LESSON 1

Philosophy and its Branches

Types of Fallacies

Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
• define Philosophy and identify its branches;
• enumerate the types of fallacies and their
characteristics; and
• create personal example on the types of fallacies.

Introduction
Welcome to Lesson 1! This lesson introduces you to the basics of Philosophy.
In this lesson, you are expected to articulate Philosophy and its branches. You will be
introduced of the types of fallacies and how each is committed. Enjoy this lesson and
keep reading!

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What comes in your mind when you hear the word, Philosophy?

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Analysis

Consider the questions below:

1. What is the difference between Ethics and Aesthetics?

2. Why do we commit bad arguments?

Abstraction

Philosophy refers to the study of general and fundamental problems, such as

those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The
word “philosophy” rooted from the Greek words philia (love) and sophia (wisdom),
which literally means “love for wisdom.”

Branches of Philosophy:
1. Metaphysics – questions concerning the nature of reality or existence

2. Epistemology – deals with the nature of knowledge acquisition and evaluation

3. Axiology – studies values

a. Ethics – questions on moral principles and rationales for values in human
conduct
b. Aesthetics – questions on the nature and value of beauty

4. Logic – deals with the study of reasoning and critical thinking

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Fallacies – bad arguments
Types of Fallacies:
1. Ad hominem – committed when one is encouraged to reject a proposition because
it is the stated opinion of someone regarded as disreputable in some way
Example: Aries challenged their new instructor in Technical Education saying,
“Why should we believe you when you have not even passed your
Licensure Examination?”

2. Ad ignorantiam (Appeal to Ignorance) – committed when the truth of a claim is

established only on the basis of lack of evidence against it
Example: Jessa is being investigated for cheating. She is confident, however, that
the investigation will not push through because she said that the
investigators have no evidence against her.

3. Ad misericordiam (Appeal to Pity) – committed when in offering an argument,

pity is appealed to
Example: Eulogio pleaded to his instructor in Ethics to give him a passing grade
because his whole family is depending on him to lift them out of poverty
once he graduates.

4. Ad populum (Appeal to Popularity) – committed when the truth of a claim is

established only on the basis of its popularity and familiarity
Example: GJ’s classmates could not believe her report. When their instructor asked
her to verify her report, she said she got her information from a popular
website.

5. Ad baculum (Appeal to Force) – committed when someone in a position of power

threatens to bring down unfortunate consequences upon anyone who dares to
disagree with a proffered proposition
Example: Carl pointed out an instructor’s error during a discussion. The instructor,
however, snapped at him and threatened him that he’ll be sent out of class
if he does not stop arguing with him.

6. Ad verecundiam (Appeal to Authority) – committed when the opinion of someone

famous or accomplished in another area of expertise is supposed to guarantee the
truth of a conclusion
Example: Gerard, a photography expert said that the ghost captured on photo is just
reflection of light.

7. Ad antiquitatem (Appeal to Tradition) – committed when an argument is deemed

correct on the basis that it is correlated with some past or present tradition
Example: Marriage should be between a man and a woman. It has been so for a long
time in this country; it should remain so today and in the future.

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Application

Make at least two examples to each type of fallacies. Write it

down in the table provided.

Logical Fallacy Example Statement

Ad hominem

Ad ignorantiam

Ad misericordiam

Ad populum

Ad baculum

Ad verecundiam

Ad antiquitatem

Congratulations! You have successfully completed the task in Lesson 1. Should

there be questions and clarifications in some part of the lesson, kindly message your
instructor.

If you do not have any questions or clarifications, you are now prepared to move
on to Lesson 2. Enjoy and keep working! GOD Bless.

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LESSON 2

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
• explain the elements of culture;
• explain how culture influence one’s behavior; and
• explain the concept of cultural relativism.

Introduction
Welcome to Lesson 2! This lesson introduces you to the basics of culture. In this
lesson, you are expected to explain the elements of culture and how it influences a
person’s behavior. This lesson will also help you the understand cultural relativism and
ethnocentrism. Enjoy this lesson and keep learning!

