1

Wet Processing Technology – I

Engr. Mohammad Rafiqul Islam
B. Sc. Engineer (BUTex)
Mobile: 01613-017292.
PrimeasiaUniversity

Acid Dyes
Acid dyes are highly water soluble and have better light
fastness than basic dyes. The textile acid dyes are effective for
protein fibers such as silk, wool, nylon and modified acrylics. In
an acidic solution, the –NH2 functionalities of the fibers are
protonated to give a positive charge: -NH3⁺

Why acid dye is so called ?

Acid dyes are typically used to dye natural protein (Wool, Silk),
synthetic polyamide (Nylon) and to a small extent acrylics and
blends of these fibers. They are so called because they are
applied to these fibers from dye bath in acidic or neutral
conditions. The generic term ‘Acid dyes’ includes several
individual dye class. As per the color Index definition, metal
complex dyes are also included in the category of acid dyes.
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Most of the commercially available acid dyes are Azo,

Anthraquinone or triphenyl methane – based. Although there
are other acid dyes like azine, xanthane, nitro, indigoid,
quinoline and carbolan dyes, these dyes are of limited
commercial value.
Molecular weight of acid dyes range from 200-900. Most have
one or two –SO3Na groups which are water soluble and capable
of bonding with fibers having cationic sites They give a wide
range of bright colors on textiles, specially when mono azo and
anthraquinone structures are used. Some of the anthraquinone
greens and violets are more brilliant than azo dyes.

Properties of Acid dyes

1. Acid dyestuff is soluble in water.
2. These dyes are easily applied on wool, silk and nylon
fibers.
3. These dyes are generally applied in the presence of acids
like acetic acid, sulphuric acid or formic acid.
4. They are in much case soluble in alcohol.
5. When acid dyestuffs are treated with a reducing agent,
they are generally decolorized.
6. They are usually combined with basic dyes.
7. Some acid dyes have good light fastness.
8. Many bright shades have found here.
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9. Maximum cellulose fiber can’t absorb acid dyes.

10. Most of the acid dyes are sodium salt of sulphuric
acid and carboxylic acids and anion group is the active
color component.

Trade Name of Acid dyes

S/L No Trade Name Company Name Country of Origin
01 Erganil BASF Germany
02 Lurazol Germany Germany
03 Acilan Germany Germany
04 Lissamine ICI U.K.
05 Naphthalene ICI U.K.
06 Solvay ICI U.K.
07 Benzyl Hantsman Switzerland
08 Koton Hantsman Switzerland
09 Supramine Hantsman Switzerland
10 Naphthanol Hantsman Switzerland

DYEING PROCEDURE OF NYLON FABRICS WITH ACID DYES

Theory: Acid dyes are highly water soluble and have better
light fastness than basic dyes. The textile acid dyes are
effective for protein fibers such as silk, wool, nylon and
modified acrylics. They contain sulphonic acid groups
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which are usually present as sodium sulphonates salts.

These increase solubility in water and give the dye
molecules a negative charge. In an acidic solution, the -NH2
functionalities of the fibers are protonated to give a
positive charge: -NH3+. This charge interacts with the
negative charge, allowing the formation of ionic
interactions. As well as this, Van-Der-Waals bonds, dipolar
bonds and hydrogen bonds are formed between dye and
fiber.

Nylon-NH2 + H⁺ → Nylon-NH₃⁺
Nylon Polymer Hydrogen Nylon polymer with
With terminal positively charged
Amino group terminal amino group

Nylon – NH3⁺ + DSO3 → Nylon-NH₃⁺ - SO3D

Nylon polymer with Dye
positively charged Anion
terminal amino group
Ionic link formed
between positively
charged terminal amino
group on Nylon polymer
and dye anion.
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Recipe:
Acid dye =X%
Wetting Agent = 0.5 – 1.0 gm/l
Sequestering Agent = 0.5 gm/l
Leveling Agent = 1.0 – 2.0 gm/l
Ammonium Acetate = 2.0 – 3,0 gm/l
Acetic Acid = 1.0 – 2.0 gm/l
Temperature = 100̊̊̊̊ᵒC
Time = 60 min
Pᴴ Value = 4.5 – 5.5
M : L ratio = 1 : 10

Procedure:
Dye solution preparation: Dyestuff mixed with hot
water and stair continuously to form solution.
1. The dye bath is set at 40̊̊̊̊ᵒC with substrate and required
water level.
2. Add leveling agent, sequestering agent and other
auxiliaries and buffer (ammonium acetate and acetic
acid) to maintain the Pᴴ of the bath 4.5 – 5.5 and run
time 10 min.
3. Add dye solution at 40̊̊̊̊ᵒC and run time 10 min.
4. Raise temperature to 100̊̊̊̊ᵒC (2ᵒC / min) within 30
minutes.
5. Run time of the dye bath 45 – 60 min for dyeing.
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6. Cool down the temperature to 60̊̊̊̊ᵒC - 70ᵒC and the bath

drain.
7. Carry on after treatment process.

After treatment:
1. Rinse the dye bath with hot water.
2. Rinse the dye bath with cold water.
3. For improvement of polyamide dyeing with acid dyes
can improve by treating with a suitable fixing agent
at 60̊̊̊̊ᵒC - 70ᵒC for 15 – 20 minutes at Pᴴ 4.5 (with
acetic acid)
4. Rinse again to clean unexpected chemicals any more.

Conclusion:
Dyeing of Nylon fabrics is governed by –
1. Dyeing time
2. Dyeing Concentration
3. Type of dye
4. Nature of leveling agent employed
5. Temperature of the dye bath.
6. Coverage of barriness.
7. Pᴴ of the dye bath.
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Process sequence of Nylon Dyeing

100% Nylon Fabrics
Add Chemicals & Auxiliaries
Set the dyw bath Pᴴ 4.5 – 5.5
Add dye solution at 40ᵒC
Dyeing with Acid dyes at 100◦C for 45 minutes
After treatment
Cold Rinsing
Hot Rinsing
Cold Rinsing
Fixing
Unload
Stentering
Finishing
Final Inspection
Packing
Delivery
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110 100ᵒC X 60 min

100

90

80

70

60 60ᵒCX 20’

50
40

30

20

10

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160

Time
Diagram of Nylon Dyeing
 9

CH₃

NH₂ C NH₂

O₃S

⁺NH₂
 10

Wet Processing: The process which is applied on textile

materials (Fabrics, yarn or fibers) in the form of liquid with
involves some chemicals action is called “Wet Processing”. A
few basic chemicals (Soda ash, caustic, hydrogen per oxide,
common salt, glauber salt, acetic acid, etc.) and range of textile
auxiliaries (detergent, sequestering agent, stabilizer, buffer, oil
remover, anti stainer, anti crease, antifoam, leveling agent,
dispersing agent, soaping agent, fixing agent, etc) are used in
the wet processing of textiles.
Wet processing is one of the major streams in textile
engineering refers to textile chemical processing. Normally, wet
processing includes de sizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing,
printing and finishing, etc.
Three basic operation are involved in wet processing :
1. Pre-treatment
2. Coloration
3. Finishing
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Flow Chart of wet processing technology :

Grey Fabrics
↓
Grey Fabric Inspection
↓
Sewing / Stitching
↓
Brushing
↓
Cropping / Shearing
↓
Singeing
↓
De-sizing
↓
Scouring
↓
Bleaching
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↓
Washing
↓ ↓ ↓
Dyeing Drying Drying
↓ ↓ ↓
Fixing Printing Mercerization
↓ ↓ ↓
Softening Curing Drying
↓ ↓
Drying Finishing
↓
Final Inspection
↓
Packing
↓
Delivery
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Flow Chart of wet processing for knit fabrics:

Grey Fabrics Knitted

↓
Fabric Inspection
↓
Batching
↓
Turning
↓
Sewing / Stitching
↓
Fabrics load in the
machine
↓
Scouring
↓
Bleaching
↓
Enzyme / Anti-piling
↓
Dyeing
↓
Washing
↓
Fixing
↓
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Softening
↓
Unloading the Fabrics

Dewatering Drying Hydro-extractor Stiching

↓ ↓
Tube Compacting Sliting
↓
Stentering
↓
Finishing Open
compactin
g

Final Inspection
↓
Packing
↓
Delivery
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Water
Water is a complex compound. It is very important compound
in textile wet processing. It is also considered as life line of this
processing industries. The total amount of water in the world is
about 75%. It has uncomparable power to dissolve other
compound. Natural water is obtained in three steps such as
1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Vapor.
The chemical formula of water is H₂O. Water is converted to ice
at 0 C and converted to vapor at 100ᵒC. The concentration of
water at 4ᵒC. Water is also an universal solvent, because the
solvency power of water is very high.

Why water purification is necessary ?

Naturally water consists certain satls of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ that
causes water hardness. The hardness of water causes water to
form scale and resistance to soap. As result water that doesn’t
produce lather with soap solution but produce white
precipitate. It causes many problems during textile processing
such as de-sizing, scouring, dyeing, printing, finishing, etc.
CaSO₄ + 2 R – COONa (RCOO)₂Ca + NaSO₄
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MgSO₄ + 2 R – COONa (RCOO)₂Mg + NaSO₄

Water Hardness:
Hardness is a term applied to water denoting measurement of
its Pᴴ and metal salt content. The presence of Ca & Mg salt i.e.
bi-carbonates, sulphates, chlorides in water called causes of
hardness of water. The water which contains these salts is
called hardness of water.
Hard water does not easily form lather with soap as the salt of
Ca & Mg react with soap to form insoluble organic salts.
CaSO₄ + 2 R – COONa (RCOO)₂Ca + NaSO₄
MgSO₄ + 2 R – COONa (RCOO)₂Mg + NaSO₄

Mg(HCO₃)₂ (aq) MgCO₃ + CO₂ (g) + H₂O

MgCO₃ (aq) + H₂O Mg(OH)₂ ( S ) + CO₂ (g)

Type of water hardness

Water hardness are two types:-
1. Temporary hardness
2. Permanent hardness.
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Temporary Hardness: Temporary hardness is due to the

presence of bi-carbonates of calcium and magnesium. This
type of hardness is called Temporary hardness. Because it
can be removed by easy means like boiling, when temporary
hard water is boiled, the carbonates decompose with
liberation of carbon di-oxide and precipitation of the
insoluble carbonates which are reformed.
Ca(HCO₃)₂ CaCO₃↓ + H₂O + CO₂ Temporary
Mg(HCO₃)₂ MgCO₃↓ + H₂O + CO₂ hardness

Temporary hardness :
1. Mg(HCO₃)₂,
2. Fe(HCO₃)₂,
3. Fe(HCO₃)₂,

Permanent Hardness: It is due to presence of chlorides or

sulphates of calcium and magnesium. This type of hardness is
called permanent hardness. These salts do not decompose on
boiling. So permanent hardness can not be removed easily. It
can be removed by lime when MgSO₄ is responsible for
hardness.
CaSO₄ + Na₂CO₃ → Na₂SO₄ + CaCO₃
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MgSO₄ + Na₂CO₃ → Na₂SO₄ + MgCO₃

MgSO₄ + Ca(OH)₂ (lime) → Mg(OH)₂ + CaSO₄

Hardness of water: Hardness is a term applied to water

denoting a measurement of its Pᴴ and metal satl content.

