Systems
Integumentary system
Consists of epidermis, hair follicle, hairs, sebaceous glands,
sweat glands, nails, sensory receptors, dermis, hypodermis.
Main functions: thermoregulation, blood reservoir, protection,
cutaneous sensations, excretion, absorption, synthesis of
vitamin D
Muscular system
Consists of skeletal muscle (axial and appendicular), tendons
(bone to muscle) and aponeuroses (muscle to muscle).
Main functions include providing skeletal movements, controlling
entrances to digestive and respiratory system, producing heat,
protect soft tissue
Skeletal system
Includes bones, cartilage, red bone marrow(red blood cell
production), yellow bone marrow (fat store and stem cells),
ligaments
Main functions- support soft tissues, assist in movement, mineral
homeostasis, blood cell production, triglyceride storage.
Nervous system
Includes: central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), brain,
spinal cord, special senses (all of PNS except optic nerve which
is CNS. Includes sensory input to the brain relating to sight,
hearing, smell, taste and equilibrium), PNS (links CNS to other
systems and senses organs).
PNS is divided into somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous
system, and enteric nervous system.
Main function: direct immediate responses to stimuli, usually by
coordinating the activities of other organ systems
Endocrine system
Includes pineal gland, thyroid gland, hypothalamus/pituitary
gland, thymus, adrenal glands, kidneys, pancreas, gonads
(ovaries and testes).
Main function- direct long term changes in other organ systems
Lymphatic system
Includes lymphatic vessels, lymphatic fluid, B cells and T cells,
lymph nodes including tonsils, spleen, thymus, lymphatic ducts.
Main function: defend against infection and disease, returns
tissue fluid to bloodstream
Cardiovascular system
Includes heart, blood vessels, arteries, capillaries, veins, blood
Main function- transports cells and dissolved materials, including
nutrients, wastes and gases.
Respiratory system
Includes nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, lungs.
Main functions include- delivers air to site where gas exchange
occurs between the air and circulating blood, produces sound
Digestive system
Includes- oral cavity, salivary glands, pharynx, stomach, small
intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, large intestine, rectum,
anus
Main function- process food and absorb nutrients
Urinary system
Includes- kidneys (EPO hormone), ureters, urinary bladder,
urethra.
Main functions- eliminates excess water, salts and wastes
Reproductive system
Includes- testes, epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal glands,
prostate gland, urethra, penis, scrotum, ovaries, uterine tubes,
uterus, vagina, mammary glands
Epithelial tissue
Covers body surfaces, forms glands, forms selective barriers,
secretory and protective functions
Junctions:
Tight, adherens, desmosome, gap, hemidesmosome junctions
Basement membrane
Consists of basal lamina (secreted by epithelial cells containing
collagen, laminin, proteoglycans, glycoproteins and reticular
lamina (secreted by underlying connective tissue fibroblasts,
contains fibrous proteins such as fibronectin and collagen. Blood
vessels below basement membrane
Malignant melanoma
ABCD warning signs: asymmetry, border irregularity, colour,
diameter >6mm
Mesothelium
Forms the epithelial layer of serous membrane (peritoneum,
pleura, pericardium)
Endothelium
Lines the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems (heart, blood
vessels, lymphatic vessel linings. Lines the inside of the heart
and blood and lymphatic vessels.
Present at sites of filtration, or diffusion
Glands
Can be endocrine, exocrine or single cell glands
Connective tissue
Binds support and strengthen other body tissues, A major
transport system of the body, and a major site of stored energy.
CT = ECM + Cells
ECM = the material located between widely spaced cells, ECM =
GS + fibres
Ground substance = Composed of a mixture of water, proteins
and sugars. GS = H2O + Proteins + polysaccharides
GAG (sugar) - Long, unbranched polysaccharides. Trap water,
making GS more jelly like. Can be sulfted or non sulfated.
