
H1(s)
- B
R(s) + A + C(s)
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)
+ D +
+
Applying transform 8: G1(s) H2(s)
C
G4(s)
H1(s)
- B
R(s) + A + + C(s)
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) D
+ +
+
Applying transformation10:
1/G1(s)
G1 H2 (s)
G4(s)
H1(s)
B -
R(s) + +
G3(s) C(s)
G1(s) G2(s)
+ + +
+
G1(s)H2 (s)
A points A&B and re-arranging: 1/G1(s)
Applying transformation 6(b) to the summing +
G4(s)
H1(s)
Applying transformation 2: - B + C(s)
R(s) + G2(s) G3(s)
G1(s) D
+ + 1 G1 +1
[1+G1(s)]H2 (s) 1+ = ∧¿
G1 G1
Applying transformation-4: G4(s)
R(s)
B -
H1(s)
+
G1 H 2
C(s)
[ ]
G 1+ 1
G1
=H 2 [ G1 +1
G1(s) + G3(s)
D +
28
G4(s)
+ C(S)
Applying transformation 4 to the R(s)
G1(s) +
feedback loop and eleminating
summing point B summing point:
Reapplying transformation 2 G4(s)
C(S)
R(s)
Eg. 4: Reduce the block diagram shown below:

H2(s)
A B - C
R(s) +
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) G4(s)
- + -
H3(s)
H1(s)
B
Applying trasformation 10: A + - +
C
R(s) + G1(s) + C(s)
G2(s) G3(s) G4(s)
- - D
H3(s)
H1(s)
A + -
Applying transformations 4: R(s) + B - D
G1(s) G2(s) C(s)
-
H1(s)
Applying transformation 1&4

R(s) +
G1s C(s)
-
H1(s)
Applying transformation 1&4 again
R(s) C(s)
29
Eg. 5: Reduce the following block diagram into topen loop system and determine C(s)/R(s)
G4(s)
A B + +
R(s) + + C E C(s)
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)
-
- H2(s)
H1(s)
Apply transformation 4:
G4(s)
R(s) + A + + E C(s)
G1(s) G4(s)
-
H1(s)
Apply transformation 1&2

R(s) + A E C(s)
G3(s)
-
H1(s)
Applying transformation 1&4
C (s ) G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) G3 ( s ) +G2 ( s ) G3 ( s ) G4 H 2 ( s )+ G3 (s)G4 ( s)
=
R ( s ) 1+G2 ( s ) H 2+ H 1 ( s ) G3 ( s)[G1 ( s ) G2 ( s )+G 2 ( s ) G4 ( s ) H 2 ( s ) +G 4 ( s ) ]
G4(s)
+
Eg .6 : R(s) + +
G3(s) +
C(s)
G1(s) G2(s) G6(s)
- -
G5(s) +
C( s) H1(s)
=?
R( s)
H2(s)
R(s)
G2(s) G3(s)+G4(s)+G5(s) G6(s)
Applying 2&4
-
H2(s)
Applying transformation 1 R(s) + C(s)

G6(s)
-
30
H2(s)
C(s)
Applying 1&4 R(s)
C( s) G 1 ( s ) G 2 ( s ) G 6 ( s ) [G3 ( s ) +G 4 ( s ) +G5 ( s ) ]
=
R( s) 1+G 1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) +G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) H 2 ( s ) [G 3 ( s ) +G4 ( s ) +G 5 ( s ) ]
D(s)
Eg.7:
Determine C(s)
R(s) + ++ C(s)
- G1(s) G2(s)
(i)
R(s) +
G1(s)G2(s) Cr(s)
-
D(s)
(ii) + + Cd(s)
G1(s) G2(s) D(s) + G2(s)
Cd(s) D(s) + Cd(s)
G2(s)
+ -
-1
-1 G1(s) G1(s)
Hence Cd(s)/D(s )= G2(s)/[1+G1(s)G2(s)] or Cd(s) = G2(s)D(s)/[1+G1(s)G2(s)]
(iii) C ( s ) =Cr ( s ) +C d ( s )=
[ G 1 (s)G2 (s)
1+G1 ( s ) G 2 (s) ] [
R ( s) +
G2 ( s )
1+G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) ] [
D ( s )=
G2 ( s )
1+G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) ] [G 1 ( s ) R ( s ) + D ( s ) ]
E. g: 8: Typical Problem:
Of feedback point H1
-
R + + + C
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6
- +
+
H2
G7 G8
31
H1/G3
R - X + +
+ Z C
G1G2 G3 G4G5 G6
- +
≡ +
H2G4 G8
Y
G1G7
H1/G3 Z=X+Y
R - X
+ + Z
G1G2 G3 G 6(G4 G5 +G8) C
+
- X
+
≡
H2G4
+
Y
Y
Y
G1G7
H1/G3
R + - +
G1G2 + C
G3 G6(G4 G5 +G8)
-
- +
G1G7G4 H2 H2G4
G1G7
R + C
G1G2-G1G4G7H2 G4G5G6+G6G8
+
G1G7
R C
G4G5G6+G6+G8
32
R C
2 2
C (G¿¿ 1G 2 G3 G 4 G5 G6 +G1 G2 G3 G6 G8−G1 G3 G 4 G5 G6 G7 H 2−G1 G3 G 4 G6 G 7 G8 H 2 +G1 G5 G4 G6 G 7+ G1 G3 G4 G
Hence =
R 1+ H 1+ G3 G4 H 2
Or
C G 1 G 2 G3 G 4 G 5 G 6+ G 1 G 2 G 3 G 6 G 8+ G 1 G 4 G 5 G6 G7 +G1 G 6 G 7 G 8 +G 1 G 4 G 5 G6 G 7 H 1 +G 1 G 6 G7 G 8 H 1
=
R 1+ H 1+ G 3 G4 H 2
33
2 - SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH
Any linear system can be described mathematically by a set of linear equations. In general let the simultaneous
m
equation be ∑t ij x j =x i where j=1, 2…m and xi is the only driving source in the system. Variable x 1, x2……. xm are
j=1
dependent variables in the system and t ij are generally integral differential operators. This mathematical description
of the system can be topologically represented by signal flow graphs. Thus signal flow graphs are the topological
(graphical) representation of simultaneous equations - graphical representation of the relationships between the
variables of a set of linear algebraic equations.
Some Terms
(1) Node: it represents a system variable which is equal to the sum of all incoming signals at the node. Outgoing
signals from the node do not affect the value of the node variable.
E g: R E G C R, C, E = nodes
1
-1 H
(2) Branch: A signal travels along a branch from one node to another in the direction indicated by the branch
arrow and in the process gets multiplied by the gain or transmittance of the branch. E g: the signal reaching
the node C from the node E is given by GE where G is the branch transmittance and the branch is directed
from E to C.
Dependent and independent variables are represented by nodes while the relationships between
nodes, through system parameters or system physical laws are represented by the branches between
respective nodes. The branch has two properties: (i) It is a line joining two nodes which has a direction
represented by the arrow. The branch having its arrow towards a node is described as incoming branch
while the branch having its arrow away from the node is called outgoing branch. (ii) Branch has magnitude
which is called the transmittance or branch gain or transmission functions. This magnitude is determined by
the relationship between two nodes.
e. g. x3 Node
t32 Node
Branch
x2
t21 X2= t21 x1and x3= t32 x2
x1
Node
(3) Path: This is the continuous unidirectional succession of branches along which no node is passed more than
once. e. g. x1 to x2 to x 3 to x 4 to x 5.
t42
t33
e. g. t21 t32
x1 x2 t23 x3 t43 x4 t54 x5
(4) Input node or source node: The node having only outgoing branches is known as source or input node if, e
g. x1
(5) Output nodes or sink node: The node having only incoming branches is known as sink output node e g. x 5
34
(6) Chain node: A node having incoming and outgoing branches is known as chain node e g. x 2, x3 & x4.
(7) Forward path: A path from the input to output node is defined as forward path e. g. x 1 to x2 to x3 to x4 to x5 is
the forward path.
(8) Feedback path (loop): A path which originates and terminates on the same node is known as feedback path.
e. g. x2 to x3 to x2.
(9) Self loop: A feedback loop consisting of single branch is known as self loop. e g. t 33
(10) Non touching loops: Loops are said to be non-touching if they do not possess any common node.
(11) Path gain or Forward path gain: The product of branch gains is going through a forward path is known as
path gain e g. for x1 to x2 to x3 to x4 to x5 is t21, t32, t43, & t54.
(12) Loop gain: The product of branch gains in a loop is known as loop gain e g. for the loop x2 to x3 to x2 is t32 t23.
Rules for construction and simplification of signals flow graph.
(S. F. G)
(i) Addition rules: The value of variable represented by a node is equal to the sum of all signals existing in that
m
node e g. x 1= ∑ t ij x j x1 ti1
j=1
x2 ti2
ti3 xi
x3
tim
xm
Addition rule in S.F.G
(ii) Transmission rule: The value of the variable represented by node is transmitted on every branch which leaves
that node.
x1
t1k t2k
x2 i. e. the variable X k node is transmitted to m nodes.
xk t3k
x3
tmk
Xm
(iii) Multiplication rule: A series (cascade) connection of (m-1) branches with transmittance t 21,
t32…….tm(m-1) can be replaced by a single branch with a new transmittance equal to the product of
all branches of transmittance.
i. e. x m =t21 t32 t43 ……t m (m-1)x1.
t21 t32 t21 t32…….tm (m-1)

