SYDNEY OLANDRIA

ASSIGMENT 2

1. Measurement of Flow with Venturi Meter

• What is a Venturi Meter?

Venturi meter is a type of flowmeter that works on the principle of Bernoulli’s Equation. This
device is widely used in the water, chemical, pharmaceutical, and oil & gas industries to measure
the flow rates of fluids inside a pipe. The pipe cross-sectional area is reduced to create a pressure
difference which is measured with a manometer to determine the rate of fluid flow. So, the
venturi meter is a differential head type flowmeter that converts pressure energy into kinetic
energy.

• Illustrate the apparatuses and label the parts.

• Define the parts and its functions.

Cylindrical Entrance Section: Venturi meter entrance is a straight cylindrical section with a length
equal to 5 to 8 times the pipe diameter.

Convergence Conical Section: In this section, the venturi meter tube diameter gradually
decreases. The conical angle is normally 210 ± 20. While the liquid flows inside the venturi meter,
the velocity of fluid increases at the expense of a decrease in pressure.

Cylindrical Throat: Throat consists of the minimum venture meter diameter. In the throat section,
the velocity is maximum and pressure is minimum. Normally, throat diameter = 1/3 to 1/4th of
inlet pipe diameter.

Diverging Conical section: At this section of venturi meter, the tube diameter gradually increases.
So, the pressure is built up again to the original inlet pressure. The cone angle is 5-70. British
Standard BS-1042 specifies two conical angles, 5–70 and 14–150 for the outlet cone.

• Write the procedure in the measurement of flow using Venturi Meter.

1. Place the apparatus on the hydraulic bench top.

2. Connect the up-stream side of the unit to the bench supply valve with a length of plastic tube.
 3. Connect down-stream end of apparatus to a plastic tube, the free end of which is directed into
the hydraulic bench for measuring discharge from venturi.
4. Set both the apparatus flow control and bench supply valve to approximately one third their
fully open positions. Before allowing water to flow through the apparatus check that the air purge
valve on the upper manifold is tightly closed.
5. Switch on the bench supply and allow water to flow.
6. Close the apparatus flow control valve. Air will now be trapped in the upper parts of the
manometer tubing and the manifold.
7. Release the air purge valve sufficient to allow water to rise approximately halfway up the
manometer scale.
8. Close the purge valve.
9. Adjust both the bench supply and the apparatus control valves to obtain full flow. At this
condition the maximum pressure difference between the venturi inlet and throat should be 240
millimeters.
10. Observe the water levels for a few minutes to ensure the purge valve is scaling properly.
11. Subsequent flow rates are now obtained by closing the apparatus control valve. The rate of
flow or discharge is measured by measuring water accumulation rate at the hydraulic bench.
Readings can be taken either from minimum discharge to maximum discharge or from maximum
discharge to minimum discharge.

2. Measurement of Flow in weirs

A weir is a small dam built across a river to control the upstream water level. Weirs have been
used for ages to control the flow of water in streams, rivers, and other water bodies. Unlike large
dams which create reservoirs, the goal of building a weir across a river isn’t to create storage, but
only to gain some control over the water level.

• Illustrate the apparatuses and label the parts.

• Define the parts and its functions.

1. Body of weir: One generally makes it of masonry. Its function is to raise water level on
upstream side. It should be strong enough to resist water pressure.
2. Upstream apron: It protects it during floods from eroding action. Its length depends upon
discharge of river and weir’s length. It also helps to prevent leakage in subsoil and it minimizes
uplift water pressure if any exist.
3. Upstream curtain wall: One provides it to reduce the uplift pressure. Its length depends upon
the nature of soil.
4. Downstream apron: Downstream apron serves like energy dissipators. These are provided for
destroying kinetic energy and thus prevent downstream side from erosion. Its length depends
upon the height of fall nature of soil discharge etc.
 5. Downstream curtain wall: It protects downstream floor from uplift pressure. Its length
depends upon the length of weirs.
6. Crest: It is the top of the weir. It must be strong and durable as it must resist water pressure
often during floods. During flood, water flows over from the crest.
7. Shutter: Shutters are provided at the top. It also helps in raising the water level on upstream
of river. Shutters must be strong to resist water pressure.

• Write the procedure in the measurement of flow using weir.

1. Ensure that the hydraulics bench is positioned so that its surface is horizontal. This is necessary
because the flow over the notch is driven by gravity.
2. Mount the rectangular notch plate onto the flow channel and position the stilling baffle.
3. Turn on the pump, and slightly adjust the flow control to fill the channel upstream of the weir
with water.
4. Turn off the pump when the water starts to flow over the weir.
5. Wait a few minutes to allow the water to settle.
6. Level the point gauge with the water level in the channel. Record the reading as ho.
7. Adjust the point gauge to read 10 mm greater than the datum.
8. Record the reading as h.
9. Turn on the pump, and slightly adjust the flow until the water level coincides with the point
gauge. Check that the level has stabilized before taking readings.
10. Measure the flow rate using the volumetric tank.
11. Observe the shape of the nappe and take pictures of it.
12. Increase the flow by opening the bench regulating valve to set the heads above the datum
level in 10 mm increments until the regulating valve is fully open. Take care not to allow spillage
to occur over the plate top that is adjacent to the notch. At each condition, measure the flow rate
and observe the shape of the nappe.
13. Close the regulating valve, stop the pump, and then replace the weir with the V-notch.
14. Repeat the experiment with the V-notch weir plate, but with 5 mm increments in water
surface elevation.
15. Collect seven head and discharge readings for each weir.

