Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Magnetic Resonance Imaging – Chapter 15

a copy of this lecture may be found at:

http://courses.washington.edu/radxphys/PhysicsCourse.html

Take Aways: Five Things You should be able

to Explain after the MRI Lectures

 How the MR signal is localized within the patient (2D)

 How the multiple FID echoes are collected (‘k-space’
data acquisition) and how these are reconstructed into
the grayscale image data visualized on PACS (2D)
 How 3D volume data is acquired and reconstructed
 What factors of the MRI data collection process play into
the resulting quality of reconstructed image slices and
volumes
 How consideration of artifacts, safety/bioeffects and
instrumentation play into the decisions you will be
making in the future with regards to image interpretation,
magnet operation and system purchase

BME HCMUT 1
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Localization of the MR Signal

 Spatial localization requires the imposition of known and

controlled magnetic nonuniformities
 Linear gradients are superimposed on the homogeneous
and much stronger main magnetic field (B0)
 The change in Larmor frequency (f0) of the precessing
nuclei are used to distinguish position of the NMR signal
within the object
 Conventional MRI involves RF excitations (NMR)
combined with magnetic field gradients to localize the
signal from volume elements (voxels) within the patient

Magnetic Field Gradients (1): how are they made?

 Linear magnetic field gradients

with prescribed directionality
and strength are produced in
paired wire coil configurations
energized with a DC current of
specific polarity and amplitude
 Gradient null point; reverse
grad. polarity w/ opp. current
 Linear over a predefined field
of view (FOV) usu ≤ 50 cm
 Three sets: x, y and z; can also
generate oblique gradient w/
superposition

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

4
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 416-7.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Magnetic Field Gradients (2): relating Df to Dz

 Larmor freq. changes along gradient: e.g., Gz = DB/Dz, Gx = DB/Dx

 Location of nuclei along gradient is determined by their frequency
[Dfz = (g/2p)∙(DB/Dz)∙Dz = (g/2p)∙Gz∙Dz] and phase (Dfz = 2p∙Dfz∙Dt)
 Peak amplitude of gradient (Gz) field (‘steepness’): [1,80] mT/m
 Slew rate (‘quickness’ of gradient ramping): [5,200] mT/m/msec

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

5
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 417. c.f. Hashemi, et al.. MRI the Basics, p. 105.

Magnetic Field Gradients (3): Df across pixel

 Gradient amplitude and number of samples over the FOV

determines the frequency bandwidth across each pixel
 10 mT/m ∙ (42.58 MHz/T ∙ 1T/1,000 mT ∙ 1 m/100 cm) = 4258 Hz/cm
 Localization of nuclei in 2D requires the application of three distinct
and orthogonal gradients during the pulse sequence: (1) slice select,
(2) frequency encode and (3) phase encode gradients
* From the above
calculation, it’s easy to
see that with gradients
our old friend: g/2p =
426 Hz-cm-1/mT-m-1,
so then it’s just a
matter of multiplying
the number of mT/m
by this factor to get the
bandwidth (Hz)/cm.
c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics
6
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 418.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Slice Select Gradient – SSG (1)

 RF pulse antennas can’t spatially direct the RF energy within FOV

 In conjunction with a selective frequency narrowband RF pulse
applied to the entire volume, the SSG determines the imaging slice
 Slice thickness (ST) determined by: ST  Df/(G∙g/2p)
 Applied RF pulse bandwidth (BW): Df
 Gradient strength across the FOV: G

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

7
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 418.

Slice Select Gradient – SSG (2)

 For a given gradient strength,

ST determined by RF BW
 For fixed RF BW, the gradient
strength determines ST
 Excite a rectangular slab
(slice) of nuclei→ ‘sinc’
waveform: sinc(t) = sin(t)/t
 Need an infinitely long sinc
pulse to get a perfectly
rectangular slice
 Truncation in time of applied
RF sinc pulse leads to rounded
and jagged slice profiles

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

8
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 419-20.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Slice Select Gradient – SSG (3)

 Width of sinc pulse determines

the RF output frequency BW
 Both narrow BW w/ weak
gradient and wide BW w/
strong gradient → same ST
 SNR  1/(BW)
 Narrow BW → ↑ SNR
 Narrow BW → ↑ chemical shift
 Gradients cause spin de-
phasing: phase very important!
 Re-establish original phase
with opp. polarity gradient with
½ integrated area (Df  G∙Dt)

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

9
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 421.

Frequency Encode Gradient – FEG (1)

 FEG aka: readout gradient

 Applied ┴ to SSG
 Applied throughout formation
and decay of the FID echo
from slab excited by the SSG
 Dfx = (g/2p)∙Gx∙Dx → Dfx  Dx
 Demodulation of the composite
signal produces a net
frequency variation that is ≈
symmetrically distributed from
+fmax to –fmax at FOV edges
 Spatial projection: column sum

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

10
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 422.