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1. What have you observed in the photos?

2. What conclusion/s can you draw in the above photos?

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Analysis

Consider the questions below:

1. Why the study of culture is important?

2. Why do we need to understand other cultures?

Abstraction

Defining Culture
Culture is defined as the symbols, language, beliefs, values, and artifacts that
are part of any society.

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Types of Culture
1. Nonmaterial culture – this includes values, beliefs, symbols, and language that
define a society, a religion, an art, an ideas, a customs, a value system, an attitudes,
a knowledge and etc. It is very important in determining human behavior and has
a strong hold on an individual.
2. Material culture – includes all the society’s physical objects, such as its tools and
technology, clothing, eating utensils and means of transportation. Product of
human effort to control his environment and make life conformable and safe.
3. Real culture – it can be observed in our social life.
Example: if a person says that he\she is Muslim. Will be, when followed all the
principles of Islam is the real and doesn’t follow, is not a real one.
4. Ideal culture – is presented as a pattern to the people. It is a goal of a society and
never achieved fully because some parts remain out of practice.

Characteristics of Culture
1. Culture is learned. It is acquired through education, training, and experiences.
Most of the behavior is learned in society.
Example, wearing clothes or dancing.
2. Culture is shared. This pertains to all the traits, attitudes, ideas, knowledge, and
material objects like radio, television and automobiles that are actually shared by
members of society.
3. Culture is transmitted. It refers to all the culture traits and objects that are
transmitted among the members of the society continually. We learn new fashion,
how to move in society and how to move in a particular social situation.
4. Culture is changing. Culture never remains static but changing in every society,
but with different speed and causes. It constantly undergoes change and adapts
itself to the environments.

Components of Culture:
1. Norms – they are commonly defined as rules or expectations that are socially
enforced. Norms may be prescriptive (encouraging positive behavior; for example,
“be honest”) or proscriptive (discouraging negative behavior; for example, “do not
cheat”).
Social norms have three (3) types:
a. Folkways – these are the customs or conventions of daily life. They are a type
of social norm -- expectations for how we act. Folkways mildly enforced social
expectations. It distinguishes between proper and rude behavior.
b. Mores – refers to the norms set by society, largely for behavior and appearance.
Individuals who DO NOT follow social mores are often considered social
deviants. This also dictates right and wrong.
“In Sociology, Mores is generally discussed in contrast with Folkways
because both types of social norms, though they vary in the degree to
which they are enforced.”

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 c. Laws – these are formalized norms enacted by people vested with legitimate
authority.
2. Ideas – a non-material aspect of culture and embody man’s conception of his
physical, social, and cultural world.
3. Beliefs – refer to a person’s conviction about a certain idea.
4. Values – an abstract concept of what is important and worthwhile. They are general
ideas that individuals share about what is good or bad.
5. Symbols – refers to an object, gesture, sound, color or design that represents
something.
a. Language – is considered as most important set of symbols.
Example: In English, the word chair means something we sit on. In French, the
word chaise means the same thing. As long as we agree how to interpret these
words, a shared language and thus society are possible. By the same token,
differences in languages can make it quite difficult to communicate.
Language can be spoken or written. One of the most important developments in
the evolution of society was the creation of written language. Some of the
preindustrial societies that anthropologists have studied written language, while
others do not, and in remaining societies the “written” language consists mainly
of pictures, not words.
6. Rituals – refer to as established procedures and ceremonies that often mark
transitions in the life course.
Example:
a. Girls around the world undergo various types of initiation ceremonies to mark
their transition to adulthood. Special ceremonies also mark a girl’s first
menstrual period.
b. Boys also have their own initiation ceremonies, some of them involving
circumcision. That said, the ways in which circumcisions are done and the
ceremonies accompanying them differ widely. If their parents are observant
Jews circumcision will be part of a religious ceremony, and a religious figure
called a moyel will perform the circumcision.

Cultural Ethics
As the name suggests, it deals with the morality, integrity, principles, and values
of a culture. It usually differs from culture to culture. In spite of that, certain values
remain the same simple because they are ethically and morally justifiable.
Culture is an integral part of ethics and vice versa. The culture of a community
impacts it progress, development, laws, principles and to some extent its policies.

