QUESTION 1

The polymer is named Polypeptide.

The endomembrane system is responsible for processing, sorting and packaging
membrane material, proteins embedded in membranes and large water. The endomembrane
system includes nuclear envelope, Rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
plasma membrane, various kind of vacuoles and vesicle. Synthesis and secretion of insulin
from β-cell of Islet of Langerhans in the human pancreas involve the endomembrane system.
The first organelle involved in the synthesis of insulin is a bounded ribosome that is attached
to the surface of Rough endoplasmic reticulum. The function of this type of ribosome is site
for protein synthesis. Besides, the insulin is synthesized as a single polypeptide known as
preproinsulin in pancreatic beta cells that harbours signal peptide. The preproinsulin
polypeptide is translocated into the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum to form
proinsulin. In the rough endoplasmic reticulum, signal peptide of preproinsulin is folded and
removed, then the polypeptide is forming into proper confirmation with the formation of
disulfide bonds. Proinsulin is then transported to the Golgi apparatus via transported vesicle
formed by the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Transport vesicle fuse with the cis face of Golgi
body. In the lumen of Golgi body, internal space is converted into active or mature insulin by
cellular endopeptidases and exoprotease carboxypeptidase. The trans face vesicles pinch off
from the cis face of Golgi body that contain mature insulin. A transport or secretory vesicle
carries mature insulin to the plasma membrane for secretion. Transport or secretory vesicle
carrier mature insulin with the plasma membrane of β-cell insulin is secreted from the cell
into the bloodstream via endomembrane system.
QUESTION 2

There is the tissue that makes up costal cartilage of human rib cage and diaphysis of
human femur. Firstly, the structure of costal cartilage of human rib cage has hyaline cartilage
is a specialized connective tissue. These are strong, flexible and elastic. Besides, no nerve,
blood vessels or lymph vessels. The matrix is chondrin was made of chondroitin sulfate and
collagen fibre. It can be secreted by cells called chondroblasts. Other than that, it has mature
cells called chondrocytes (enclosed in space called lacunae). Chondrocytes are protected by
an outer perichondrium layer. From here, new chondroblasts are produced. In addition, the
functions of costal cartilage of human rib cage are hyaline cartilage can provide flexible
support and shock absorption. Next, keeps bronchi and trachea to opens due to its elasticity
and ability to compress. Besides, covers the ends of bone and reduces friction between joints.
Forms the embryonic skeleton in vertebrates and forms the skeleton in cartilaginous fish such
as sharks and rays.
Moreover, the structure for diaphysis of human femur have two main structures were
compact bone and spongy bone. Compact bone is made up of several cylinders such as
osteons or Haversian system. Each osteon is made up of concentric circles, lamellae. Around
a Haversian canal containing blood and lymph vessels and nerve fibre. Osteocyte is bone cells
distributed in lacunae (space between the lamellae). However, the function of osteocyte is
secreted and maintain the bone matrix. The function of compact bone can give body shape
and provide support. Besides, protect internal organs for example cranium, rib cage and
vertebral column. Other than that, act as a reservoir for calcium and phosphate. Next, site for
the blood cell production in the bone marrow.
QUESTION 3

Then, active transport is a movement of large polar or ionic molecules against

concentration gradient by using energy from ATP and transport protein. Sodium potassium
pump has two specific binding sites that is sodium ion, Na+ and potassium ion, K+ binding
site. Outside cells of sodium potassium pump has high concentration Na+ and low
concentration K+ while inside cells have low concentration Na+ and high concentration K+. its
pump out 3Na+ and pump in 2K+. The process sodium potassium pump occurs when sodium
ion, Na+ binds to protein pump. The affinity for Na+ high when protein at this shape. Next,
Na+ binding stimulates phosphorylation of protein by ATP. Phosphorylation is transferring
terminal phosphate group to protein pump by ATP. Besides, phosphorylation causes protein
pump to change its conformation by reducing it is affinity for Na+. Then, release Na+ to the
outside of the cell. The new shape has high affinity for potassium ion, K+, allow it to bind to
protein pump for the extracellular side. This triggers the release of phosphate group from the
protein. After than that, phosphate group was released and causes protein pump to restore
its original conformation, which has lower affinity for K+. Lastly, K+ are released into the cell.
The affinity for Na+ is high again and the cycle repeats.
In addition, the effect on adding excessive fertilizer to soil can causing the water in the
soil to be hypertonic. Water potential of cell is higher than water potential of soil. Thus, the
water moves out of the cell by osmosis from higher water potential to lower water potential.
The effect on the cell is cell body shrinks and plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall.
Therefore, plant cell becomes plasmolysed.
Furthermore, curing meat with salt prevent spoilage by bacteria because the meat with
salt causing removal of water and become hypertonic. It is reducing the water from the animal
cell. Water potential of animal cell is higher than the water potential of outside animal cell.
Thus, the water moves out of animal cell by osmosis from higher water potential to lower
water potential. The effect on the cell is meat become shrinks and crenated. Without water,
bacteria will die. Then meat can be stored longer.
REFERENCE

Zhuo Fu, Elizabeth R. Gilbert and Dongmin Liu. (2013): Regulation of Insulin Synthesis and Secretion
and Pancreatic Beta-Cell Dysfunction in Diabetes. Current Diabetes Reviews,9(1), 25-42.
http://www.eurekaselect.com/article/47471

The Healthline Editorial Team. (2018, January 20). “Costal Cartilage Anatomy, Function & Diagram |
Body Maps- Healthline”: Healthline Media, Inc.
https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/costal-cartilage

Campbell, N.A, Urray. L.A, Gain, M.L, Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky, P.V. & Orr, R.B. (2021).
Biology (12th ed). Pearson Education