excursus - mathematical functions persian windmill - single rotor blade - modelling

relative wind speed u̇ • model i (constant wind action)

◦ considering single rotor blade

mathematical functions
◦ assuming unmoved rotor blade

◦ assuming wind speed over rotor blade constant

(independent on vertical and radial position) u̇w
• general mathematical functions
• model ii (wind action - function of radial position X1 )
◦ functions of one variable e3
◦ functions of two variables ◦ assuming rotating rotor blade at angular position φ3 = 0
◦ functions of three variables ◦ considering circumferential velocity u̇φ (X1 )
◦ functions of several variables
◦ considering relative velocity u̇(X1 ) = u̇w − u̇φ (X1 )
• functions often used in wind engineering e2
• model iii (wind action - function of radial position X1 and
◦ linear functions vertical position X3 )
◦ quadratic functions
◦ considering wind speed profile u̇w (X3 ) (power law)
◦ polynomials
◦ trigonometric functions ◦ considering circumferential velocity u̇φ (X1 )
◦ exponential and logarithmic functions e1 ◦ relative velocity u̇(X1 , X3 ) = u̇w (X3 ) − u̇φ (X1 )

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persian windmill - single rotor blade - modelling functions of one and two variables

f (X1 , X2 )
circumferential velocity u̇φ (X1 ) wind speed profile u̇w (X3 ) wind speed profile u̇w (X3 )

f (X1 ) f (X1 )

function of one variable X1

rotor blade rotor blade rotor blade

function of two variables

X2

X1 and X2
ff(X
(X11,, X
X22))
u̇w
u̇φ

X3 X2

X1

X1 X3 u̇w X1 X1 X1

• worth to study mathematical functions • function of one variable • function of two variables
◦ variable X1 ◦ variables X1 and X2
◦ functions of one variable
◦ function f (X1 ) ◦ function f (X1 , X2 )
◦ functions of two variables
◦ function f (X1 ) calculates function value for ◦ function f (X1 , X2 ) calculates function
◦ functions of three variables variable X1 value for pair of variables X1 and X2
◦ functions of several variables ◦ examples: linear functions, quadratic ◦ examples: deflection of plate, two
functions, polynomials, trigonometrical dimensional polynomials, . . .
• worth to study functions often used in wind engineering functions, . . . ◦ extension - functions of several variables
◦ extension - functions of two variables

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 derivatives of functions integration of functions

f (X1 , X2 )

f (X1 , X2 )
∂f (X1 , X2 )
∂X2
f (X1 )

f (X1 )

f (X1 , X2 ) dX1 dX2

function of one variable X1

function of one variable X1

function of two variables

function of two variables

X2 X2

X1 and X2

X1 and X2
∂f (X1 )
∂X1 X2
Zb1
a1 b2
∂f (X1 , X2 ) f (X1 ) dX1

Zb2 Zb1

a2 a1
X1
a1
∂X1 a2
b1
X1 X1 a1 b1 X1
X1 X1
• derivative of functions of one variable • derivatives functions of two variables • integration functions of one variable • integration functions of two variables
◦ function f (X1 ) ◦ function f (X1 , X2 ) ◦ function f (X1 ) ◦ function f (X1 , X2 )
◦ derivative function represents tangent ◦ partial derivatives representing derivative ◦ integral calculates area under function ◦ integral calculates volume under function
df (X1 ) ∂f (X1 ) with respect to single variable f (X1 ) between bounds a1 and b1 f (X1 ) between bounds a1 , b1 , a2 and b2
= = f,1 (X1 )
dX1 ∂X1 ∂f (X1 , X2 )
= f,1 (X1 , X2 ) Zb1 Zb2 Zb1
∂X1
◦ extension - derivatives of functions of two f (X1 ) dX1 f (X1 , X2 ) dX1 dX2
variables ◦ derivative f,1 represents tangent in a1 a2 a1
direction X1
◦ extension - derivatives of functions of ◦ extension - integral of functions of two ◦ extension - integral of functions of several
several variables variables variables