10

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Frequency Encode Gradient – FEG (2)

 Composite signal is amplified,

digitized and decoded by
Fourier Transform (FT)
 f : t, Fourier transform pairs Hz

(like x and spatial frequency)

 Df  Dx → FT{FID(t)} = f  x Hz

 Rotation of FEG direction

provides projections through Hz
object as a function of angle
 Like CT: filtered backprojection
 However, due to sensitivity to
motion artifacts phase
FID(t) Hz
encoding gradients used

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

11
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 423.

11

Phase Encode Gradient – PEG (1)

 Short duration gradient applied

before FEG and after SSG to
provide 3rd spatial dimension
 After SSG all spins in f coherence
 During PEG application → linear
variation in precessional
frequency introducing a persistent
phase shift across the slice slab in
PEG direction: (Dfy  By∙Dy∙Dt)
 After all FID data collected, a FT is
applied to decode the spatial
position along the PE direction (f)
 Motion during data collection
produces ghosting in along PE

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

12
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 424. c.f. Hashemi, et al.. MRI the Basics, p. 105.

12

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Gradient Sequencing

 For the SE pulse sequence

 Timing of the gradients in conjunction with RF excitation pulses and
data acquisition during echo evolution and decay
 Sequence repeated periodically (TR) with only slight changes in the
PEG amplitude to provide the 3D identity of protons of the object in
the resulting image

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

13
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 425.

13

Raphex 2001 Diagnostic Questions

 D43. In MRI, the RF frequency is dependent on the:

 A. Diameter of the body part being imaged

 B. Magnetic field strength
 C. Pulse sequence
 D. Relaxation time
 E. RF coil

14

14

BME HCMUT 7
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Raphex 2001 Diagnostic Questions

 D46. Gradient fields in MRI are principally used to:

 A. Eliminate perturbations in the magnetic field due to

site location
 B. Maintain a uniform magnetic field in the field of view
 C. Measure the spin coupling
 D. Provide spatial localization
 E. Shorten T1 to reduce scan time

15

15

Raphex 2000 Diagnostic Questions

 D48. In MRI images, motion during the scans results in

ghost images which appear in the ______ direction.

 A. Amplitude
 B. Frequency encoding
 C. Phase encoding
 D. Relaxation
 E. Slice thickness

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16

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

‘K-space’ Data Acq. and Image Reconstruction

Max. signal in center of k-space
 MRI data initially stored in a ‘k-
+k
space’ matrix (spatial
frequency domain corr. time ··
domain; x : k, f : t – FT pairs; ·
Larmor relation through
gradients: Dk = (g/2p)∙Gx∙Dt)
 FID data encoded in kx by FEG
and in ky by PEG ··
 The digitally sampled FID is ·
stored along kx in a row
-k
corresponding to the -k +k
magnitude and sign of the
PEG (ky)

adapted from Bushberg, et al. The Essential adapted from. Hashemi, et al.
17
Physics of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 426. MRI the Basics, p. 140.

17

Two-dimensional Data Acquisition

+k +k

· ·
· ·
· ·
2D FT
:
· ·
· ·
-k
· -k
·
-k -k -k -k

 With methodical variations of the PEG during each excitation, the k-

space matrix is filled (or partially filled) with FID echos
 MR data acquired as a complex, composite frequency waveform:
FID(kx,ky)  V(t) = V1·cos(2pft) + i·V2·sin(2pft) = Re. + i·Im.
 k-space divided into 4 quadrants w/ origin at center
 Complex conjugate symmetry: only ½ matrix + one line req.

adapted from Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics adapted from. Hashemi, et al.
18
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 426, 429. MRI the Basics, p. 140.

18

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Pulse Sequences

 Tailoring pulse sequences

emphasizes the image contrast
dependent on r, T1 and T2
 Timing, order, polarity, pulse
shaping, and repetition
frequency of RF pulses and x,
y and z gradient application
 Major pulse sequences
 Spin Echo (SE)
 Inversion recovery (IR)
 Fast Spin Echo (FSE)
 Gradient Recalled Echo
(GRE)
 Echo Planar Image (EPI)

c.f. http://www.indianembassy.org/dydemo/page3.htm

19

19

Amendment to Bushberg Figure 15-15

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

20
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 428.

20

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Summary of 2D SE Acquisition Steps (1)

 (1) Narrowband RF pulse applied

simultaneously with SSG (center
t=0); SSG: Dz  Df/(Gz∙g/2p)
 (1) Mz converted to Mxy, the extent
determined by the flip q
 (2) PEG applied ┴ to SSG for short
time (encoding precessional Df
along PE grad.) and with differing
amplitudes for each repetition to
create Dfy ( By∙Dy∙Dt) along PE
direction: multiple views along ky
 (3) Refocusing 180° RF pulse
delivered at t = TE/2: inverting
spins

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

21
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 428.