≡
x1 x2 x3 Xm x1 Xm
Prob. (a) find the eqns. which are represented by following S.F.G
x1 m1
x2 m2
y y=m1x1+ m2x2+ m3 x3 (applying addition rule).
x3 m3
35
(b) applying transmission rule
4 x
x=4R
y=2R 2
R
z=-3R
y
-3
Construction of S.F.G z
(1) S.F.G is obtained from the equation which describes the systems.
(2) S.F.G can also be obtained from the block diagram of the system (will be described later).
Procedure for construction of S.F.G.
(1) Determine the system eqns. and write them into the following forms after finding the variables in the
system.
x1=t11 x1+t12x2+t13 x13……………+t1n xn
x2= t21 x1+ t22x2+ t23x3……………+ t2nxn
xm= tm1 x1+ tm2x2+ tm3x3…………..+tmnxn
(2) From left to right arrange m or n nodes whichever greater. Nodes can be re-arranged to avoid some loops.
(3) Connect the nodes by proper branches and mark their transmittance t 11, t 1 2… etc.
(4) If the required output node has outgoing branches then add dummy nodes through branches having unit
transmittance.
(5) Rearrange the nodes or loops or both to have clean signal flow graph.
(6) Use transformations described in the table (given below) to simplify S.F.G. if required.
Eg.1: Draw the S.F.G of the following equations:
d x1 d2 x dx
(i) x 2=4 ; ( ii ) x 3= 22 +3 1 −6 x 1
dt dt dt
S.F.G is constructed by the procedure given above.
(i) Eqn. contains two operations i.e. 4times and d/data. Hence this eqn. can be written as,
x 2=4 ẋ1
dx 1
ẋ 1=
dt
dx 1
Where ẋ 1a variable is introduced in the equation and is equal to . This variable is used as an intermediate
dt
node. Hence the S.F.G is,
d/dt 4
dx 1 x2
x1
ẋ 1=
dt
36
(ii) The eqn. contains x1, x2 and x3 as variables. Rewriting this eqn.
d2 x2 dx
x 3= ẍ 2+ 3 ẋ 1−6 x 1 ; ẍ2 = ; ẋ1= ,
dt 2
dt
Introducing variable ẍ 2∧ ẋ 1as defined, the s.f.g is drawn below. A new node x 4 is connected in the graph
with a branch of transmittance 1, to have an output node.
1 x3 1
x4
x2
-6
3
x1
A. S.F.G Transformations Rules.

Transformation Original S.F.G Equations S.F.G
1. Nodes connected in cascade, t21 t32 t31 = t21. t32

x3
1 x3=t31.x1=t32.t21 x1 x1 x2 x3 x1
2. Nodes connected in parallel,
2 x 2=( t 21+ t 21 ) x 1
' ''
x1 x2
x1 x2
x3
x3
3. Absorption of a node, t35
x5
x3=t51t35x1+t35t52x2 x1 x2
x1 x2
x4=t31t45x1+t32t45x2
x4
x4
4. Reduction of feedback loop x1 1

x2
x1
3
37
x1 1
x2
x1
t 21
x 2= x
1−t 21 t 12 1
5. Examination of a feedback loop
4 Construct the S.F.G of the following set of simultaneous equations making y 4 as output node.
Eg.2 y 2=t 21 y 1 +t 23 y 3 ; y 3=t 31 y 1+ t 32 y 2 +t 33 y 3 ; y 4=t 42 y 2+ t 43 y 3
≡
y1 t21 1 1
y4 y5
Eg.3 Construct the S.F.G for the networks shown below, making V 3 as output node.
R1 v2 R3 v3
+ i1 i2 A passive Ladder Network
v1 v3
- R2 R4
There are five variables, i.e. v1 , i 1 , v 2 , i2∧v 3 . Using K.V.L & K.C.L,
v1 v2 v2 v3
i 1= − ; v 2=R2 i1−i2 R2 ,i 2= − ; v 3=R 4 i 2
R 1 R1 R3 R 3
One forward path