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linear functions linear functions

• linear function - standard format (a, b constants) • linear function - standard format (a, b constants)
f (x) = a x f (x) = a x + b
4 4
a = −2, −1, −0.5, 0.5, 1, 2

f (x) = a x + b f (x) = a x + b
2 • study - factor a (with b = 0) 2 • identification of parameters a and b = 0
b
x 1 • one point (x1 , f (x1 )) and slope a given
f (x) = a x

f (x1 )
0 0
a
discussion f (x1 ) = a x1 + b b = f (x1 ) − a x1
−2 −2
◦ straight lines from coordinate origin linear function
◦ a = 1 represents f (x) = x
−4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4
−4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4
f (x) = a [x − x1 ] + f (x1 )
◦ positive factor a > 0 yields ascending straight
◦ negative factor a < 0 yields descending straight • two points (x1 , f (x1 )) and (x2 , f (x2 )) given
f (x) = x + b f (x) = a x + b
4 ◦ increasing factors a yield steeper slope 4
f (x1 ) = a x1 + b f (x2 ) = a x2 + b
b = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3

f (x2 )
• study - summand b (with a = 1)
2 2 slope a and shift b
f (x) = x + b b
x1 x2 f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) 1
a= b = f (x1 ) − x
f (x1 )

0 0
discussion x2 − x1 x2 − x1
a
◦ positive summand b > 0 shift straight line above linear function
−2 −2
◦ negative summand b < 0 shift straight line below
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
◦ summand b = 0 represents straight line through coordinate f (x) = [x − x1 ] + f (x1 )
−4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4
−4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4
x2 − x1
origin
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 quadratic functions quadratic functions
• quadratic function - standard format (a, b, c constants) • quadratic function
f (x) = a x2 f (x) = b x
4 4
f (x) = a x2 + b x + c f (x) = a x2 + b x + c

a = −2, −1, −0.5, 0.5, 1, 2

b = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3

2 • study - factor a (with b = 0, c = 0) 2
• study - factor b (with a = 0, c = 0)

0 f (x) = a x2 0 f (x) = b x
discussion discussion
−2 −2
◦ a = 1 represents normal parabola ◦ equation of line (linear function)
−4 ◦ positive factor a > 0 yield parabola opens upward −4 ◦ negative factor b < 0 yields descending straight
−4 −2 0 2 x 4 −4 −2 0 2 x 4
◦ negative factor a < 0 yield parabola opens downward ◦ positive factor b > 0 yields ascending straight
f (x) = x2 + c ◦ factors −1 < a < 1 widen parabola f (x) = x2 + x
4
◦ factors a < −1 and a > 1 narrow parabola 4 • study - summation parabola x2 and straight x (with a = 1,
c = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3

b = 1, c = 0)
2 • study - summand c (with a = 1, b = 0) 2

x2 , x, x2 + x
f (x) = x2 + x
2
f (x) = x + c
0 0
discussion
discussion
−2 −2 ◦ x2 + x obtained by summation straight x and parabola x2
◦ positive summand c > 0 shift parabola and vertex above
◦ positive factor b = 1 moves parabola to below left
◦ negative summand c < 0 shift parabola and vertex below
−4 −4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4 ◦ summand c = 0 represents normal parabola (no movement) −4 −2 0 2 x 4

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quadratic functions quadratic functions

• quadratic function • position vertex not directly obvious because of factors a and b
f (x) = x2 + b x
4
2 • because of this quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c converted using binomial formulas
f (x) = a x + b x + c
b = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3

