FUNCTIONS OF THE BONE AND THE SKELETAL SYSTEM PHOTOS d.

usually little bit curved

  i. for strength
1. SUPPORT e. bones included are
a. the skeleton provides a structural framework for the body i. thigh
  1. femur
2. PROTECTION ii. leg
a. protects many internal organs from injury 1. tibia and fibula
i. heart iii. forearm
ii. lungs 1. ulna and radius
iii. brain iv. fingers and toes
  1. phalanges, metacarpals
3. ASSISTANCE IN MOVEMENT  
a. provides skeletal muscle attachments 2. SHORT BONES
  a. somewhat cube shaped
4. MINERAL HOMEOSTASIS b. nearly equal in length and width
a. bone tissue stores several minerals c. bones included are
i. calcium i. most wrist
ii. phosphorus 1. carpals
b. balancing the calcium and phosphorus level in blood a. scaphoid
  b. capitate
5. BLOOD CELLS PRODUCTIONS c. trapezium
a. within certain bones a connective tissue called d. trapezoid
i. red bone marrow e. lunate
1. produces red blood cells f. triquetrum
2. white blood cells g. pisiform
3. platelets h. hamate
  2. ankle bones
6. TRIGLYCERIDE STORAGE a. calcaneus
a. yellow bone marrow b. talus
i. consist of adipose cells c. navicular
1. stores the triglycerides in adults d. cuneiforms
  e. cuboid
TYPES OF THE BONES  
  3. FLAT BONES
1. LONG BONES a. generally thin but afford protection
a. have greater length than width b. provide extensive surfaces for muscle attachments
b. consists of shaft c. bones included are:
c. consists of variable number of ends i. cranial bones
 1. skull o IN ORDER PROCESS
2. protects the brain  osteoprogenitor cells
ii. sternum  develops into and osteoblasts
1. protects the breastbone  osteoblasts
iii. ribs  forms the bone extracellular matrix
1. protects the thorax  osteocytes
iv. scapulae  maintains bone tissue
1. shoulder blades  keeping the calcium in the bone tissue
   osteoclast
4. IRREGULAR BONES  functions in resorption
a. complex shape  breakdown of bone matrix
b. cannot be grouped into  responds to decrease calcium in the
i. flat blood thereby breaking down the calcium
ii. short in the bone matrix
iii. long  
c. bones included are: BONE FORMATION
i. vertebrae  bone are composed of
ii. some facial bones o cells
  o extracellular matrix
STRUCTURE OF BONE  
  TWO (2) STEPS / TYPES IN BONE FORMATION
PARTS OF LONG BONE  
o has two (2) main parts o intramembranous ossification ; first type
i. compact bone  characteristics of flat and irregular bones
1. contains yellow bone marrow  meaning: bone forming bone
a. storing triglycerides in adults  bone is derived from
ii. red bone marrow  mesenchymal tissue or osteoprogenitor cells,
1. RBCS (red blood cells)  development of ossification center, maturing to
2. WBCS (white blood cells) osteoblasts, and
3. platelets  secretes extracellular matrix
   develop to osteocytes
ii. spongey bone  keep the bone tissue containing the calcium
  within
HISTOLOGY OF BONE  calcification
o has two (2) main bone cells  after sometime, there will be formation of trabeculae
i. osteocytes  facilitates the blood vessels
ii. osteoclasts  development of the periosteum
   protect the bone tissue
    2-6 weeks soft callus formation
o endochondral ossification  THIRD
 characteristics of long bones  fibrocartilage converts to spongy bone tissue
1. hyalin cartilage is transformed into bone tissue  through osteoblasts
2. from hyalin cartilage, the nutrient artery  the hard callus formation
a. part of primary ossification center  FOURTH
3. primary ossification center will expand and giving rise to  bone remodeling happens
a. secondary ossification center  spongy bones is converted to compact bone
4. formation of a compact part and spongey part  dead portions of bone are absorbed by osteoclasts
   