3 individual feedback loops
2 non touching loops
Eg.4
Reduce the S.F.G. and find the transmittance from the source node x 1 to output node x5.
2 loops
2 forward path
No non-touching loops
(i) Using transformation 3 from the table, the node x 3 in the S.F.G. is eliminated and the modified S.F.G. is
38
(ii) From transformations 2& 4, the path x2 – x4 and the feedback loop x4-x5-x4 is eliminated.
(iii) Using transformation 5, the self loop at x 5 is eliminated
(iv) Using transformation 1, the node x4 is eliminated.
t 21 t 54 (t 32 t 43+ t 42)
1−t 55 −t 43 t 35 t 54 x 5 t 21 t 54 ( t 32 t 43 +t 42 )
x1 x5 ∴ =
x 1 1−t 55−t 43 t 35 t 54
B Construction of S.F.G from Block diagram
Sl.No. Algebraic expression corresponding block diagram corresponding s.f.g

x
1. variable x
x x
x 2=t 21 x 1
2.
x 3=t 31 x 1−t 32 x2
3.
4. Rule of Multiplication
x2 = t21 x1
x3 = t32 x2 ∴ x3 = t21 t32 x1
5. Rule of addition x1 x2
x2 = t’21x1 + t”21 x1
39
' ''
6. (a) ∴ x2=(t 21 +t 21)x 1
b) self loop, x1 = t10 x0 +t11 x1
x2 = t21 x1
self transformation
x 21 t 10
x 2= x
(1−t 11) 0
Procedure
1. From the variables in the block diagram determine the node of signal flow graphs.
2. Using the above table obtain the s.f.g equivalent for each element in the block diagram.
3. With these nodes and s.f.g elements complete the s.f.g which is equivalent to the block diagram.
Eg.1
(i) (ii)
(i) Using 3, 5 & 7 correspondences the s.f.g is drawn,
Go(s)
R(s) C(s)
-1/20
1/s Go(s)
(ii) C(s)
R(s) 50
E g. 2
40
Solution:
x out
C. Mason’s gain formula for S.F.G.: It states that, M = =¿ ¿ ……………. Eqn. (1)
x¿
where, Ck = gain of kth forward path ……….. (2)
cjk = jth possible gain product of the kth non – touching loop gains …… (3)
△=1−(−1)k+1 ∑ ∑ jk
c
k j
¿ 1− ∑ cj 1 + ∑ cj 2− ∑ cj3 + … ∑ cjk … . .
j j j j
=1-(sum of all different loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all combinations of two non – touching loops) -
(sum of gain products of all combinations of three non touching loops) + …. (4)
∆k = value of ∆for all loops except for those which touch the forward path K …………….. (5)
∆ is called the s.f.g determinant or characterstic functions. The loops, paths or a loop and (paths are said to
be non-touching when they have no node in common): This gain formula is only applicable for gains
between output and input nodes. The procedure for determining the gain of s.f.g described below:
D. APPLICATION OF S.F.G.:
Procedure
(1) Determine the number of forward paths present in the S.F.G. Calculate the forward gain of each path from
eqn. (2)
(2) Determine the number of feedback loops present in the s.f.g and calculate loop gain of each loop. The sum of
all loop gain will be the second term of eqn. (4)
(3) Determine the possible combinations of hving two non-teaching loops simultaneously and obtain the product
of loop gains. The sum of all loops gains for all possible combinations will be the third term of the equation
(4). Similarly obtain the possile combinations of having three non-teaching loops simultaneously and
calculate the product of all loop gains. The sum of all possible combinatios will be the fourth term of eqn. (4)
(4) Examine the forward path obtained in step 1 and see which of paths are not touching the loops. Then for
each forward path determine the value of ∆k from eq. (5)
(5) Substitute various values C k , ∆ and ∆k in the Mason’s gain formula eqn. (1) to obtain the gain of the signal
flow graph.
Eg. 1. Using Mason’s gain formula determine the gain V 3/P in the s.f.g.
(i) There is only one forward path hence only c1 exists.
1 R 1 R5
∴ C 1=1. R1 . . R5 .1=
R3 R3
41
(ii) There are three feedback loops
−R1 −R 4 −R 5
C 11= ,C 21= ;C 31=
R2 R3 R6
(iii) There are two non teaching loops.
R 1 R5
The product of the loos gains is C 12 =C11 C 31=
R 2 R6
(iv) from above expressions,
∆=1− [ C 11+ C21 +C31 ] +C12
R 1 R 4 R 5 R1 R 5
¿ 1+ + + +
R 2 R3 R 6 R2 R 6
(V) Since forward path touches the loops, in eqn. (5), all terms except the unity will be zero. Hence
∆k = ∆1 = 1
(Vi) The gain of the s.f.g from above,
∑ Ck ∆k
v3 k
=M =
P △
R 1 R5
.1
c 1 △1 R3
=
[ ]
△ R1 R 4 R5 R1 R5
1+ + + +
R2 R 3 R6 R2 R6
R1 R 2 R5 R6
¿
R 2 R3 R6 + R1 R 3 R6 + R 2 R4 R6 + R 2 R3 R5 + R1 R 3 R5
Eg.2 x5
From the S.F.G., determine
H1
x1
G5
G1 G2 G3 G4
x11 x2 x3 x4 x5
G6
G7
42
(i) There are three forward paths as shown below,
G1 G2 G3 G4 G1 G4 G1 x2 x3 x4 x3
x11 x2 x3 x4 x5 X1
G6
Path C1 G7
Path C2
Path C3
∴ c 1=G1 G2 G3 G4 ; C 2=G 1 G6 G4 ; C 3=G1 G7
(ii) There are two feed back loops.
G2 ; G5
x4
The loops gain are,
(iii) There is only one set of two non-teaching loops.
G2 G5
x4 o
; The product of loop gains
x5
C 12=G 2 G5 H 1
(iv) As there are no set of three four five etc non – teaching loop combinations present,
C j 3=C j 4 =C j 5=C jk =0
(v) From above,

