GC2 Notes on Solutions, Concentration & Thermochemistry

CAIDO, Danielle Jed T.
3rd Quarter
12 - Tranquility | General Chemistry 2 | Lecture Notes
Lesson 1: Solutions
February 7, 2022
SOLUTION
• Solutions
o A homogenous mixture of pure substance.
o E.g.
▪ Salt Water
• Solvent
o The medium in which the solutes are dissolved.
o Usually the most abundant substance.
o E.g.
▪ Water
• Solute
o The one that is being dissolved.
o E.g.
▪ Salt
NATURE OF SOLUTION
• Soluble
o A substance that dissolves in another soluble.
o E.g.
▪ Salt and Sugar are soluble in Water
• Insoluble
o A substance that does not dissolve in another substance.
o E.g.
▪ Copper and Mercury are insoluble with Water
• Miscible
o Liquids which are completely soluble in water.
o E.g.
▪ Vinegar and Soy Sauce
G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 1

CAIDO, Danielle Jed T. 3rd Quarter
• Immiscible
o Liquids which are not soluble in water.
o E.g.
▪ Oil and Water do not mix
• Aqueous Solution
o A Solution in which the solvent is water.
o Water
▪ "Universal Solvent"
• Electrolyte
o A Substance that dissolves in water to form a solution that conducts electric current.
o E.g.
▪ Sodium Chloride solution is an Electrolyte
• Nonelectrolyte
o A solution that does not conduct electric current
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE

OF DISSOLUTION
• Surface Area / Particle Size
o Greater surface area, faster it dissolves.
• Temperature
o Most solids dissolve faster at higher temps.
• Agitation
o Stirring or shaking will speed up dissolution.

SOLUBILITY
• Solubility
o The amount of solute that will be given in a given amount of solvent.
o Usually Expressed in grams of solute in 100 g of Solvent.
THREE TYPES OF SOLUTION

1. Unsaturated Solution
o Is able to dissolve more solute
2. Saturated Solution
o Has dissolved the maximum amount of solute
3. Supersaturated Solution
o Has dissolved excess solute (at a higher temperature). Solid crystals generally form
when this solution is cooled.
FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

• The nature of the solute and Solvent
o Different substances have different solubilities
• Temperature
o Many solid substances become more soluble as the temperature of a solvent increases
o However, gases are less soluble in liquids at higher temps.
• Pressure
o Only affects the solubility of gases.
o As Pressure increases, the solubility of gases increases.
TEMPARATURE
• The solubility of most solid substances increases as the temperature of the solvent increases.
• For a few substances, solubility decreases with temperature.

PRESSURE
• Carbonated beverages are a good example.
o These drinks contain large amounts of carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2 ) dissolved in water.
o Dissolved 𝐶𝑂2 makes the liquid fizz and your mouth tingle.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATIONS OF

SOLUTIONS
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION
• DILLUTE Solution
o Contains very small amount of solute
• CONCENTRATED Solution
o Contains a relatively large amount of solute
FORMULAS TO USE
• Mass Percentage
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
o 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 100%
• Mole Fraction (X)

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
o 𝑋𝐴 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
o In some applications, one needs the mole fraction of solvent, not solute - make sure you find the
quantity you need.
• Molarity (M)
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
o 𝑀 = 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
o Since volume is temperature-dependent, molarity can change with temperature.
• Molality (m)
o 𝑚 = 𝐾𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
o Since both moles and mass do not change with temperature, molality (unlike molarity) is not
temperature-dependent.
• Parts per Million (ppm)

o 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 𝑥 106
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• Parts per Billion (ppb)

o 𝑝𝑝𝑏 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 109

Lesson 2: Solubility & Concentration

February 8, 2022
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION
FORMULAS TO USE:
• Molarity (M)
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑙
o 𝑀 = =
𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿
o Derived Formulas:
▪ 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
▪ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• Parts Ratio
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
o 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑥 102 𝑜𝑟 106 𝑜𝑟 109
• Parts per Million (ppm)

o 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 106
𝑚𝑔
o 𝑝𝑝𝑚 =
𝐿

𝜇𝑔
o 𝑝𝑝𝑏 = 𝐿

𝜇𝑔
o 𝑝𝑝𝑏 = 𝐿
• Parts per Trillion (ppt)

𝑛𝑔
o 𝑝𝑝𝑏 =
𝐿
• Mole Fraction (X)

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
o 𝑋𝐴 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
o 𝑋𝐴 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝐴+𝐵
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵
o 𝑋𝐵 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝐴+𝐵
o 𝑋𝐴 + 𝑋𝐵 = 1.00
• Molality (m)
o 𝑚 = 𝐾𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Lesson 3: Thermochemistry
March 1, 2022
The Flow of Energy
• Energy is the capacity to do work or supply heat.
• Energy has no mass or volume.
• Chemical Potential Energy is energy stored in chemicals.
• The kinds f atoms and the arrangement of the atoms in a substance determine the amount of
energy stored in the substance.
Thermochemistry
• It is the study of the heat changes that occur during chemical reactions and physical changes of
state.
• The law of conservation of energy states that in any physical process, energy is neither created
nor destroyed.
Heat
• It is a form of energy that always flows from a warmer object to a cooler object.
• The heat capacity of an object is the amount of heat it takes t change an object's temperature
by exactly.
• The greater the mass of an object, the greater the heat capacity.
• The heat capacity
• Formula:
o 𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶∆𝑇
• Where:
o Mass is in grams
o Specific heat is in J/g°C
o Change in temp is in °C
Exothermic and Endothermic