Sulfated ones include dermatan sulphate (skin, tendons, blood
vessels, heart valves), heparin sulphate, keratan sulphate (bone,
cartilage, cornea), chondroitin sulphate (cartilage, bone, skin,
blood vessels). Non sulfated includes hyaluronic acid, which is
broken down by hyaluronidase
Fibres- Collagen, reticular, elastic
Marfan syndrome
Hereditary disease defect in fibrillin, less fibrillin so more GF
Connective tissue cell types: Fibroblasts, adipocytes (these are
two most common). Others include: macrophages, plasma cells,
mast cells, leucocytes
Classification of connective tissue: Embryonic (Mesenchyme and
mucous) and mature (connective (Loose (areolar, adipose,
reticular), or dense (dense regular, dense irregular, elastic)), fluid
(blood and lymph) and supporting (cartilage and bone)
Nervous tissue
3 major functions: sensory, integrative, motor
Multipolar neurons: most common in CNS. all motor neurons are
this class.
Bipolar neurons: 2 distinct processes (1 dendritic and one axon).
Rare and small (30nm) in special sense organs.
Unipolar neurons: Dendrites and axons are continuous with the
cell body off to the side. Most sensory neurons are this
Anaxonic neuron: Rare and function poorly understood, anatomy
cannot distinguish dendrites from axons, found in brain and
special sense organs.
Neuroglia: Support neurons in both CNS and PNS. Includes
astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, IV ependymal cells in
CNS. PNS ones include neuroglia, satellite cells
Organelles
Cytoplasm: everything inside the plasma membrane including
the organelles but not the nucleus. Cytosol is the liquid portion of
it
Endomembrane system: Regulates protein traffic and performs
metabolic functions. Endomembrane system and plasma
membrane work together to label and ship molecules. Includes
nucleus, smooth and rough ER, golgi, lysosomes.
Plasma membrane: Double layer of phospholipids with
embedded proteins. Contains integral proteins. Functions
include transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, cell to
cell signalling, intercellular joining.
Nucleus: Largest organelle, includes nuclear envelope, nuclear
pores, nucleolus, mRNA, rRNA, and it houses and protects DNA
Nucleosome: 2 x groups of 8 histones
Ribosomes: Protein production, consists of 2 subunits
Endoplasmic reticulum: An extensive network of tubes and
tubules stretching out from the nuclear membrane. Rough ER
has ribosomes, and helps with the production of secreted,
membrane and organelle proteins. Smooth ER lacks ribosomes
and stores proteins and enzymes, synthesises lipids, and stores
calcium ions
Golgi apparatus: 3-20 flattened membranous sacs called
cisternae, stacked on top of one another, they modify, sort and
package and transport proteins received from the rough ER,
Formation of secretory vesicles, transport vesicles.
Lysosomes: Membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that many
eukaryotic cells use to digest macromolecules. Highly acidic
inside, for destroying compounds, like to destroy immune or
pathogen cells
Mitochondria: For cellular respiration, not part of the
endomembrane system.
Cytoskeleton: Consists of microfilaments, intermediate filaments,
and microtubules
Path of secreted protein: mRNA is made in the nucleus and
leaves out the nuclear pores. Ribosome in cytosol starts,
reached SRP, Ribosome goes to rough ER to finish translation,
protein folds in lumen on rough ER, then it goes to the golgi
apparatus to be shipped away to the membrane to be secreted
Cellular respiration: Consists of glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation,
citric acid cycle and electron transport chain (including
chemiosmosis)
Glycolysis: Glucose turns into 2 pyruvates and 2 waters. 2 ATP
net produced (2 used and 4 made). 2NAD turns into 2NADH.
Occurs in cytosol, anaerobic.
Phosphofructokinase: Rate limiting for glycolysis. Inhibited by
citrate and ATP. It catalyses an early step in glycolysis. This
feedback regulation adjusts the rate of respiration as the cells
catabolic and anabolic demands change
Pyruvate oxidation: Forms acetyl CoA. Occurs in mitochondrial
matrix, aerobic. Produces no ATP, but produces 2 NADH per
glucose (1 per pyruvate enables the 2-Carbon acetyl group to
enter the citric acid cycle
Citric acid cycle: Occurs in mitochondrial matrix, results in 2 ATP,
6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4CO2 per glucose molecule
Oxidative phosphorylation: Electron transport chain. Occurs at
proteins within the inner membrane, aerobic. NADH and FADH2
are oxidised to donate 1 oe 2 electrons. Electrons transfer from
protein to protein along the chain in a series of redox reactions,
giving up a small amount of energy at each transfer which
enables H+ ions to be pumped into the intermembrane space.