∆=1−C j1 +C j 2=1−( c 11+ c21 ) +c 12
¿ 1−( G2 H 1 +G5 ) +G2 H 1 G5
(vi) To determine the value of ∆k, the forward path of s.f.g is examined. It is found that only forward
path c3 does not touch the loops while forward paths c 1 and c2 touch the loops. Hence value of ∆k
for path c1 and c2 will have only unity term while other things will be zero. i.e.
∆1=1; ∆2=1
G5
Path C3
For forward path C3 , the value of ∆k = ∆3 = 1-G5
C1 ∆1 +C 2 ∆2 +C3 ∆3 G1 G2 G3 G 4 +G1 G4 G6 +G1 G2(1−G5)

( vii ) ∴ M = =
∆ 1−G2 H 1+G2 G5 H 1 −G5
Eg. 3. xo
Determine ∈the given S . F . G :
xi
43
(i) Two forward paths
(ii) Two non-teaching loops
Feedback path for feedback path for
The loop gains are
(iii) The possible combination of two non-teaching loops
The product of loop gains = C 12=G 3 G6 H 3 H 6
(iv) ∆=1−( G 3 H 3 +G 6 H 6 ) +G 3 G6 H 3 H 6=1−( C11 +C21 ) +C 12
(v) ∆k =?, the forward paths are examined whether these touch loops or not the forward paths:-
The forward paths does not touch loop 2
While the Forward paths does not touch loop 1.
Hence ∆1=1-G3 H3 (Corresponding to C1)

∆2 = 1-G6 H6 (Corresponding to C2)
44
x 0 C1 ∆1 +C 2 ∆2 G1 G5 G6 G7 G 8 ( 1−G3 H 3 ) +G1 G2 G3 G4 G8 (1−G6 H 6)
(vi) ∴ M= = =
xi ∆ 1−( G 3 H 3+G 6 H 6 ) +G3 G6 H 3 H 6
Eg. 4. Determine C :
R
(i) Forward paths are:

1 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6
R 1 2 3 4 5 6 C
G7
1 G1 G2 G6
1 2 3 4 5 6 C
1 G1 G2 G3 G4
1 2 3 4 5 C
(ii) The total non-touching feed back loops in the s.f.g are six. G7
G1 G2 G6
G5 6 G6
5 6 C
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4
C
G4 G4 G5 G6
G1 G2 G3 G4 G1 G2 G3
44 5 6
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 C 1 2 3 4 5 6 C
H2
Loops gains are:-

c 11 =G5 G6 H 3 ; C 21=G 8 H 3 ; C 31=G1 G2 G6 G7 H 1
C 41 =G4 H 2; C 51=G 1 G 2 G3 G4 G8 H 1 ; G61 =G1 G2 G 3 G 4 G5 G6 H 1
(iii) The only possible combination of the non - teaching loops of the s.f.g
G7
G1 G2 G6
45
The product of the loop gain is C 12=G 1 G2 G6 G7 H 1 G 4 H 2=G 1 G 2 G 4 G6 G 7 H 1 H 2
(iv) ∴ ∆=1−[ C 11+C 21+C 31+C 41 +C51 +C 61] +C 12
¿ 1−[G 5 G6 H 3+ G 8 H 3 +G 1 G2 G6 G7 H 1 +G4 H 2 +G1 G2 G 3 G 4 G8 H 1 +G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 H 1 ]+G1 G2 G4 G 6 G7 H 1 H 2
(v) The forward paths except one i.e C2 are untouched by loops. The forward path C 2 does not touch loop
C41. Hence the values of ∆k for forward paths. C 1 C2 C3 are ∆1=1, ∆2 = 1-G4 H2; ∆3 = 1
(vi)
C C 1 ∆ 1+C 2 ∆2 +C 3 ∆ 3 G1 G2 G3 G4 G 5 G 6 +G 1 G 2 G7 G8 ( 1−H 2 G4 ) +G1 G2 G3 G4 G8
M= = =
R ∆ 1−(G5 G6 H 3 +G8 H 3 +G1 G2 G7 H 1 +G 4 H 2 +G1 G2 G3 G 4 G8 H 1 +G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 H 1 )
Eg. 5. Using S.F.G. method determine the gain C/R for the block diagram shown below.
G4
R + + +
G1 G2 + C
- + G3
H2
H1
The corresponding S.F.G. is

1 1 1
R
1 2 3 4 5 C
Two forward paths:
1 G1 G2 G3 1 G1 G2 1
1
2 3 R 1 2 3 4 5
R 1 4 5
Forward path C1 forward path C2
The forward paths gains are: C1 = G1 G2 G3 ; & C2 = G1 G2 G4
The non touching feedback loops:
G1 G2 G1 G2 G3 1 G1 1
C C ;
H2
-H1
C 11=G 1 G2 H 2 ; C 21=−G1 G2 G 3 H 1; C 31=−G1 G2 G 4 H 1
46
No Combination of two non-teaching loops. Hence only first two terms exist in ∆
∴ ∆=1−(G 1 G2 H 2 −G1 G2 G3 H 1−G1 G2 G4 H 1 )
The forward paths touch feedback loops. Hence ∆ 1=1, ∆ 2=1
C C1 ∆1 +C 2 ∆2 G1 G2 G3 +G1 G 2 G4
¿ = =
R ∆ 1−[G1 G2 H 2−G1 G2 G3 H 3 −G1 G2 G 4 H 1]
Eg. 6. For the Block diagram find C/R using Mason’s Gain formula.
R C
Fig.Block diagram of a given system

Solution: The equivalent S.F.G. of the given block diagram is given below:
R 1 1 C
Fig: The equivalent S.F.G. of the given block diagram.
R 1 1 C
C 1=G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6
R 1 C
C 2=G1 G7 G4 G5 G6
R 1 1
C
C 3=G1 G2 G3 G8 G6
G7 G8
R G1 G6 1
C
C 4=G1 G7 G 8 G6
47
1 G3 G4
-H2
C 11 =−H 1 C 21=−G3 G 4 H 2
C ∑ C k ∆ k ∆=1− −H −G G H + 0=1+ H +G G H
= ; ( 1 3 4 2) 1 3 4 2
R ∆
∆ 1=1 ; ∆2=1−(−H 1 )=1+ H 1 ; ∆3 =1 , ∆4 =1−(−H 1 ) =1+ H 1
C C1 ∆1 +C 2 ∆2 +C3 ∆ 3+C 4 ∆ 4 G1 G2 G 3 G4 G5 G6+ G 1 G 7 G4 G5 G6 ( 1+ H 1 ) +G1 G2 G3 G8 G6 +G1 G7 G8 G6 ( 1+ H 1 )