Ethnocentrism (William Graham Sumner)

- it refers to the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of
your own ethnic culture and the belief that that is in fact the “right” way to look
at the world.
- this leads to making incorrect assumptions about others’ behavior based on
your own norms, values, and beliefs.

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Cultural relativism
- refers to the principle that an individual person’s beliefs and activities should
be understood by others in terms of that individual’s own culture.

Application

1. How does Ethnocentrism affect one’s viewpoint?

2. Why Cultural Relativism is important in the community?

Congratulations! You have successfully completed the task in Lesson 2. Should

there be questions and clarifications in some part of the lesson, kindly message your
instructor.

If you do not have any questions or clarifications, you are now prepared to move
on to Lesson 3. Enjoy and keep working! GOD Bless.

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LESSON 3

LAWRENCE KOLHBERG’S
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
• synthesize the concept of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development;
• apply Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development to
scenarios presenting moral dilemmas; and
• positively regard the importance of Kohlberg’s Stages
of Moral Development in analyzing the ethical
behaviors of people.

Introduction
Welcome to Lesson 3! This lesson introduces you to the Stages of Moral
Development by Lawrence Kohlberg. In this lesson, you are assumed to apply the Moral
Development Stages to your life scenarios presenting moral dilemmas. This lesson will
also helps you analyze ethical behaviors of people. Enjoy this lesson and keep reading!

The Heinz Dilemma

Scenario 1:
A woman was on her deathbed. There is a drug that might save her. The drug costs
$2,000 per dosage. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew
to borrow the money and tried every legal means, but he could only get together
about $1,000. He asked the doctor scientist who discovered the drug for a discount
or let him pay later. But the doctor scientist refused.
Question: Should Heinz break into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife?
Why or why not?

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 The Heinz Dilemma
Scenario 2:
Heinz broke into the laboratory and stole the drug. The next day, the newspapers
reported the break-in and theft. Brown, a police officer and a friend of Heinz,
remembered seeing Heinz the evening prior to the theft behaving suspiciously near
the laboratory. On the night of the theft, he remembered seeing Heinz running
away from the laboratory.
Question: Should Brown report what he witnessed? Why or why not?

The Heinz Dilemma

Scenario 3:
Officer Brown reported what he saw. Heinz was arrested and brought to court. If
convicted, he faces up to two years' jail time. Heinz was found guilty.
Question: Should the judge sentence Heinz to prison? Why or why not?

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Analysis

Consider the questions below:

1. What is the basis for the reasoning on The Heinz Dilemma in the Punishment-
Obedience Orientation of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development?

2. What is the basis for the reasoning on The Heinz Dilemma in the Instrumental-
Relativist Orientation of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development?

3. What is the basis for the reasoning on The Heinz Dilemma in the Interpersonal
Concordance Orientation of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development?

4. What is the basis for the reasoning on The Heinz Dilemma in the Society-
Maintaining Orientation of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development?

5. What is the basis for the reasoning on The Heinz Dilemma in the Social Contract
Legalistic Orientation of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development?

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6. What is the basis for the reasoning on The Heinz Dilemma in the Universal Ethics
Principle Orientation of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development?

Abstraction

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development was developed through his doctoral
dissertation at the University of Chicago. He completed his doctoral degree in 1958.
Kohlberg established his theory through a series of questions asked of 10 to 16-year-
old subjects.
➢ He presented them a moral dilemma by utilizing The Heinz Dilemma.
➢ He asked them questions to draw out their emotions regarding the situation.
➢ He asked them what course of action the character should take, and why.
➢ Through this process, he established the Stages of Moral Development.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning is a stage theory.

➢ everyone goes through the stages sequentially without skipping any stage.
➢ movement is effected when a person notices inadequacies in his or her
present way of coping with a given moral dilemma.
➢ movement through these stages are not natural; people do not automatically
move from one stage to the next as they mature.