• binomial formula in terms of d and e (because a, b and c already used) and quadratic function
2 • study - factor b (with a = 1, c = 0)
[d + e]2 = d2 + 2de + e2 f (x) = a x2 + b x + c
0 f (x) = x2 + b x √
• first two terms binomial formula and quadratic equation equivalent (comment - a only for
discussion positive a permitted
−2
◦ positive factor b > 0 moves parabola to below left √ bx b
d= ax 2de = bx, e = = √
◦ negative factor b < 0 moves parabola to below right 2d 2 a
−4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4 ◦ position vertex not directly obvious because of factor b
b2
• study - factor a (with b = 2, c = 0) • quadratic function, completing square, subraction and addition e2 =
f (x) = a x2 + 2 x 4a
4
a = −2, −1, −0.5, 0, 0.5, 1, 2

f (x) = a x2 + 2 x b2 b2 √ b 2 b2
 
f (x) = a x2 + b x + − +c= ax+ √ − +c
4a 4a 2 a 4a
2 discussion
◦ factor a influences, as already established, width and only valid for a > 0, for a < 0 investigation of −f (x) or f (x)/a
0 opening direction parabola • proof of correctness of method completing square
◦ factor a influences also position of vertex √ b 2 b2 √ 2 √ b b2 b2
 
−2 f (x) = ax+ √ − + c = a x2 + 2 a √ x + √ 2 − + c = a x2 + b x + c
• position of vertex determined by both factors a and b 2 a 4a 2 a 4 a 4a

−4 yeah!
−4 −2 0 2 x 4

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 quadratic functions quadratic functions
• quadratic function with completing square • vertex format of quadratic function
f (x) = [x − xs ]2
4
√ b 2 b2
 

xs = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3

f (x) = ax+ √ − +c 2 b b2
a x − xs + y s xs = − , ys = c −
√
2 a 4a f (x) =
2 2a 4a
• discussion
• study - vertex coordinate xs (with a = 1, y s = 0)
◦ vertex of quadratic function (minimum for a > 0 and maximum for a < 0) at position x = xs 0
for which bracket [. . .]2 equal zero
f (x) = [x − xs ]2
◦ value of function at xs identical constant part c − b2 /4a −2

• vertex - position xs and function value f (xs ) = y s discussion

−4
√ s b b b2 −4 −2 0 2 x 4
ax + √ =0 xs = − , y s = c − ◦ positive coordinate xs > 0 moves parabola right
2 a 2a 4a ◦ negative coordinate xs < 0 moves parabola left
f (x) = [x − 1]2 + y s
• vertex format of quadratic function 4
• study - function value at vertex y s (with a = 1, xs = 1)

y s = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3

2 b b2
a x − xs + y s x = − , ys = c −
s
√
f (x) = 2
2a 4a f (x) = [x − 1]2 + y s
• minimum (for a > 0) and maximum (for a < 0) of parabola given by position xs and function
0
value f (xs ) discussion
b2 b b2 b2 b2 −2 ◦ positive value y s > 0 moves parabola upwards
f (xs ) = a [xs ]2 + b xs + c = a −b +c= − +c=c−
4a2 2a 4a 2a 4a ◦ negative value y s < 0 moves parabola downwards
−4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4

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quadratic functions quadratic functions - solutions / roots

• back to standard form quadratic function • quadratic function - standard form
f (x) = x2 + b x f (x) = a x2 + b x + c
4 4
rb

x2 + 2x − 2, −x2 /2 + x + 3
2
f (x) = a x + b x + c rb f (x) = a x2 + b x + c
b = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3

2 • studies with a = 1, c = 0 und b = 2, c = 0 (already done) 2 • plots left showing four to six examples of parabola, firstly only
observation and study
0 br rb rb f (x) = x2 + b x f (x) = a x2 + 2 x 0 rb rb rb rb
• beside vertex rb of parabola also intersections of parabola with
rb rb coordinate axis of interest
• transformation into vertex form with c = 0 and resulting
−2 rb rb −2 rb
b2 b • single intersection with y axis obtained by insertion ofx = 0,
relation y s = − , further vertex position xs = − known rb
4a 2a compare plots left rb
−4 −4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4 study f (x) = x2 + b x study f (x) = a x2 + 2 x −4 −2 0 2 x 4
f (x = 0) = a 02 + b 0 + c = c
f (x) = a x2 + 2 x a b xs ys a b xs ys x2 /2− 1.5x + 2, −2x2 − 4x − 3
• two or zero intersections with x axis existing
4 4
a = −2, −1, −0.5, 0, 0.5, 1, 2