= =
R ∆ 1+ H 1+ G3 G4 H 2
MCQ Questions
Q7. Given the Signal Flow Graph can be reduced to:

x2 ab
(a) =
x1 1−bc
x2 b
(b) =
x1 1−bc
x2 a
(c) =
x1 1−bc
x2 a
(d) =
x1 c
Q8. A transfer function has two zeros at infinity. Then the relation between the numerator degree (N) and
the denominator degree (M) of the transfer function is:
(a) N = M +2
(b) N = M – 2
(c) N = M + 1
(d) N = M – 1
Q9. The closed loop transfer function of the system of following block diagram is:
G
(a)
1−G H 1 H 2
G
(b)
1+ G H 1 H 2
G
(c)
H1 H2
(d) G−H 1 H 2
DIFFICULT-
48
Q1. Consider the block diagram show below:
If the transfer function of the system is given by T(s) = (G1G2 + G2G3)/1+X. Then X is:
(a) G2G3G4
(b) G2G4
(c) G1G2G4
(d) G3G4
Q2. Use Mason’s gain formula to find the transfer function of the given figure:
(a) G1+G2
(b) G1+G1/1-G1H+G2H
(c) (G1+G2)/1+G1H+G2H
(d) G1-G2
Q3. The transfer function from D(s) to C(s) is:

(a) 2/3s+7
(b) 2/3s+1
(c) 6/3s+7
(d) 2/3s+6
Q4. Use Mason’s gain formula to find the transfer function of the given signal flow graph:
R1 R 2 R5 R6
(a)
R 2 R 3 R 6 + R 1 R 3 R 6+ R 2 R 4 R 6 + R 2 R 3 R 5 + R 1 R 3 R 5
R 1 R5
(b)
R 1 R2 + R 4 R 3+ R 5 R6
R4 R6
(c)
R 1 R2 R3 R 5
R 1 R3
(d)
R 2 R 4 R 5 R6
Q5. In the following block diagram, G1= 10/s, G2=10/s+1, H1 = s+3, H2 = 1. The overall transfer function
is given by:
(a) 10/11s2 + 31s + 10
(b) 100/11s2 + 31s + 100
(c) 100/11s2 + 31s + 10
(d) 100/11s2 + 31s
49
G1 G2 +G1 G3 (1+G2 )
(a)
1+ G1 H 1 +G2+ G1 G2 +G1 G2 G3+ G1 G3
(b) G1 G2 +G1 G3 /(1+ G1 H 1 +G2+ G1 G2 +G1 G2 G3+ G1 G3 )
(c) G1 G2 +G2 G3 /(1+ G1 H 1 +G2+ G1 G2 +G1 G2 G3+ G1 G3 )
G1 G2 + G2 G3
(d)
(1+G1 H 1+G2 +G1 G 2+G1 G2 G3 +G1 G3 )
G1 G2 +G 3 ( 1+G2 H 2 )
(a)
1+G1 H 1+ G2 H 2
G1 G2 G3
(b)
1+ G1 H 1 +G2 H 2
G 1 G 2+G 3
(c)
1+ G 1 H 1 +G 2 H 2
G1 +G2 G3
(d)
1+ G1 H 1 +G2 H 2
Q9. Use of feedback in control system:
(a) Improves the sensitivity and reduces the gain
(b) Increases the gain but reduces the sensitivity
(c) Increases the sensitivity
(d) Does not effect on gain or in sensitivity
DIFFICULT-
Q1. Use Mason’s gain formula to calculate the transfer function of given figure:
(a) G1/1+G2H
(b) (G1+G2 )/ 1+G1H
(c) G2/1+G1H
(d) G1G2/1+H
Q2. For the block diagram given in the following figure, the expression of C/R is:
(a) G1G2G3/ 1- G2G1
(b) G1G2 /1 - G1G2G3
(c) G1G2G3/1 - G1G2G3
50
(d) G1G2/G3(1 -G1G2)
G1 G2 G3
(a)
(1+G1 G 2 H 1 +G2 H 1 +G2 G3 H 2)
G1 G2 G3
(b)
(G1 G2 H 1 +G2 H 1 +G2 G 3 H 2 )
(c) G1 +G 2 G3 /(1+G1 G2 H 1 +G2 H 1 +G2 G 3 H 2 )
G1 G 2 +G3
(d)
(1+G1 G 2 H 1 +G2 H 1 +G2 G3 H 2)
Q4. The closed loop gain of the system show in the given figure is:
(a) -9/ 5
(b) - 6/5
(c) 6/5
(d) 9/5
G1 G2 G3 +G1 G2 G4
(a)
1−[ G 1 G2 H 2−G 1 G 2 G3 H 1 −G1 G2 G 4 H 1 ]
(b) G1 G2 G 3 +G 1 G 2 G 4 /1−(G 1 G2 H 2−G 1 G2 G3 H 1−G1 G2 G 4 H 1 )
(c) G1 G2 G 4 +G 1 G 2 G 3 /1−(G 1 G2 H 2−G 1 G2 G3 H 1−G1 G2 G 4 H 1 )
G1 G2 G3 G4
(d)
1−[G1 G2 H 2−G1 G2 G3 H 1−G1 G2 G4 H 1 ]
(a) a b d/1-(ac)
(b) a b d e g/1-(b c + e f)+b c e f
(c) a b d/1-(b c + e f)+b c e f
(d) a d c d e f/1-(b c + e f)+b c e f
Q1. For the block diagram given in the following figure, the expression of C(s)/R(s) is:
a.
C( s) G( s)
=
R( s) 1+G ( s ) H ( s )+G(s)
C( s) G(s)
b. =
R( s) 1+G ( s ) H ( s )−G( s)
51
C( s) 1+G(s )
c. =
R( s) 1+G ( s ) H ( s )−G( s)
C( s) 1+G (s)
d. =
R( s) 1+G ( s ) H ( s )+G(s)
a.
C( s) G1 G2 +G3
=
R( s) 1+G 2 H 2 +(G1 G2+ G3) H 1
C( s) G1 G2+G3
b. =
R( s) 1+G 2 G3 H 2+(G1 G2 +G3 )H 1
C( s) G1 G2 +G2 G3
c. =
R( s) 1+G 2 H 2 +(G1 G2+ G3) H 1
C( s) G1 G2+G3
d. =
R( s) 1+G 1 G2 H 2 +(G1 G2 +G3 )H 1
C (s ) G1 +G2
a. =
R ( s ) 1+G1 G2 H 1
C (s ) G1
b. =
R ( s ) 1+G 1 H 1
C ( s ) G1 +G2
c. =
R ( s ) 1+G1 H 1
C( s) G2
d. =
R( s) 1+G 1 H 1
Q4. Use Mason’s gain formula to calculate the transfer functions of given figure:
C G 1 G 2 G3 G4 +G 3 G 2 +G 1 G 4+ G3 G 4
a. =
R 1+G 1 G 2 H 1 +G 2 H 2 +G 1 G 4 H 1
C G1 G2+G3 G2 +G1 G4 + G3 G4
b. =
R 1+G1 G2 H 1+G2 H 2+ G1 G4 H 1
C G 1 G 2 +G 3 G 2+G 1 G4 +G 2 G 3 G 4
c. =
R 1+G 1 G2 H 1 +G2 H 2+G1 G 4 H 1
C G1 G2 +G3 G 2+G1 G2 G4 + G3 G4
d. =
R 1+G1 G2 H 1 +G2 H 2+G1 G4 H 1
52
a.
C(s) G 1 G 2 G3 +G 1 G 3 G 4
=
R(s) 1+G 1 G 2 H 1 +G 1 G2 G 3 +G 2 G 3 H 2 +G 4 H 2+ G 1 G 4
C( s) G1 G 2 G3 +G 1 G4
b. =
R( s) 1+G 1 G2 H 1 +G1 G2 G3 +G2 G3 H 2 +G4 H 2+ G1 G4 H 1
C( s) G 1 G 2 G 3 +G 1 G 4
c. =
R( s) 1+G 1 G 2 H 1 +G 1 G 2 G 3 +G2 G3 H 2 +G 4 H 2+ G 1 G 4
C( s) G1 G2 G3 +G1 G4
d. =
R( s) 1+G 1 G2 H 1 +G1 G2 G3 +G2 G3 H 2 +G3 G 4 H 2 +G1 G4
a.
C G1 G2 G3 G4
=
R 1+G 1 G 2 G 3 G 4 H 1 +G 2 G 3 H 2 +G 3 H 3 +G 2 G 3 G 4 H 4
C G 1 G2 G3 G4
b. =
R 1+G1 G2 G3 G4 H 1 +G2 G3 H 2 +G2 G3 H 3+ G2 G3 G4 H 4
C G 1 G2 G3 G4
c. =
R 1+G 1 G 2 G 3 G 4 H 1 +G 1 G 2 G 3 H 2 +G 3 H 3+ G 2 G 3 G 4 H 4
C G 1 G2 G3 G4
d. =
R 1+G1 G2 G3 G4 H 1 +G2 G3 H 2 +G3 H 3 +G1 G2 G3 G4 H 4
SOLUTIONS , 5th SEM 2019, CSE (EE30109)

