CE 322

1. Give three advantages and disadvantages of reinforced concrete as a structural material.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Unlike other construction materials, reinforced concrete offers additional strength. It has excellent
strength both in tension and compression. It can support more weight over a longer period of time
because it has greater overall strength than regular concrete.
2. Reinforced concrete structures are long-lasting if properly designed and installed. Weather, such as
rain and snow, have no effect on the material, and it can last for up to 100 years.
3. Its composition prevents it from catching fire or burning. It can withstand heat for 2-6 hours, giving
enough time for rescue operations in the event of a fire. Reinforced concrete buildings are more
resistant to fire than other commonly used building materials such as steel and wood. In high
temperature and blast applications, it works well with fireproof steel.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Concrete has relatively lower tensile strength which makes them vulnerable to breaking when
pulled apart. Thus it requires the use of tensile reinforcing.
2. Due to the variations or differences in mixing and proportioning, the properties of concrete vary a
lot.
3. Concrete forms are necessary to ensure that the concrete sets properly during construction.
However, formworks are very costly.

2. Name 5 admixtures and give the purpose of each √

Air entraining admixture – It is an admixture that entrains a large number of uniform, stable
and closed tiny bubbles in the process of mixing concrete. This admixture is used to reduce the
segregation of concrete mixture, improve the workability, and enhance anti-freeze ability and
durability of concrete. The purpose of air-entraining admixture is to improve the workability of
concrete mixtures, enhance impermeability and frost resistance and reduce strength.

Accelerating admixtures- Is an admixture that causes an increase in the rate of hydration of

the hydraulic cement. Its purpose is to increase the rate of early strength development or to
shorten the time of setting, or both.

Retarding Admixtures- An admixture used to slow the rate of setting of concrete. By slowing
the initial setting time, the concrete mixture can stay in its fresh mix state longer before it gets
to its hardened form.

Superplasticizers- These are admixtures made from organic sulfonates. Using superplasticizers
may produce high strength concrete (compressive strength up to 22,000 psi). The purpose of
superplasticizers is to produce flowing concrete or high strength concrete used in a heavy
reinforced structure.

Waterproofing materials- These are generally consisting of some type of soap or petroleum
products and are oftentimes applied to hardened concrete surfaces, but they may also be
added to concrete mixes. Its purpose is to help retard the penetration of water into porous
concrete.

3. Give the types of portland cement and discuss its uses.

1. TYPE I - Portland cement Type I serves as a general-purpose material. It can be used for any
purpose in any construction works.
 2. TYPE II - Type II portland cement is used as a precaution against moderate sulfate attack. In
contrast to Type I cement, Type II cement typically produces less heat more slowly. Its use will
lower temperature rise, which is crucial when placing concrete in warm weather.

3. TYPE III - Type III Portland cement offers high strengths in a short amount of time, typically a week
or less, and is high in early strength. It is used when the structure needs to be put into use right
away or when forms need to be removed as soon as possible.

4. TYPE IV - The Type IV cement has a low heat of hydration and is used in situations where the rate
and amount of heat generation must be minimized. Type IV portland cement is designed to be used
in large gravity dams and other concrete structures where the temperature rise brought on by the
heat generated during curing is an important consideration.

5. TYPE V - Type V is a sulfate-resistant cement that is only used in concrete that is subjected to
severe sulfate action, typically in areas with high sulfate content in the soil or groundwater.

4. Why do the surfaces of the reinforcing bars have rolled-on deformation? √

The surfaces of reinforcing bars have rolled-on deformation in order to provide better bonding
between the concrete and the steel. Having rolled-on deformations allows reinforcing bars to
have a better hold on the concrete, ultimately contributing to the strength of the structure.

5. What is the purpose of strength reduction factor?

Strength reduction factors are used to take into account uncertainties resulting from the material
used, inaccuracies in the placement of steel, inaccurate dimensions of a structure member,
inaccurate design calculations, and any other factor when reducing the calculated strength of a
structure member.

6. Explain the purpose of minimum cover requirements for reinforcing specified by the ACI
Code
The purpose of minimum cover requirements for reinforcing specified by the ACI Code is to specify
certain conditions in which this minimum cover thickness would not be adequate and hence it
needs to be increased. These certain conditions include corrosive environment, fire protection,
and future extension.

7. Why stirrups are necessary in reinforced concrete beams?

Stirrups help secure the support bars in place. Stirrups are needed to assist resist lateral stresses
and stop the columns and beams from buckling (e.g. earthquake loads). Stirrups are frequently
positioned diagonally and opposite to the longitudinal direction of RFT.
8. Compare and Illustrate one-way slab from two-way slab.
One-way slab is supported by beams on only two sides whereas a two-way slab is supported by
beams on all four sides. The main reinforcement is provided in only one direction for a one-way
slab while it main reinforcement is provided in both directions for a two-way slab.