Classification of water according to hardness : -

S/L No. Total hardness (Degree) Classification

01 0 ― 4 Very Soft
02 5 ― 8 Soft
03 9 ― 12 Mild
04 13 ― 18 Fairly hard
05 19 ― 30̊̊̊̊ Hard
06 30 ˃ above Very hard / Like Stone

Methods of expressing hardness of water

The hardness of water is expressed by amount of Calcium
present in water.
In this methods, Chlorides, sulphates and bi-carbonates of
calcium and magnesium and also carbonates of magnesium are
not take into consideration. Hardness is expressed by
1. PPM (Parts per million).
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2. In Degrees (grains per gallon)

PPM : The number of grains of CaCO₃ which is present in 1
million grains of water is called PPM. 1 grains of CaCO₃
present in 1 million grains of water.

Grains per Gallon (Degrees) : The number of grains of

CaCO₃ which is present in 1 Gallon (70̊̊̊̊,0̊̊̊̊0̊̊̊̊0̊̊̊̊ grains) of water.

The ratio between Degree and PPM is –

Degrees (English) = 0.07 X PPM
Or, PPM = Degree / 0.07.

Scale of hardness

S/L No. Description Definition

01 1 dH (German) Hardness 10 mg CaO in 1 L of water
02 1 fh (French) Hardness 10̊̊̊̊ mg CaCO₃ in 1 L of water
03 1 eh (English) Hardness 10̊̊̊̊ mg CaCO₃ in 0̊̊̊̊.7 L of water
04 1 ah (American) Hardness 1 mg CaCO₃ in 1 L of water
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Conversion table of different methods : -

S/L Classification German PPM English French

No Degree CaCO₃ Degree Degree
01 1 German degree( ᵒ d ) 1 17.80 1.25 1.78
02 1 PPM CaCO₃ 0.056 1 0.07 0.1
03 1 English degree ( ᵒ C ) 0.798 14.30 1 1.43
04 1 French degree ( ᵒ F ) 0.56 10 0.702 1
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General Properties of Water

Physical and Chemical properties of water are given below : -
Physical Properties of water : -
S/L No. Parameter Properties
01 Color Colorless
01 Taste No taste
03 Molar Mass 18.0151 gm/mole
04 Melting Point 0ᵒC
05 Boiling Point 100ᵒC
06 Maximum density (at 3.98ᵒC) 1.0 gm/cc
07 Density ( 25ᵒC ) 0.99701 gm/cc
08 Vapor Pressure ( 25ᵒC ) 23.75 torr
09 Heat of fusion ( 0ᵒC ) 6.010 kilojoules/mole
10 Heat of vaporization (100ᵒC ) 40.65 kilojoules/mole
11 Heat of formation (25ᵒC ) -285.85 kilojoules/mole
12 Entropy of vaporization (25ᵒC) 118.8 joules/ ᵒC mole
13 Viscosity 0.8903 Centipoise
14 Surface Tension ( 25ᵒC ) 71.97 dynes/cm
15 Refractive index 1.3330 (20ᵒC)
16 Thermal conductivity 0.6065 W/m.k
17 Specific heat Capacity 75.375 joules/mole.k
18 Crystal Structure Hexagonal
19 Molecular Shape Bent
20 Dipole Moment 1.85 D
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Chemical Properties of water: -

1. Water has a gnat thermal stability and not closely
decomposed into elements.
2H₂O + 690̊̊̊̊0̊̊̊̊0̊̊̊̊ Cal = 2H₂O + O₂
2. Water is poor conductor of electricity.
3. Electropositive metal react with water violently and
liberate hydrogen
2Na + 2H₂O = 2NaOH + H₂
4. Electronegative metal react with water at ordinary
temperature.
Cl₂ + H₂O = HCl + HClO
5. Most organic compound are insoluble in water but
non-polar organic compound like ether, bengene, alcohol
are soluble in water.
6. Pᴴ of pure water is 7.0
7. Chemical formula of water is H₂O
 23

Source of Water / Types of Water

Source of water: -
1. Rain water
2. Surface water
3. Subsoil water
4. Deep well water

1. Rain Water :
a. Rain water, collected immediately after precipitation, is
the purest of all natural water.
b. It may contain traces of gases dissolved out of the
atmosphere and possibly an infinitely small amount of
finely divided solid matter derived from the air.
c. It contains dissolved or suspended impurities such as
shoot traces of sulpher di-oxide or sulphuric acid, CO₂,
NH₂, NO₂ and other products of industrialization.
d. Suspended impurities present in it can be filtered by
using sand bed.
e. Suitable for boiling, washing and dyeing processes.

2. Surface water : -
a. Surface water consists of rain water which is collected
from steams, rivers or lakes.
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b. This type of water contains organic and inorganic

matters which are dissolved in it and contain suspended
impurities.
c. Then the Nutrifying bacteria within time convert the
organic substances into nitrates which are not
objectable in dyeing and finishing.
d. Surface water may receive considerable additions of
dissolved mineral salts from shallow springs which feed
the steams.
e. It contains chloride, sulphate, carbonate, bicarbonate of
sodium, potassium, calcium and iron.
f. Not suitable for dyeing & finishing.

3. Subsoil Water : -
a. This type of water is collected from shallow springs and
wells which are about 50 ft (15m) or so deep.
b. It is usually free from dissolved suspended impurities
because it has been filtered by its passage through the
soil. It will, however, contain dissolve organic matter.
c. Subsoil water is often rich in dissolved carbon dioxide, a
gas abundantly present in the skin of the soil.
d. Subsoil waters are very variable with regard to the
impurities which they contain.
e. Not suitable for dyeing & finishing.
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4. Deep Well Water : -

a. This type of water is optained from 50 m below the
surface. It is free from organic matters.
b. The soluble impurities in water may be composed of a
variety of substances. Soluble organic compounds,
ammonium salts, nitrates and nitrites of animal or
vegetable origin may be found. If they are presenting
considerable quantities, the sewage contamination is
undesirable for many textile purposes.
c. The presence of salts of calcium or magnesium in
suction can be most undesirable in many finishing
process.

˃ Water Quality Parameter of wet Processing.

˃ Standard Quality for textile dye house water supply .
˃ Specification of water used for wet process.
˃ Ideal Quality of water used for textile wet processing
˃ Standard Quality of water used for wet processing.
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S/L No. Parameter Description

01 Color Color less
02 Smell Odor less
03 Pᴴ Value 6.5 – 7.5 (Neutral)
04 Total hardness 30 PPM
05 TDS (Total dissolved solid) 300 PPM
06 Residue on ignition 250 PPM
07 COD Nil
08 Turbidity Nil
09 Fe (Iron) 0.01 PPM
10 Cu (Copper) 0.01 PPM
11 Cr (Chromium) 0.01 PPM
12 Mn (Manganese) 0.05 PPM
13 Al (Aluminium) 0.2 PPM
14 Chloride 150 PPM
15 Sulphate 150 PPM
16 Nitrate ˂50 mg/l
17 Nitrite ˂5 mg/l
18 Solid content ˂50 mg/l
19 Inorganic salts ˂500 mg/l
20 Si (Silicone) ˂3 mg/l
21 Alkalinity at Pᴴ=4 20 – 200 mg/l
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Quality of Water used in Boiler

S/L No. Properties Acceptable limit

01 Appearance Clear, without residue
02 Smell Odor less
03 Residual hardness ˂ 0.05ᵒdh
04 Oxygen ˂ 0.02 mg/l
05 Temporary CO₂ ˂ 0 mg/l
06 Permanent CO₂ ˂ 25 mg/l
07 Fe (Iron) ˂ 0.05 mg/l
08 Cu (Copper) ˂ 0.01 mg/l
09 Phosphate (PO₄) 4 – 5 mg/l
10 Conductivity 2500 us/cm
11 Temperature of boiling feed ˃ 90ᵒC
water
12 Pᴴ Value ˃ 9 (Generally 8 – 9)
13 TDS (Total dissolved solids) 15 – 30 PPM
14 Amine 5 – 10 PPM
15 SiO₂ ˂ 1 PPM
16 Chloride ˂ 1 PPM
17 Oil & Grease ˂ 0.5 PPM
18 Hydrazine ˂ 0.02 PPM
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˃˃ Make Difference between Dyeing & Printing

S/L Dyeing Printing

01 Uniform coloration along the 01 Color is applied in form of
length & Width. design.
02 No localized application. 02 Localized printing.
03 Back & face side are same. 03 Back & face side are different.
04 Color is used in form of 04 Color is used in form of thick
solution. paste.
05 Thickener is not used. 05 Thickener is used.
06 Huge amount of water is 06 Small amount of water is
required for dyeing. required for printing.
07 M:L ratio is high. 07 M:L ratio is low.
08 No specific design is needed. 08 Color is applied according to
the design.
09 Solid Color is produced. 09 Print is produced on solid color
or white.
10 More time is required for 10 More time is required for
dyeing. printing.
11 Fiber, yarn and fabric can be 11 Only fabric is printed.
dyed.
12 Dyeing is cheaper than 12 Printing is costly than dyeing.
printing.
13 Production cost is low. 13 Production cost is high.
14 Production per day higher 14 Production per day lower than
than printing. dyeing.
15 Dyes are applied on the both 15 Pigment paste is applied on
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side of fabric. only one side of fabric.