21

Summary of 2D SE Acquisition Steps (2)

 (4) Re-establishment of phase

coherence at t = TE (FID echo)
 (4) During echo formation and
subsequent delay, FEG (Dfx =
g/2p∙Gx∙Dx) applied ┴ to both
SSG and PEG, encoding
precessional frequency along
the readout gradient
 (5) Simultaneous to application
of FEG and echo formation,
the computer acquires the
time-domain signal (FID echo)
using ADC

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

22
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 428.

22

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Summary of 2D SE Acquisition Steps (3)

 (5) ADC sampling rate determined

by the excitation BW
 (6) Data stored in k-matrix row (kx)
the position (ky) determined by the
PEG magnitude
 (6) Inc. changes in PEG mag. fills
matrix one row at a time (may be
non-sequential)
 (6) When filled partially then copy
complex conjugate data into
remaining blank rows
 (7) 2D FT decodes time (spatial
frequency - k) domain data
piecewise along the rows (kx) and
then columns (ky)

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

23
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 428.

23

Summary of 2D SE Acquisition Steps (4)

 (8) Object spatial and contrast

characteristics manifested in
the resulting image
 (8) Final image a spatial
representation of the r, T1, T2
and flow characteristics of the
tissues in each voxel using a
gray-scale range
 Voxel thickness determined by
SSG and RF freq. bandwidth
 Pixel dimension determined by
varying PEG magnitudes and
readout digitization rate

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

24
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 428.

24

BME HCMUT 12
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

K-space: the Final Frontier

 Bulk of information representing lower spatial frequencies near

center of k-space – provides large area contrast in the image
 Higher spatial frequency nearer the periphery – provides resolution
and detail in the image
Max. signal in center of k-space

+k

··
·

··
·
-k
-k +k

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics adapted from Hashemi, et al.
MRI the Basics, p. 140.
25
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 429.

25

Two-dimensional Multi-planar Acquisition

 Axial (SSG: z, PEG: y, FEG: x)

 Coronal (SSG: y, PEG: x, FEG: z)
 Sagittal (SSG: x, PEG: y, FEG: z)
 Oblique (SSG: a1x + a2y + a3z, etc.)
 Data acquisition into the k-space matrix same for all

y z z

x x y

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

26
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 430.

26

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Acq. Time, 2DFT SE and Multislice Acq.

 Acq. time = TR · no. PE steps ·

NEX (number of excitations)
 Example (256x192 matrix,
TR=600, NEX=2) → 230 sec
 PE along lesser matrix
dimension to speed acquisition
 Multiple slice acquisition also
speeds image collection
 Max number slices =
TR/(TE+c)
 ‘c’ dependent on MRI system
capabilities
 Longer TR → more slices

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

27
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 431.

27

Data Synthesis

 Take advantage of symmetry

and redundant characteristics
of k-space domain signals
 In PE direction ‘½ Fourier’, ‘½
NEX’ or ‘phase conjugate
symmetry’ techniques reduce
data collection to ½ ky matrix
dimension + 1 line With quadrature detection, have real
and “imaginary” (90° out of phase)
 In FE direction ‘fractional echo’ components of induced voltage from
and ‘read conjugate symmetry’ FID (t):
shorten FID echo sampling • V(t) = V1·cos(2pft) + i·V2·sin(2pft)
• Two data values per digitized FID
time
sample
 Both ↓ SNR and ↑ artifacts • Complex conjugate =
V1·cos(2pft) – i·V2·sin(2pft)

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics 28

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 432.

28

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Inversion Recovery (IR) Acquisition

 180-(TI)-90-(TE/2)-180-(TR)
 SSG, PEG and FEG as SE
 TR long → many slices per TR
 STIR
 Short Tau IR
 Eliminate Fat
 TI = 180 msec
 FLAIR
 FLuid Attenuated IR
 Eliminate CSF
 TI = 2,400 msec

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

29
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 434.

29

Fast Spin Echo (FSE) Acquisition

 FSE uses multiple PE steps w/

multiple 180° pulses per TR
 First echos placed near ky=0
 Best SNR → least T2 decay
 Immunity from B0 inhomogen.
with up to 16x faster collection
 Lower SNR for high-freq ky
 Fewer slices collected per TR
 SE: 8.5 min (TR=2000, 256
PE)
 FSE: 2.1 min (TR=2000, 256
PE steps and 4 echos per TR)
 aka: ‘turbo SE’ & RARE (Rapid
Acq. w/ Refocused Echoes)

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

30
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 433.

30

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Gradient Recalled Echo (GRE) Acquisition

 Similar to SE but with readout

gradient reversal for 180° pulse
 Repetition of acq. for each PE
 With small flip angles and gradient
reversals → large reduction in TR
and TE → fast acq.
 PEG rewinder pulse (opp. polarity)
to maintain f relationship between
pulses (due to short TR)
 Acq. time=TR· no. PE steps · NEX
 Example (256x192 matrix,
TR=30): 15.5 sec
 ↓ SNR and ↑ artifacts; one slice
 GRASS, FISP, FLASH, etc.