Kohlberg’s theory posits that moral reasoning, an essential requisite for ethical
behavior, has 3 levels, with two stages at each level. Kohlberg hypothesized that every
stage is more sufficient at reacting to moral dilemmas than the stages prior to it.

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LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL Morality

Stage 1 Punishment-Obedience Orientation

This is the stage that all young children start at (and a few adults
remain in).

Rules are seen as being fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is
important because it means avoiding punishment. A good or bad
action is determined by its physical consequences.

Stage 2 Instrumental-Relativist Orientation

(Individualism, Self-Interest, and Exchange)

Decisions are made based on the principle of "What's in it for

me?”, meaning, personal needs determine right or wrong.
Choosing to do what is right is a matter of satisfying one’s own
needs.

For example, a child might reason: "If I do what mom or dad

wants me to do, they will reward me. Therefore, I will do it."

LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL Morality

Stage 3 Interpersonal Concordance Orientation

(Social Conformity, "Good Boy/Nice Girl")

There is a sense of what "good boys" and "nice girls" do. Being
“good” and “nice” is important. An individual wants to win the
approval of others and maintain the expectations of others.

The emphasis is on living up to social expectations and norms

because of how they impact day-to-day relationships.

Stage 4 Society-Maintaining Orientation

(Law and Order)

An individual is oriented toward authority, fixed rules, and the

maintenance of the social order.

The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules,

doing one's duty and respecting authority.

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LEVEL 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL Morality

Stage 5 Social Contract Legalistic Orientation

Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual

rights and standards that have been critically examined and
agreed upon by the whole society.

Laws are really just a social contract based on majority decision

and inevitable compromise. There is a clear awareness of the
relativism of personal values and opinions and a corresponding
emphasis upon procedural rules for reaching consensus.

People at this stage sometimes disobey rules if they find them to

be inconsistent with their personal values.

People will also argue for certain laws to be changed if they are
no longer "working".

Stage 6 Universal Ethics Orientation

(Principled Conscience)

At this stage, rights are defined by the decision of people’s

conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical principles that
appeal to logical comprehensiveness, universality, and
consistency. At heart, these are universal principles of justice,
equality of the human rights, and respect for the dignity of
human beings as individual persons.

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Application

Instructions:
1. Refer to the scenarios in Heinz Dilemma.
Please fill in the following matrix on Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development.
The First Stage is given as a format.
2. Each reason should be given in only one sentence of NOT more than 25 words.
3. Each Scenario will be accorded 20 points each. The reason for the action for each
Stage will be rated as follows:
a. Instrumental-Relativist : 2 points
b. Interpersonal Concordance : 2 points
c. Society-Maintaining : 4 points
d. Social Contract : 6 points
e. Universal Ethics Principle : 6 points

Scenario 1
Level Stage Heinz SHOULD Heinz SHOULD
STEAL the drug NOT STEAL the
because drug because
Punishment- he might be caught if he doesn't, his wife
Obedience and sent to jail. might scold him.
PRE-
CONVENTIONAL Instrumental-
Relativist

Interpersonal
Concordance

CONVENTIONAL

Society-
Maintaining

POST- Social
CONVENTIONAL Contract

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 Universal
Ethics
Principle

Scenario 2
Level Stage Brown SHOULD Brown SHOULD
REPORT NOT REPORT
what he witnessed what he witnessed
because because
he might be if he does, Heinz
Punishment-
suspended if others might fight with him.
Obedience
found out.
PRE-
CONVENTIONAL
Instrumental-
Relativist

Interpersonal
Concordance

CONVENTIONAL

Society-
Maintaining

Social
Contract
POST-
CONVENTIONAL
Universal
Ethics
Principle

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Scenario 3
Level Stage The judge SHOULD The judge SHOULD
SENTENCE NOT SENTENCE
Heinz to prison Heinz to prison
because because
he did not obey the prison is too much
Punishment-
law. punishment for his
Obedience
act.
PRE-
CONVENTIONAL
Instrumental-
Relativist