16 Here, only one color is 16 Here, one or more colors are
produced. produced.
17 Precise temperature is 17 Precise temperature is not
required for dyeing. required for printing.
18 Steaming or curing is not 18 Steaming or curing is must for
necessary for dyeing. printing.
19 Dyed fabrics are soft. 19 Printed fabrics are harsh and
hard.
20 Dye solution concentration is 20 Printing paste concentration is
less in dye bath. higher in printing.

** Water Consumption in Textile wet Processing

Water is used extensively throughout textile processing
operations. Almost all dyes, specially chemicals and finishing
chemicals are applied to textile substrates from water baths. In
addition, most fabric preparation steps, including de-sizing,
scouring, bleaching and mercerizing use aquous systems.
The amount of water used varies widely in the industry,
depending on specific processes operated at the mill,
equipment used and prevailing management philosophy
concerning water use. Textile operations vary greatly in water
consumption.
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** Water use in Textile Processing.

S/L Processing Water use Water use Water use

No. subcategory minimum, kg/lb medium, kg/lb maximum, kg/lb
of Production of Production of Production
01 Wool 13,3 34.1 78.9
02 Woven 0.6 13.6 60.9
03 Knit 2.4 1..0 45.2
04 Carpet 1.0 5.6 19.5
05 Yarn 0.4 12.0 66.9
06 Non-woven 0.3 4.8 9.9
07 Felted 4.0 25.5 111.8
fabrics

** Water Consumption by Textile industry in varies Process

S/L No. Name of the Process Water Consumption Kg/Kg of Fabrics
01 Cotton 250 – 300
02 Wool 200 – 250
03 Nylon 100 -125
04 Rayon 100 -125
05 Polyester 75 – 100
06 Acrylic 100 – 150
07 Cotton/Polyester 300 – 400
blend
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** Water Consumption in Textile Mill (Cotton)

S/L No. Process Water Consumption

01 Scouring 25 %
02 Enzyme 8%
03 Dyeing 12 %
04 Aftertreatment 6%
05 Printing 6%
06 Boiler House 14 %
07 Humidification(Spinning) 6%
08 Humidification(Weaving) 9%
09 Sanitary / Domestic 9%
Total 100 %

** Consumption of water & energy in Kiers & J-box Process

S/L Process Consumption of Consumption of Steam

No. water Kg (J-box process) Kg
01 De-sizing 8 0.25
02 Washing 15 0.35
03 Scouring 8 1.75
04 Washing 14 0.30
05 Bleaching 8 1.00
06 Washing 30 0.60
Total 83 4.25
 32

** Water management system in a Textile wet Processing

industry

Raw water from deep

tube well water

Raw Water Re server in

under ground
( Minimum 6 hrs.)

Water Treatment
Plant(WTP) i.e.
ETP(Effluent Treatment
Plant)

Treated Water Tank

To Dyeing House

1. Over Head Tank (Gravitation)

2. Buster Pumping System(Auto System)
3. Pressure Vessel System(By Air Pressure)
 33

** Water Softening: To remove the impurities of hard water

by some desirable process is called Water Softening.
** Process of hardness removing from water
** Water Softening Plant
** Methods of water softening.
** Process of hardness removing from water: -
1. Soda lime process.
2. Base Exchange process (Permutit)
3. De-mineralisation
4. Soda Alum
5. Aeration
6. Chelation on sequestration
** Soda lime Process
This process is developed by Thomas Clark in 1841. In this
process, washing soda (Na₂CO₃) and lime Ca(OH)₂ is used for
removing hardness of water. Soda Ash is used for removing
non carbonate ions and lime is used carbonate ions.
Ca(OH)₂ → Hydrated lime
Na₂CO₃ → Soda Ash
 34

** Temporary Hardness
Ca(HCO₃)₂ + Ca(OH)₂ → 2CaCO₃ ↓ + 2H₂O
Mg(HCO₃)₂ + Ca(OH)₂ → MgCO₃ + CaCO₃ ↓ + 2H₂O
MgCO₃ + Ca(OH)₂ → Mg(OH)₂ + CaCO₃ ↓

** Permanent Hardness
CaSO₄ + Na₂CO₃ → CaCO₃ ↓ + Na₂SO₄
MgSO₄ + Na₂CO₃ → MgCO₃ ↓ + Na₂SO₄
MgCl₂ + Ca(OH)₂ → CaCl₂ ↓ + Mg(OH)₂
CaCl₂ + Na₂CO₃ → CaCO₃ ↓ + 2NaCl
 35

Advantages:
1. Economical.
2. Augmentation is easy
3. Pre Addition : Less coagulant
4. Increases Pᴴ - Less corrosion
5. Mineral content of water is reduced.
6. Pᴴ of water raises thus reducing content of pathogenic
bacteria.
7. Iron & manganese are removed.
8. It is more essential for large production.

Disadvantages:
1. Water is not directly used, it is used after filtration.
2. Zero hardness is not possible
3. Space requirement is high.
4. High sludge quantity.
5. Skilled workmanship
6. Re carbonation is necessary to avoid encrustation.
7. Removes hardness up to 15 ppm.
 36

** Base Exchange Process:

This process is developed by Gan so this method is also called
Gans Process. Water ia softened by exchanging Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺
ion with the help of Zeolite. That’s why it is called Zeolite or
permutit process. When water is passed into Zeolite the ions
are exchanged. Zeolite is the Hydrated silicate of sodium and
aluminium. The general formula:
(Na₂O)ₓ(Al₂O₃)y (SiO₂)z(H₂O)n
Let, Zeolite = Z = (Na₂O)ₓ(Al₂O₃)y (SiO₂)z(H₂O)n
Principle Reaction :
[Ca, Mg] [2HCO₃,SO₄,2Cl] + Na₂Z →
[Ca, Mg].Z + [NaHCO₃, Na₂SO₄, NaCl]
Regeneration:
[Ca, Mg].Z + NaCl → [CaCl₂, MgCl₂] + Na₂Z
When Zeolites or base exchange complexes are brought in
contact with hard water following reaction occur –
For Temporary Hardness :
Ca(HCO₃)₂ + Na₂O.Z → CaO.Z + Na₂CO₃ + H₂O
Mg(HCO₃)₂ + Na₂O.Z → MgO.Z + Na₂CO₃ + H₂O
 37

For Permanent Hardness :

CaSO₄ + Na₂O.Z → CaO.Z + Na₂SO₄
MgSO₄ + Na₂O.Z → MgO.Z + Na₂SO₄
MgCl₂ + Na₂O.Z → MgO.Z + 2NaCl
In where Z is an abbreviation for the Al₂O₃.SiO₂.H₂O part of
Zeolite. The soft water is obtained from this base exchange
process is of 0- 20ᵒ hardness or levelness.
Regeneration: CaO.Z + 2NaCl → Na₂O.Z +CaCl₂ . The
CaCl₂ and residual NaCl are washed away and the regenerated
Na₂O.Z can be used to soft the hard water again.
Inlet

Hard Water

Zeolite Bed

Outlet
 38

Advantages of base exchange process

1. No filtration is needed.
2. Zero hardness is possible.
3. Space requirement is small.
4. No objectionable excess of chemicals is added.
5. Compact, automatic, easy to operate.
6. No sludge
7. O & M cost is less.
8. Water obtained is clear and pure.
9. The process itself adjusts for different hardness of icoming
water.

Disadvantages :
1. Zeolites are to be replaced after 5-7 years.
2. Not suitable for turbid water.
3. Sodium carbonate left in water causes foaming.
4. Highly acidic water is not suitable.
5. Zeolites of iron and manganese can’t be easily
regenerated.
6. Raw material must be free from suspended impurities.
 39

●● Potential problems caused by hard water in Textile Wet

Processing.
●●Problems associated by water hardness in Textile Wet
Processing.
S/L Process Problem
no
01 De sizing De actives enzymes and insoluble materials such
as starch, PVA, etc.
02 Scouring Combine with soap , precipitate metal organic
acids, produce yellowing or off white shades,
reduce cleaning efficiency and reduce water
absorbency.
03 Bleaching Decomposes bleaching bath. H₂O₂ → H₂O + [O]
04 Mercerizing Form insoluble metal acids, reduce absorbency
on lusture.
05 Dyeing Combine with dyes, changing their shades,
in solubilized dyes, cause tippy dyeing and
reduce dye diffusion.
06 Printing Break emulsion, changes thickness, efficiency
and viscosity and those problems associated for
dyeing.
07 Finishing Interfere with catalysts cause resins and other
additives to become non reactive break emulsion
and de actives soap.
 40

Other Problems: -
8. Scale formation on equipment and in boilers and pipelines.
9. Wastage of heat.
10. Deposits on goods
11. Reactions with dyestuffs.

………………………………………………………………………………………………….
 41

Mercerization:
Mercerization: Mercerization is a process that makes cotton
take dye better and increases its luster. The cotton is treated
with Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda) to swell the fibers and
increase the fiber’s luster as well as its affinity for dye by
increasing the surface area of the fiber.
The effect of caustic soda on cotton was discovered in 1844 by
John Mercer an English calico printer, who received a patent for
it on 1850.

Objectives of mercerization:
1. Solubility in solvents is increased.
2. The length of yarn or area of fabric is reduced.
3. Tensile strength is increased.
4. Absorption of dyestuff is increased.
5. Physical compactness of yarn or fabric is increased.
6. Water absorption is increased.
7. Reactivity of Oxygen (Air) is increased.
8. NaOH is preferentially absorbed during the process.
9. Reactivity of cotton at lower temperature is increased.
10. Lusture is increased.
11. Rate of oxidation causing degradation is increased.
 42

12. Remove immature (deed) Cotton.

13. Lower dye cost (up to 4% on certain colors)
14. Improve the stability of form.
15. Improve the smoothness.
16. The cross-sectional shape is changed.
17. Readjustment of Hydrogen bond.
18. Increase crystallinity.
19. Improve uptake moisture regain.
20. Formation of soda-cellulose.

Effect of Mercerizing condition :

1. Concentration of caustic soda solution.
2. Temperature (15 – 25ᵒC
3. Tension.
4. Time.
5. Wash thoroughly
6. Wetting agents (0.5 – 1.0 gm/l)
 43

“Lusture of fabric is depends on many factors” – Explain.