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

31
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 434.

31

Echo Planar Image (EPI) Acquisition

 Extremely fast imaging

 Single (1 TR) and multi-shot
 90° flip, PEG/FEG, 180° flip
 Oscillating PEG/FEG ‘blips’
stimulate echo formation
 Rapid ‘zig-zag’ k-space filling
 Acq. occurs in a period < T2*:
25-50 msec
 High demands on sampling
rate, gradient coils and RF
deposition limitations (SAR)
 Poor SNR, low res. (642) and
many artifacts
 ‘Real-time’ snapshot

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

32
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 435.

32

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Spiral K-space Acquisition

 Simultaneous oscillation of
PEG/FEG to sample data
during echo formation in a
spiral starting at k-space origin
 Regridding to 2D k-space
array for 2D FT
 Efficient method placing
maximum samples in the low-
frequency area of k-space
 Like EPI sensitive to T2*: field
inhomogeneities and
susceptibility agents

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

33
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 436.

33

Gradient Moment Nulling

 In SE and GRE SSG/FEG

balanced so that the uniform
dephasing caused by the initial
gradient application is
rephased by an opposite
polarity gradient of equal area
 Moving spins → phase
dispersal not compensated
 Constant flow: spins can be
rephased with a gradient triplet
 Higher-order corrections
 Applied to both SSG/FEG to
correct motion ghosting and
pulsatile flow
A = -1, B = 3 and C = -3

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

34
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 437.

34

BME HCMUT 17
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Raphex 2001 Diagnostic Questions

 D50. Which of the following does NOT generally affect

the total exam time of an MRI study?

 A. # of acquisitions
 B. # of frequency encoding steps
 C. # of phase encoding steps
 D. # of pulse sequences in the study
 E. TR

35

35

3D Fourier Transform Image Acquisition

 Uses a broadband, non-

selective RF pulse to excite a
large spin volume
 Acq. time = TR · no. PE steps
(z) · no. PE steps (y) · NEX
 SE: TR=600, 1283 → 164 min.
 GRE: TR=50, 1283 → 14 min.
 Isotropic or anisotropic (<time)
 High SNR → thin slice recon.
 ↑ prob. for motion artifacts
 Volume for 3D slice/dice

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

36
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 438.

36

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Image Characteristics and Quality

 Spatial Resolution and Contrast Sensitivity

 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
 Basis for evaluating MR image characteristics
 Voxel Volume
 Signal Averages (NEX)
 RF Bandwidth
 RF Coil Quality Factor
 Magnetic Field Strength
 Cross Excitation
 Image Acquisition and Reconstruction Algorithms

37

37

Spatial Resolution

 Dependent on
 FOV: pixel size
 Gradient strength: FOV
 Receiver coil characteristics
 Sampling bandwidth
 Image matrix: 1282 through 1024 x 512
 In plane: 0.5-1.0 mm (0.1-0.2 mm surface coil)
 Slice thickness: 5-10 mm
 Higher B0 (e.g., 3.0 T) → larger SNR → thinner slices
 However, ↑ RF heating, ↑ T1, ↓ T1 contrast and ↑ artifact

38

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Contrast Sensitivity

 Major attribute of MR = f (r, T1, T2, flow, pulse param.)

 MR contrast agents, usually susceptibility agents (e.g.,
Gadolinium) disrupt local B field to enhance T2 decay or
provide additional relaxation mechanisms for T1 decay
→ important enhancement agents for differentiation of
normal and diseased tissues
 Absolute contrast sensitivity of an MR image is ultimately
limited by the SNR and presence of image artifacts

39

39

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

 I = intrinsic signal intensity based on pulse sequence

 Volvoxel = voxel volume = f (FOV, matrix, slice thickness)
 NEX = number of excitations
 BW = freq. BW of RF receiver
 f1 (QF) = func. of coil quality factor param. (tuning coil)
 f2 (B) = function of magnetic field strength
 f3 (slice gap) = function of interslice gap effects
 f4 (recon.) = function of reconstruction algorithm

40

40

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Voxel Volume

 SNR  voxel volume

 ↓ matrix size or ↑ slice thickness → ↑ SNR

41

41

Signal Averages (NEX)

 Doubling SNR requires NEX = 4

 NEX < 1: ½ or ¾ NEX
 ½ NEX: half Fourier imaging → ½ PE-matrix dimension + 1
 ¾ NEX: ¾ PE-matrix dimension
 Missing data synthesized from the k-space matrix
 ↓ SNR

42

42

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

RF Bandwidth

 Range of freq. to which the RF

detector is tuned
 Narrow BW → ↑ SNR 
1/(BW)
 BW = 1/DT (dwell time – time
between FID sampling)
 Narrow BW → ↑ DT → ↓ noise
(SNR  SQRT[DT])
 ↓ BW → ↓ gradient strength →
↑ chem. shift artifacts)
 Also requires longer sampling
time and affects TEmin which in
BW = (g/2p)∙Gx∙FOVx
turn may affect num. slices/TR remember: g/2p =
426 Hz-cm-1/mT-m-1
c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics
43
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 441.