o FRACTURES IN BONE FORMATION BONE RESORPTION : REGULATION OF BLOOD CALCIUM LEVEL
 has four (4) types o low blood calcium level = parathyroid hormones are turned on
   parathyroid stimulates the osteoclasts
 PARTIAL  overall response: increase in blood calcium level
 also called as incomplete  returns to homeostasis when blood calcium is back to normal
 incomplete break across the bone EXERCISE AND BONE TISSUES
 e.g. cracks  
 COMPLETE  bone tissue
 complete break across the bone o has the ability to alter its strength in response to mechanical
 the bone is broken into two or more pieces stress
 CLOSED  
 also called as simple  physical fitness (when placed under stress and bone tissue becomes
 fractured bone does not break through the skin stronger)
 OPEN o plays a role in increasing the deposition of mineral salts and
 also called as compound production of collagen fibers
 the broken ends of the bone protrude through the skin  mechanical stress
  o maintain the integrity of the bone tissue
REPAIR OF FRACTURES o without this,
 four stages  bone does not remodel normally because resorption
  outpaces bone formation
 FIRST o with the absence of this
 starts with phagocytosis  bone weakens through decreased numbers of collagen
 phagocytes begin to remove any dead bone tissue fibers and demineralization
 hematoma formation  means the loss of bone minerals
 SECOND  need the right amount of minerals and vitamins to keep the bone healthy
 chondroblasts forming fibrocartilage at the fracture sites
 it bridges the broken ends of the bone
 forming fibrocartilage is called as the soft callus formation FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE BONE  
METABOLISM  produced by the
kidneys
MINERALS COMMENTS  deficiency causes faulty
1. Calcium make bone extracellular matrix hard calcification and slows down
bone growth
2. Magnesium helps form the bone extracellular matrix  may reduce risk of
osteoporosis but toxic when
3. Fluoride helps strengthen the bone extracellular taken in high doses
matrix
4. Vitamins K and  needed for synthesis of
4. Manganese activates enzymes involved in synthesis of B12 bone proteins
bone extracellular matrix  deficiency leads to abnormal
VITAMINS COMMENTS protein production in bone
extracellular matrix
1. Vitamin A  needed for activity of  decreased bone
osteoblasts during density
remodeling the bone
 specially if fracture HORMONES COMMENTS
occurs 1. Human growth  Secreted by anterior lobe of
 deficiency stunts bone hormone (hGH) pituitary gland
growth  promotes general growth of
 toxic in high doses all body tissues, including
2. Vitamin C  for synthesis of collagen, the bone,
main bone protein  mainly by
 deficiency leads to stimulating
decreased collagen production of
production insulinlike growth
 slows down bone factors
growth 2. Insulinlike  secreted by liver, bones and
 delay repairs of growth factors other tissues on simulation
broken bones (IGFs) by human growth hormone
3. Vitamin D  very important  promotes normal bone
 increases the absorption of growth
calcium from  by simulating
gastrointestinal tract into osteoblasts and
blood  by increasing
 active form (calcitriol) synthesis of proteins
 needed to build new hormone (PTH) glands:
bone  promotes bone resorption
 by osteoclasts
3. thyroid  secreted by thyroid gland  enhances recovery of
hormones  promote normal bone calcium ions from
(thyroxine, and growth urine
triiodothyronine  by simulating  promotes formation of
) osteoblasts active form of vitamin D
4. insulin  Secreted by pancreas: (calcitriol)
 promotes normal bone 7. Calcitonin (CT)  secreted by thyroid gland
growth  inhibits bone resorption
 by increasing  by osteoclasts
synthesis of bone
proteins Exercise weight bearing activity will stimulate
osteoblasts
5. sex hormones  Secreted by ovaries in help build thicker and stronger bones
( estrogens and women (estrogens) retard loss of bone mass that occurs as
testosterone)  secreted by testes in men people age
(testosterone);
 stimulate osteoblasts and Aging  decrease in sex hormones
promote the sudden specially middle age to
"growth spurt adulthood
 occurs during the  specially in women
teenage years: after menopause
 shut down growth at  bone resorption
epiphyseal plates  by osteoclasts
around age 18-21, outpaces bone
causing lengthwise deposition by
growth of bone to end; osteoblasts
 contribute to bone o which leads
remodeling during to decrease
adulthood by slowing bone in bone
resorption mass and an
 by osteoclasts and increased
 promoting bone deposition risk of
 by osteoblasts osteoporosi
s
6. parathyroid  Secreted by parathyroid
DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
  o long
1. Location o short
a. axial skeleton (80 bones) o flat
i. skull o irregular
ii. bone of cranium and face  
iii. hyoid bone  SKULL AND HYOID BONE
iv. pairs of auditory ossicles o superior view
1. incus malleus  frontal bone - anterior
2. stapes  parietal bone - posterior
v. vertebral column  occipital bone - posterior
vi. thorax  coronal suture - joining the frontal and parietal
1. sternum  before sutures are used, there are fontanels in the area
2. ribs o inferior view
b. appendicular skeleton (126 bones)  bones irregularly shaped
i. pectoral girdles  foramen magnum
1. clavicle  means large opening
2. scapula  transmits your spinal cord
ii. upper limbs o sphenoid bone
1. humerus o ethmoid bone
2. ulna o paranasal sinuses
3. radius  skull also protects sinuses
4. carpals  sphenoidal
5. metacarpals  maxillary
6. phalanges  frontal
iii. pelvic (hip) girdle  ethmoidal
1. hip bone  6 FONTANELS AT BIRTH
2. or pelvic bone o pair of anterolateral fontanels
iv. lower limbs  closing at about 3 months
1. femur  second to close
2. patella o pair of posterolateral fontanels
3. fibula  will begin closing at 1 to 2 months but not completely
4. tibia closed
5. tarsals  completely closed at 1 year old
6. metatarsals o one anterior fontanel
7. phalanges  last one that closes
   18 to 24 months after birth
total adult skeleton : 206 bones  accommodates the expanding brain
2. TYPE OF BONE and LOCATION o one posterior fontanel
  first one that closes
 
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN
o 7 cervical vertebrae
o 12 thoracic vertebrae
o 5 lumbar vertebrae
o 5 fused sacral vertebrae
o 1 coccyx

AGING

COMPARISON OF FEMALE AND MALE