x2 /2 − 1.5x, −2x2 − 4x + 1
rb • intersections obtained by condition that function values zero
rb 1 −3
3
−
9
rb 2 2 −
1
−
1
rb br f (x) = 0
2 2 4 2 2 2
rb rb rb
rb −2 −1 rb −1 −1 rb f (x) = a x2 + b x + c = 0
rb rb rbrb rb
1 1 1 2
0
rb 0
rb 1 −1
1
−
1
rb 1
2 −2 −2 rb rb rb • solution for x addressed on next slides, here intersections just
−2 rb 2 4 2
−2 drawn without calculation rb
1 3 −
3
−
9
rb −2 2
1 1
rb rb • intersections with x axis called zeros, zero values or roots of
2 4 2 2
−4 −4 quadratic function
−4 −2 0 2 x 4 −4 −2 0 2 x 4

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 quadratic functions - solutions / roots quadratic functions - solutions / roots
• solution / zeros / roots of quadratic function - standard form • alternative - dividing quadratic equation by a yields reduced quadratic function
f (x) = a x2 + b x + c = 0 • solution / roots - reduced quadratic function

• solution sketch - completing square, addition and subtraction of quadratic extension (already f (x) b c b c
= x2 + x + = x2 + p x + q = 0 mit p = , q=
discussed some slides before) a a a a a
b2 b2 √ b 2 b2 • completing square
 
f (x) = a x2 + b x + − +c= ax+ √ − +c=0
4a 4a 2 a 4a p2 p2 h p i2 p 2
x2 + p x + − +q = x+ − +q =0
• solution for x - subtraction red term and extract root yields positive and negative root 4 4 2 4
s
√ b b2 • solution for x - subtraction red term and extract root, conversions
ax+ √ =± −c s s
2 a 4a p p2 p p2
√ √ x+ =± −q x=− ± −q
• solution for x - subtraction b/[2 a] and dividing by a, fraction in root converted and moving 2 4 2 4
√
1/[2 a] out of root
s s • final result used for solving reduced quadratic equation for x
b 1 b2 b 1 b2 4ac b 1 p 2 rh i
x=− ±√ −c=− ±√ − =− ± b −4ac p p 2
2a a 4a 2a a 4a 4a 2a 2a x=− ± −q
2 2
• final result called quadratic formula (due to ± two solutions for b2 − 4ac > 0) • proof - conversion of quadratic formula
√
−b ± b2 − 4 a c √ s  s 
x= −b ± b2 − 4ac −b b 2 4ac −b b 2 c p
rh i
p 2
2a x= = ± − = ± − = − ± −q
• application - inserting given quantities a, b and c and calculation of both solutions of x (for root 2a 2a 2a [2a]2 2a 2a a 2 2
plus + and minus −) • identical result as method completing square - proof successful, yeah!
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quadratic functions - summary roots quadratic functions - summary roots

• solution standard quadratic equation • diskussion - terms b2 − 4ac or [p/2]2 − q
f (x) = a x2 + b x + c √ f (x) = a x2 + b x + c

x2 + 2x + 1, −x2 /2 + x − 0.5
4 4
x2 + 2x − 2, −x2 /2 + x + 3

−b ± b2 − 4 a c
a x2 + b x + c = 0 x= ◦ positive, two roots exist
2a
2 2
• solution reduced quadratic equation ◦ zero, one root exist
0 rb br rb rb p
rh i
p 2 0 rb rb
x2 + p x + q = 0 x=− ± −q ◦ negative, no root exist
2 2
−2 −2
• diskussion - if terms b2 − 4ac or [p/2]2 − q • examples with only one root
−4 ◦ positive, two roots exist −4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4 −4 −2 0 2 x 4 • exercise - proof condition of only one root and calculate root of
◦ zero, one root exist
◦ negative, no root exist examples on left hand side and compare with plotted results rb
x2 /2− 1.5x + 2, −2x2 − 4x − 3 f (x) = a x2 + b x + c