43

RF Coil Quality Factor

 Indication of RF coil sensitivity to induced currents in

response to signal emanating from the patient
 Patient loading: electrical impedance characteristics of
the body → variation of B field, different for each patient
 Tuning the receiver coil to w0 mandatory
 Also dependent on volume of subject : coil volume
 Body coil located in magnet bore: moderate QF
 Surface coil: high QF
 Trade-off with FOV uniformity
 Body coil: relatively uniform over FOV
 Surface coil: signal falls off abruptly (1/r3-5)

44

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Magnetic Field Strength

 Influences SNR: SNR ≲ B0

 SNR about twice that at 3.0T than at 1.5T
 ≲ due to T1 lengthening as B0 ↑ depending on TR
 Other considerations mitigate SNR improvement
 Longer T1
 Greater RF absorption (and heating)

45

45

Cross Excitation

 Due to non-rectangular RF slice selection profiles

 Overlap of adjacent slices in multislice sequence
 Saturates spins → ↓ contrast
 Use interslice gaps or multislice interleaving

46

46

BME HCMUT 23
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Image Acquisition and Reconstruction Algorithms

 Profound effect on SNR

 Acquisition methods in order of increasing SNR:
 Point
 Line
 2DFT
 3DFT
 Volume of tissue the major contributing factor in SNR
 High-pass filtration methods → ↓ SNR
 Low-pass filtration methods → ↑ SNR, but ↓ spat. resol.

47

47

Raphex 2003 Diagnostic Questions

 D54. In MRI the signal-to-noise ratio can be increased by

all of the following except:

 A. Decreasing the slice thickness

 B. Increasing the number of acquisitions
 C. Increasing the static magnetic field strength
 D. Increasing TR
 E. Switching from a volume to a surface coil

48

48

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Instrumentation

 Magnets
 Resistive
 Superconductive
 Permanent
 Ancillary Equipment
 Magnet Siting and Shielding
 Quality Control

49

49

Magnets

 Magnet performance criteria:

 Field strength
 Temporal stability
 Field homogeneity
 Air core magnets
 Wire wrapped cylinders
 B0 produced through wire
current flow:
 B0 parallel to core (usu. horiz.)
 Solid core magnets
 Permanent magnets
 Wire wrapped iron core
 B0 between poles (usu. vert.)

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics
50
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 374. of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 458.

50

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Permanent Magnets

 Ferromagnetic properties of
Fe, Ni, Co and alloys
 Bulky and heavy, though new
lighter alloys
 Finding a niche in clinical MRI
 B0: 0.1-0.35 T
 Lowest operating costs
 Field uniformity typically less
than superconductive with
similar FOV
 Inability to turn off field in an
emergency!

51

51

Superconductive Magnets

 Air core: 1m diam., 2-3m depth

 Wrapped with supercon. wire
 Liquid helium cooling
 B0: 0.3-3.0 T clinical (4-7 T
research)
 High field uniformity: <1 ppm
over 40 cm DSV
 Most widely used
 Disadvantages: high initial
capital and siting costs,
cryogen costs, difficulties
turning B off in emergency and
extensive fringe fields

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

52
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 459.

52

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Resistive Magnets

 Either air core or solid core

 Continuous electrical power ($)
 Produces a significant amount
of heat (cooling system usu.
city or chilled water)
 B0: 0.1-0.7 T
 Able to turn off magnet in an
emergency
 Open design
 Fringe field well contained
 Relatively poor
uniformity/homogeneity

53

53

Ancillary Equipment (1)

 Shim coils – active or passive,

adjust B0 to ↑ homogeneity
 Gradient coils – noise caused
by torque on coil and flexing
 RF coils – transmitter and body
receiver within bore covers
 RF coils need to be ‘tuned’
prior to each acquisition
 Kinds: bird-cage, single-turn
solenoid, saddle, surface and
phased-array
 Quadrature detection ↑ SNR
by √2

c.f. http://homepage2.nifty.com/kirislab/chap5_mri/ c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

54
mri_images/imagingSystem/gradientCoilSet.gif of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 460.

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Ancillary Equipment (2)

 Pulse programmer
 Control interfaces
 RF transmitter
 RF detector (coils)
 RF amplifiers
 Gradient power supplies
 ADC electronics
 Computer system
 Image display

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

55
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 461.

55

Magnet Siting and Shielding

 Superconductive magnets:
extensive fringe fields
 Patients w/ pacemakers or
ferromagnetic aneurysm clips:
avoid fringe fields >0.5 mT (5g)
 Magnetically sensitive
equipment: video monitors, g
cameras and fluoroscopic II
 Areas above 1.0 mT (10 g)
require controlled and
restricted access w/ signs
 Stray RF signal protection:
Faraday cage (copper
sheeting/mesh)

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

56
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 463.