Interpersonal
Concordance
CONVENTIONAL

Society-
Maintaining

Social
Contract
POST-
CONVENTIONAL
Universal
Ethics
Principle

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 Rubrics
Crite- Weight 100% 80% 60% 40% 20%
ria
Reflects Reflects Reflects Reflects Reflects
EXCELL VERY GOOD POOR VERY
ENT GOOD synthesis synthesis POOR
synthesis synthesis of the of the synthesis
of the of the concept of concept of of the
Logic 70% concept of concept of Kohlberg’ Kohlberg’ concept of
Kohlberg’ Kohlberg’ s Stages of s Stages Kohlberg’
s Stages s Stages Moral of Moral s Stages of
of Moral of Moral Develop- Develop- Moral
Develop- Develop- ment ment Develop-
ment ment ment
Grammar Grammar Grammar Grammar Grammar
and and and and and
Use of vocabu- vocabu- vocabu- vocabu- vocabu-
the lary used lary used lary used lary used lary used
English 30% are MOST are VERY are are are NOT
Langua appro- appro- SATISFA LEAST appro-
ge priate. priate. CTORILY appro- priate.
appro- priate.
priate.

Congratulations! You have successfully completed the task in Lesson 3. Should

there be questions and clarifications in some part of the lesson, kindly message your
instructor.

If you do not have any questions or clarifications, you are now prepared to move
on to Lesson 4. Enjoy and keep working! GOD Bless.

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LESSON 4

PLATO’S ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE

Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
• explain the concepts of Plato’s Allegory of the Cave;
and
• positively regard the importance of Plato’s Allegory of
the Cave.

Introduction
Welcome to Lesson 4! In this lesson, you will get a summary of Plato’s Allegory
of the Cave. At the end of this Lesson, you are expected to reflect Plato’s Allegory of
the Cave. Enjoy this lesson and keep learning!

LEGEND:
1 & 2 (Ámbito Sensible)
➢ Sense Area
3 & 4 (Ámbito Inteligible)
➢ Intelligible Area
• Creyentes=Believers
• Religión=Religion
• Ateos=Atheists
Ciencia=Science
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1. What have you seen in the photo?

2. How do you reflect what you have seen in the photo?

Analysis

Consider the questions below:

1. How does The Allegory of the Cave illustrate Plato’s view of the physical world?

2. How did Plato believe on the true reality?

3. According to Plato, what will lead us to the truth and wisdom?

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Abstraction

Plato’s The Allegory of the Cave

1. In the Allegory of the Cave, Plato likens people untutored in the Theory of Forms
to prisoners chained in a cave, unable to turn their heads.
All they can see is the wall of the cave. Behind them burns a fire.
Between the fire and the prisoners there is a parapet, along which puppeteers can
walk.

2. The puppeteers, who are behind the prisoners, hold up puppets that cast shadows
on the wall of the cave.
The prisoners are unable to see these puppets, the real objects, that pass behind
them.
What the prisoners see and hear are shadows and echoes cast by objects that they
do not see.

3. If the prisoners are released from this bondage of untruth, and look towards the
light, the glare will distress them.
Having been in the dark of untruth for a long time, the glare of the truth will be at
first painful.
Eventually, a clearer vision of the truth will come to them.

4. Plato’s aim in The Republic is to describe what is necessary for us

to achieve reflective understanding.
It also reflected Plato’s basic tenet in not completely trusting our senses.
For what our senses perceive may simply be “shadows” of what is true.

5. Reflective understanding of what we perceive around us, according to Plato, will

lead us to truth and wisdom.

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Application

Food for Thought!

1. What beliefs and assumptions (shadows) currently shape your reality?

2. How did you come to the conclusion that these assumptions were true?

3. Are you willing to question and adjust these assumptions? If so, what can you do
on a daily basis to build this habit?

Congratulations! You have successfully completed the task in Lesson 4. This is

the final Lesson in Module 1. Should there be questions and clarifications in some part
of the lesson, kindly message your instructor.

If you do not have any questions or clarifications, you are now prepared to move
on to Lesson 4. Enjoy and keep working! GOD Bless.

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