9. Illustrate tied, spiral and composite columns

CE 323
1. Give five advantages and disadvantages of steel as a structural material.
DISADVANTAGES:

1. Corrosion- rust begins to form when acidic substances including water

come in contact with steels. Thus, steels need to be painted periodically
to prevent corrosion.

2. Fireproofing costs- Structural steel melts at approximately 2,500°F, while

building fires commonly reach a temperature in the range of 2,000°F.
Although the possibility of melting steel is rare, it does not mean that
steel structures are safe. Steel deforms and loses strength when exposed
to high temperatures. Thus, building codes require fireproofing
protection for structural steel as a safety precaution.

3. Fatigue- Steel are quite susceptible to fatigue. Large variations in tensile

strength expose steel elements to excessive tension, which decreases its
overall strength.

4. Brittle Fracture- Steel is responsive to brittle fracture when it loses its

ductility.

5. Susceptibility to Buckling- Compared to reinforced concrete members, steel

members are relatively smaller and are usually made of thin plates. If the
slender members are subjected to compression, there are higher chances of
buckling. Buckling is the deformation or the sudden change of a structural
component under load.

ADVANTAGES
 1. High strength- Steel possesses high strength to weight ratio which
means it has high strength per unit mass. Therefore, no matter how
massive the overall structure is, the steel sections will be small and
lightweight, compared to other building materials.
2. Elasticity- The steel sections do not crack or tear before ultimate load
and hence the moments of inertia of a steel structure can easily be
calculated. The moments of inertia obtained for a reinforced concrete
structure are rather indefinite.
3. Ductility – The steel bends and deforms to some extent without
rupturing.
4. Toughness- Steels are considered tough, which means it’s both strong
and ductile. Steels are ductile because they bend rather than break when
subjected to strong forces but are also strong because they do not warp
when subjected to weak forces.
5. Uniformity- unlike reinforced-concrete structure, steel properties do not
change significantly over time.

2. Define the following:

(a) Proportional Limit (b) Elastic Limit (c ) Yield Stress

a. Proportional Limit- The highest stress for which Hooke’s law applies, or the
magnitude of elastic stress above which plastic deformation occurs. It is the
point on the stress-strain diagram where the curve becomes nonlinear.

b. Elastic Limit- The largest stress that a material can withstand and can return to
its original shape when loads are removed. Elastic limit comes just after the
proportionality limit in stress - strain curve of but it is difficult to determine
the two limits separately in elastic range near the yield point of steel. So,
elastic limit is assumed to coincide with proportionality limit.

c. Yield Stress- The stress at which there is a large increase in strain, without a
corresponding increase in stress. The yield stress is probably the most
important property of steel to the designer, as so many design procedures
are based on this value.

3. List two methods to produce steel shapes

The methods used to produce steel shapes are the following:

Hot rolling process- It is a metalworking process where steel is heated at above its
recrystallization temperature, which is usually higher than 1700°F. Once this is done, the steel can
be easily shaped and formed. This process produces steels that are is cost-effective, ductile, tough,
and easy to produce quickly. However, the cooling stage can leave the final product slightly uneven
and smaller than it was during the initial forming process. This makes hot rolled steel ideal for
heavy-duty industrial applications.

Cold rolling process- It is an industrial process used to change the material properties of sheets or
strips of metal. In this process a metal strip or sheet is passed between two rollers and then
squeezed and compressed. This process results in a smoother surface, greater dimensional
accuracy, and increased hardness of steel.
4. Draw the different structural steel shapes

5. Discuss wrought iron, steel, and cast iron

The difference between wrought iron, steel and cast iron is their properties most
especially their carbon content and how they are produced.

Wrought iron refers to iron that has been heated and then worked with tools. It has a
very low carbon content (≤0.15 percent). Wrought iron is tough, malleable, and ductile.
It is also corrosion resistant when compared to other forms of iron and is easy to
weld.

Steel is a metal alloy made from iron along with other elements and is produced
through a firing process followed by addition and removal of different components to
create the final alloy. It falls in between cast iron and wrought iron and has carbon
contents in the range of 0.15 percent to 1.7 percent.

Cast Iron, on the other hand is an iron that has been melted, poured into a mold, and
allowed to solidify. It has a very high carbon content (≥2 percent). Unlike wrought iron
and steel, cast iron is brittle, hard, and non-malleable. It can't be bent, stretched, or
hammered into different shapes and sizes.

6. List and illustrate four types of failure of structural Steel.

Shear Failure- This failure will usually occur in connections between

members. Shear failure can occur in connections such as Member to column
connection and Member to girder connection.

Flexural failures- This failure refer to the bending and yielding of steel. This
type of failure occurs in flexural members such as members and girders,
and, in some cases, compression members such as columns that are
subjected to bending stresses.
Compression failures- This failure occurs because of compression in the axial
axis of the member. When this compression results in buckling of an
element of a steel member. This type of failure usually occurs in
compression members like braces and columns.

Tensile failures- This failure occurs as a result of tension in a member. This

type of failure typically occurs in brace members and hangers. Tensile
failure occurs when tension stretches a member beyond its material
strength.