56

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Quality Control

 Periodical checking of:

 Magnetic field strength
 Magnetic field homogeneity
 System field shimming
 Gradient linearity
 System RF tuning
 Receiver coil optimization
 Display monitors
 ACR MRI accreditation prog.
 Uses phantoms composed of
materials that simulate patient
relaxation times

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

57
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 464.

57

Raphex 2001 Diagnostic Questions

 D45. Superconducting magnets, compared to resistive

magnets:

 A. Are less expensive

 B. Are more easily turned off
 C. Do not require liquid helium
 D. Have higher field strength

58

58

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Raphex 2003 Diagnostic Questions

 D57-D59. Match the following MRI terms. (Answers may be used

more than once.)

 A. Gradient fields
 B. RF
 C. Shim coils
 D. T1
 E. T2

 D57. Used to adjust magnetic field uniformity

 D58. Used to localize MR signal
 D59. Used to tip the net magnetization of spins

59

59

Safety and Bioeffects (1)

 Important safety considerations

 Strong magnetic fields
 RF energy
 Time-varying magnetic gradient fields
 Confined imaging space (claustrophobia)
 Noisy operation
 Implants – ferromagnetic (torque) and non-ferromagnetic (heat)
 Ferromagnetic implements (IV pole, gas cylinders, etc.)
 Long-term biological effects of high magnetic fields not
well known
 Most common bioeffect: tissue heating (RF/gradients)

60

60

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Safety and Bioeffects (2)

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

61
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 466.

61

Safety and Bioeffects (3)

 Static Magnetic Fields

 > 20 T: ↑ membrane permeability, enzyme kinetic changes and altered
biopotentials
 < 10 T: these effects have not been demonstrated
 Varying Magnetic Field Effects
 Gradient switching can cause current flow
 At very high levels: visual phosphenes
 Magnetic Field, RF Exposure and Noise Limits
 RF exposure causes tissue heating
 Power deposition limits: (< 1° C head, < 2° C trunk, < 3° C extremities)
 4 W/kg averaged over the whole body for any 15-minute period
 3 W/kg averaged over the head for any 10-minute period; or
 8 W/kg in any gram of tissue in the extremities for any period of 5 min

62

62

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Raphex 2000 Diagnostic Questions

 D49. Patients who have MRI scans should be screened

to eliminate those who have:

 A. Internal steel fragments

 B. Metallic prostheses
 C. Pacemakers
 D. Surgical clips
 E. All of the above

63

63

Artifacts

 Machine Dependent Artifacts

 Susceptibility Artifacts
 Gradient Field Artifacts
 Radiofrequency Coil Artifacts
 Radiofrequency Artifacts
 K-space Errors
 Chemical Shift Artifacts
 Ringing Artifacts
 Wraparound Artifacts
 Partial Volume Artifacts

64

64

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Machine Dependent Artifacts

 Magnetic field inhomogeneities → distortion or

misplacement of anatomy
 Proper site planning, self-shielded magnets, automatic
shimming and preventative maintenance procedures →
> homogeneity
 Focal field inhomogeneities → ferromagnetic objects:
field distortions, signal void

65

65

Susceptibility Artifacts

 Magnetic susceptibility: ratio of

induced internal magnetization in
a tissue to external magnetic field
(B0)
 Drastic changes in mag. suscept.
→ distort B0
 Tissue-air interfaces: lungs and
sinuses → rapid T2*
 Metal: ferrous or not
 Paramagnetic agents (Gd)
 Paramagnetic effects shorten T2
 Hydration layer interactions
shorten T1
 Mag. suscept. of blood
degradation products
 Diagnose the age of a
hemorrhage
EPI diffusion study suffers from severe susceptibility
artifact due to retained metal after surgery. Courtesy,
GE Medical Systems.

66

66

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Gradient Field Artifacts

 Reconstruction algorithm
assume linear gradients
 Tendency for gradient field
strength at periphery of FOV to
deviate from linear assumption
 Reduce FOV or lower gradient
strength
 Need balanced gradient
strength for PEG and FEG
 Otherwise non-square pixels

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics 67

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 449.

67

Radiofrequency Artifacts

 Stray RF signals
 TV, radio, electric motors,
fluorescent lights & computers
 Narrowband: zipper artifact
perpendicular to FEG direction
 Broadband: herringbone
artifact across larger area
 RF shielding : Faraday cage
 RF quadrature coils:
imbalanced amplifiers → DC
offset
 Causes ghosting of objects
diagonally in image The scanner room door was left open during the
acquisition causing the zipper artifacts shown. c.f.,
www.spectroscopynow.com/Spy/pdfs/mritutor.pdf

68

68

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Chapter 15 17-Feb-20

Radiofrequency Coil Artifacts

 Surface coils → variations in

uniformity across the image
caused by RF attenuation, RF
mismatching and sensitivity
falloff with distance
 Non-rectangular RF pulses:
slice-to-slice interference
 T2-weighted → ↓ SNR
 T1-weighted → ↓ image
contrast
 Interslice gaps and pseudo-
rectangular RF pulses
 Slice interleaving

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

69
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 450.