The effect of mercerized cotton depends on various factors.
1. Cross-Section of the fiber.
2. Staple length of the fiber.
3. Wall thickness of the fiber.
4. Concentration of sodium hydroxide.
5. Temperature of the mercerizing solution.
6. Percent stretch.
7. Yarn construction.
8. Yarn twist.
9. Doubling of the yarn.
10. Degree of singeing.
11. Application of tension.
12. Rate of drying.

Changes during mercerizing process:

A. Fiber Level
1. Swelling.
2. Cross-sectional morphology changes from beam shape to
round shape.
3. Shrinkage along with longitudinal direction.
 44

B. Molecular Level
1. Hydrogen bond readjustment.
2. Orientation (parallelization) of molecular chains in
amorphous region along the direction of fiber length.
3. Orientation of the crystallinity in the direction of the fiber
length.
4. Increased crystallinity.

C. Chemical Changes
1. Increased rate of reaction on hydrolysis and oxidation.
2. Liberation of heat during the caustic treatment (heat of
absorption and heat of reaction)
3. Increase in the alkali absorption.
4. Increase in the absorption of iodine.
 45

Scouring
Scouring: The process of removing naturals (oil, wax, fats, gum,
etc.) as well as added impurities (During fabrication process) to
produce hydrophilic and clean textile materials is called
Scouring. It is very vital process of wet processing.

Souring: The treatment by which the fabric, after processing

with alkali or scouring is treated with hydrochloric acid (HCl) or
sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) for removing alkali or neutralization of
alkali is called Souring. Souring process is done after scouring.
Because scouring process is done by alkali. So after scouring
process it is necessary to neutralize the fabric for next process.

Objectives of Scouring:
1. To remove impurities from textile materials.
2. To make the fabric highly hydrophilic.
3. To increase absorbency of fabric or textile materials
without undergoing chemical or physical damage.
4. To produce clean material by adding alkali.
5. To remove natural color from fabric or textile materials.
6. To remove non-cellulosic substance in case oof cotton.
7. To make the textile material suitable for the subsequent
bleaching operations.
 46

8. To improve the handle of goods.

Changing occurred during scouring:

1. Free fatty acid are converted into soap.
2. Proteins are hydrolyzed into soluble products.
3. Pectose and pectin are changed into soluble salts of pectic
acid.
4. Mineral matter is dissolved.
5. Dust particles are removed.
6. Residual sizing materials are broken down into soluble
products.
7. Un saponifyable oils are emulsified by the saponifyable
matters.
8. Amino compounds are dissolved.

Scouring process depends on :

1. Types of fabric.
2. Color of fabric.
3. Cleanliness of fabric.
4. Twist of the fabric.
5. Count of the fabric.
6. Construction of the fabric.
 47

Make difference between scouring & souring

S/L No. Scouring Souring

01 To remove oil, waxes, 01 Not to remove any
gum impurities, only for alkali
neutralization.
02 Scouring is done in 02 Souring is done in dilute HCl
alkali condition. or H₂SO₄.
03 Required heat to 03 No need of heat.
boiling.
04 Need of definite time. 04 No need of definite time.

Scouring Process:
1. Batch process : a. Kier Boiling
b. Jigger
c. Winch dyeing machine.
2. Discontinuous process : a. Kier Boiling
b. Jigger
c. Winch dyeing machine.
3. Continuous process: J – Box.
4. Exhaust method.
5. Special scouring process: a. Solvent scouring process.
b. Vapor lock scouring process.
 48

Continuous scouring process of Cotton Fabric (J-Box)

In continuous scouring process, J-Box machine is used. It is
called J-Box machine because the scouring vessel looks like the
English letter ‘J’. In this process, de sizing, scouring, and
bleaching can be performed at a time.
Recipe for continuous scouring process:
1. Caustic Soda……………………..= 5 gm/l
2. Wetting agent…………………..= 1 - 2 gm/l
3. Detergent………………………….= 1 – 2 gm/l
4. Sequestering agent……………= 1 - 3 gm/l
5. M : L ratio………………………….= 1 : 5
6. Pᴴ Value…………………………….= 10.5 – 11.0
7. Pick up………………………………= 90̊̊̊̊ – 100 %
8. Impregnation Temperature.= 70 – 80ᵒC
9. Impregnation Time…………...= 45 – 90 sec.
10. Storing time in J – Box……….= 2 – 4 hrs
11. Temperature in J - Box……..= 10̊̊̊̊2 – 105ᵒC
 49

Procedure :
The working process in J – Box can be divided into four units.
They are: -
1. Saturation.
2. Pre – heater.
3. J – Box.
4. Washing unit.

1. Saturation: Saturation is made without caustic soda by

the above mentioned recipe. The fabric is then taken into
the solution via the guide roller. In this case, the
temperature is approximately 0 – 80ᵒC.

2. Pre – heater: The material is transferred to the J – Box

during pre – heating at the temperature of 110 -120ᵒC.

3. J – Box: Caustic soda solution from J – Box is maintained

and this solution is placed in the fabric. The temperature
here is approximately 100ᵒC. NaOH responds with and
removes the impurities in the fabric in J – Box.
 50

Squeezing Roller
↓

Saturation / Pre-heater J – Box Washing tank

Impregnation Box

Fig : Continuous Process of Cotton Scouring.

CH₂OOC - C₁₇H₃₃ CH₂ - OH

CHOOC - C₁₇H₃₃ + 3NaOH → CH₂ - OH + 3C₁₇H₃₃ - COONa
CHOOC - C₁₇H₃₃ CH₂ - OH
Glycerol Sodium salt
Fat (Glycerin)
 51

4. Washing unit: The water soluble impurities or products

are removed. The material is first cleaned in warm water
and then dried in cold water.

Advantages:
1. This process is a continuous process. So consumes less
time.
2. This process is economical.
3. Use for scouring process.
4. Scouring, de – sizing, bleaching performed at a time.

Disadvantages:
1. The result of scouring is not good as compared with kier
boiler.
2. The process is not hydrophilic as kier boiler.
3. Huge damage may occur due to power failure.
 52

** Dyes: Dyes are coloring materials used in dyeing textiles.

On the other hand, it can be defined as a substance which
may be natural or synthetic use to change or add color to
textile materials. Dyes can be water soluble or water
insoluble. Some dyes are anionic, some are cationic or some
has both anionic and cationic properties. Some dyes need
low temperature and pressure for make a solution. Some
needs high temperature and pressure for make solution. All
of the properties of dyes depend on the molecular structure
of dyes.

** Characteristics of dyes:
01. Cheap.
02. Non- toxic
03. Compatible to other dyes and chemicals.
04. Must containing chromophore groups.
05. Chromophore groups may be different types : Examples -
-NH₂, -NO₂, -CO-, -N=O, etc.
06. High color strength.
07. Better brightness.
08. Better fastness.
09. Good levelness on the materials.
10. It fixes itself to fabrics.
 53

** Classification of dyes according to application:

01. Basic dyes.
02. Acid dyes.
03. Direct dyes.
04. Reactive dyes.
05. Sulfur dyes.
06. Pre metalized dyes.
07. Azoic (Naphthol) dyes.
08. Disperse dyes.
09. Vat dyes.
 54

** Application of dyes on different fabrics:

S/L No. Name of dyes Application.

01 Acid dyes Man-made fiber (Nylon),
Natural Fiber (Silk, wool)
02 Direct dyes Man-made fiber (Viscose),
Natural Fiber (Cotton)
03 Vat dyes Man-made fiber (Viscose),
Natural Fiber (Cotton, Silk, wool)
04 Disperse dyes Nylon, Polyester, Acrylic, Tri-acetate,
Di-acetate.
05 Basic dyes Jute, Acrylic.
06 Reactive dyes Cotton, Wool, Silk, Viscose, Nylon.
07 Sulfur dyes Cotton, Viscose.
08 Mordant dyes Cotton, Wool, Silk.
09 Pigment Cotton, Man-made fiber.
10 Mineral Cotton, Wool, Silk.
11 Azoic dyes Cotton, Viscose.
12 Aniline Black Cotton.
13 Rapid and Cotton.
Rapidson dyes
14 Onium dyes Cotton, Jute.
 55

Dyeing: Dyeing is a process by which some physical or chemical

changes occurred in textile material . It is a
distribution process which is happened between textiles
materials and dye solution in the dye bath. Dyeing can be done
by hand or machine. It is also the process of adding color to
textile products like fibers, yarns and fabrics. Dyeing is normally
done in a special solution containing dyes and particular
chemical materials. After dyeing, dye molecules have uncut
chemical bond with fiber molecules. The temperature and time
controlling are two key factors in dyeing.

Pigment: The dyestuffs that are insoluble in water and mostly

of mineral origin which are responsible for color are called
Pigment. It the special type of dyeing or printing materials for
wet processing. It is not so easy task to print or dye a material
by pigments, because pigment is 100% water insoluble.
Generally pigment is used for printing.
Pigments have no direct affinity to textile materials. They are
fixed on textile materials (fiber, yarn, fabrics) with the help of a
binding agent in the form of a thin invisible coating.
 56

Properties of Pigment :
01. Pigment should have minimum particle size (0.2 – 0.4μ).
02. Pigment should have minimum covering power.
03. Pigment should have freely mixing power.
04. Pigment should be chemically inert.
05. Pigment should have good resistance to chemicals.
06. Pigment should be resistance to solvent.
07. Pigment should have acceptable brilliance, hardness and
stability on dyed and printed goods.
08. Pigment should have good wet, light, and abrasion
resistance.
09. Pigment should have good characteristics for excellent
dispersion including :
a. Particle size and distribution.
b. Electrical charge.
c. Specific gravity.
d. Purity and crystalline structure.
e. Condition of precipitation.
f. Should be applied to all fiber.
g. Should be cheap.
 57

Color Fastness tests used in textile dye house.

The outstanding important property of a dyed material is the
fastness of its shade.
AATCC (American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists)
has described 66 color fastness tests which are available in the
manuals of S. D. C. (Society of Dyers and Colorists) and ISO.
According to the agencies tending to fade the color shade, color
fastness considered in different types: -
01. Color fastness to light.
02. Color fastness to wash.
03. Color fastness to wet rubbing.
04. Color fastness to dry rubbing.
05. Color fastness to water.
06. Color fastness to perspiration.
07. Color fastness to sea water.
08. Color fastness to acid.
09. Color fastness to alkalis.
10. Color fastness to bleach.
11. Color fastness to mercerizing.
12. Color fastness to cross – dyeing.
13. Color fastness to anti – shrinkage treatment.
14. Color fastness to heat.
15. Color fastness to saliva and so on.