• Thermochemistry is concerned with the flow of heat between a chemical system (reaction) and
its surroundings.
• A system is the specific part of the universe on which you focus your attention.
• The surroundings include everything outside the system.
• The system and the surroundings constitute the universe.
• In thermochemical calculations, the direction of the heat flow is given from the point of view of
the system.
• A process

Units of Heat
• A calorie is the quantity of heat that raises the temperature of 1 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 of pure water 1°𝐶.
• A Calorie, or dietary Calorie, is equal to 1000 calories.
• A Joule is the SI unit of heat and energy.
• 1 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒 = 1000 𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 1 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 4184 𝐽
• 1 𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 4.184 𝐽
Heat Capacity (C)

• The heat capacity of an object is the amount of heat it takes t change an object's temperature
by exactly .
• The greater the mass of an object, the greater the heat capacity.
• The heat capacity
• Formula:
𝑞
• 𝐶 = ∆𝑇
Specific Heat
• The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature
of 1 gram of the substance
• Specific heat is represented by 1°C.
• The units of specific heat are J/g°C.
• Water has a higher specific heat than most substances.
• Formula:
𝑞
• 𝑐 = 𝑚∆𝑇
Calorimeter
• 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝟏:
o 𝑞 = ∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶∆𝑇

• Formula 2:
o
• Ideally all of the heat transfer occurs between the two substances, with no heat gained or lost
by either its external environment.
• Formula 3:
o
• This relationship can be rearranged to show that the heat gained by substance M is equal to the
heat lost by substance W.
Heat Change Sign Convention
Heat Change Sign Convention

• The heat of combustion is the heat of reaction for the complete burning of one mole of a
substance.

∆H
• The heat absorbed by one mole of a substance melting from a solid to a liquid at constant
temperature is the molar heat of fusion.
• The heat lost when one mole of a liquid changes to a solid at a constant temperature is the
molar heat of solidification.
• Formula 1:
o ∆𝐻𝑓𝑢𝑠 = −∆𝐻𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
• The heat absorbed by one mole of a substance changing from a liquid to a vapor is the molar
heat of vaporization.
• The heat released by one mole of a substance changing from a vapor to a liquid is the molar
heat of condensation.
• Formula 2:
o ∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 = −∆𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
• The heat change caused by dissolution of one mole of a substance is the molar heat of solution.
o Ex.
Calculating Heats of Reaction

• Hess’ Law of heat summation states that if you add two or more thermochemical equations to
give a final equation, then you can also add the heat changes to give the final heat change.
• The standard heat of formation of a compound is the change in enthalpy that accompanies the
formation of one mole of the compound from its element with all substances in their standard
states at 25°C.
• The ∆𝐻𝑓 ∘ of a free element in its standard state is zero.
• ∆𝐻 ∘ = ∆𝐻𝑓 ∘ (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∆𝐻𝑓 ∘ (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)

Lesson 4: Colligative Properties

March 15, 2022
Colligative Properties
• It means “depending upon the collection”.
• Colligative properties are properties that depend only on the concentration of the solute and
not on the nature of the solution.
• Properties that depend on the amount of solute and not on the kind or chemical nature of the
solute.
• There are four colligative properties to consider:
o Vapor pressure lowering (Raoult’s Law)
o Freezing point depression
o Boiling point elevation
o Osmotic pressure
Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure

• A solvent in a closed container reaches a state of dynamic equilibrium.
• The pressure exerted by the vapor in the headspace is referred to as the vapor pressure of the
solvent.
• The addition of any nonvolatile solute (one with no measurable vapor pressure) to any solvent
reduces the vapor pressure of the solvent.
• Nonvolatile solutes reduce the ability of the surface solvent molecules to escape the liquid.
o Vapor pressure is reduced.
• The extent of vapor pressure lowering depends on the amount of solute.

o Raoult’s Law
▪ It quantifies the amount of vapor pressure lowering that is observed.
• Formula:
Colligative Properties: BP Elevation

• The addition of a nonvolatile solute causes solutions to have higher boiling points than the pure
solvent.
o Vapor pressure decreases with addition of non-volatile solute.
o Higher temperature is needed in order for vapor pressure to equal 1 atm.

• Formula:
Colligative Properties: Freezing PT Depression

• The addition of a nonvolatile solute causes solutions to have lower freezing points than the pure
solvent.
• Solid-liquid equilibrium line rises ~ vertically from the triple point, which is lower than that of
pure solvent.
o Freezing point of the solution is lower than that of the pure solvent.

• Formula:

Pics: Practice Exercises





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CAIDO, Danielle Jed T.

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 1

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 2

THREE TYPES OF SOLUTION

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 3

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 4

WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATIONS OF

• Mole Fraction (X)

o Since volume is temperature-dependent, molarity can change with temperature.

• Parts per Million (ppm)

• Parts per Billion (ppb)

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 5

Lesson 2: Solubility & Concentration

• Parts per Million (ppm)

• Parts per Billion (ppb)

• Parts per Billion (ppb)

• Parts per Trillion (ppt)

• Mole Fraction (X)

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 6

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 7

Exothermic and Endothermic

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 8

Heat Capacity (C)

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 9

Heat Change Sign Convention

Heat Change Sign Convention

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 10

Calculating Heats of Reaction

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 11

Lesson 4: Colligative Properties

Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 12

Colligative Properties: BP Elevation

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 13

Colligative Properties: Freezing PT Depression

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 14

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 15

Pics: Practice Exercises

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 16

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 17

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 18

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 19

G. Chem 2 | 3rd Quarter Lecture Notes | 20

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