69

K-space Error Artifacts

 Artifactual superimposition of wave patterns across the FOV

 Even one bad pixel can produce a significant artifact, especially
when at or near k-space DC data point (center)

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

70
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 451.

70

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Motion Artifacts

 Mostly occur along the PEG

direction → ghost images
 Compensation methods:
 Cardiac/respiratory gating
 Respiratory ordering
 Signal averaging
 Short TE T1-w SE sequences
 Gradient moment nulling
 Presaturation pulses applied
outside the imaging region

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

71
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 451-2.

71

Chemical Shift Artifacts

 f0 variations resulting from
intrinsic magnetic shielding
 f = (1 - s) · (g/2p) · B0
 Distinct peaks in MR spectrum
 Fat: s=3.5 ppm lower than H20
 ↑ B → ↑ chemical shift
 ↓ G → ↑ chemical shift
 Cannot distinguish freq. shift
by FEG or chemical shift
 Misregistration of H20 and fat
moieties → anatomical shift
 Cure: ↑ G, but ↓ SNR
 Cure: off-reson. presat. pulse
 Cure: STIR bounce point
c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics
72
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 454.

72

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Ringing Artifacts

 AKA ‘Gibbs phenomenon’

 Occurs near sharp boundaries
and high-contrast transitions
 Multiple, regularly spaced
parallel bands of alternating
bright/dark signal fading with
distance
 Lack of high-frequency signals
causes ‘ringing’ at sharp
transitions
 Most likely for small matrix
dimensions
 Skull/brain interface

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics c.f., www.spectroscopynow.com/

73
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 456. Spy/pdfs/mritutor.pdf

73

Wraparound (‘Aliasing’) Artifacts

 Result of mismapping anatomy

that lies outside the FOV, but
within the slice volume
 Caused by:
 Non-linear gradients
 Undersampling of frequencies
within the signal envelope
(Nyquist sampling limit)
 FT cannot distinguish freq. >
Nyquist limit → lower freq.
 Cure: low-pass filter (<Nyquist)
 Cure: ↑ FOV → ↓ G or ↑ BW
 Cure: ↑ number of PE steps
BW = (g/2p)∙G∙FOVx = 1/DT
c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics
74
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 441 & 457.

74

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Partial Volume Artifacts

 Due to finite voxel dimensions

 Cure: ↓ pixel size/slice thickness
 Problem: SNR ↓ for similar imaging time

75

75

Raphex 2002 Diagnostic Questions

 D57. All of the following are MRI artifacts except:

 A. Chemical shift
 B. Ring
 C. Susceptibility
 D. Wrap-around
 E. Zipper

76

76

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Some Advanced Topics

 Time-of-Flight (TOF) MR Angiography (MRA)

 Phase Contrast MRA
 Magnetization Transfer Contrast (MTC)
 Perfusion and Diffusion Contrast
 fMRI and BOLD Imaging

77

77

Signal from Flow (1)

 The MR signal from moving fluids (vascular and CSF) is

complicated by many factors:
 Flow velocity
 Vessel orientation
 Laminar vs. turbulent flow patterns
 Pulse sequences
 Image acquisition modes
 Flow related mechanisms combine with image
acquisition parameters to alter contrast
 ‘Bright-blood’ to ‘black-blood’
 Can be a source of artifacts
 Exploited to produce MR angiography images

78

78

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Signal from Flow (2)

 Flow-related enhancement
 Even-echo rephasing
(prominent in slow laminar
flow – veins)
 Gradient echo images
(unsaturated blood): 
velocity, slice ‘thinness’ and
TR

c.f. Hashemi, et al. MRI -

79
The Basics, 2nd ed., p. 300.

79

Signal from Flow (3)

 Low signal intensities: high-

velocity signal loss
 Nuclei move out of slice during
echo reformation (nothing
focused in Mxy plane → no or
little FID signal)

c.f. Hashemi, et al. MRI -

80
The Basics, 2nd ed., p. 296.

80

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Signal from Flow (4)

 Signal from blood dependent

on relative saturation of tissues
and the incoming blood flow
 Unsaturated spins entering the
imaged slice(s) → large FIDs
 In some cases blood signal
eliminated through pre-
saturation pulses outside of
imaged slice(s)
 “Black blood” (flow void) also
caused by rapidly flowing and
turbulent blood (no full 180°
pulse)

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

81
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 443.