Make Difference between dyes and pigment
S/L Dyes
No.
01. Water solubility 70%.
02. Most of dyes are organic
compounds and some are
metallic compounds.
03. By dyes, can not be dyed of
all types of fabrics.
04. Dyes has fastness
property.
05. Dye diffusion in the fabrics.
06. Costly.
07. No binding is required.
08. Dyes have direct affinity to
textile materials
09. Auxochrome present.
10. It is generally used for
dyeing.
11. Dye molecules are
comparatively smaller.
12. Dyes are combustible.
58
S/L Pigment
No.
01. Water insolubility 100%.
02. Most of pigments are
inorganic compounds.
03. By pigments, can be printed
of all types of fabrics.
04. Pigment has good fastness
property.
05. Dye diffusion on the fabrics.
06. Cheap.
07. Binding is required.
08. Pigments have no direct
affinity to textile materials
09. Auxochrome not present.
10. It is generally used for
printing.
11. Pigment particles are about
1 – 2 microns in size.
12. Pigments are
non - combustible.
 59

Thickener
Thickener is a adhesive substance used in making viscose
printing pastes in water. Thickener is used to impart stickiness
and plasticity to the printing paste so that it can be applied on
the fabric surface without spreading or bleeding and can be
capable of maintaining the designs under high pressure.
A thickener is a colorless, viscous paste made with one or
more thickening agents. The thickener must be stable and
compatible with the dyes and dyeing auxiliaries to be used.
Classification of thickener: -
01. Natural –
a. Creals starch.
b. Plant starch.
c. Roots and seeds.
d. Sea weeds.
02. Modified starch –
a. Starch derivatives.
b. Cellulose derivatives.
c. Gum derivatives.
03. Synthetic –
a. Acrylic, Poly acrylic acid, Poly acrylic amide,
b. Vinyl, Poly vinyl alcohol, etc.
04. Emulsion –
a. Oil in Water.
 60

b. Water in Oil.
Function / Objective / Purpose of thickener: -
1. To give the required viscosity to the printing paste.
2. To prevent premature reactions between the chemicals
contained in the printing paste.
3. To hold the ingredients of the printing paste on the fabrics.
4. To prevent migration of color.
Factors to be considered to select / choice of a thickener: -
01. Type of the material to be printed.
02. Quality of the material to be printed
03. Compatibility with dyes and chemicals.
04. Printing paste stability.
05. Styles of printing.
06. Methods of printing.
07. Properties of dried thickener film
08. Effect of color yield such as diffusion and fixation.
09. Preparation of the thickener.
10. Removal of the thickener.
11. Cost.
12. Biological oxygen demand (BOD).
 61

Essential Quality of Printing Thickener: -

01. Stability to keeping should be good.
02. It should have certain physical and chemical
properties such as viscosity, flow property, ability to
wet and adhere to the internal surface & etchings of
the engraved roller.
03. It must be compatible with the other ingredients of
the printing paste.
04. The thickener film should dry properly on the fabric to
prevent spreading of the color by capillary action.
05. The thickener should not have affinity for the dye and
should not keep the dye from the fabric.
06. Proper extraction of water from steam during
steaming should be ensured to provide free space for
the dye molecules to move towards the fabric.
07. The thickener molecules should have a control over
the free water pick up and not carry the dye beyond
the boundaries of the impression.
08. The thickener should be cheap and available in
abundance.
09. After perform printing, the useable media, i.e. block,
roller, screen should be easily cleanable.
10. Once the dye is transferred from the thickener film
the removal of the exhausted the thickener film
without fetching water should dye should be easy.
 62

PRINTING
Printing: The textile printing is the art of design by mechanical
and chemical application. It is the localized application of dyes
or pigments by any method which can produce attractive
designs or particular effect of color on the fabric according to
the design.

Steps / Stages of Printing : -

1. Preparation of the fabric (Singeing, de-sizing, scouring,
bleaching).
2. Preparation of the printing paste.
3. Making an impression of the paste on the fabric.
4. Drying of the printed fabric.
5. Steaming of the printed fabric (100 – 102ᵒ C, 15 minutes).
6. After treatment (Soaping & washing).

Essential ingredients used in Printing: -

01. Dyestuff.
02. Wetting agent.
03. Thickener.
04. Solvent / dispersing agent.
05. De foaming Agent.
06. Oxidizing Agent.
 63

07. Reducing Agent.

08. Catalyst & Oxygen carrier.
09. Acid.
10. Alkali.
11. Carrier.
12. Swelling Agent.
13. Hygroscopic Agent.

STYLE OF PRINTING: -
01. Direct style of printing.
02. Dyed Style of printing.
03. Discharge Style of printing.
a. White discharge.
b. Color discharge.
04. Resist Style of printing.
a. White resist.
b. Color resist.
05. Azoic Style of printing.
06. Raised Style of printing.
07. Metal Style of printing.
08. Flock Style of printing.
09. Crepe style of printing
10. Lining style of printing
 64

METHODS OF PRINTING: -
01. Block Printing :
a. By hand.
b. By machine.
02. Stencil Printing :
a. Metal Stencil.
b. Screen Stencil.
03. Roller Printing.
04. Screen Printing :
a. Hand Screen.
b. Suitable automatic flat screen printing.
c. Fully automatic flat screen printing.
d. Rotary screen printing.
05. Transfer Printing :
a. Flat bed press transfer printing machine.
b. Continuous transfer printing machine.
c. Vacuam transfer printing machine.
 65

Flow Chart Of Textile Printing

Grey Textile / Raw materials
Brushing and shearing
Singeing
De sizing
Scouring
Bleaching
Mercerizing
Stentering
Washing
Drying
Winding / Beaming
Preparation of printing paste
Printing (With a certain style & method)
Drying the printed fabric
Steaming of the printed fabric
(To transfer dye into fiber,100–102ᵒC,15min in a steamer)
After treatment (Soaping & Washing)
 66

Detergent
Basic detergents are surface active compound. The
compounds which get orient at the interface (between
water and air) and reduce interfacial tension / surface
(The tendency of water of drawing the molecules from
the surface towards the body is known as surface
tension.) are called active compound or detergent.
Or
A substance that consists the removal of dirt . This
removal is affected by emulsification or dissolution of dirt
particles and the substance normally has the power of
suspending the dirt in cleaning liquid.
Surface Active Agents –
1. Which has balanced solubility in water and in oil .
2. Which preferentially gets oriented at the interface
between air and water and
3. Which lowers the surface tension of water
substantially when dissolved in it in the concentration
range of 0.1 – 10 gm/l at the room temperature
(20 – 30ᵒC).
 67

A surface active agent consists of two parts within one

molecule. One part is hydrophilic and the other part is
hydrophobic. The hydrophilic part is generally -OH,
-CO-, SO₃, PO₃, HSO₃, etc. and the hydrophobic part is a
long aliphthatic chain or alkyl chain.

Chemical formula of Detergent: CH₃ – (CH₂)₁₁ - OSO₃Na

“All soaps are detergent but all detergents are not soap”-Justify

We know from definition of soap , Soap is a metallic

salt of saturated or unsaturated higher fatty acids
(C₉ - C₁₉), metal may be Na, K, or others having
properties of detergency such as orientation on the
interface surface, soluble in liquid, reducing surface
tension, No. of Carbon is C₉ - C₁₉.

Sodium salt of Stearic Acid

H₃C-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-COO-Na

C₁₇H₃₅ – COONa (Soap)

But we know from definition of detergent which have
head and tail end, oriented on the interface of the surface,
 68

soluble in liquid and reduce the surface tension over all having
detergency power is called detergent.
So, we can say that, soap on any other compounds in
which have those properties, then it is referred as detergents.
As for example, Sufficiently hydrophilic

[ CH₃ – CH₂ ]₆ - [ COO – (CH₂ – CH₂ – O)₆ - H ]

Sufficiently hydrophilic
It is a polyester ester, which have detergency power but
it is not a soap.
So, all soaps are detergent but all detergents are not soap.
 69

Difference between soap and detergent

S/L Soap S/L Detergent

01 Soap is sodium or 01 Detergent is sodium or
potassium salt of higher potassium salt of
fatty acids. sulphonic acids of
hydrocarbons.
02 Soaps are made from 02 Detergents are made
natural oils and fats. from hydrocarbons of
petroleum.
03 Soap takes time to 03 Detergent dis solve in
dissolve in water. faster in water.
Ex: C₁₇H₃₅ COONa. Ex : C₁₁H₂₃ CH₂ OSO₃Na.
04 Molecular structure of 04 Molecular structure of
soap is R - COO⁻ Na⁺ detergent is RSO₄⁻ or
Where R is Alkyl Group.
R OSO₃⁻

05 They are not suitable for 05 They are suitable for both
washing with hard water. hard and soft water.
06 Soap is generally used for 06 It is used in textile
cleaning agent in purpose such as finishing,
domestic purpose. dyeing, laundry, etc.
07 Only have lower 07 Detergent acts as
detergency power. detergency, wetting,
dispersing & emulsifying
as well as dyeing
assistants.
 70

08 Pᴴ Value is 8. 08 Pᴴ Value is 6 – 7.
09 All soaps are detergent. 09 All detergents are not
soap.
10 Soap forms scum. 10 Detergent does not form
scum.
11 Soaps are biodegradable. 10 Detergents are
non-biodegradable.
12 Soap does not produce 12 Detergents produce
lather with hard water. lather with hard water.
13 Can not affect the 13 Can be toxic to wild life.
environment.
14 No. of Carbon is 10 – 18. No. of Carbon is 14 – 36.
15 Forms precipitation with 15 Do not Form precipitation
acidic water. with acidic water.
16 Softer and less harsh on 16 May cause mild to severe
skin. skin reactions.
17 Requires more water on 17 Requires less water on
rinsing laundries. rinsing laundries.
18 When soap is introduced 18 When soap is introduced
in water, spreading & in water, spreading &
wetting, etc. are not wetting, etc. are observed
observed
19 Cleaning power is less. 19 Cleaning power is more.
20 Soap is costly 20 Detergent is cheaper.
 71

Chromophore: A chromophore is a part of molecule

responsible for its color. The color that is seen by our eyes is
the one not absorbed within a certain wavelength spectrum of
visible light. The chromophore is a region in the molecule
where the energy difference between two separate molecular
orbital falls within the range of the visible spectrum.
Examples of chromophore group :
Ethylene : = C = C =, Azo : - N = N -, Keto : = C = O,
Nitroso : - N = O, Thioketo : = C = S.