Includes chemiosmosis, which is H+ ions being pumped into the
intermembrane space. Produces 26-28 ATP
Substrate phosphorylation: ATP generated by direct transfer
(from a substrate) of a phosphate group to ADP. glycolysis and
citric acid cycle make ATP via substrate phosphorylation.
Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes: Body does not produce insulin, affects 5-10%
of diabetics, usually though autoimmune or environmental
factors
Type 2 diabetes: Affects over 90% of diabetics, body produced
insulin but cells are insulin resistant
Homeostasis: The maintenance of relatively constant conditions
within physiologically tolerate limits
Hyperglycemia: Increase in blood glucose level
Hypoglycemia: stimulate alpha cells in our pancreas to secrete
glucagon, which acts on liver and skeletal cells to increase
breakdown of the storage of glucose
Insulin: Produced by B cells of pancreas
Glucagon: Produced by alpha cells of pancrea, stimulates the
breakdown of glycogen to increase blood sugar level
Cell signalling
Reception - transduction - response
Intracellular receptors: Least common, primary messenger is
hydrophobic and or small, so can enter cell, eg testosterone,
oestrogen
Membrane bound / cell surface receptors: Primary messenger is
generally hydrophilic or large, most common method of
signalling, eg GPCRs, receptor tyrosine kinase, ligand gated ion
channel
Ligand gated ion channel: Binding of ligand stimulates a change,
channel opens or closes
Signal transduction pathway: Signals relay from receptors to
target. Eg phosphorylation cascade
cAMP: Is a second messner, in GPCR. Adenylyl cyclase is
activated and converts ATP to cAMP.
DNA
Transcription: Initiation- promoter commonly including a TATA
box, evernal transcription factors recognize the TATA box and
bind to the DNA before RNA polymerase II can bind in the
correct position and orientation. Elongation- RNA nucleotides
added to 3’ end of growing transcript. Hydrogen bonds form, and
then it forms a phosphodiester bond, which is a lot stronger.
Termination- after transcription of the polyadenylation signal,
nuclear enzymes release pre-mRNA and the RNA polymerase
dissociates from the DNA
mRNA processing: capping, tailing, splicing
Alternative splicing: When different combinations of exons are
joined together, resulting in the production of multiple forms of
mRNA from single preMRNA.
Translation: Initiation- start codon is AUG. Elongation- codon
recognition, peptide bond formation, translocation. Termination-
reaches a stop codon polypeptide chain release
Signal peptide: At N terminus of protein, about 20 aas. Makes
ribosome take it to the rough ER
Cell cycle
Checkpoints: G1, S, G2, M
Mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and
cytokinesis
Meiosis: Meiosis I, prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I,
Telophase I, Meiosis II, prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II,
Telophase II
Large scale alterations: Chromosomal rearrangements in mitosis
where it shouldn't happen
Small scale modifications: a mutation occurring in either a single
nucleotide, or nucleotide pair insertions or deletions
Types of mutation effects: Silent, mussense, nonsense,
frameshift
MPF: Maturation promoting factor, when the cyclic and Cdk are
together it allows mitosis to commence, because it is able to
pjosrpulation other proteins
Proto Oncogenes: Genes that normally stimulate cell production
Tumour suppressor genes: Genes that keep proliferation in
check
Embryology
Three primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
Cleavage: Rapid cell division after fertilisation
Implantation: Blastocysts implants to endometrium
Development of the trophoblast and bilaminar embryonic disk:
Trophoblast develops into 2 layers after about 8 days after
fertilisation. Trophoblast gives rise to placenta
Gastrulation: Formation of 3 disc layers from 2
Embryonic folding: Embryo folds into tube
Stem cells: Includes totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent,
nullipotent
Proteins
What do proteins do?: Transport, structural, hormone signalling,
immunologica, contractile, storage, toxins
Primary structure: Entire sequence of aas in a protein
Secondary structure: localised folding of the polypeptide into
antiparallel or parallel b sheets or right hand alpha helices
Tertiary structure: Opposite charred R groups attract
Quaternary structure: Some proteins only. Driven by ionic
interactions