SET – 1
EASY
1-a, 2- a, 3 – a, 4 – a, 5 –d, 6 – a, 7 – a, 8 – a, 9 – a, 10 – a, 11 – d, 12 – a, 13 –a, 14 – a, 15 – a,
53
MODERATE: 1 – a, 2 – a, 3 – a, 4 – a, 5 – a, 6 – a, 7 – b, 8 – b, 9 – a,
DIFFICULT: 1- b, 2 – a, 3 – c, 4- b, 5 –c, 6- a
Q.5. For the block diagram given in the following figure, the expression of C(s)/R(s) is:
a.
C (s ) G1 G2 G3 G4
=
R ( s ) 1+G3 H 3 +G 2 G3 H 2+ G2 G3 H 4 +G1 G2 G3 G 4 H 1
C (s) G1 G2 G3 G4
b. =
R ( s ) 1+G 3 H 3 +G 2 G 3 H 2+ G 2 G 3 G4 H 4 +G 1 G 2 G 3 H 1
C (s ) G1 G2 G3
c. =
R ( s ) 1+G3 H 3 +G2 G3 H 2+ G2 G3 G4 H 4 +G1 G2 G3 G 4 H 1
C( s) G1 G 2 G3 G 4
d. =
R( s) 1+G 3 H 3 +G 2 G 3 H 2 +G 2 G3 G 4 H 4 +G 1 G 2 G 3 G 4 H 1
Q.6. For the block diagram given in the following figure, the expression of C(s)/R(s) is:
a.
C (s ) G1 G 2 G3
=
R ( s ) 1+G 2 H 1+ G 1 G 2 H 1+G 2 G 3 H 2 +G 1 G 2 G 3 H 3
C (s ) G1 G2 G3
b. =
R ( s ) 1+G2 H 1+ G1 G2 G3 H 1 +G2 G3 H 2+ G1 G2 G3 H 3
C (s) G 1 G 2 G3
c. =
R ( s ) 1+G 3 H 1 +G 1 G 2 H 1+G 2 G 3 H 2 +G 1 G 2 G 3 H 3
C( s) G1 G2 G3
d. =
R( s) 1+G 1 H 1 +G1 G2 H 1+G2 G3 H 2 +G1 G2 G3 H 3
SET – 2
EASY
1-a, 2-a, 3-a, 4-a, 5-a, 6 – a, 7 - b, 8 – a, 9 – c, 10 – a, 11 – a, 12 – b, 13 –a, 14 – b, 15 – a
MODERATE: 1 – a, 2 – b, 3 – a, 4 – a, 5 – a, 6 – a, 7 – a, 8 – a, 9 – a
54
DIFFICULT: 1 – b, 2 –c, 3 – a, 4 – a, 5 – d, 6 – a
G4
55
VOL-1-K4
FEEDBACK THEORY:
1. TYPES OF FEEDBACK
2. EFFECT OF DEGENERATIVE ON CONTROL SYSTEM.
3. REGENERATIVE FEEDBACK
1. What is the feedback and what are its effects:
Whenever a closed loop sequence of cause and effect relationships exists among the variables of a system,
feedback is said to exit. The use of feedback is necessary for the purpose of reducing the error between the
reference input and the system output.
Feedback also has effects on system performance characteristics as stability, bandwidth, overall
gain, disturbance and sensitivity.
Considering only static system (i.e. G&H are considered constant gains)
+ +
r- + y
- G
- r + y
+ - G
(1)
-
H H
Degenerative Feedback Fig 1 (b)
Fig. 1(a) Feedback system i. e. negative feedback
2. Effect of Feedback on Over all gain:

Considering the Eqn.1, G & H are function of frequency, so that the magnitude of 1+GH may be
greater than 1 in one frequency range but less than 1 in another range. Hence, feedback could
increase the system gain in one frequency range but decrease in another.
3. Effect of Feedback on Stability:

(i) If GH=-1, (c f Eqn. 1), the output of the system is infinite for any finite input, and the system
is said to be unstable. Hence, we may state that feedback can cause a system that is
originally stable to become unstable.
(ii) If we introduce another feedback loop through a negative feedback gain of F as shown in
fig.2, the input-output relation of the overall system is:
y G
= … … (2)
r 1+GH + GF
It is apparent that the inner – loops feedback system is unstable because G H = -1, the overall system can be
stable by proper selection of the outer – loop feedback gain F. Hence it is said feedback can improve stability
or be harmful to stability if it is not applied properly.
+ +
r + + G
e - y
- -+ -
-+
Sensor
F 56
Fig. 2: Feedback system with

Two feedback loops
4. Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity:
(i) The sensitivity of the gain of the overall system, M to the variation in G is defined as:
M ∂ M /M ∂ LnM Percentage change∈ M
SG = = = … … .(3)
∂G /G ∂ LnG Percentage change∈G
M G
SG denotesthe sensitivity of M w r . t G . And M = …….. (1)
1+GH
In accordance with the above definition, the sensitivity of the closed – loop system is:
M
SG = ( ∂∂MG ) × MG = ( 1+GH )−G × H
2
( 1+GH )
×
G
=
1
G/1+GH 1+GH
………..(4) – for closed loop
( Derivative of N × D−derivative
D 2
of D× N
)
Similarly, the sensitivity of the open-loop system is
SGM = ( ∂∂MG ) × MG =1= MG × MG (In this case M=G) = 1 ……….. (5) - for open loop.
Thus, the sensitivity of closed-loop system w r t the variation in G is reduced by a factor 1/(1+GH) as
compared to that of an open – loop system.
O× [ 1+GH ] −G× G H
(ii) The sensitivity of M w r t H, the feedback sensor is given as ¿ ×
(1+GH ) 2
G/(1+GH )
¿ SH =
M ∂M H
× =G
∂H M
−G
[ H
]
=
−GH
( 1+ GH ) G/(1+GH ) 1+GH
2 ………..(6)
Eqn. (6) shows that for large values of GH, sensitivity of the feedback system w. r .t H approaches
unity, we see that the changes in H directly affect the system output. (See the example below)*
The price for improvement in sensitivity by use of feedback is paid in terms of loss of system gain.
The open-loop system has a gain G(s), while the gain of the closed-loop system is
[ G(s)
1+G ( s ) H (s)].
Hence by use of feedback, the system gain is reduced by the same factor as by which the sensitivity
of the system to parameter variations is reduced.
Besides, since GH is a function of frequency, the magnitudes of 1+GH may be less than unity
over some frequency ranges, thus feedback can increase or decrease the sensitivity of a system.
Eg.1 + +
A
- + +
- -
- A
k
(a) (b)
Fig. 3 Feedback Amplifier
eo A R2
=M = ; k= ≤ 1 ……….. (7)
ei 1+ kA R1
M dM A 1
SA = . = …….. (c.f. Eqn. 4)
dA M 1+ kA
57
4 M 1
for A=10 , k=0.1 , S A = =0.001
1+10 3
While the feedback reduces the sensitivity to variation in forward gain A to a very low figure (0.001),
it also reduces the overall gain to M=10 4/1+103 ≈ 10; compared with forward gain 10 4.
Now sensitivity to feedback gain is given by
dM k −kA −103
SkM = . = = =−1
dK M 1+ kA 1+103
M
Sk , being equal to unity, the feedback constant k=R 2/ R1 must not vary i.e. the resistor Ratio R 2/ R1
must be accurate and stable.
*In fact for such large A (=104), kA>>1 and so from the Eqn. (7)
A/1+kA = M = 1/k = R2/R1 =10; independent of A.
5. Effect of feedback on bandwidth:
A control system is a low pass fitter – it responds to frequencies from d. c to a certain value ω bat which
the gain drops to 1/√ 2 of its D.C. value. This frequency ω b is the bandwidth of the system. A large
bandwidth value implies that the system responds accurately to higher frequencies i.e. fast changing signals,
which is another way (frequency domain) of looking at the speed of response of a control system.
Eg.2 Openloop transfer function=G ( s )=

C ( s)
[ ]
=
K'
R ( s ) s +α
.. ( a ) =
K
τs+1
'
(8) ;
Where K =K /α , τ=1 /α
Fig. 4: A simple feedback system
G ( o ) =K=K ' /α
The d. c gain of the system is (s=o)
K
+1
C( s)
[ ]
'
K K τs
Closed loop Transfer function ¿ M = = = …(b) ..(9) ¿ .(¿ 8)
R( s) τs+(1+ K ) s+(α + K ' ) K
1+ +1
τs
K /(1+ K )
¿ . . ( 10 ) ; τ c =τ /(1+ K)………. (10’)
τ c s+1
We find from Eqns. 8 & 9 (a & b) that the effect of closing the loop (that is introduction of negative
feedback) is to shift the system’s pole from -α to – (α + K’) or – α (1+K); alternatively to reduce the system
time constant from τ to τ/(1+K)=τ c. Of course in the meantime the d.c gain has reduced to K / (1+K) (c f eqn.
10).
The open-and closed-loop transfer functions (Eqns. 8 & 10) can be expressed in the frequency domain
(s=j ω) as:
Open loop – G(s)=K / jω τ+ 1

K /(1+ K )
Closed loop – M(s) =
jωτ c + 1
58
√
2
K
|G ( s ) open−loop|= 2 2
=1/√2 (K) at ω b , where G(s) is open loop transfer function and K is open
( ωb τ ) +1
loop gain (from Eqn.8) i.e. d.c gain.
2 τ 2 1
Or ( √ 2 ) =( ωb ) +1∨ω b ( open−loop )= τ
From Eqn. 10 closed loop gain = M = | C

R|=√ ¿ ¿¿ ¿
Where M (o) = K/1+K= d .c. gain of closed loop (from Eqn. (10))
2 1
Or ( √ 2 ) =( ωb τ c ) +1∨ωb=
2
closed loop
τc
ωb (closed−loop) τ τ
Thus = = =(1+ K )………. (11)
ω b (open−loop) τ c τ /(1+ K )
Their band width is determined as below: (cf eqn.11)

2
( ω b τ c ) +1=( √ 2 ) ∨ωb ( open−loop )=1/τ
2
2
( ω b τ c ) +1=( √ 2 ) ∨ωb ( closed−loop )=1/ τ c
2
ωb (clossed−loop) τ
= =( 1+ k ) ……….. (11)
ω b (open−loop) τc
Thus the closed-loop system has a bandwidth (1+K) times the bandwidth of the open –loop system, this
implies increased speed to response i.e. Bandwidth is also increased.
6. Effect of feedback on External Disturbance or Noise.