Auxochrome : It is a group which itself does not act as a

chromophore but when attached to a chromophore, it shifts
the absorption towards longer wavelength along with an
increase in the intensity of absorption. Some commonly known
Auxochromic group are : -OH, -NH₂, -COOH, -SO₃, NHR, etc.
There are two types of auxochromes : -
1. Acidic : -COOH, -OH, -SO₃H
2. Basic : -NHR, -NR₂, -NH₂

Chromogen : The term Chromogen is applied in chemistry to a

colorless (or weakly colored) chemical reaction into a
compound which can be described as colored.
 72

Vat dyes
Why vat dye is so called?
The word ‘Vat’ means ‘Vessel’. The dyes take their name from
Vatting. The vat dyes are naturally coloring matter and kept in
wooden vat and make solubilise in vat by the process of
fermentation. So it is called ‘Vat dyes’.
Vat Dye: ⃝
1. Anthraquinone.

2. Indigo.
 73

Properties of Vat dyes

01. Vat dyes are natural coloring dyes.
02. Vat dyes are insoluble in water.
03. Vatting process is needed for making the insoluble vat
dyes into soluble form.
04. Final color is developed by oxidation process.
05. Vatting is done in alkaline condition.
06. Fastness properties of vat dyes are excellent but its
rubbing properties are not so good.
07. Sometimes it causes different types of skin diseases.
08. Vat dyes are mainly used for coloring cellulosic fibers.
09. Stability of the color in fiber is excellent.
10. Wide range of color can be achieved by these dyes.
11. Application of vat dyes is limited in practical life.
12. Vat dyes are expensive in price.
13. Most valuable for dyeing and printing cotton, wool & silk.
14. Various shade is found.
15. Dyeing process is difficult and different such as sulphure
or indigo dyeing process.
 74

Dyeing Process of 100% cotton fabric with vat dyes by pad dye
continuous method (Pad jigger method)
Introduction: Vat dyes are used for dyeing cellulosic fibers.
Dyeing with vats depends on converting the water in-soluble
vat dye by reduction to the water soluble leuco compound. This
has substantivity for cellulose and is therefore absorbed by the
fiber. After dyeing, the leuco compound is converted back to
the original insoluble form by oxidation.
Equipment and Materials:
01. Beaker.
02. Stirrer.
03. Measuring cylinder.
04. Weighting balance.
05. Dye.
06. 50 % NaOH.
07. Hydros
08. Dispersing agent.
09. Wetting agent.
10. Anti-migrating agent.
11. Salt.
12. Hydrogen peroxide.
13. Sequestering agent.
 75

Recipe:
Dye pad solution
S/L No. Chemicals Concentration
01. Dye 40 gm/l
02. Wetting agent. 2 gm/l
03. Sequestering agent 2 gm/l
04. Dispersing agent 2 gm/l
05. Anti-migrating agent 5-10 gm/l

Jigger Development
S/L No. Chemicals Concentration
01. NaOH 50 gm/l
02. Wetting agent. 2 gm/l
03. Sequestering agent 2 gm/l
04. Dispersing agent 2 gm/l
05. Hydros 25 gm/l

Procedure:
01. Fabric sample is cut in appropriate size.
02. Then sample is weighted.
03. Dye solution is prepared according to the above recipe.
04. Fabric sample is padded through the solution.
05. After padding fabric is dried at temp. 110ᵒC.
06. Solution is prepared for jigger machine.
 76

07. Fabric is adjusted in jigger and solution is poured into the

machine.
08. Fabric is heated to 80ᵒC in 45 minutes.
09. Then solution is drained.
10. Hydrogen peroxide is added at temp. 60ᵒC for
re oxidation of the dye for 20 minutes.
11. After 20 minutes sample is taken out and washed with
detergent solution.
12. Finally dry and finish the sample.

Conclusion:
1. Prepare dye solution with carefully.
2. Prepare chemical solution with carefully.
3. Use NaOH with carefully.
4. Temperature must be controlled with carefully.
5. Time must be controlled with carefully.
 77

Commercial / trade name of vat dyes : -

S/L Trade name Company name Country

No.
01. Cibanone Huntsman Switzerland
02. Caledon I.C.I U.K.
03. Durindone I.C.I U.K.
04. Calconoid American Cyanamid co. USA
05. Benzanthrene Chemi equip Ltd India
06. Artex Vat Rainbow Texdyes Corp. India
07. Indanthrene Bayer A.G Germany
08. Paradone L.B. Holiday & Co. U.K
09. Sandothrene Dyster Switzerland
10. Solanthrene Fran color France
 78

Direct Dyes
Direct dye, also called substantive dye, any of a class of colored,
water soluble compounds that have an affinity for fiber and
taken up directly, such as the benzene derivatives. Direct dyes
are usually cheap and easily applied, and they can yield bright
colors.
Why direct dye is so called?
Direct dyes are mainly applied on cellulosic fibers. It is anionic
dyes. It is also called substantive dye. Direct dyes are one of the
most versatile classes of dyestuff applicable to cellulose, wool,
nylon fibers. They can be directly dyed from simple solutions in
water. That is why these dyes are called direct dyes. Congo Red
was the first direct dye which was discovered in 1894.

Object of direct dyes:

1. Cost saving.
2. Comparatively tow time required to produce supply
garments.
3. No possibility of shade variation.
4. Easy process.
 79

Properties of direct dyes:

01 .Direct dyes are water soluble dyes.
02 . It is anionic in nature.
03 . It needs electrolyte for exhaustion.
04 . Dyeing process is carried out in alkaline condition.
05 . Generally used for cellulosic as well as protein fibers.
06 . Wash fastness is not so good (2 – 3).
07 . Fastness properties are improved by after treatment.
08 . It is not widely used as compared with reactive dyes.
09 . Comparatively cheap in price.
10 . Easily diffuseable into fiber.
11 . Various shades are found by using these dyes.
12 . This dye is simple and common in the practical point of
view.
13 . The tin tropical power of this dye is very good.
14 Direct dyes are used for cheap goods for local market.
 80

Commercial / Trade name of direct dyes:

S/L No. Trade Name Company Name Country

01. Indazol India Chemical Industry.ICI India
02. Solar Dyster Switzerland
03. Chloramine Dyster Switzerland
04. Azoform Dyster Switzerland
05. Cuprofix Dyster Switzerland
06. Chlirazol Imperial Chemical Ind. ICI India
O7. Durazol Imperial Chemical Ind. ICI India
08. Solophenyl Huntsman Switzerland
09. Cuprantine Huntsman Switzerland
10. Chlorntine Huntsman Switzerland
11. Cuprophenyl Huntsman Switzerland
12. Diphenyl Huntsman Switzerland
13. Diazol Francolor France
14. Cuprodizol Francolor France
15. Paramine L.B. Holiday & Co. U.K
16. Texazol Arlabs India
17. Atul direct Atul India
18 Golandamine Golden Dyes Corp. India
Fast
19. Benzo F. Bayer Germany
20 Benzoform F. Bayer Germany
21. Benzamine F. Bayer Germany
22. Combia F. Bayer Germany
 81

Cotton fabric dyeing with direct dye:

Typical recipe:
01. Direct dye…………………………= 5%
02. Wetting agent…………………..= 1.0̊̊̊̊ gm/l
03. Sequestering agent……………= 2.0̊̊̊̊ gm/l
04. Leveling agent……………………= 1.0̊̊̊̊ gm/l
05. Anti-creasing agent…………….= 1.0̊̊̊̊ gm/l
06. Antifoaming agent,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, = 0.5 gm/l
07. Oil removing agent……………..= 0̊̊̊̊.3 gm/l
08. Soda Sah……………………………..= 3,0̊̊̊̊ gm/l
09. Glauber salt…………………………= 20̊̊̊̊ gm/l
10. Pᴴ Value………………………………= 10 – 11
11. Temperature……………………….= 90̊̊̊̊ – 100ᵒC
12. M : L ratio……………………………= 1 : 10̊̊̊̊
13. Time……………………………………= 60̊̊̊̊ - 90 min.

Dyeing process:
Dyeing process is described below:
Dye solution preparation : Mix dye with normal water, make
dye paste, then pour hot water to dissolve the dye properly and
ensure uniform bath concentration.
01. The dye bath is set at 40ᵒC with substrate and required
water level.
 82

02. Add wetting agent, sequestering agent, leveling agent,

anti creasing agent and other auxiliaries and run time 5
min.
03. Add dye solution by linear dosing at 4ᵒ0C and run time
10 min.
04. Add soda ash by curve or progressive dosing at 40ᵒC and
run time 10 min.
05. Raise the temperature to 100ᵒC (2ᵒC per min) within 30
min.
06. Run the bath for 20 min.
07. Add salt step according to dye bath concentration.
08. This is better salt after reaching the temp. to 100ᵒC since
at this period the maximum penetration is achieved all
over the substrate.
09. Dyeing is continued for 60 minutes at 100ᵒC.
10. Cool down the bath temperature to 70ᵒC.
11. Drop the bath and rinse.
12. Carry out after treatment process to improve wet
fastness.
After treatment: -
The dyed material is carried out at 70ᵒC for 30 min in a bath
containing 1 to 3% of acetic acid (30%) and 1 – 3% of CuSO₄
according to the depth of shade. It improves light and wash
fastness.
 83

Pre – Caution:
1. All chemicals should be measured very carefully.
2. Temperature should be increased very carefully.
3. Water should be added very carefully.
4. Time should be controlled very sincerely.
5. Temperature should be maintained very sincerely.
Conclusion:
1. Direct dyeing is the most popular dyeing process in
Bangladesh. It is not sensitive dye. It is cheap and easy to
use. So many factories use this dyes now.
Color fastness properties of direct dyed material:
Generally these dyes are used when high wash fastness is not
required.
1. Wash fastness: Poor unless treated with suitable dye fixing
agent and or fastness improving finishing agent.
2. Light fastness: Good.
3. Rubbing fastness: Moderate to Good.
4. Chemical wash fastness: Poor.
Fastness properties of direct dyes can be improved in several
ways, such as following: -
1. Treatment with cationic fixing agent.
2. Treatment with formaldehyde.
 84

3. Treatment with copper salts such as copper sulphate.

4. Treatment with cationic agents and copper sulphate in
combination.
5. Diazotization and development.
6. Treatment with metal salt.
7. Treatment with cross linking agents or resins.
ᵒC
e Salt 100ᵒC x 60’
r 110
u 100
t A D S 70ᵒCx30’

a 80 70ᵒC
r 60
e 40
p
m
e
T
40 30 60 20
Fig: Diagram of direct dyeing. Time (minutes)
 85

Disperse Dyes
Disperse dyes are organic substance which are suitable for
dyeing hydrophobic fibers. Disperse dyes are used for dyeing
man-made cellulose ester and synthetic fibers specially acetate
and polyester fibers and sometimes nylon and acrylic fibers.