x2 /2 − 1.5x + 9/8, −2x2 − 4x − 2

4 • complete square for standard quadratic equation 4
x2 /2 − 1.5x, −2x2 − 4x + 1

b2 b2 √ b 2 b2
 
2 a x2 + b x + − +c= ax+ √ − +c=0 2
4a 4a 2 a 4a
0 rb rbrb rb complete square for reduced quadratic equation 0 br rb
p2 p2 h p i2 p2
−2 x2 + p x + − +q = x+ − +q =0 −2
4 4 2 4

−4
• exercise - calculate roots of examples on left hand side and −4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4 compare with plotted results rb −4 −2 0 2 x 4

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 roots of quadratic polynomials cubic functions
• cubic function - standard format (a, b, c, d constants)
• general quadratic characteristic polynomial f (x) = a x3
4

1/a = −1, −4, −16, 16, 4, 1

f (x) = a x3 + b x2 + c x + d
2 2
ax +bx+c=0 x +px+q =0 2 • study - factor a (with b = 0, c = 0, d = 0)

• with 0
f (x) = a x3
discussion
b c −2
p= q= ◦ positive factor a > 0 yield increasing values
a a
◦ negative factor a < 0 yield decreasing values
−4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4 ◦ factors −1 < a < 1 widen cubic function
• two solutions x1|2 with discriminant D
◦ factors a < −1 and a > 1 narrow cubic function
f (x) = x3 /16 + d ◦ symmetric to coordinate origin
p √ p2 4
x1|2 =− ± D −q ◦ only one root

d = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3

D=
2 4
2 • study - summand d (with a = 1/16, b = 0, c = 0)
• characterization of solution properties 1 3
0 f (x) = x +d
16
◦ D > 0 - two real solutions discussion
−2
◦ D = 0 - one double real solution
◦ positive summand d > 0 shift cubic function above
◦ D < 0 - two conjugate complex solutions
−4 ◦ negative summand d < 0 shift cubic function below
−4 −2 0 2 x 4
◦ only one root
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cubic functions cubic functions

• cubic function • cubic function
f (x) = [x − x0 ]3 /8 f (x) = −x3 /8 + c x

c = −2, −1, −1/2, 0, 1/2, 1, 3/2, 2

4 3 2 4
f (x) = a x + b x + c x + d f (x) = a x3 + b x2 + c x + d
x0 = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3

2 • study - horizontal movement of cubic function by x0 2 • study - cubic and linear terms (with a = −1/8, b = 0, d = 0)

0 f (x) = a [x − x0 ]3 0 f (x) = a x3 + c x

discussion
−2 • conversion of [x − x0 ]3 −2
◦ symmetric to coordinate origin
−4 f (x) = a [x2 − 2 x x0 + [x0 ]2 ] [x − x0 ] −4 ◦ one root or three roots
−4 −2 0 2 x 4 −4 −2 0 2 x 4
= a [x3 − 2 x2 x0 + x[x0 ]2 − x2 x0 + 2 x[x0 ]2 − [x0 ]3 ] • study - cubic and linear terms (with a = −1/8, b = 0, d = 0)
c = −2, −3/2, −1, −1/2, 0, 1/2, 1, 2

f (x) = x3 /8 + c x = a [x3 − 3 x2 x0 + 3 x[x0 ]2 − [x0 ]3 ] f (x) = x3 /8 + b x2

4b = −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

4 4 f (x) = a x3 + b x2
discussion
2 2 discussion
◦ x0 present in function multiplied with 1, x and x2
◦ no symmety
◦ pure horizontal movements of cubic functions obtained by
0 0 ◦ one root or two roots
suited modifications of b, c and d
−2 −2
• roots of cubic functions
• study - cubic and linear terms (with a = 1/8, b = 0, d = 0)
f (x) = a x3 + b x2 + c x + d = 0
3
−4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4
f (x) = a x + c x −4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4 could solved analytically (following)

