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CHAPTER 1. Human Development: Meaning,

Concepts and Approaches

“All the world’s a stage, All the men and

women merely players; They have their exits and
entrances, and one man in his time plays many
parts… “ --- (William Shakespeare)

Human development - pattern of movement or The process of cephalocaudal

change that begins at conception and continues direction from head to tail. This means
through the life span. that improvement in structure and
function come first in the head region,
TWO APPROACHES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT then in the trunk, and last in the leg
1. TRADITIONAL DEVELOPMENT - region.
Extensive change from birth to The process in proximodistal from
adolescence, little or no change in center or midline to periphery direction.
adulthood and decline in late old age. Development proceeds from near to far-
2. LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT- even in outward from central axis of the body
adulthood developmental change takes toward the extremities.
place as it does during adulthood
cephalo-caudal pattern - physical growth in size,
Life-span Development Characteristics: weight and future differentiation
(Santrock,2002) gradually working its way down from top
1. Development is lifelong. It does to bottom (neck, shoulders, middle
not end in adulthood. trunk, and so on.)

2. Development is plastic. Plasticity proximodistal pattern - muscular control of the

refers to the potential for change. trunk and the arms comes earlier as
compared to the hands and fingers.
3. Development is multidimensional.
consists of biological, cognitive,
and socio-emotional dimensions.

4. Development is contextual.
Individuals are changing beings in
a changing world.

5. Development involves growth,

maintenance and regulation.
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CHAPTER 2. The Stages of Development and
Developmental Tasks
JOHN SANTROCK
Prenatal Period (has 3 phases)
Germinal Stage – First 2 weeks
conception, implantation, formation of
placenta.
Embryonic Stage – 2 weeks to 2 months
formation of vital organs and systems
Fetal Stage – 2 months to birth bodily
growth continues, movement capability
begins, brain cells multiply age of
viability.
Infancy (birth to 2 years)
extreme dependence on adults
Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)
sentences are more complex
socialize with other children their age
begin to read
Middle and Late Childhood (6 to 12 years)
both large and small muscles well-
developed
develop complex motor skills
Adolescence (13 to 18 years)
puberty occurs
Early Adulthood (19 to 29 years)
physical development complete
Middle Adulthood (30 to 60 years)
physical changes begin to occur
Late Adulthood (61 years and above)
some memory problems
Robert Havighurst
Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5 years)
Middle Childhood (6-12 years)
Adolescence (13-18 years)
Early Adulthood (19-29 years)
Middle Adulthood (30-60 years)
Late maturity (61 and above)
There are (8) developmental stages
given by Santrock. The eight (8) developmental
stages cited by Santrock are the same with
Havighurst’s six (6) developmental stages only
that Havighurst did not include prenatal period.
Havighurst combined infancy and early
childhood while Santrock mentioned them as
two (2) separate stages.
CHAPTER 3. Issues on Human Development
“The interaction of heredity and environment
is so extensive that to ask which is more
important, nature or nurturing, is like asking
which is more important to a rectangle, height
or width.” --- (William Greenough)
What is Life?
Life changes
Life keeps going
Life is hard
Life must be long
Life is short
Life is full of unexpected things
Life is not that easy
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• To Summarize, both genes and
environment are necessary for a person even to
exist. Without genes, there is no person, without
environment, there is no person (Scarr and
Weinberg, 1980, quoted by Santrock, 2002).
Heredity and environment operate together or
cooperate and interact – to produce a person’s
intelligence, temperament, height, weight…
Ability to read and so on.
CHAPTER 4. Research in Child and Adolescent
Development
“Research is to see what everybody else has seen
and to think what nobody else has thought.”
--- (AlbertSzent)
Teachers as Researchers
They are as follows:
Identify and define the problem
Determine the hypothesis
Collect and analyze data
Formulate conclusions
Apply conclusions to the original
hypothesis
The Scientific Method
Research Designs
1. Case Study - An in-depth look at an
Individual.
2. Correlational Study – determines
associations.
3. Experimental - determines cause and
effect relationships.
4. Naturalistic Observation – focuses on
children’s experiences in natural
settings.
5. Longitudinal - through a single group
over a period of time.
6. Cross - sectional - individuals of different
ages are compared at one time.
7. Sequential - combined cross – sectional
and longitudinal approaches
8. Action Research - a reflective process of
progressive problem.
CHAPTER 5. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
“The ego is not master in its own house.”
(Sigmund Freud)
Erogenous Zone or “pleasure area” – A specific
area that becomes the focus of pleasure needs.
This may be the mouth, anus and the genitals.
Fixations – Results from failure to satisfy the
needs of a particular psychosexual stage.
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Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years).