Why disperse dye is so called?

Disperse dye is so called because it is non-soluble and
molecularly dispersed therefore dispersing agent is necessary
for coloration with disperse dyes. Disperse dyes are synthetic
dyes. Disperse dye is one kind of organic substance which is
free of ionizing group. Disperse dyes are mainly used for dyeing
polyester yarn or fabric.

Properties of Polyester Dyes :

01. Disperse dye is one kind of organic substance which is
free of ionizing group.
02. Disperse dye is non - soluble in nature.
03. Disperse dye is insoluble in water.
04. Dispersing agent is needed for dyeing with disperse dyes.
05. Light fastness of disperse dye is good to excellent with
rating about 4 – 5.
06. Disperse dyes are applied in acidic condition.
 86

07. Disperse dyes are widely used for dyeing synthetic fibers.
Polyester, nylon, acrylic also can be dyed with these
dyes.
08. Disperse dyes dyeing is carried out in high temperature.
09. In some case, carrier method is applied for dyeing of
polyester with disperse dyes.
10. Disperse dyes are economical.
11. Molecular size of disperse dyes are smaller than other
dyes.
12. Disperse dyes are derivatives of azo, anthraquinone ,
nitro and quinine groups.
13. Wash fastness of these dyes is moderate to good with
rating about 3 – 4.
14. They do not undergo any chemical change during dyeing.
15. Disperse dye has no affinity to cellulose and regenerated
fiber.
16. Disperse dye able to give us the medium and bright
shade.
17. Rubbing fastness is good for disperse dye.
 87

Commercial / Trade name of Disperse dyes

S/L No. Name of dyes Company name Country

01. Dispersol ICI UK
02. Darenol ICI UK
03. SRA Archroma Germany
04. Dianix Dyster Germany
05. Foron Sandoz Switzerland
06. Terasil Huntsman Switzerland
07. Novalon Huntsman Switzerland
08. Celliton BASF Germany
09. Palani BASF Germany
10. Resoline Bayer Germany
11. Setile ACNA Italy
12. Tersttle ACNA Italy
13. Acitamine Duepond USA
14. Eastman Eastman Kodak USA
15. Mikelton Metsui Chemical Co. Japan
16. Nylo-quinone Francolour France
17. Vonteryl Vondalin gen pleat Holland
18. Chemilene Chemiequip Pvt. Ltd India
 88

Objective of CVC dyeing: -

1. To save chemicals.
2. To improve physical properties of cvc fabric.
3. To reduce dyeing processing steps.
4. To denote minimum shade percentage.
5. To reduce processing cost.
6. To reduce usage of water.
7. To produce eco friendly dyeing process.

Dyeing of Polyester / Cotton blend goods.

Typical scouring recipe for polyester/cotton blend goods.
1. Wetting agent …………………. = 0.5 – 1.0 gm/l
2. Sequestering agent……………. = 1.0̊̊̊̊ – 2.0 gm/l
3. Detergent………………………….. = 1.0̊̊̊̊ – 2.0 gm/l
4. Caustic Soda………………………. = 1.0̊̊̊̊ – 2.0 gm/l
5. Soda ash……………………………. = 2.0̊̊̊̊ – 3.0 gm/l
6. Temperature…………………….. = 90̊̊̊̊ – 100ᵒC
7. Time…………………………………. = 30̊̊̊̊ – 60 min.
8. Pᴴ Value…………………………… = 10.5 – 11.5
9. M:L ratio………………………….. = 1 : 10̊̊̊̊.
 89

Scouring procedure:
1. Set the substrate at room temperature with wetting agent,
detergent, sequestering agent and alkali.
2. Raise the temperature to 95 – 100ᵒC @ 1 – 3ᵒC / min.
3. Run the bath for 30 – 60 min.
4. Cool down the bath temperature to 60 – 70ᵒC
5. Then drop the bath.
6. Rinse twice with hot water (60ᵒC).
7. Then wash with cold water.
110
100ᵒC X 60’
100

e W+D+S Alkali

r
u
t 60 60ᵒC X 20’

a
r 40

e
p
m
e
30 50 110 120

T Time
 90

W=Wetting agent, D=Detergent, S=Sequestering & other chem.

Typical recipe for dyeing of polyester/cotton blend
01. Dispersing agent……………………….= 0̊̊̊̊.5 – 1.0 gm/l
02. Sequestering agent…………………..= 1.0̊̊̊̊ - 2.0 gm/l
03. Leveling agent…………………………. = 1.0̊̊̊̊ – 2.0 gm/l
04. Carrier…………………………………….. = 1.0̊̊̊̊ – 3.0 gm/l
05. Disperse dyes…………………………..= X %
06. Selected direct dyes…………………= Y %
07. Acetic acid……………………………….= 1.0̊̊̊̊ – 2.0 gm/l
08. Anti crease………………………………= 1.0̊̊̊̊ – 2.0 gm/l
09. Glauber salt…………………………….= 5.0̊̊̊̊ - 10.0 gm/l
10. Temperature…………………………. = 90 – 100ᵒC
11. Time……………………………………… = 60̊̊̊̊ – 120 min.
12. M : L ratio…………………………….. = 1 : 10̊̊̊̊.
Dyeing procedure:
01. Set the dye bath with substrate at 50ᵒC temperature.
02. Now add dispersing agent, leveling agent, acetic acid,
carrier and other auxiliaries.
03. Then run the dye bath for 15 – 20 min.
04. Add dye solution into the dye bath and run time 10 min.
05. Raise the temperature at 100ᵒC @ 1 – 2ᵒC / min.
06. Add glauber salt and run the bath for 1 – 2 hours at the
same temperature.
07. Cool down the temperature to 70–80ᵒC over 10 – 15 min.
 91

08. Drop the dye bath and carry on after treatment process.
After treatment process:
1. Rinse twice with hot and cold water.
2. Treat the fabric with suitable fixing agent for improving
the wet fastness properties of dyed goods.
3. Soap wash according to vender recommendation.
4. Rinse twice with hot (60ᵒC) and cold water.
5. Neutralizing with acetic acid.
6. Unload the fabric.
u 100ᵒ 100ᵒCx60’
t
a 60ᵒ C+A Dyes 70ᵒCx10’
r
e 50ᵒ 60ᵒCx20’
p
m Unload
e
T
20̊̊̊̊’ 50̊̊̊̊’ 110̊̊̊̊’ 120̊̊̊̊’ 130̊̊̊̊’ 140̊̊̊̊’

Time
 92

Fig: Polyester/Cotton blend dyeing

C=Chemicals , A=Auxilieries.
Dyeing of 100% polyester fabric with disperse dyes
Dyeing recipe:
01. Disperse dye = 3.0 %
02. Dispersing agent = 1.0 gm/l
03. Polyester leveling agent = 1.0 gm/l
04. Acetic acid = 1.0 gm/l
05. Caustic soda = 2.0 gm/l
06. Soda ash = 2.0 gm/l
07. Hydros = 1.0 gm/l
08. Time = 60 min.
09. Temperature = 130ᵒC.
10. Pᴴ Value = 4.5 – 5.5.
11. M : L ratio =1 : 8.

Dyeing Procedure:
01. At first prepare disperse dye solution with hot water.
02. Set the dye bath at 50ᵒC.
 93

03. Add the bath polyester leveling and dispersing agent.

04. Then add disperse dye solution.
05. Pᴴ is controlled by adding acetic acid.
06. This condition is kept for 15 min at temperature 60ᵒC
07. Then the dye bath temperature raise to 130ᵒC @
1 - 2ᵒC / min.
08. Run time 60 min at temperature 130ᵒC. Within this time
dye is diffused in the dye bath, absorbed by the fiber and
thus required shade is obtained.
09. Cool down the temperature to 60ᵒC.
10. The fabric is hot rinsed.
11. Then reduction cleaning is done at 80ᵒC for 20 min.
12. Wash the fabric and finally rinsed.
13. Then unload the fabric.
Advantages of H.T. Dyeing
1. Dyeing time is frequently shorter.
2. No need of carrier.
3. Maximum 98% dye is fixation.
4. Loss of dye is less.
5. Light fastness and wet fastness is usually higher.
6. Better exhaustion and deeper dyeing can be produced.
7. Faster diffusion of the dye in the fiber at elevated
temperature.
Disadvantages:
 94

1. Higher temperature is required.

130 130ᵒC x 60’

e
r
u90ᵒ 80ᵒCx20’

t80ᵒ C D 70ᵒCx20’

a 70ᵒ
r60ᵒ Unload

e50ᵒ
p
m
e

T 15’ 50’ 110’ 120’ 130̊̊̊̊’ 140̊̊̊̊’ 150̊̊̊̊’

Time
Fig: 100% polyester dyeing.
C=Chemicals & other auxiliaries, D=Disperse dyes.
 95

Bleaching Agent
Bleaching agent: A bleaching agent is a substance that can
whiten or discolorise other substances. The purpose of
bleaching agents is to bleach the natural substances in cotton
fibers and cellulose fibers that make the fabric yellowish.
Bleaching agents essentially destroy chromophores via the
oxidation or reduction of these absorbing groups. Bleaching
agents also bleach textile colors and should be avoided for
colored textiles.
Bleaching agents are two types: -
a. Oxidizing bleaching agents.
b. Reducing bleaching agents.
a. Oxidizing bleaching agents: Generally oxidative bleaching
agents are carried out using hydrochlorides, sodium chloride
or peroxide compounds. Natural fibers like cotton, ramie,
jute, wool are generally bleached oxidative methods. The
double bond breaks in the oxidative bleaching which makes
the substrate colorless.
01. Ozone (O₃).
02. Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂),
03. Calcium hypochlorite [Ca(OCl)₂],
04. Sodium chlorite (NaClO₂),
05. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl),
 96