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• X • X
 roots of cubic polynomials polynomial functions
• polynomial with polynomial degree p
• general cubic characteristic polynomial in reduced form (take care, modified notation a, b, c) some polynomials p = 5
4 p
x3 + ax2 + bx + c = 0
X
f (x) = α0 + α1 x + α2 x2 + α3 x3 + · · · = α i xi
• substitution x̄ = x + a/3, discriminant D 2 i=1

2a3 ab a2 ◦ αi - coefficient / multiplier associated with xi

x̄3 + 3px̄ + 2q = 0, 2q = − + c, 3p = b − , D = p3 + q 2 0
27 3 3
◦ xi - variable x in power of i
• characterization of solution properties
−2 ◦ p - polynomial degree
◦ D > 0 - one real and two conjugate complex solutions
◦ D = 0, q ̸= 0 - two real solutions, one double solution • typical summand
−4
◦ D = 0, q = 0 - tripple real solution −4 −2 0 2 x 4
α i xi for i ∈ [0, 1, . . . , p]
◦ D < 0 - three different real solutions
some polynomials p = 6 • maximum number of roots p
• C ARDANO solution formula 4
• example - fifth order polynomial (p = 5)
x̄1 = u+ + u− , x̄2 = ρ+ u+ + ρ− u− , x̄3 = ρ− u+ + ρ+ u−
5
with 2 X
q √ √ f (x) = α i xi
3 1
u± = −q ± D, ρ± := [−1 ± i 3] i=1
2 0
= α + α1 x + α2 x2 + α3 x3 + α4 x4 + α5 x5
0

◦ for one real discriminant D ≥ 0 u+ and u− uniquely determined

◦ in general both complex real third roots u± have to be determined such that u+ u− = −p −2 • example - sixth order polynomial (p = 6)
fulfilled 6
X
• back substitution xi = a/3 − x̄i
−4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4 f (x) = α i xi
i=1
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polynomial functions triangles - geometrical aspects

• polynomial with polynomial degree p general triangles general triangles rectangular triangles
polynomials p = 7
4 p
X
0 1 2 2 3 3 i i
f (x) = α + α x + α x + α x + · · · = α x

opposite leg
2 i=1 e
s
te nu
• example - seventh order polynomial (p = 7) po
hy c b
0
7
X
i i
f (x) = α x
−2
α a
i=1
adjacent leg
• third order polynomial - cubic function
−4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4
similarity theorems of intersecting lines trigonometric functions
f (x) = α0 + α1 x + α2 x2 + α3 x3 = a x3 + b x2 + c x + d
polynomials p = 0, 1, 2, 3 • second order polynomial - quadratic function • triangles similar if two • theorems of intersecting • P YTHAGORAS theorem
4
angles coincide lines formulating similarity • trigonometric functions
f (x) = α0 + α1 x + α2 x2 = a x2 + b x + c for triangles
• similar triangles differ only (sine, cosine, tangent)
2
• first order polynomial - linear function in size, position and • three theorems of • similarity and theorems of
inversion intersecting lines applicable intersecting lines valid
0 f (x) = α0 + α1 x = a x + b for different settings
• similarity valuable for • essential for engineering
• zeroth order polynomial - constant calculation of trusses and • short study on wikipedia calculations
−2
dissection of forces valuable • fundamental engineering
f (x) = α0 = a
competence
−4
−4 −2 0 2 x 4 • comment - quantities αi and a, b, c and d equivalent

kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.3 quadratic functions 27 kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.4 trigonometrical functions 28
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 1
triangles - geometrical aspects triangles - geometrical aspects
similar triangles • triangles are similar, if two angles coincide (third angle also rectangular triangles • P YTHAGORAS theorem
identical because angular sum) a2 + b2 = c2
b2
• similar triangles pose identical ratios of lateral lengths • trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, tangent)