– The child’s focus of pleasure is
the anus.
– favorite word might be “NO”.
Phallic Stage (ages 3-6) The pleasure or
erogenous zone is genitals.
– sometimes become interested
in what makes boys and girls
different.
– this stage, boys develop Freud’s Personality Components
unconscious sexual desire for
their mother. And see their Id 1st
father as a rival for her mother’s Ego 2nd
affection. Superego Last

Oedipus Complex. During the phallic stage, the Id – Freud says that a child is born with the
male child begins to desire his mother sexually id. It operates on the pleasure principle. When
and treats the father as a rival. (Mama’s Boy) the child needs to be changed, the id cries.

Oedipus Complex. During the phallic stage, the Ego - It refer to help id meet its needs. The
male child begins to desire his mother sexually ego operates using the reality principle.
and treats the father as a rival. (Mama’s Boy) super ego – Near the end the end of the
Latency Stage (age 6 - puberty) – This phallic stage, the superego develops. The
stage remains sexual repressed. The superego is likened to conscience because it
child’s focus is the acquisition exerts influence on what one considers right
(developing of skills, habit or quality) of and wrong.
physical and academic skills.
Genital Stage – (Puberty onwards). The
fifth stage of psychosexual development
begins at the start of puberty when
sexual urges are once again awakened.

Personality Development
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CHAPTER 6. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
“The Principal goal of Education is to
create men who are capable of doing new things,
not simply of repeating what other generations
have done – men who are creative, inventive and
discoverers.” - (Jean Paiget)
Basic Cognitive Concept
1. SCHEMA - It is like the mind has a filing
cabinet and each drawer has folders that
contain files of things he has had an
experience with.
2. ASSIMILATION - It is the process of
fitting new information into an
existing or previously created cognitive
structure or schema.
Example:
3. ACCOMMODATION - This is the process
of creating new schema.
Example:
4. EQUILIBRATION - It is the process of
achieving proper balance between
assimilation and accommodation
Example:
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
1. SENSORI-MOTOR STAGE - focuses on
the prominence of the senses and
muscle movement through which the
infant comes to learn about himself and
the world.
– Objective Permanence – The
ability of child to know and that
an object still even existed even
when out of sight.
2. PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE - At this stage,
the child can now make mental
representations and is able to pretend,
the child is now ever closer to the use of
symbols.
– Symbolic Function – The ability
of represent objects and events.
– Egocentrism - The tendency of
child to only see his point of
view and assume that everyone
also has his same point of view.
– Centration – This refers to the
tendency of child to only focus
on one aspect of a thing or event
and exclude other aspects.
– Irreversibility – Pre-operational
children still have the inability to
reverse their thinking.
– Animism – This is the tendency
of children to attribute human
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like traits or characteristics to relationship in one instance and

inanimate objects. then use that relationship to
– Transductive reasoning – This narrow down possible answers
refers to the pre- operational in other similar situation or
child’s type of reasoning that is problem.
neither inductive nor deductive. – Deductive Reasoning – The is
the ability to think logically by
3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE - This applying a general rule to a
stage is characterized by the ability of particular instance or situations.
the child to think logically but only in
terms of concrete objects.
– Decentering – This refers to the CHAPTER 7. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of
ability of the child to perceive
the different features of objects Development
and situations.
– Reversibility – This refers to the
ability of a child to follow the “Healthy children will not fear life if their elders
certain operations can be done have integrity enough not to fear death”.
in reverse. -- (Erik Erikson)
– Conversation – This is the ability
to know that certain properties
of objects like numbers, mass,
volume or area do not change
even if there is a change in
appearance.
– Serrations – This refers to the
ability to order or arrange things
in series based on one
dimension such as weight,
volume and size.

4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE - In this

final stage covering ages between 12
and 15 years. Thinking becomes more
logical. They can now solve abstract
problems and hypothesize.
– Hypothetical Reasoning - The
ability to come up with different
hypothesis about a problem and
to gather data and weight data
in order to make a final decision
or judgment.
– Analogical Reasoning – The
ability to perceive the