06. Potassium permanganate (KMnO₄),

07. Acetic acid (CH₃ - COOH),
08. Bleaching powder [Ca(OCl)₂], [Ca(OCl)Cl],
09. Potassium di – chromate [K₂Cr₂O₇],
10. Sodium di – chromate [Na₂Cr₂O₇] ,
11. Potassium chlorate [KClO₃],
12. Sodium peroxide [Na₂O₂].
b. Reducing Bleaching agents: Reductive method of bleaching
is done with sodium hydrosulphite, sodium sulphide and
sulphur di – oxide are powerful reducing agents. Fibers like
polyamide, polyacrylics and polyacetates can be bleached using
reductive bleaching technology. Double bond is converted into
single bond in case of reducing bleaching : -
01. Zinc dust (Zn),
02. Staneous chloride (SnCl₂),
03. Ferrous sulphate (FeSO₄),
04. Sulphur di – oxide (SO₂),
05. Sodium bi-sulphate (NaHSO₄),
06. Hydrogen sulphide (H₂S),
07. Sodium sulphite formaldehyde,
08. Sodium sulphate (Na₂SO₄),
09. Hydrogen (H₂),
10. Carbon (C).
 97

Singeing
Singeing: The process of removing the loose hairy fibers /
projecting fibers / protruding fibers / yarn ends or fuzz from the
surface of textile materials (Yarn / Fabrics) to produce a smooth
even and clean looking face is called “Singeing”. Singeing is an
important part of pre – treatment. Unclean print patterns,
mottled fabrics surfaces and pilling results.
Objectives of singeing:
01. To remove the short fibers from the textile materials
(yarn and fabrics).
02. To make the textile materials smooth, even and clean
looking face.
03. To increase lusture in textile materials.
04. To make the textile materials for subsequent next
process.
05. For optical levelness of dyeing and clean out the lines of
printing design.
06. To reduce the pilling in the fabrics surface.
07. To reduce skitter dyeing.
08. To reduce soiling tendency.
09. To distinguish fabric structure.
 98

Technical data for gas singeing machine

1. Flame speed = 1.5 – 3.0 m/sec.
2. Fabric speed = 150 – 250 m/min.
3. Temperature around = 120ᵒC – 130ᵒC.

Controlling points of gas singeing machine:

1. Motor and other moving parts.
2. Speed of the motor.
3. Electricity supply.
4. Air blowing suction hood.
5. Fabric width control.
6. Brush.
7. Flame height.
8. Fabric speed.
9. Gas speed.

Types of singeing machine:

1. Plate singeing machine.
2. Roller singeing machine.
3. Gas singeing machine.
 99

Difference among Plate singeing, Roller singeing & gas singeing.

S/L Plate Singeing S/L Roller Singeing S/L Gas Singeing

No. No. No.
01. One side of the 01. One side of the 01 Both side of the
fabric is singed. fabric is singed. fabric is singed.
02. Uniform 02. Uniform 02. Uniform
temperature temperature temperature can
can not be can not be be controlled.
controlled. controlled.
03. Brush is not 03. Brush is not 03. Brush is used for
used for proper used for proper proper singeing.
singeing. singeing.
04. Extra lusture is 04. Extra lusture is 04. No Extra lusture
produced due produced due is produced.
to friction to friction
between fabric between fabric
and plate. and plate.
05. Not suitable for 05. Not suitable for 05. Very suitable for
dyeing and dyeing and dyeing and
printing. printing. printing.
06. The fiber ends 06. The fiber ends 06. The fiber ends in
in interstitches in interstitches interstitches can
can’t be singed. can’t be singed. be singed.
07. Plate may 07. Plate may 07. No decay occurs.
decay due to decay due to
friction. friction.
 100

De-sizing
De-sizing: De-sizing is the process of removal of size material
(Starch) applied on warp threads of a fabrics to facilitate the
process of weaving . Size forms a stiff, hard and smooth coating
on warp yarns to enable them to withstand the cyclic tensions
during weaving and reduce breakage.
De- sizing is the chemical process and the rate of this process
i.e. the rate of hydrolysis of starch can be controlled.

Objectives of de-sizing:
1. To remove the starch material from the fabric.
2. To increase the absorbency power of the fabric.
3. To increase the affinity of the fabric to the dry chemicals.
4. To make the fabric ready for the next subsequent process.
5. To increase lusture of dyeing and printing.
6. To perfect action of scouring & bleaching.
7. To reduce stiffness, making soft and pliable.
 101

Types of de-sizing:
a. Hydrolytic method:
1. Rot steeping.
2. Alkali steeping.
3. Enzymatic de sizing process.
4. Washing with hot water.
5. Acid de sizing process.
b. Oxidative de-sizing:
1. Chlorine de-sizing.
2. Chlorite de-sizing.
3. Bromite de-sizing.
4. Peroxide de-sizing.

Common size material / Types of size:

1. Starch:
a. Corn,
b. Potato,
c. Sago,
d. Hydroxy ethyl starch.
 102

2. Natural gums:
a. Tragacanth,
b. Locust-beam gum, etc.
3. Proteins:
a. Glue,
b. Gelatine, etc.
4. Synthetic Sizing agent:
a. PVA (Polyvinyl Alcohol),
b. PVAC
c. PAN,
d. PAA,
e. PA (Polyacrylic Acid)
5. Additives:
a. De-foamers,
b. Thinners,
c. Tallow,
d. Oils,
e. Waxes.
Important parameter for de-sizing:
1. Temperature,
2. Pᴴ Value,
3. Time,
4. Circulation,
5. M : L ratio.
 103

Enzyme
Enzyme: In Greek, enzyme means “Yeast”. The term was coined
in 1876 by German scientist ‘Welhelm Kuhne’.
Enzyme is one kind of Bio-catalyst. It’s molecular weight is high
but different from chemical catalyst. The action of enzyme is
controlled by temperature, time, concentration and Pᴴ of the
solution. Most enzymes have no action at temperature above
75ᵒC.
Properties of Enzyme:
01. Enzymes are living organism.
02. Physically – colloidal in nature.
03. High molecular weight proteins.
04. Work under specific condition of temperature (best
action at 55ᵒC.)
05. Working Pᴴ value is 4.5 – 5.5.
06. Lose activity gradually with time.
07. Speeds up rate of reaction.
08. Enzymes remain unchanged after a reaction and
therefore can work again.
09. Enzymes are reversible and can catalyse a reaction going
both ways (Synthesis / Lysis).
10. Small quantity is required for enzyme action.
11. Generally act under mild condition.
12. Have to be cultivated and nurtured crops.
 104

13. Genetic engineering allows enzymes to be designed for

specific process.
14. It’s main function is fermentation of starch.
15. Most enzymes are soluble in water.
16. No risk of hydro-cellulose formation during pilling.
17. Enzyme is easy to control.
18. Enzymes are bio degradable.
Types of Enzyme:
1. Cellulose enzyme: Degrade cellulose.
2. Amylase enzyme: Hydrolyze the starch (De-sizing)
a. Malt extract enzymes.
b. Bacterial extract enzymes.
c. Pancreatic amalysis enzymes.

Enzymatic de-sizing process / Continuous process:

Continuous process of cotton de-sizing by enzymatic de-sizing
process as below: -
Recipe:
1. Malt extract : 0.5 – 2.0 %.
2. Time : 3 - 4 hrs(For stronger solution 5 min).
3. Temperature : 50 – 60ᵒC.
4. Pᴴ Value : 6.5 – 7.5
 105

Here, malt extract used as de-sizing agent. The whole process

of de-sizing is completely following stage: -
1. Preparation of de-sizing mixture:
De-sizing mixture usually contains following agents –
a. Wetting agent : 0.5 – 1.0 gm/l
b. Common salt : 2.0 – 4.0 gm/l
c. Acetic acid : 0.1 – 0.5 gm/l
Chelant if necessary.
d. Malt extract enzymes : 1.0 – 3.0 gm/l
e. Time : 3 – 4 hrs.
f. Pᴴ Value : 10 – 11
g. M : L Ratio : 1 : 10.
The above chemicals are dissolved completely in a mixing
volume.
2. Padded in padding mangle: The de-sizing or enzyme
mixed with sufficient amount of water is added in the
padding mangle. Then the sized fabric in rope form is
immersed into the de-sizing liquor by immersion roller.
The temperature of liquor is 50 -60ᵒC. The rate of de-sizing
mixer consumption should be regulated so that the mixer
level remains constant.
3. Storing: After padded the material, the fabric is squeezed
and passed over winch roller . Then the fabric is stored
into the storage bath by folding for 3-4 hrs or 5 minutes
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for stronger solution at room temperature. Here, malt

extract reacts with starch material and decompose into
glucose.
4. Washing: The fabric is brought into washing mangle by
guide roller to remove short chain sugars because these
are water soluble. After that, the fabric is squeezed and
dried.
Squeezing Roller Winch

Padding Store tank Washing tank Squeezed

Cloth Fabric for
Dry.
Fig: Diagram for enzymatic de-sizing process.
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De-sizing Test:
Solution: KI + I₂ + H₂O₂ = 0.24 gm + 0.13 gm + 100 ml.
One drop of solution is used.
1. Deep Blue : Presence of starch.
2. Violet : Partially degraded starch.
3. Brown : Completely degraded starch.
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Bleaching
Bleaching: Bleaching is the process by which natural color
of fabrics are destroyed. So that fabric will be more bright
and light reflectance will be more before one. Also
absorbency is increased because sodium hydroxide is used
to increase the Pᴴ value which remove oil, fat, wax, etc.
Objectives of bleaching:
01. To remove of colored impurities..
02. To remove of seed coats.
03. Minimum tendering of fiber.
04. To increase the degree of whiteness.
05. Technically reliable & simple mode of operation.
06. Low chemical & energy consumption.
07. To ensure a pure and permanent basic white color
fabric.
08. To increase absorbency for dyeing operation.
09. To ensure level dyeing operation.
10. To make the textile goods to be suitable for dyeing and
printing with pale and bright shade.
11. To follow with adding optical brightening agent process
(Super white).
12. To preserve a good user and technological properties
of textile materials.
13. The process must be ecologically and financially
sensible.
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