opposite leg
c2 a2 e
us a b b
2 a1 a2 a1 a2 b1 b2 ten cos α = sin α = tan α =
= , = , = po b
c1 b1 b2 c1 c2 c1 c2 hy c c c a
1 b 1 • angle using alternatively degree and radian, e.g.
• equivalent to theorems of intersecting lines α a π
a 1
adjacent leg 90o ≡ 180o ≡ π
• application in mechanics - using similarity of geometry and 2
force triangles
application truss ◦ transformation of force components to local coordinate trigonometric functions
rb systems subjected to constructional elements e3 sin α, cos α, 0.2 tan α und tan α
α 1
N h ◦ calculation of trusses

b = sin α
rb rb rb α rb ◦ often simple solution path 1
Nd
• alternative calculation (only simple for rectangular triangles) c=
F 2F a α
a = cos α 0
◦ tringonometric functions, e.g. tan α results in angle α e1 π π 3π 2π 5π α
◦ application of angel α for calculation of force triangle b c
2 2 2

geometry triangle −1
force triangle representation by circle with 90o representation by graph 360o 450o

kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.4 trigonometrical functions 29 kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.4 trigonometrical functions 30
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illustration tringonometric functions tringonometric functions

e3 α = 31.717o • trigonometric functions - given angle α, demanded value of
0o 90o 180o 270o 360o trigonometric function
cos α sin α 1
1 sin α
◦ unique solution
1
• trigonometric functions - given value of trigonometric function,
demanded angle α
0 0
e1 α
◦ ambiguous solution
sin α

• special values of trigonometric functions (degree and radian)

−1
−1 π π π π
π 0 π/2 α 3π/2 2π
α = 250o 2π 3π 4π α [−] 0
6 4 3 2
• trigonometrical functions (cosine and sinus)
−1

cos α 0o 90o 180o 270o 360o

0

1 cos α α [o ] 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

a b √
cos α = sin α = 1 1 3
c c sin α 0 √ 1
2 2 2
√
3 1 1
• illustration by means of circle with radius one c = 1, unit circle 0 cos α 1 √ 0
π

2 2 2
• angle α not limited to triangle, arbitrary values possible 1 √
tan α 0 √ 1 3 ∞
3
−1
2π

0 π/2 α 3π/2 2π

kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.4 trigonometrical functions 31 kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.4 trigonometrical functions 32
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π
 p approximation of displacement field u1 (ξ1 ) two dimensional L AGRANGE shape functions
interpolation polynomials • shape functions N i (ξ 1) - L ARANGE interpolation polynomials 2d-L AGRANGE shape function N 14 = N 4 N 3 2d-L AGRANGE shape function N 11 = N 1 N 3
p+1
ue1
1
Y ξ1k − ξ1
N i (ξ1 ) = ξ2 ξ2
N1 1 k=1, k̸=i
ξ1k − ξ1i

• interpolation property of shape functions

( N 3 (ξ2 ) N 4 (ξ1 )N 3 (ξ2 ) N 3 (ξ2 ) N 1 (ξ1 )N 3 (ξ2 )
1 for i = k
N i (ξ1k ) =
0 for i ̸= k
1 ξ2 ξ2
N2 • approximated displacement field
ue2
1 p+1
X
ũ1 (ξ1 ) = N i (ξ1 ) uei
1
ue2
1
i=1

1 • displacement approximation for ue5 e6 e7

1 = u1 = u1 = 0 ξ1 ξ1
N3
ue1 ue3
1 1 N 4 (ξ1 ) N 1 (ξ1 )