The effect of feedback on noise and disturbance depends greatly on where these extraneous signals occur in
the system. No general conclusions can be reached, but in many situations, feedback can reduce the effect
of noise and disturbance on system performance.
- n +
Eg.3
+ +
r G1 + + G2
- y
- - -
b
-+
Fig. 5(a): Feedback system with a noise signal.
In the absence of feedback, H=0, the output y due to n acting above is: y=G 2n (12)
With the presence of feedback, the system output due to n acting alone is:
G2 n+
y= n ( 13 ) i . e . y
1+G 1 G 2 H
-
59
Fig. 5 (b)
Comparing Eqn. (13) with (12) shows that the noise component in the output of Eqn. (13) is reduced by the
factor 1+ G1 G2 H if the magnitude of this factor is greater than unity and the system is kept stable.
7. Linearization Effect of Feedback:

Consider a simple single-loop static system as shown in Fig. 6. In a static system various gains
(transmittances) are independent of time. We shall assume that the forward block function is non linear
expressed as: C=f(e) =e2; square low function say.
When the feedback loop is open e=rC=r2 (plotted as (i) in fig. 7)
On the other hand when the loop is closed, we have r + e c
- f(.)
e=r-C
C=f (e) = (r-C) 2 which is plotted as graph (ii) in Fig. 7. Fig.6
It is easily seen by comparison of the graphs of the (i) and (ii) that the input-output relation c(r) is
approximately linear over a much wider range for the closed-loop system compared to its open-loop behavior.
Beside feedback also effects on such performance characteristics as Impedance, transient response and
frequency response
C
5 Original
Relation (i)
4
3 Feedback
2 Relation (ii)
1
r
1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig.7
R(s) 1 E(s) G(s) 1 C(s)

8. Regenerative feedback:
C( s) G(s)
= … ….(14) Fig.8: A regenerative feedback
R( s) 1−G ( s ) H ( s) H(s) Control system
If GH=1, the output is infinite for finite input which is the condition for instability.
R(s) 1 E(s) 1 1 G(s) C(s) 1 C(s) G(s)

(1−G f ( s ))
G f(s) R(s) E(s) C(s) 1 C(s)
Fig. 9 -H(s)
Fig. 10 -H(s)
The regenerative feedback is some time used for increasing the loop gain of feedback system. Fig. 9 shows a
feedback system with an inner loop having regenerative feedback.
60
This signal flow graph reduces to a single loop graph whose loop gain is −G ( s ) H (s)
1−G f ( s )
If G f (s) is selected to be nearby unity, the loop gain becomes very high and the closed loop transfer function
approximates to C( s) G (s ) 1
= ≈
R( s) 1−Gf ( s ) +G ( s ) H (s) H (s)
Thus due to high loop gain provided by the inner regenerative feedback loop, the closed transfer function
becomes insensitive to G(s).
61

Control System Unit 1 (5 TH Sem.)

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CONTROL SYSTEM (EEE1008) FOR B.

TECH EE & EEE (CORE)/

INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEM

(h) Deterministic – Stochastic, (i) Servo/Tracking System – Regulating/Regulators.

5) EFFECT OF FEEDBACK: (Gain, B.W, Stability, Sensitivity, etc.)

6) STATE SPACE: Facilitates State Feedback

8) OPTIMAL CONTROL: ARE & Equivalent ARE (Kalman Filter)

9) ROBUST CONTROL (H∞)

10) ADAPTIVE CONTROL: MRAC, STR

11) VARIABLE STRUCTURE: (Sliding Mode Control)

12) FUZZY AND NN CONTROLLERS: (Electronic Based)

CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING

I. INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEM EXAMPLES

Fig. 1: speed control system

Fig. 2: Temperature Control System

Fig. 3: Steering control of automobile.

Fig.4: Industrial Sewing Machine.

(e) Embedded Computers:

Fig.5: Embedded Computers.

+ Actuating Signal Controller Actual

(a) Basic components of Open Loop Control System:

A system which is not time – invariant is a time varying one.

The essential features of servomechanism are:

Illustration: e.g. Amplifier If (constant)

The essential features of Regulator are:

Fig. 9: An elementary Voltage Control System (Regulator)

5. Physical System Representation i.e.

1. Mathematical Modeling of Physical System:

2. The Spring Element

3. The Damper Element

4. The Inertial Element

Ky Md2(y-x)/dt2fdy/dt It consists of a spring – mass dashpot system as shown in

Fig: (b) Accelerometer with LVDT

E. g 3: Rotation Mechanical System

Fixed Axis Rotation.

For shaft 2: T 2=J 2 θ̈ 2+ f 2 θ̇2 +T L −−−−−(5)

or θ1 KN1 = θ2 KN2 and hence, ( Since ) r 1 =KN 1 , r 2=KN 2, ( θ1 N 2

hence J 1 eq θ̈1 + f 1 eq θ̈1+ ( ) N1

Eg.5 Electrical System:

b) RLC – Parallel Circuit:

Mechanical Translational Systems Mechanical Relational Systems Electrical Systems

from Eqn. (6), taking LT we get Rcs ∆θ0(s)+ ∆θ0(s) = ∆θi(s)+R∆H(s)

E.g. 7 Liquid – Level Systems:

Eg. 8: Pneumatic Systems:

Electrical Thermal Liquid Level Pneumatic

Procedure for Deriving Transfer Function of a Physical System:

Eg. 10: D. C. Servomotors:

(i) Armature Control: If (constant)

TM = Torque developed by motor in Newton-m = K I Kf if ia where KI is constant

( Js 2+ f 0 s ) θ ( s )=TM ( s)=K T I a (s)

In block diagram representation:

E(s) + Ia(s) Ia(s) θ(s)

E(s) Ia(s) Tm (s) (s) (s)

(ii) Field Control:

I. Block diagram Transform:

X1(s) + X2(s) X1(s) + X2(s)

G ( s ) . X 1 ( s) X1(s)+ E (s) X2(s)

X1(s) + X2(s) X1(s) +

Pick off point X2(s)

Pick off point

11. Moving a pick off point ahead X2(s) = X1(s)±X3(s)

X1(s) X2(s) X1(s) + X2(s)

a. Block diagram reduction procedure