3. Calibration of Water Meter

• What is a Water Meter?

Water metering is the practice of measuring water use. Water meters measure the volume of
water used by residential and commercial building units that are supplied with water by a public
water supply system. They are also used to determine flow through a particular portion of the
system.

• Illustrate the apparatuses and label the parts.

• Define the parts and its functions.

Main case

The main case is the housing containing all the other parts. One end of the case is attached to the
water line coming into the house, and the other is attached to the primary household water pipe.
The units are typically made of cast bronze, which is extremely rust-resistant.

Cover and Gasket

Atop the main case is a gasket, which provides a seal between the case can the cover assembly.
The meter cover is usually made of the same material as the main case, cast bronze. The top of
the cover is hinged.

Cover Bolt and Washer

The main case cover is secured to the main case with a bolt and washer. Most are made of a rust-
resistant material, such as bronze or stainless steel.

Inner Workings

Located inside the main case are the parts that control and measure the amount of water entering
the house. They consist of the measuring assembly, a strainer and an O-ring seal.

Analog Registers

Seated atop the measuring assembly is the register. This is the part that records the amount of
water usage. A mechanical analog register looks and functions much like the odometer in your
car, which measures the miles you have traveled. In some communities, homeowners read their
own meter every 90 days and send the meter reading to the water utility.

Electronic Components

Newer water meters have no moving parts. Instead, they have a vibrating magnetic sensor
installed inside the meter housing that sends electronic signals directly to the water system
operator (utility). This technology frees homeowners from having to read their own meters and
allows the utility to calculate water usage more quickly and accurately.

The Drip Cap

Municipal or privately-owned water utilities install meters when connecting homes to their water
supplies. Atop the main case is a gasket, which provides a seal between the case can the cover
assembly. This is the part that records the amount of water usage.

• Write the procedure in the calibration of water meter.

Gravimetric Calibration Procedures

Gravimetric calibration is one of the most accurate and cost-effective volumetric and mass flow
meter calibration procedures. The gravimetric method is ideal for liquid flowmeter calibration in
oil, water purification, and petrochemical industries.

To perform a gravimetric calibration:

• Place an aliquot (small portion) of process fluid in a test meter and weigh it for a precise amount
of time while it flows 60 seconds.

• Use a calibrated scale to obtain an accurate measurement of the weight of test fluid.

• After the test period is completed, divert the test fluid into a discharge container.

• Obtain the flow rate of the aliquot by dividing its volumetric weight by the test duration.

• Compare the calculated flow rate to the flow rate of the flow meter and adjust it to the
measured flow rate.
 Piston Prover Calibration Procedures

In the piston prover flow meter calibration procedure, a known volume of fluid is forced through
a flow meter under test. The piston prover is a cylindrical device with a known internal diameter.
The piston prover contains a piston which produces volumetric flow by positive displacement. The
piston prover method is ideal for ultrasonic flow meter calibration, fuel flow meter calibration,
and turbine flow meter calibration to a high degree of accuracy.

To perform a piston prover calibration:

• Place an aliquot of process fluid in the piston prover and flow meter under test.

• Obtain the volume of fluid that was displaced in the piston prover by multiplying its internal
diameter by the length traveled by the piston.

• Compare this value to the measurement obtained from your flow meter and adjust your flow
meter’s calibration accordingly.

4. Boiler Feed Water Test

• What are the different impurities of boiler feedwater?

The different impurities in the feed water can be grossly classified into three classes, namely
dissolved gases, dissolved solids, and suspended solids. Each of these impurities affects the boiler
system in a different way.

• Illustrate the apparatuses and label the parts for boiler feed water test.

• Define the parts and its functions.

The procedures and specifications of this test method were originally developed during laboratory
and field tests funded by the Gas Research Institute (GRI).2 Comparative emission tests were
conducted only on natural gas-fired combustion sources. Subsequently, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) sponsored Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) program
conducted further evaluations of electrochemical cell analyzers, which included laboratory tests
and field tests on natural gas and diesel fueled generators. The EPA has reviewed the ETV test
results, published additional information, and provided technical input that has been considered
in the update of this test method.
• Write the procedure in boiler feedwater test.

Reciprocating Engines-Selection of Sampling Site and Sampling Points:

i. Select a sampling site located at least five stack, duct, or pipe diameters downstream of any
turbocharger exhaust, crossover junction, or recirculation take-offs and upstream of any dilution
air inlet.
ii. Locate the sampling site no closer than 1 m or three stack, duct, or pipe diameters (whichever
is less) upstream of the gas discharge to the atmosphere.
iii. Use a minimum of three sampling points located at positions of 16.7, 50, and 83.3 % of the
stack, duct, or pipe diameter.
iv. Alternatively, the tester may choose an alternative sampling location or sample from a single
point in the center of the stack, duct, or pipe, if previous test data demonstrate that the stack,
duct, or pipe gas concentration does not vary significantly across the duct diameter, or both.

Combustion Turbines Selection of Sampling Site and Sampling Points:

1. Select a sampling site and sample points according to the procedures in 40 CFR, Part 60,
Appendix A, Method 20.
2. Alternatively, the tester may choose an alternative sampling location or sample from a single
point in the center of the stack, duct, or pipe if previous test data demonstrate that the stack,
duct, or pipe gas concentrations of CO, NO, and O, do not vary significantly across the duct
diameter, or both.
Warm Up Period:
1. Assemble the sampling system and allow the analyzer and sample interface to warm up and
adjust to
ambient temperature at the location where the stack measurements will take place.
2. The warm-up period ensures that excessive calibration drift does not occur due to temperature
changes.