ξ1 ξ1
ue4
1
1
N4 ue2 ue4
1 1 • 2d-L AGRANGE shape functions (p1 = 4 and p2 = 2)
ξ11 ξ12 ξ13 ξ14 ξ15 ξ16 ξ17 ◦ 1d-L AGRANGE shape functions already known
approximation ◦ 1d shape functions formulated in terms of ξ1 and ξ2
−1 0 1 ξ1 ũ1 (ξ1 ) ◦ 1d shape functions for both directions multiplied yields ansatz function of two variables
kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.5 two dimensional functions - just illustration 33 kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.5 two dimensional functions - just illustration 34
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two dimensional L AGRANGE shape functions linear shape functions - L AGRANGE element
2d shape function N 7 2d shape function N 15 natural coordinates and classical node numbers L AGRANGE shape functions p = 1
7 3 2 15 3 4 4
N (ξ1 , ξ2 ) = N (ξ1 )N (ξ2 ) N (ξ1 , ξ2 ) = N (ξ1 )N (ξ2 )
ξ2 N 4 (ξ)
ξ2 ξ2 1 3
N 2 (ξ2 ) N 4 (ξ2 )
ξ2 ξ2 ξ1
2

N 1 (ξ) N 3 (ξ)

1 1

N 3 (ξ1 ) ξ1 N 3 (ξ1 ) ξ1

ξ1 ξ1

• multiplication of two one dimensional shape functions

11
N 2 (ξ)
• isotropic shape functions for p1 = p2 = 3
kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.5 two dimensional functions - just illustration 35 kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.5 two dimensional functions - just illustration 36
• X • X
 approximation - shape functions - nodal values quadratic shape functions - L AGRANGE element
approximated displacement field shape functions multiplied by nodal values natural coordinates and classical node numbers L AGRANGE shape functions p = 2
ũ1 (ξ) 4
N 4 (ξ)ue4
1
8 7 ξ2
N 4 (ξ)
1 9 3
ue
1
1
5 6 ξ1
N 7 (ξ)
2

N 1 (ξ)ue1
1
N 3 (ξ)ue3
1 N 1 (ξ) N 3 (ξ)
ue
1
1
ue
1
3
1 1

11 11

N 5 (ξ) N 6 (ξ)

11
N 2 (ξ)ue2
1 N 2 (ξ)
kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.5 two dimensional functions - just illustration 37 kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.5 two dimensional functions - just illustration 38
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approximation - shape functions - nodal values approximation - shape functions - nodal values
approximated displacement field shape functions multiplied by nodal values approximated displacement field shape functions multiplied by nodal values

ũ1 (ξ)
N 4 (ξ)ue4
1
ũ1 (ξ)
ue
1
1

N 7 (ξ)ue7
1 N 7 (ξ)ue7
1
ue
1
1

N
N 1 (ξ)ue1
1
N 3 (ξ)ue3
1
ue1
ue3
1 1 ue
1
1
ue
1
3

N 1 (ξ)ue1 N 3 (ξ)ue3
1
1

N 5 (ξ)ue5 N 8 (ξ)ue8
1
1

N 5 (ξ)ue5
1 N 6 (ξ)ue6
1 N 6 (ξ)ue6 N 7 (ξ)ue7
1 1

N 2 (ξ)ue2
1 N 2 (ξ)ue2
1

kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.5 two dimensional functions - just illustration 39 kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.5 two dimensional functions - just illustration 40
• X • X
 quadratic shape functions - serendipity element approximation - shape functions - nodal values
natural coordinates and classical node numbers serendipity shape functions p = 2 approximated displacement field shape functions multiplied by nodal values
4

8 7 ξ2 ũ1 (ξ)
N 4 (ξ)ue4
N 4 (ξ) 1
1 3
ue
1
1
5 6 ξ1 N 7 (ξ)ue7
N 7 (ξ) 1
2

N 1 (ξ)ue1
1
N 1 (ξ) N 3 (ξ) N 3 (ξ)ue3
1
1 1 ue
1
1
ue
1
3

11 11

N 5 (ξ) N 6 (ξ)
N 5 (ξ)ue5
1 N 6 (ξ)ue6
1

11
N 2 (ξ) N 2 (ξ)ue2
1

kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.5 two dimensional functions - just illustration 41 kuhl, wes.online, university of kassel & fraunhofer iee we • e2 functions • e2.5 two dimensional functions - just illustration 42
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