81

Time-of-Flight - TOF - MR Angiography – MRA (1)

 Single-slice GRE (a=45-60°, TR=50 msec, TE=few

msec)
 Differentiates moving blood (unsaturated) from stationary
tissues (saturated)
 Penetration of unsaturated blood depends on: velocity
(magnitude and direction)
 2D stack of slices usually acquired
 Blood moving in unwanted direction (e.g., arterial and
venous) is eliminated with a presaturation pulse in an
adjacent slice

82

82

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Time-of-Flight - TOF - MR Angiography – MRA (1)

 GRE technique provides

poor anatomic contrast,
but a high-contrast
“bright blood” signal
 Maximum intensity
projection (MIP) along
specific viewing angles
used to generate a
series of images for
display
 TOF MRA often
produces variation in
vessel intensity
dependent on orientation
wrt. viewing plane

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

83
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 444.

83

Phase Contrast MR Angiography – MRA (1)

 Relies on phase change (Df)

for moving protons (blood);
Df = ½ · g/2p · Gx · vx · t2
 Application of + and then –
polarity gradients in rapid
succession (DT)
 Second acquisition during
same phase encode cancels
(Df) for stationary spins
 Moving spins accumulate (Df)
 Amount of (Df)  (DT) and v

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

84
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 446.

84

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Phase Contrast MR Angiography – MRA (2)

 Intensity variations depend on

the amount of (Df)
 Brightest pixels – highest +v,
mid-gray 0v, lowest –v
 Unlike TOF MRA, the phase
contrast image is inherently
quantitative
 When calibrated provides an
estimate of the mean blood
flow v (magnitude and
direction)
 2D and 3D possible

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

85
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 446.

85

fMRI and BOLD Imaging (1)

 BOLD (Blood Oxygen Level-Dependent)

 Differential contrast generated by blood metabolism in
brain
 Oxyhemoglobin → deoxyhemoglobin (paramagnetic)
increases magnetic susceptibility and induced signal loss
(increased T2*)

86

86

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fMRI and BOLD Imaging (2)

 Areas of ↑ metabolic activity →

correlated signal (functional
MR)
 Subtract post-stimulus image
from pre-stimulus image
 Color-coded overlay to a
grayscale anatomic image
demonstrate activity(t)
correlating with stimulus(t)

87
Images courtesy of Stanford University

87

Perfusion and Diffusion Contrast (1)

 Perfusion of cells via capillary bed

 Exogenous tracer methods
 2H, 3He, 17O and 19F experimental procedures
 Intravascular blood-pool agents: Gd-DTPA
 Endogenous tracer methods
 Labeling of inflowing spins (‘black blood’): tagging
 Tagged spins perfuse into tissues → ↓ MR signal intensity

88

88

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Perfusion and Diffusion Contrast (2)

 Diffusion depends on the random motion of H2O

molecules in tissues
 Interactions of the local cellular structure with the
diffusing H2O molecules produces anisotropic,
directionally dependent diffusion
 Diffusion-weighted sequences use a strong gradient →
signal differences based on mobility/directionality
 Tissues with ↑ H2O mobility have greater signal loss

89

89

Perfusion and Diffusion Contrast (3)

 In vivo structural integrity of

tissues measured → apparent
diffusion coefficient maps
 Sensitive indicator for early
detection of
 Spine and spinal cord
pathophysiology
 Ischemic injury
 Spin-echo and echoplanar pulse
sequences with diffusion gradients
Diffusion-weighted image (DWI) with gray
 Obstacles scale-encoded diffusion coefficients.
 Sensitivity to head/brain motion
 Eddy currents

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

90
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 410.

90

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Magnetization Transfer Contrast (1)

 Result of selective observation

of the interaction between the
p+ in free H2O molecules and
p+ in macromolecular proteins
due to coupling or chemical
exchange
 Can be excited separately
using narrow-band RF
 Magnetization transferred from
macromolecular p+ to free H2O
p+
 Reduced signal from adjacent
free H2O p+

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

91
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 412.

91

Magnetization Transfer Contrast (2)

 This process affects only those

p+ having chemical exchange
with the macromolecules and
improves image contrast
 Anatomic imaging of heart,
eye, MS, knee cartilage and
general MR angiography
 Tissue characterization
possible as the magnetization
transfer ratio (MTCon/MTCoff) is
caused in part by tissue-
specific surface chemistry
MR arthrograms of shoulder in 32-year-old man with suspected gleno-
humeral instability. Axial 3D gradient-echo MR image obtained using
parametric magnetization transfer pulses no discernible magnetization
transfer contrast in injected fluid or in fatty marrow spaces, whereas
degree of magnetization transfer contrast varies in skeletal muscle,
cartilage, and capsular supporting structures (color scale = 0-100%).
c.f. Yao L, Thomasson D. Magnetization transfer contrast
in rapid three-dimensional MR imaging using segmented
92
radiofrequency prepulses. AJR 2002; 179: 863-5 .

92

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